Unit II&III

BUILDING SERVICES – II
UNIT II - FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING

Principles of light – Electromagnetic radiation, waves, nature of vision, measurement

of lighting.
Principles of illumination: definitions, Visual tasks, Factors affecting visual tasks Units
of light, definitions of flux, solid angle, luminous intensity –utilization factor –
depreciation factor- MSCP –MHCP, brightness, glare.

Introduction
Light is a fundamental element to architecture; it interacts with the space, affecting the way we
perceive it. The way lighting acts can change the spatiality, the atmosphere and the visibility.
The lit environment deals with brightness, shadows, lighting distribution, color and many other
aspects that influence our visual experience and plays with our mood.
The perception of space is directly connected to the way light integrates with it. What we see,
what we experience and how we interpret the elements is affected by how light interacts with
us and with the environment. Regarding architecture, in whatever dimension it can be
analyzed, either as space, as material or as color, it is essentially dependent on the lighting
situation that involves both the object and the observer. The dynamic daylight and the
controlled artificial lighting are able to affect not only distinct physical measurable conditions in
a space, but also to instigate and provoke different visual experiences and moods. Due to the
light, it is possible to perceive different atmospheres in the same physical environment. Light
constitutes an element of fundamental relevance for the design of spaces and therefore it plays
a significant role in the discussion of quality in architecture.
In the theory of light, it is common to find an explanation of what light is by considering it as
energy or visible radiation. Our vision is then the perception determined by this radiation.
When dealing with lighting analysis, specialists consider light quality to be physical aspects and
run their principles by making measurements. They rely their ideas based on a numeric and
scaled light level, discussed in number of lux, which can be compared and detected by
instruments.

LIGHTING BASICS
Light Output
The most common Light output (or luminous flux) is the “Lumen”
Light sources are labeled with an output rating in lumens.

Light Level
Light intensity measured on a plane at a specific location is called
illuminance. Illuminance is measured in Lux (metric), which are the
work plane lumens per square meter.

Brightness
Another measurement of light is Luminance, sometimes called
brightness. The light “leaving a surface in a particular direction.

Luminous flux
Is the time rate of flow of light as measured in lumens. It is a measure of the total
light emitted by
a source and it most commonly used for measurement of total lamp output.
• Luminous Intensity (I)
Power emitted by a light source in a particular direction. Sometimes is called as
Candlepower. The
intensity (I) is represent by Candela, “cd”

Luminous Intensity (I)

Illuminance (E)
Is the quantity of light reaching a unit area of surface and is measured in
footcandles or lux. It
defines the intensity (I) in candelas directed toward point Pm divided by the
square of the distance
(D) from the source to the surface.
This formula holds only if the receiving surface is perpendicular to the source
direction. If the light
incident at some other angle. The formula becomes
Where E = illuminance in fc or lux
I = Intensity in candelas (cd) toward point P
D = Distance in feet or meters
_ = angle of incidence

