Copyright ©

2015 by Ecosystems Research and Development

Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural
Resources

This document of parts thereof should not be

reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including
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and retrieval system without permission in writing
from the copyright owners. However, extracts
from the text may be reproduced provided the
source is properly acknowledged.

Publisher Department of Environment and Natural

Resources-Ecosystems Research and
Development Bureau

Bibliographic Entry and Calanog, L.A. 2015. A Manual on Computing

Citation Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in
Protected Areas. Ecosystems Research
and Development Bureau, Department of
Environment and Natural Resources, College,
Laguna, Philippines.

ISBN 978-971-8831-48-9

Executive Advisers Henry A. Adornado, Ph.D., ERDB Acting Director

Antonio M. Daño, Ph.D., ERDB OIC-Asst. Director

Editors Liberty E. Asis, Malaya N. Montesur, and

Richel Joanne dR. Abescoro

Layout and Design Arvin R. Reginio

Production Staff Arvin R. Reginio, Malaya N. Montesur, Liberato

A. Bacod

Circulation Eduardo M. Tolentino

Printing Press Goldpage Printing Service

 Page

Foreword iv

Preface v

Acknowledgement vii

How important is carrying capacity? 1

Purpose of the manual 2

Basic concepts of carrying capacity 3

How to compute for carrying capacity 5

How to increase carrying capacity of an 31

ecotourism site

References 32

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas iii

 The Philippines has been gaining popularity with its booming
tourism industry. It is one of the top Southeast Asian destinations
because of its pristine beaches and breathtaking landscapes. However,
the increasing number of local and international visitors in our
ecotourism sites also causes harmful effects on our natural resources
(i.e., biodiversity loss, overcrowding, accumulation of waste, etc.).

Thus, there is a need to regulate the influx of tourists to our

ecotourism sites and manage their activities to maintain the visitors’
level of satisfaction and at the same time preserve and protect the
ecological condition of these areas. Degradation of our environment
and natural resources due to tourism activities can be minimized by
determining the carrying capacity of ecotourism sites and instituting
measures to avoid overcrowding of tourists. Carrying capacity is an
important planning tool to make the operation of ecotourism sites
sustainable and lasting.

This manual was developed from research findings on different

ecotourism sites in protected areas of the Philippines. This publication
provides detailed information on the factors to be considered when
conducting carrying capacity studies, how to compute carrying
capacity of ecotourism sites, and suggestions on how to maximize
or possibly increase the carrying capacity of an ecotourism site. It is
hoped that this output will be of great help to our fellow researchers,
ecotourism site managers, policymakers, and other interested
stakeholders in promoting the proper use of our ecotourism sites.

With this, I give my congratulations to the author and the group

who made the publication of this manual possible.

HENRY A. ADORNADO, Ph.D.

Acting Director

iv A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 After more than five years of implementing carrying capacity
(CARCAP) studies in different parts of the country, particularly
in Community-Based Forest Management (CBFM) project sites,
protected areas (PA) and small islands, the CARCAP team thought
that it is about time that the Ecosystems Research and Development
Bureau (ERDB) publish a manual on the step-by-step approach in
computing for carrying capacity.

This manual focuses on computing CARCAP (i.e., allowable

number of visitors and tourists) for ecotourism sites in PAs and
utilized two simple and easy-to-apply models: the Boullon’s CARCAP
mathematical model (1985), and the Limits of Acceptable Change
(LAC). Remember, there are many other ways to compute CARCAP for
different intent and purposes (social, physical, ecological, etc.), and
they can be undertaken simultaneously, separately or successively
depending on the need of a site.

Therefore, this publication will help guide planning for and

developing ecotourism projects, particularly in formulating
ecotourism management plans. This will serve as an important
input in the design of visitor management scheme, specifically in the
context of knowing how many visitors or tourists can be allowed to
do particular activities in a site.

To make this manual more effective and useful, several reminders

must be considered by the readers and would-be users:

1. Formal training on tourism carrying capacity is necessary

before applying this on the field. It is of utmost importance
that the specific method and approaches are fully understood
and well appreciated. For instance, in determining the
standard requirements of visitors and in identifying the
limiting factors, a more exhaustive and in-depth analysis

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas v

 must be undertaken. If possible, the factors should include all
aspects that influence the use of a particular area or space,
activities, and services in an ecotourism destination. More
importantly, environmental factors like the area designated
as habitat of biodiversity-significant species, mating season
of important birds, nesting area of marine turtle, spawning
grounds of maliputo (an endangered species in Taal
Volcano Protected Landscape), and many others should be
incorporated in the mathematical computation of CARCAP.
2. It is also important to note that computation of CARCAP
should be a continuing and regular process because
standard requirements and limiting factors, as well as
products, services and activities in ecotourism sites change
every now and then. Hence, re-computing CARCAP is a
must once changes in any of the above conditions occur.
3. All these methods and approaches can be learned and
mastered only after continuous practice and application
of the CARCAP models on the ground. The methods and
procedures cannot be learned overnight; it requires thorough
understanding, appreciation and commitment.
4. Related studies should be undertaken to support the CARCAP
set for an ecotourism site. For instance, if a defined number
of snorkelers is allowed in a coral area, an accompanying
research that can be done is determining the impact (or level
of disturbance) brought about by this number of snorkelers
on the corals. Knowledge of this will certainly help adjust the
CARCAP established for the site.

We hope that through this manual, the readers and end-users

will be encouraged to engage in biodiversity conservation and PA
management in the country.

Happy and fruitful reading!

LOPE A. CALANOG, Ph.D.

vi A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 Funding agencies The Philippine Commission on Women
(PCW), through the Great Women Project,
for funding the project “Gender Analysis
and Tourism Carrying Capacity in Pamilacan
Island, Bohol, Philippines”

The Philippine Council for Agriculture,

Aquatic and Natural Resources Research
and Development (PCAARRD) for funding
the project “Tourism Carrying Capacity of
Puerto Princesa Subterranean River
National Park”

Project management Director Portia G. Lapitan of ERDB for the

Pamilacan CARCAP Project and
Asst. Sec. Marcial C. Amaro Jr. for the Puerto
Princesa CARCAP Project

Project team and staff Pamilacan CARCAP Project

Alicia G. Calderon
Lorlina A. Calderon
Rafael L. Sibal
Melody R. Santiago (Project Staff)

Puerto Princesa CARCAP Project

Alicia G. Calderon (Project Leader)
Ma. Lourdes DC. Reyes
Pedro C. Atega
Lorlina A. Calderon
Salvacion T. Orobia
Juanito D. Sapin
Rafael L. Sibal

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas vii

 Field data gathering Pamilacan CARCAP Project
PENRO Nestor M. Canda, Maria Lea B.
Ipong, Marvin Francis Apale, Antonio
Pineda, Esmeralda P. Mijos, Gwendolyn
Baugbog, Christopher Boncales, and
local respondents of Barangay Pamilacan

Puerto Princesa CARCAP Project

James Albert A. Mendoza and staff of
PPUR, PASU Gaspar “Jess” Bactol and
staff, tourists and local respondents

Layout and design Arvin R. Reginio

Photo Credits Lope A. Calanog and Alicia G. Calderon

Inspiration Family, loved ones, and God almighty

viii A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

Photo by Michelle Palaypayon
 The concept of carrying capacity has received considerable
attention due to increasing pressure on our natural environments.
The environment can only take so much because it has its own
limitation. And the moment we exceed this threshold, this is
when devastation and destruction occur.

Carrying capacity, as a planning tool, is important in many

tourism areas, especially now that they are experiencing
threats due to anthropogenic interventions, biodiversity loss,
and climate change. It ensures few and tolerable impacts on
natural resources. There is a need to determine the tourism
capacity of a certain site to make its operation sustainable and
lasting. Aside from providing a steady source of income to local
community, it ensures high level of satisfaction for visitors. And
it is fortunate that our recent policies are geared towards these
ends, such as Executive Order No.111 (Guidelines for Ecotourism
Development in the Philippines) and RA 9593 (Tourism Act of
2009).

The Government recognizes sustainable tourism as an

integral element in socio-economic development to improve
the quality of life of the Filipino people, and promote a
tourism industry that is ecologically sustainable, responsible,
participative, culturally sensitive, economically viable, and
ethically and socially equitable.

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 1

 This “how to” manual aims to:

1. Provide understanding on the basic concepts and

principles of carrying capacity as it relates to ecotourism
planning and development; and

2. Provide guidance in the computation of carrying capacity,

particularly in:
• determining how standard requirement of tourists
and visitors in a particular ecotourism site is
estimated; and
• identifying the different limiting factors that may
influence the carrying capacity of said ecotourism
sites.

2 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 In its broadest sense, carrying capacity refers to the ability
of a system to support an activity or feature at a given level.
It depends on three main factors: 1) the amount of resources
available in the ecosystem, 2) the size of the population or the
number of users, and 3) the amount of resources each individual
consumes. Additional factors (i.e., social, psychological,
economic, environmental, etc.) also influence carrying capacity
and normally limit the level of carrying capacity of a certain
area.

Carrying capacity is also seen as an equilibrium or balance.

However, the carrying capacity for many species is always
changing due to various factors. Different organisms have
different carrying capacities in the same area, thus, the carrying
capacity of an ecosystem affects everything that lives in it. The
population of most living things tend to fluctuate naturally
around a certain level, which is also perceived as carrying
capacity.

Carrying capacity also has many variances (MacLeod &

Cooper, Undated):
• Physical carrying capacity - the spatial limitations of an
area and is often expressed as the number of units that
an area can physically accommodate. For example, the
allowable number of establishments in Boracay.