Color Temperature
Colour temperature is a standard method of describing colours for use in a range
of situations and
with different equipment. Colour temperatures are normally expressed in units
called kelvins (K).
Imagine a piece of tungsten metal being heated. As it is heated the color of the
metal will gradually
shift from red to orange to yellow to white to bluish white. The color of light is
measured along this
scale, with the more orange color light being referred to as "warm white" and the
whiter color light
being referred to as "cool white
Light quality
What do we mean by light quality, and what are the factors which
contribute to ‘good’ or ‘bad’ quality illumination? Simply put, good
quality illumination is that which provides a high level of visual
comfort, and allows us to view tasks clearly and easily. This affects
our psyche in a positive way. On the other hand, poor visual comfort
illumination irritates us. The four most important factors affecting
visual comfort are glare, brightness ratio, diffusion, and color rendition.
Let’s look now at each of these factors in greater detail.
Glare
We’ve all experienced glare in our everyday lives: bright lighting
fixtures located in your field of view, or sunlight coming through
a window. This is known as discomfort glare, and the degree of
discomfort inflicted depends on the number, size, position, and
luminance of the glare sources. In interior lighting design, we are
primarily concerned with discomfort glare from windows and
overhead lighting fixtures. Other forms of glare are disability glare
and veiling reflections. Disability glare obliterates task contrast, and
scatters the light within your eye to the point that visibility is
reduced to zero. A common example is glare from a glossy
magazine page that makes it impossible to read the page. Veiling
reflections, such as lighting fixture ‘images’ on your computer
monitor, make it hard to see what is on the screen. The severity of
The design medium 11
glare in any form is primarily dependent on two factors: the brightness
and position of the source.
Brightness ratio
The brightness ratio is the brightness contrast between the task and
the background. This affects the amount of work our eyes have to
do in order for us to perform the task. For example, a high brightness
task in a low brightness surrounding forces the eye to continually
adjust from one light level to the other. Conversely, a low
brightness task surrounded by a bright background tends to obscure
contrast, and the eye tends to be attracted away from the task.
Obviously, a balance between task and background brightness is
desirable for effective viewing.
Diffusion
Contrary to the above factors, which affect viewing negatively,
diffusion generally improves visual comfort. Diffusion results from
light arriving at the task from many different directions. A highly
diffuse lighting system will produce no penumbra, or sharply
defined shadows. Diffuse lighting is desirable in office areas where
computers are in use, in school classrooms, and in library reading
areas. Diffuse lighting is accomplished through the use of many low
brightness fixtures, or through the use of indirect lighting, where
the light is reflected from diffuse surfaces, such as a white ceiling,
before reaching the task.
Color rendition
Color of light affects the ‘mood’, or emotional aspects of a space.
It also affects the accuracy with which we perform tasks. We’ve all,
at one time or another, purchased a garment under artificial lighting,
only to have it change color when we got it out into the
sunlight. That happens because the artificial light source does not
contain the full visible spectrum of colors, as does the sunlight. As
noted before with the blue ball example, we see only those colors
which are reflected from a surface. Obviously, those tasks that
involve color discrimination should be lighted by a source that
contains as much of the visible spectrum as possible. In other situations,
the mood of the environment can be altered by the use of
‘warm’ or ‘cool’ colors, high in reds, or blues, respectively.
Unlike light quantity, light quality is subjective in nature, and is
not easy to calculate by mathematical formulae. The lighting indus-
12 The Lit Interior
try has, however, come up with several methods that the designer
can use to evaluate the relative quality of lighting systems. The first
of these is equivalent sphere illumination (ESI). This is a complicated
method of relating illumination of a task on a surface within the
design space to that of a task on a surface in the center of a sphere
that is equally illuminated throughout. The logic being that the
lighted sphere will provide the optimum illumination, and that the
space should be designed to match the footcandle requirement of the
sphere as closely as possible. For example, if a task requiring 100 fc
in the design space was put into the sphere, and the lighting level

was adjusted to provide the same task visibility, and that level was
60 fc, then the ESI would be 60 fc. Equivalent sphere illumination
takes into account room geometry and reflectance, fixture characteristics,
and viewer position. Needless to say, only fixture manufacturers
with big computers attempt ESI calculations. Another
comparison type system evaluator is the relative visual performance
(RVP) factor, which is expressed in percentages. The RVP represents
the percentage likelihood that a standardized visual task can be
performed within the designed lighting system. Age of the viewer,
luminance and contrast are all included in RVP calculations. When
comparing systems, the one with the higher RVP will provide better
light quality. Also expressed in percentages is the visual comfort
probability (VCP), which is the percent of viewers positioned in a
specific location, viewing in a specific direction, who would find the
lighting system acceptable in terms of discomfort glare. Visual
comfort probability takes into account room geometry and
reflectances, fixture number, type and luminance. As with RVP, the
higher the VCP, the better the light quality of the installation.
The lighting industry has done a yeoman’s job of trying to
quantify the factors of light quality so that the above evaluators
may be calculated numerically. There are so many non-direct factors
involved, however, that these calculations are best left to fixture
manufacturers with plenty of time and people, and large computers.
Most fixture manufacturers publish some sort of visual comfort
data for their fixtures. A good lighting designer is aware of the
causes of visual discomfort, and develops an innate ‘feel’ for which
fixtures will perform well where, rather than trying to rely solely
on numbers and calculations to provide good light quality.