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 3

 • Ecological carrying capacity - measure of the population
that an ecosystem can sustain, defined by the population
density beyond which the mortality rate for the species
becomes greater than the birth rate. In a recreational
context, ecological carrying capacity can also be defined
as the stress that an ecosystem can withstand in terms
of changing number of visitors or activities before its
ecological value is unacceptably affected.

• Social carrying capacity - a measure of crowding

tolerance. It has been further defined by De Ruyck et
al. (1997) as “the maximum visitor density at which
recreationists still feel comfortable and uncrowded”.

• Economic carrying capacity - the extent to which an

area can be altered before the economic activities that
occur in the area are affected adversely. It therefore
attempts to measure changes in economic terms (Rees
1992).

In the context of ecotourism development, carrying capacity

refers to the maximum number of individuals or visitors that
can be accommodated in an ecotourism site without affecting
the state of the environment, the level of satisfaction of the
visitors, and the socio-cultural norms of the local community.

4 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 There are many ways to compute carrying capacity. For
tourism purposes, two simple models are applied: the Boullon’s
(1985) carrying capacity mathematical model and the Limits of
Acceptable Change (LAC).

Either one or both of them may be used depending on

the condition of the ecotourism site, the tourism activities
and services offered, and the purpose for which the carrying
capacity is applied.

Boullon’s Carrying Capacity Mathematical Model (BCCMM)

In BCCMM, the challenge is how to determine the standard

requirement of the visitor. Standard may come in the form of
time, space, material, psychological, ecological, and other needs
of the visitor (i.e., how much area is needed for swimming,
snorkeling, diving, etc. which can be expressed in m2).

Standards can be derived from secondary literature, say

from publications of World Tourism Organization. For example,
standard space requirements in beach areas are:

• 1.7 sq.m./person in the Netherlands

• 3.0 sq.m./person in Spanish resorts
• 30.0 sq.m./person in the tropics

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 5

 Another approach in determining the standard is through
a survey or personal interviews with visitors. In doing so, some
parameters should be looked into:

a. Psychological considerations
• Visitation in group or
individual
• Reason for coming to the
ecotourism site/type of visit
• Recreational activities
preferred
• Facility requirements
• Equipment brought to the
site
• Parking requirements for
different vehicles

b. Economic considerations
• Daily or monthly income
• Daily or monthly expenditure
(food, clothing, education,
health, etc.)
• Specific amount set aside for
tourism activities
• Primary/secondary source of
income
• General socio-economic
status in life (i.e., rich, middle
class, poor)

6 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 c. Socio-cultural considerations
• Demographic profile (age,
sex, educational attainment,
religion, ethnic group, etc.)
• No. of family members/
household size
• Profession/occupation
• Organizational affiliation
• Beliefs and practices relative
to tourism activities
Once the standard is set and other relevant data and
information are generated, the computation of carrying
capacity may proceed.

In BCCMM, the carrying capacity is measured at three

levels: basic carrying capacity, potential carrying capacity, and
real carrying capacity.

First level: Basic Carrying Capacity (BCC)

In BCC, calculation is done by dividing the total size of
a particular area used by the visitors with the average or
standard size/space requirement of visitors.

Area used by visitors (i.e., in sq.m.)

BCC =
Average visitors’ standard (i.e., in sq.m.)

Second level: Potential Carrying Capacity (PCC)

PCC is calculated by computing first the rotation
coefficient (RC) of a specific tourism activity.

PCC = BCC x RC
where:
Total no. of hours a specific area is open for use
RC =
Average no. of hours an area is used by visitors

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 7

 Third level: Real Carrying Capacity (RCC)
RCC is the maximum permissible number of use of an area
once the limiting (i.e., corrective) factors (Lf1, Lf2,...Lfn) derived
from the particular characteristics of the site (or standards/
needs of the visitors) have been applied. RCC is computed
by incorporating the limiting factors identified during the
interviews and observations in the sites.

100 - Lf1 100 - Lf2 100 - Lf3 100 - Lfn

RCC = PCC x x x x
100 100 100 100

M (a,b,c,...n)
Limiting Factors (Lf1,2,3,...n) = x 100
MT
where:
M(a,b,c,...n) = limiting magnitude of the factor/variable
MT = total magnitude of the factor/variable

Here is an example of computed carrying capacities using

Boullon’s mathematical model:

Carrying Capacity of Pamilacan Island

a. Swimming Area

Given:
»»Total area of
beaches used in
swimming = 17,362 m2
»»Standard area/
space requirement per
swimmer = 30 m2
(WTO for tropical
beaches)
»»Time beaches are open and safe for swimming = 12 hours
»»Average no. of hours spent swimming = 2 hours

8 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 »»(Lf1) Typhoon, strong waves and current in a year = 30 days
»»(Lf2) Available time of swimming/day (9am to 1pm) = 4 hours
»»(Lf3) Intense sunlight in a day (11am to 3pm) = 4 hours

NOTE: In identifying the limiting factors, it is important to include

environmental considerations that may limit visit to the area or use
of a particular space/activity in an ecotourism site. For instance, if
a particular space in Pamilacan water is used by the cetacean for
mating at a specific season of the year, then this should be included
as a limiting factor (i.e., space occupied for mating should be excluded
from the total area used in cetacean watching and number of days or
time spent for mating should be deducted from the total number of
cetacean watching time).

Computation:

Basic Carrying Capacity (BCC)

Total area of beaches for swimming
BCC =
Standard area requirement per swimmer
17,364 m2
BCC =
30 m2
BCC = 578.8 or 579 swimmers per day

Potential Carrying Capacity (PCC)

PCC = BCC x RC (rotation coefficient)

Total no. of hours beaches are open and safe for swimming
RC =
Average no. of hours spent swimming
12 hours
RC =
2 hours
RC = 6 hours

PCC = 579 swimmers per day x 6 hours

PCC = 3,474 swimmers per day

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 9

 Real Carrying Capacity (RCC)
100 - Lf1 100 - Lf2 100 - Lf3 100 - Lfn
RCC = PCC x x x x
100 100 100 100

Lf1 = Typhoon, strong waves and current in a year

No. of days beaches are open for swimming in a year
Lf1 = 30 days
x 100
365 days
Lf1 = 8.22

Lf2 = Available time of swimming in a day (9am to 1pm)

Time (hours) beaches are open for swimming in a day
Lf2 = 4 hours
x 100
12 hours
Lf2 = 33.33
Lf3 = Intense sunlight in a day (11am to 3pm)
Time (hours) beaches are open for swimming in a day
Lf3 = 4 hours
x 100
12 hours
Lf3 = 33.33

100 - 8.22 100 - 33.33 100 - 33.33

RCC = PCC x x x
100 100 100
RCC = 3,474 x (0.9178 x 0.6667 x 0.6667)
RCC = 3,474 swimmers x 0.4079
RCC = 1,417 swimmers per day

10 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 b. Snorkeling Area

Given:
»» Total area of sanctuary
= 140,000 m2
»» Total area where
snorkeling is allowed =
70,000 m2
»» Standard area
requirement per visitor = 150 m2 (Pangemanan et al.
2012)
»» Time the sanctuary is open for snorkeling = 11 hours
»» Average no. of hours spent in snorkeling = 1.5 hours
(normally this is the time taken by visitors because of the
guided tour)
»» (Lf1) Typhoon, strong waves and current in a year = 30
days
»» (Lf2) Available time for snorkeling/day (9am-1pm) = 4 hrs.
»» (Lf3) Intense sunlight in a day (11am to 3pm) = 4 hours

Computation:

Basic Carrying Capacity (BCC)

Total area of beaches for snorkeling
BCC =
Standard area requirement per snorkeler
70,000 m2
BCC =
150 m2
BCC = 466.66 or 467 snorkelers per day

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 11

 Potential Carrying Capacity (PCC)
PCC = BCC x RC (rotation coefficient)

Total no. of hours beaches are open and safe for snorkeling
RC =
Average no. of hours spent snorkeling
11 hours
RC =
1.5 hours
RC = 7.33 hours

PCC = 467 snorkelers per day x 7.33 hours

PCC = 3,423 snorkelers per day

Real Carrying Capacity (RCC)

100 - Lf1 100 - Lf2 100 - Lf3 100 - Lfn
RCC = PCC x x x x
100 100 100 100

Lf1 = Typhoon, strong waves and current in a year

No. of days snorkeling area is open in a year
Lf1 = 30 days
x 100
365 days
Lf1 = 8.22
Lf2 = Available time of snorkeling in a day (9am to 1pm)
Time (hours) sanctuary is open for snorkeling in a day
Lf2 = 4 hours
x 100
11 hours
Lf2 = 36.36
Lf3 = Intense sunlight in a day (11am to 3pm)
Time (hours) sanctuary is open for snorkeling in a day
Lf3 = 4 hours
x 100
11 hours
Lf3 = 36.36

12 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 100 - 8.22 100 - 36.36 100 - 36.36
RCC = PCC x x x
100 100 100
RCC = 3,423 x (0.9178 x 0.6364 x 0.6364)
RCC = 3,423 snorkelers x 0.3717
RCC = 1,272 snorkelers per day

c. Cetacean Watching Area

Given:
»» Area of standby zone =
157,000 m2
»» Space occupied by big
boat = 300 m2
»» Space occupied by small
boat = 100 m2
»» Average space occupied
by big and small boats = 200 m2
»» Capacity of big boat = maximum of 15 visitors
»» Capacity of small boat = maximum of 5 visitors
»» Average maximum capacity of big and small boats = 10
»» Caution zone = only two boats are allowed with a maximum
of 20 minutes watching time/boat (Fig. 1)
»» No. of days the watching area is open in a year = 365 days
»» Time (hours) the watching area is open in a day = 12 hours
»» (Lf1) Typhoon, strong waves and current in a year = 30 days
»» (Lf2) Whale/dolphin watching time prescribed by local
boatmen = 4 hours