Brightness is an attribute of visual perception in which a source appears to be radiating or

reflecting light i.e. brightness is the perception elicited by the luminance of a visual target. This
is a subjective attribute/property of an object being observed.
Brightness is also a color coordinate in the HSB or HSV color space (hue, saturation, and
brightness or value)
In the RGB color space, brightness can be thought of as the arithmetic mean μ of the red, green,
and blue color coordinates (although some of the three components make the light seem
brighter than others, which, again, may be compensated by some display systems
automatically)

Glare
Glare is a visual sensation caused by excessive and uncontrolled brightness. It can be disabling
or simply uncomfortable. It is subjective, and sensitivity to glare can vary widely. Older people
are usually more sensitive to glare due to the aging characteristics of the eye.

Direct Glare, Reflected Glare or Veiling Reflection, Discomfort Glare, Disability Glare, Blinding
Glare
Glare is an interference with visual perception caused by an uncomfortably bright light source
or reflection; a form of visual noise. In its simplest form, glare is a consequence of the normally
helpful capability of the human eye to adapt to different light levels. In the case of glare, the
eye adapts to the high level of the glare source, which makes it hard to perceive details in the
now "too dark" work area.
Direct Glare is glare resulting from high luminances in the visual environment that are directly
visible from a viewers position. Examples can be a sunlit surface inside or outside a building, or
an insufficiently shielded luminaire.
Reflected Glare or Veiling Reflection is a reflection of incident light that partially or totally
obscures the details to be seen on a surface by reducing the contrast.
Discomfort Glare is glare which is distracting or uncomfortable, which interferes with the
perception of visual information required to satisfy biological needs, but which does not
significantly reduce the ability to see information needed for activities.
Disability Glare is glare which reduces the ability to perceive the visual information needed for
a particular activity. Disability glare is caused by light scattered within the eye, causing a haze of
veiling luminance that decreases contrast and reduces visibility.
Blinding Glare is glare which is so intense that for an appreciable length of time after it has
been removed, no visual perception is possible.
Utilization Factor
The term utilization factor in lighting refers to what percentage of the actual light physically
reaches the surface of the room. The utilization factor of a room can be affected and changed
by several different components of the room. It is important to understand the utilization factor
of your lighting when you install lights in a room, so you know how much lighting you need.
Utilization factor is affected by the size of the room. The larger the room, the smaller the
utilization factor for each light. Take into account the size of the room and the brightness of
each light you consider installing in the room, to ensure there is adequate lighting.
Utilisation factor (UF) is the proportion of the luminous flux emitted by the lamps which
reaches the working plane. It is a measure of the effectiveness of the lighting scheme. Factors
that affect the value of UF are as follows:
(a) light output ratio of luminaire
(b) flux distribution of luminaire
(c) room proportions
(d) room reflectances
(e) spacing/mounting height ratio

1. Light output ratio of luminaire (LOR) takes into account for the loss of light
energy both inside and by transmission through light fittings. It is given by the
following expression