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 13

 Figure 1. Cetacean interaction zone and approach guide (Adopted from BE
WHALE WISE: Cetacean interaction guidelines for boaters, paddlers and
viewers brochure, CREE, WWF-Philippines, DA, DOT and DENR)

Computation:

Standby Zone: Basic Carrying Capacity (BCC)

Area of standby zone
BCC =
Average space occupied by big and small boats
157,000 m2
BCC =
200 m2
BCC = 785 boats

14 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 Standby Zone: Real Carrying Capacity (RCC)
100 - Lf1 100 - Lf2 100 - Lfn
RCC = BCC x x x
100 100 100

Lf1 = Typhoon, strong waves and current in a year

No. of days watching area is open in a year
Lf1 = 30 days
x 100
365 days
Lf1 = 8.22
Lf2 = Whale/dolphin watching time prescribed by locals
Time (hours) cetacean watching area is open in a day
Lf2 = 4 hours
x 100
12 hours
Lf2 = 33.33

100 - 8.22 100 - 33.33

RCC = 785 boats x x
100 100
RCC = 785 boats x (0.9178 x 0.6667)
RCC = 785 boats x 0.6112
RCC = 480 boats per day

To compute for the number of visitors (NV):

NV = RCC x Average maximum capacity of big and small boats
NV = 480 boats x 10 visitors
NV = 4,800 visitors per day in the standby zone

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 15

 Caution Zone: Basic Carrying Capacity (BCC)
Allowed watching time by the local boatmen/day
BCC =
Maximum watching time per boat
240 minutes (4 hours) in a day
BCC =
20 minutes per boat
BCC = 12 boats per day (4 hours)
BCC = 12 boats x 2 (simultaneous watching)
BCC = 24 boats in a day (4 hours)

Caution Zone: Real Carrying Capacity (RCC)

100 - Lf1 100 - Lfn
RCC = BCC x x
100 100

Lf1 = Typhoon, strong waves and current in a year

No. of days watching area is open in a year
Lf1 = 30 days
x 100
365 days
Lf1 = 8.22
100 - 8.22
RCC = 24 boats x
100
RCC = 24 boats x 0.9178
RCC = 22 boats per day

To compute for the number of visitors (NV):

NV = RCC x Average maximum capacity of big and small boats
NV = 22 boats x 10 visitors
NV = 220 visitors per day in the caution zone

16 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 Limit of Acceptable Change (LAC)

LAC was developed as alternative to the practical and

conceptual failures of carrying capacity. Its framework was
developed by the US Forest Service in the 1980s.

It is based on the idea that rather than putting a theshold on

visitor number, management of an ecotourism area should be
based on constant monitoring of the site as well as the objectives
for which the area is established. The primary emphasis on the
future conditions desired (resource, social and managerial) for
an area and the actions prescribed to protect or achieve those
conditions, rather than on how much use such an area can
tolerate.

It is possible that with LAC framework, the carrying capacity

can still be established, while in Buollon’s model, the specific
number of visitors can actually be computed.

The LAC process often includes public input and

involvement at key steps. It moves from broad descriptions
to specific prescriptions. It requires setting standards and
monitoring conditions. Figure 2 shows the nine steps involved
in the application of the LAC process.

Figure 2. The LAC planning system (Stankey et al. 1985).

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 17

 Limit of Acceptable Change (LAC)

The LAC Nine-Step Process

Step 1. Identify area concerns and issues

In addition to legal guidelines and organizational policy,
management of an area needs to reflect area-specific features
and values in order that the role of the area at both regional and
national levels can be assessed.

Step 2. Define and describe opportunity classes

These represent sub-units of the area where different
conditions are provided, thereby increasing the diversity of the
area. This will entail defining the key: a) physical attributes to be
maintained (undisturbed natural environment, no permanent
development, remote from access, etc.); b) social attributes
(solitude, isolation, few contacts, self-reliance, challenge,
etc.); and c) managerial attributes (light-handed, minimal
management presence, primitive tools used, rely more on
information and education than policing, etc.).

Step 3. Select indicators of resource and social conditions that

can be quantitatively measured.

Step 4. Inventory resource and social conditions

Steps 3 and 4 are the heart of LAC. Indicators are things
that can be measured which tell if desired resource and social
conditions are changing from human use. Examples are: exotic
plants, impacted campsites, damaged vegetation, litter and
human waste, etc. These indicators should be recorded and
mapped.

Step 5. Specify standards for each indicator in each opportunity

class. This helps ensure realism and also clarifies the nature and
extent of management activity that will be required to achieve
standards.

18 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 Limit of Acceptable Change (LAC)

Step 6. Identify alternative allocations of the area among the

various opportunity classes as different allocations require
different types of management.

Step 7. Identify actions for each alternative.

This requires an analysis of the various costs and benefits of
each alternative, in terms of environmental impacts and impacts
on visitors as well as administrative costs.

Step 8. Evaluate and select an alternative.

The final selection will reflect the responsiveness of the
alternative to the issues and concerns identified in Step 1 and the
management requirements identified in Step 7.

Steps 5 to 8, being part of the heart of LAC, provide

the point at which an indicator tells whether the change is
acceptable or not. They define alternatives and reviews/evaluates
such alternatives. Exceeding the standard of an indicator should
trigger a management action. One important management rule
is “if it isn’t broken, don’t fix it!”.

For instance, in a beach resort intended for swimming,

the indicator could be polluted environment (i.e., in the form
of presence of fecal coliform). Having said this, the standard to
use is: 20 organisms/100ml (for swimming area). Should the
standard exceed, the management action that could be applied
is either to chlorinate the beach for 24 hours or close it.

Step 9. Implement selected alternative and establish a monitoring

program.
Monitoring is particularly important as it provides feedback
on the effectiveness of the management actions employed,
alerting managers to the need to consider more rigorous
application or use of other measures.

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 19

 Here is an example of computed carrying capacity using
both the Boullon’s model and LAC:

Carrying Capacity of Puerto Princesa Subterranean National

Park (PPSRNP)

Based on interviews
with key informants, the
preferred distance of boats
from one another while on
cruise are the following:

• (LAC1) Views/
preference of the key
informant-visitors or
users = 15m
• (LAC2) Views/opinion
of the PASUs = 100m
• (LAC3) Computed
distance (PASUs’ recommendation minus visitors’
preference divided by 2) = 42.5m
• (LAC4) Compromised distance (doubling the visitors’
preference) = 30m

To proceed with the computation, the following are given:

»» Length of river used for cruise/tour = 1,200m
»» Available boats for the river cruise = 10 boats with an
average capacity of 8 passengers
»» Average length of boat use in river cruise = 6.5m
»» Only 8 boatmen are available per day
»» Preferred distances of boats from one another = 15m,
100m, 42.5m, and 30m
»» Number of hours the river is open for cruise = 8 hours
»» Maximum capacity of picnic ranger station = 80 people at
a given point in time

20 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 »» Maximum capacity of holding area = 100 people at a
given point in time
»» Number of days river is closed for visitors = 10 days for
maintenance purposes and 5 days for inclement weather,
or a total of 15 days in a year
»» Each river cruise takes about 45 minutes to one hour

Computation:
1. The optimum number of boats per cruise that may be
allowed at four levels are:
LAC1 = 1,200 / 6.5m + 15m
= 1,200 / 21.5m
= 55.81 or 56 boats

LAC2 = 1,200 / 6.5m + 100m

= 1,200 / 106.5m
= 11.26 or 11 boats

LAC3 = 1,200 / 6.5m + 42.5m

= 1,200 / 49m
= 24.48 or 24 boats

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 21

 LAC4 = 1,200 / 6.5m + 30m
= 1,200 / 36.5m
= 32.88 or 33 boats

2. Carrying Capacity for LAC

First Level: Basic Carrying Capacity (BCC)

BCC = LAC x Average number of passengers per boat
BCC = 56 boats x 8 passengers per boat
BCC = 448 passengers or visitors per cruise

Second Level: Potential Carrying Capacity (PCC)

PCC = BCC x RC (rotation coefficient)

Number of hours the river is open for cruise

RC =
Maximum number of hours for one cruise
8 hours
RC =
1 hour
RC = 8 hours

PCC = 448 visitors x 8 hours

PCC = 3,584 per day

22 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 Third Level: Real Carrying Capacity (RCC)
100 - Lf1 100 - Lf2 100 - Lf3 100 - Lfn
RCC = PCC x x x x
100 100 100 100

Lf1 = Capacity of anchorage area (number of boats)

Lf1 = 10 boats
x 100
56 boats
Lf1 = 17.86

Lf2 = Number of available boatmen

Lf2 = 8 boatmen
x 100
56 boatmen
Lf2 = 14.29

Lf3 = Capacity of picnic and holding area

Lf3 = 180 visitors
x 100
448 visitors
Lf3 = 40.18

Lf4 = Number of days river is closed

Lf4 = 15 days
x 100
365 days
Lf4 = 4.11

100 - 17.86 100 - 14.29 100 - 40.18 100 - 4.11

RCC = 3,584 x x x x
100 100 100 100
RCC = 3,584 x (0.82 x 0.86 x 0.60 x 0.96)
RCC = 3,584 x 0.4062
RCC = 1,455.8 or 1456 visitors per day

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 23

 3. For LAC2

First Level: Basic Carrying Capacity (BCC)

BCC = LAC x Average number of passengers per boat
BCC = 11 boats x 8 passengers per boat
BCC = 88 passengers or visitors per cruise

Second Level: Potential Carrying Capacity (PCC)

PCC = BCC x RC (rotation coefficient)