2. Flux Distribution of Luminaire

Direct ratio is the proportion of the total downward luminous flux from a
conventional installation of luminaires which is directly incident on the working
plane. It is used to assess the flux distribution of luminaire. Since the intensity
distribution pattern of the light radiated from a luminaire in the lower hemisphere
will affect:
(a) the quantity of the downward flux falls directly on the working plane and
(b) the quantity of flux available for reflection from the walls in a given room,
Direct ratio depends on both the room proportions and the luminaires. Direct
ratio has a low value with a narrow room (small room index) and a luminaire
which emits most of its light sideways (BZ 10), and on the contrary, a high value
with a wide room (large room index) and a luminaire which emits most of its light
downwards
3. Room Proportion
Room index (RI) is the ratio of room plan area to half the wall area between the
working and luminaire planes

where L = length of room, W = width of room

Hm = mounting height, i.e. the vertical distance between the working plane and
the luminaire.
4. Room Reflectances
The room is considered to consist of three main surfaces:
(a) the ceiling cavity,
(b) the walls, and
(c) the floor cavity (or the horizontal working plane).
The effective reflectances of the above three surfaces affect the quantity of
reflected light received by the working plane.

lamp lumen depreciation factor (LLD)

A factor that represents the reduction of lumen output over time. The factor is
commonly used as a multiplier to the initial lumen rating in illuminance
calculations, which compensates for the lumen depreciation. The LLD factor is a
dimensionless value between 0 and 1.

LLD = (mean lumens/rated lumens)

Luminaire Dirt Depreciation (LDD): It is the light loss prior to cleaning dust.
LDD is estimated from tables in IESNA Lighting handbook.

Room Surface Dirt Depreciation (RSDD): This value accounts for dirt or dust
that accumulates on all of the room surfaces — especially on the upper walls and
ceiling. RSDD is also estimated from handbook tables.

The product of all these factors is the light loss factor (LLF) which then is used in
the Average illuminance equation.
MSCP refers to MEAN SPHERICAL CANDLEPOWER

Mean spherical candlepower (MSCP) rating is measured at the design voltage and
is the total amount of light given off from a light source in ALL directions.

1 MSCP = 12.57 (4 pi) lumens

MHCP refers to MEAN HEMISPHERICAL CANDLE-POWER

MHCP is the average candle-power of a light source

in all direction in a plane through centre of the source and perpendicular to its axis.

Reduction Factor(r): The ratio of M.H.C.P/ M.S.C.P

VISUAL TASKS
Visual Tasks should be ranked according to:
- Level of importance
- Frequency
- Duration
- Specific visual characteristics
Factors affecting Visual Task
- Speed and accuracy requirements
- Difficulty of task details
- Room surface and task background reflectances
- Directionality of light sources
- Work plane location and tilt
Speed and Accuracy Requirements
- Visual tasks are of varying duration and difficulty
- Small or fine details are difficult to see; the larger the details, the easier to see
- For example, a worker in a poorly lighted facility may not have enough time to “see” details
and
may not be able to maintain a constant or fixed rate of production, leading to loss in accuracy
and
visual performance
- In some tasks, accuracy is more important than speed
Room Surface and Task Background Reflectances
- Ability to see details depends upon the detail and the background
- Eyes function more comfortably and efficiently when the luminances in the surrounding
environment are fairly uniform.
- The designer must carefully evaluate the reflectances of all finishes of the room surfaces as
well as the luminance distribution of the lighting equipment
Work Plane Location and Tilt
- Work plane height and orientation are important components in ensuring sufficient
illuminance
- Work planes in a given space may not be at the same height
- Although work planes are commonly horizontal, they can be vertical or tilted
Considerations in Visual Performance
Room dimensions
Surface reflectances
Glare
Direct Glare
Veiling/Reflected Glare
Transient Adaptation
Uniformity
Room Dimensions
- Room size and shape affect the amount of light that is reflected from surfaces and how light is
distributed in space
- The smaller the room size, for a constant ceiling height, the greater the loss of light by
absorption
Surface Reflectances
- Affect both quantity of generated lumens (reflection and absorption) and the amount of glare
that may result (luminance ratios)
- Amount of light reflected from walls, ceiling and floor depends on the reflecting properties,
texture of the surface, spectral power distribution of the light sources, and the spectral
reflectances of room surfaces
- Selecting surface reflectances that are the same for all surfaces (walls, ceiling, and floor),
and reducing window luminance to match the wall luminances, will “soften” the luminance
patterns of the surfaces reflected in the VDT* screen, but may produce a boring space
* video display terminal (VDT) eg: a computer screen
Surface Reflectances
- Veiling reflections* are also less noticeable in VDT screens with black characters on white
backgrounds than with white characters on black backgrounds