Number of hours the river is open for cruise

RC =
Maximum number of hours for one cruise
8 hours
RC =
1 hour
RC = 8 hours

PCC = 88 visitors x 8 hours

PCC = 704 visitors per day

Third Level: Real Carrying Capacity (RCC)

100 - Lf1 100 - Lf2 100 - Lf3 100 - Lfn
RCC = PCC x x x x
100 100 100 100

Lf1 = Capacity of anchorage area (number of boats)

Lf1 = 10 boats
x 100
11 boats
Lf1 = 90.91

24 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 Third Level: Real Carrying Capacity (RCC)

Lf2 = Number of available boatmen

Lf2 = 8 boatmen
x 100
11 boatmen
Lf2 = 72.73

Lf3 = Number of days river is close

Lf3 = 15 days
x 100
365 days
Lf3 = 4.11

100 - 90.91 100 - 72.23 100 - 4.11

RCC = 704 x x x 100
100 100
RCC = 704 x (0.09 x 0.27 x 0.96)
RCC = 704 x 0.0233
RCC = 16.40 or 17 visitors per day

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 25

 4. For LAC3
First Level: Basic Carrying Capacity (BCC)
BCC = LAC x Average number of passengers per boat
BCC = 24 boats x 8 passengers per boat
BCC = 192 passengers or visitors per cruise

Second Level: Potential Carrying Capacity (PCC)

PCC = BCC x RC (rotation coefficient)

Number of hours the river is open for cruise

RC =
Maximum number of hours for one cruise
8 hours
RC =
1 hour
RC = 8 hours

PCC = 192 visitors x 8 hours

PCC = 1,536 visitors per day

Third Level: Real Carrying Capacity (RCC)

100 - Lf1 100 - Lf2 100 - Lf3 100 - Lfn
RCC = PCC x x x x
100 100 100 100

Lf1 = Capacity of anchorage area (number of boats)

Lf1 = 10 boats
x 100
24 boats
Lf1 = 41.67

26 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 Third Level: Real Carrying Capacity (RCC)

Lf2 = Number of available boatmen

Lf2 = 8 boatmen
x 100
24 boatmen
Lf2 = 33.33

Lf3 = Capacity of picnic and holding area

Lf3 = 180 visitors
x 100
192 visitors
Lf3 = 93.75

Lf4 = Number of days river is close

Lf4 = 15 days
x 100
365 days
Lf4 = 4.11

100 - 41.67 100 - 33.33 100 - 93.75 100 - 4.11

RCC = 1,536 x x x x
100 100 100 100
RCC = 1,536 x (0.58 x 0.67 x 0.06 x 0.96)
RCC = 1,536 x 0.022
RCC = 33.79 or 34 visitors per day

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 27

 5. For LAC4

First Level: Basic Carrying Capacity (BCC)

BCC = LAC x Average number of passengers per boat
BCC = 33 boats x 8 passengers per boat
BCC = 264 passengers or visitors per cruise

Second Level: Potential Carrying Capacity (PCC)

PCC = BCC x RC (rotation coefficient)

Number of hours the river is open for cruise

RC =
Maximum number of hours for one cruise
8 hours
RC =
1 hour
RC = 8 hours

PCC = 264 visitors x 8 hours

PCC = 2,112 visitors per day

Third Level: Real Carrying Capacity (RCC)

100 - Lf1 100 - Lf2 100 - Lf3 100 - Lfn
RCC = PCC x x x x
100 100 100 100

Lf1 = Capacity of anchorage area (number of boats)

Lf1 = 10 boats
x 100
33 boats
Lf1 = 30.30

28 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 Third Level: Real Carrying Capacity (RCC)

Lf2 = Number of available boatmen

Lf2 = 8 boatmen
x 100
33 boatmen
Lf2 = 24.24

Lf3 = Capacity of picnic and holding area

Lf3 = 180 visitors
x 100
264 visitors
Lf3 = 68.19

Lf4 = Number of days river is close

Lf4 = 15 days
x 100
365 days
Lf4 = 4.11

100 - 30.30 100 - 24.24 100 - 68.19 100 - 4.11

RCC = 2,112 x x x x
100 100 100 100
RCC = 2,112 x (0.70 x 0.76 x 0.32 x 0.96)
RCC = 2,112 x 0.1634
RCC = 345.10 or 345 visitors per day

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 29

 Summary of the above computations is shown in the table
below:

Table 1. Computed number of visitors by LAC and by level of carrying

capacity.
Level of Carrying Capacity LAC1 LAC2 LAC3 LAC4
CC 448 88 192 264
PCC 3,584 704 1,536 2,112
RCC 1,456 18 34 345

From the table above, it can be deduced that:

a. In applying the distance of 15m between boats (LAC1),
the underground river cruise can accommodate as much
as 1,456 visitors a day;
b. If it is 100m distance (LAC2), the number of visitors that
can be accommodated is only 18 visitors a day;
c. At 42.5m distance (LAC3), the computed carrying
capacity is 34 visitors a day; and
d. For a 30m distance between boats (LAC4), the allowable
number of visitors in a day is computed at 345.