* specular reflections that appear on the object viewed and that partially or wholly obscure
the details by reducing contrast
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS
Introduction to Lumen Method Calculation

The lumen method is applicable to design of a uniform (general

lighting scheme in a space where flexibility of working locations or
other activities is required.
This method is applied only to square or rectangular rooms with a
regular array of luminaires as shown below

Working Plane
Spacing if luminaries in
lumen design method

Lumen Method Calculation

The lumen method is based on fundamental lighting calculations.
The lumen method formula is easiest to appreciate in the following form.

Where,
E = Lux level
μ = Light loss factor
N = number of light
_ = Lamp lumen maintenance factor
_ = lighting flux
A = area of the horizontal working plane

Lamp Lumen Maintenance Factor (_)

Is the ratio of illuminance produced by the lighting installation at some
specified time
to the illuminance produced by the same installation when new.
It allows for effects such as decrease in light output caused by:-
1) The fall in lamp luminous flux with hours of use.
2) The deposition of dirt on luminaire.
3) Reflectances of room surface overtime.
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS
Utilization Factor (μ)
Is the propotion of the luminous flux emitted by the lamps which reaches
the
working plane. It is a measure of the effectiveness of the lighting scheme.
Factors that affect the values if μ are as follows:-
1) Light output ratio of luminaire
2) Flux distribution of luminaire
3) Room portions
4) Room reflectances
5) Spacing/mountng height ratio
Example no.1
A room with dimension 18 m x 15 m, required luminance at workplane of
330 lux.
The ceiling height from the work plane is 3 m. The light fixtures being
proposed for
this room
1) Fluorescent Tube with 80 watt, 4800 lumen when new.
2) Incandescent lamp with 150 watt, 1950 lumen when new.
Determine the number of light fixture for each type of lighting proposed.
Confirm the
distance between each type of lighting fitting. The utilization factor (μ) and
the lamp
lumen maintenance factor (_).

Example no.1 (Solution)

Step 1
1. Find the number of fitting for Fluorescent fitting 80 watt, 4800 lumen.
N = (330 x 18 x 15 / 4800 x 0.6 x 0.5)
= 36.3 or 36 nos

Formula
Step 1
1. Determine the light fitting arrangement on the room
Distance of Ratio Height = (Distance between the light) / Light Fitting height)
** Note: the distance between light is from 0.9 to 1.5, we selected 1.0.
Distance between light = Height of light x distance of ratio height
=3x1
=3m
(a) Fluorescent Lamp
Row of light = room width / distance between light.
= 15 / 3
=5
Nos of Fluorescent light in a row = total nos of light / number of row
= 36 / 5
= 6.12 or 6 numbers
Total number of light = number of row x number of light in a row
=5x6
= 30 numbers.

Step 2
We need to put 36 number of light fitting, the room is perfect with 6 x 6 row of light
arrangement (= 36 number of
light).
The lighting perpendicular arrangement need to be decided for making the 36 number of light,
JL = 3 m (need to be
factor in).
Perpendicular row = Room width / crossing of perpendicular light fitting
= 15 / 6
= 2.5 m
Perpendicular distance of lighting between the wall (J ld)
= Perpendicular row / 2
= 2.5 / 2
= 1.25 m
The length between lighting (Jm)
= Length of room / number of lighting
= 18 / 6
=3m
The length between lighting and wall (Jmd)
= Length of room between lighting / 2
=3/2
= 1.5 m
Fluo. 80 watt Light Arrangement
Perpendicular Row = 2.5 m
Perpendicular Distance = 1.25 m
Length between lighting = 3 m
Length between lighting & wall = 1.5 m