The LAC to take and the corresponding number of visitors

to be allowed would be dependent on the decision of the
PPUR Protected Area Management Board (PAMB). The PAMB
may even try more LAC options and come up with another
computation of carrying capacity. It is important to note that
they can apply as many LAC options as possible to have a
stronger basis for decision-making.

30 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 Some general strategies that can be applied in increasing
the carrying capacity of an ecotourism site are:
1. Re-design the facilities (i.e., view decks, tracks, trails, etc.)
to accommodate more visitors or activities. For instance,
increase the number of view decks, tracks or trails.
However, in doing so, environmental considerations
should be looked into such as the impending effects on
the habitat of biodiversity species.
2. Increase the durability of heavily used resources (i.e.,
pavilion area, camping area, parking area, playground,
etc.). Maybe there is a need to add new parking space or
widen the camp site. By doing so, the number of visitors
that can be accommodated will also increase.
3. Improve access to other sites of interest. One possible
way of doing this is by installing covered walks so that
even during hot and rainy seasons, access to an area
is not denied and therefore, visitors are not drastically
affected.
4. Introduce additional recreational activities to distribute
visitation or concentration in an area. Like in Puerto
Princesa Subterranean River where visitors are piling
up waiting for their turn to take the river cruise, short
environmental films, trailers or documentaries can
be shown to keep them entertained. Or they can be
directed to experience an amazing ride inside old
mangrove forests in nearby areas. These can be put in
an alternative tour package.

A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas 31

 Boullon, R.C. 1985. Plantifacion del Espacio Touristico. Ed. Trillas,
Mexico. DE.
Calanog, L.A. 2013. Gender Analysis and Tourism Carrying Capacity
in Pamilacan Island, Bohol, Philippines. (Powerpoint
Presentation). Intergration Meeting Between the PCW and
the DENR on Ecotourism Guidelines and Ecotourism Tool Kit.
Hotel Rembrandt, Quezon City.
De Ruyck, M.C., Soares, A.G. & MacLachlan, A. 1997. Social Carrying
Capacity as a Management Tool for Sandy Beaches. Journal
of Coastal Research, 13, 822-830.
Huttche, C.M, White, A.T. & Flores, M.M. 2002. Sustainable Coastal
Tourism Handbook for the Philippines. Coastal Resources
Management Project of the DENR and DOT, Cebu City,
Philippines.
Krumpe, E. Undated. Limits of Acceptable Change Planning System:
An Alternative Implementation of Carrying Capacity.
(Powerpoint Presentation). Retrieved from
http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/css287/287lac7.pdf
MacLeod, M. & Cooper, J.A.G. Undated. Carrying Capacity in
Coastal Areas. Retreived from
http://www.springer.com/978-1-4020-1903-6
Rees, W. 1992. Ecological Footprints and Appropriated Carrying
Capacity: What Urban Economics Leaves Out. Environment
and Urbanization, 4, 121-130.
Stankey, G.H., Cole, D.N., Lucas, R.C., Petersen, M.E. & Frissell, S.S.
1985. The Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) System for
Wilderness Planning. General Technical Report INT-176.
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Ogden,
UT 84401. United States Department of Agriculture.

32 A Manual on Computing Carrying Capacity of Ecotourism Sites in Protected Areas

 About the Author
Dr. Lope A. Calanog has worked with the Philippine-Department
of Environment and Natural Resources as Research Scientist/Specialist
whose fields of specialization are in Protected Area (PA) establishment and
management; ecotourism/sustainable tourism; community-based forest
resources management; social research analysis; impact assessments; and
project planning and evaluation from 1975 to 2013.

Dr. Calanog led the establishment of an ecotourism ecological

park in Quirino Province and in the setting up of another ecotourism
destination park in Taal Volcano Protected Landscape. He also prepared
and pilot tested a training module on Establishing Ecotourism Projects
in Protected Areas for the Development Academy of the Philippines. He
was tapped by local and foreign institutions to help design the ecotourism
standard for the province of Bohol, established an ecotourism cum
botanic garden in Bataan, managed a team of consultants that prepared
an environmental assessment for nature-based tourism/resort project
in an island in Zambales, and led a team that formulated a “Manual on
the Establishment of Community-based Ecotourism Enterprise in the
Philippines.” Recently, Dr. Calanog has prepared the Tourism Master
Plan of San Pablo City, Laguna.

At present, he serves as the Sustainable Finance Specialist of the

Asian Development Bank-Regional Technical Assistance (ADB-RETA)
7813 “Coastal and Marine Resources Management in the Coral Triangle:
Southeast Asia” whose main focus is the pilot testing of an ecotourism-
based Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) project in Taytay, Palawan.
He also monitors the implementation of ecotourism projects in Malaysia.
NOTES