AIR CHAMBER DESIGN CHARTS

by

GALATIUBt, WILLIAM ROBERT

B.Sc. (Civ. Eng.) The University of Manitoba

Winnipeg, Manitoba, 1964

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF APPLIED SCIENCE

i n the Department

of

C i v i l Engineering

We accept this thesis as conforming to

the required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

SEPTEMBER, 1973
In presenting this thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the requirements

for an advanced degree at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree

that the Library s h a l l make i t f r e e l y available for reference and

study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this

thesis f o r scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my

Department or by his representatives. I t i s understood that copying

or publication of this thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed

without my written permission.

Department of C i v i l Engineering

The University of B r i t i s h Columbia

Vancouver 8, Canada

Date September 10, 1973

 ABSTRACT

The a i r chamber has certain advantages over both the open-top

surge tank and the valve-type surge suppressor f o r c o n t r o l l i n g pressure

surges i n pump-discharge l i n e s .

The main purpose of this study was to produce charts which can

be used f o r designing or checking the s i z e of an a i r chamber required

for a p a r t i c u l a r pumping i n s t a l l a t i o n .

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s method was used to convert the two p a r t i a l

d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of momentum and continuity into four t o t a l

d i f f e r e n t i a l equations. The solution of the equations ( f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e

form) was carried through by d i g i t a l computer to provide the data

required f o r the preparation of the charts.

Results obtained on the d i g i t a l computer by the method of charac-

t e r i s t i c s are checked by the graphical method.

Examples demonstrating the use Of the charts are included.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

ABSTRACT ((ii)

NOTATION (ix)

INTRODUCTION 1

I. ASSUMPTIONS AND THEORY 3

1.1 Assumptions 3
1.2 General Theory 5
1.3 Parameters 5
1.4 Relationship between a* and p* 7

II. METHOD OF CHARACTERISTICS 8

2.1 General 8
2.2 Basic Equations f o r Unsteady Flow Through Pipes 8
2.3 General Characteristics Method 9
2.4 Convergence and S t a b i l i t y of the Method of F i n i t e
Differences 15

I I I . BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 16

3.1 The A i r Chamber 16

3.2 Reservoir of Constant Water Level at the Downstream End 19

IV. THE PROGRAM 21

4.1 General 21
4.2 Check on the Program 21
4.3 Description of the Program 23
4.4 Approximation of Velocity of Flow out of the Chamber 24
V. THE CHARTS 26

5.1 Groups of Charts 26

5.2 No Head Loss, F r i c t i o n l e s s Flow 28
5.3 Entire Head Loss Concentrated at the O r i f i c e 28
5.4 Entire Head Loss Attributable to Distributed F r i c t i o n 30
5.5 Head Loss Equally Divided Between Uniformly Distributed
Wall F r i c t i o n and O r i f i c e Loss 32

5.6 Use of the Charts 32

VI. DISCUSSION 35

6.1 Volume of A i r i n the Chamber 35

6.2 Volume of the A i r Chamber 36
6.3 O r i f i c e Design 37
6.4 Water-Column Separation i n Pump Discharge Lines 40
(iv)
CHAPTER PAGE

V I I . CONCLUSIONS 42

BIBLIOGRAPHY 44

THE CHARTS 45

Group I - No Head L o s s , F r i c t i o n l e s s Flow 46

Group I I - E n t i r e Head Loss Concentrated a t the O r i f i c e 48
Group I I I - E n t i r e Head Loss A t t r i b u t a b l e t o D i s t r i b u t e d
Friction 71
Group IV - Head Loss E q u a l l y D i v i d e d Between U n i f o r m l y
D i s t r i b u t e d W a l l F r i c t i o n and O r i f i c e Loss 82

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Comparison o f C h a r t s and N u m e r i c a l Examples 93

Appendix B: G r a p h i c a l Checks on Program 106
Appendix C: Program f o r the E n t i r e Head Loss Concentrated
a t the O r i f i c e 113
Program f o r the E n t i r e Head Loss A t t r i b u t a b l e
to D i s t r i b u t e d F r i c t i o n 118

(v)
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLES PAGE

5.1 Comparison of Results Obtained f o r the Powers

1.0, 1.2 and 1.4 29

5.2 Upsurges and Downsurges f o r 1:1 and 2.5:1 O r i f i c e s 31

(vi)
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

1.1 Pipe Line with A i r Chamber 4

2.1 Method of Specified Time Intervals 14

2.2 Characteristics at the Boundaries 14

3.1 A i r Chamber 20

3.2 Reservoir at Downstream End 20

4.1 Program Flow Chart 22

5.1 Pipe Line with A i r Chamber 34

6.1 A i r Chamber Control Levels 38

6.2 Differential Orifice 38

B-la Schematic of Pipe Line 107

B-lb Transient-State Conditions f o r Total Head Loss

Concentrated at the O r i f i c e - Pipe Pressures 109

B-2a Schematic of Pipe Line Showing Line F r i c t i o n Loss 1 1 0

B-2b Transient-State Conditions f o r Total Head Loss

Attributable to Distributed F r i c t i o n - Pipe Pressures 112

(vii)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The a u t h o r w i s h e s to express his gratitude to h i s super-

visor, D r . E . Ruus, for his valuable guidance, constructive

criticism and s u g g e s t i o n s , and t o Dr. W.F. Caselton for reviewing

the work.

The s t u d y was s u p p o r t e d by a grant from the N a t i o n a l Research

Council.

(viii)
 NOTATION

The following symbols are used i n this thesis:

, 2

A = cross-sectional area of pipe, i n f t

a = propagation v e l o c i t y of waterhammer wave, i n f t / s e c .

C Q = i n i t i a l volume of a i r i n the a i r chamber at absolute pressure

head H *, i n f t Q
3

Cf QT - o r i f i c e loss c o e f f i c i e n t

D = inside diameter of pipe, i n f t

f = Darcy-Weisbach f r i c t i o n factor
2

g = gravity acceleration, i n f t / s e c

H = transient-state piezometric pressure head above datum at the

beginning of a time i n t e r v a l , i n f t

H Q = i n i t i a l steady-state piezometric pressure head above datum, i n f t

Hp = transient-state piezometric pressure head above datum at the end

of a time i n t e r v a l , i n f t

H* = transient-state absolute piezometric pressure head above datum,

in f t

H* Q = i n i t i a l steady-state absolute piezometric pressure head above

datum, i n f t

H £ Q r = o r i f i c e t h r o t t l i n g loss corresponding to discharge q, i n f t

H
orfo = o r i f i c e
t h r o t t l i n g loss corresponding to discharge q , i n f t
Q

K = c o e f f i c i e n t r e l a t i n g t o t a l pipe l i n e head l o s s due to f r i c t i o n

to piezometric pressure head above datum

L = length of pipe l i n e , i n f t
m

m = power used i n pressure - volume r e l a t i o n s h i p , H* v ^ a r = constant,

(ix)
for an a i r chamber
steady state discharge i n the pipe l i n e , i n f t /sec.

transient state o r i f i c e discharge, i n f t /sec.

time, i n seconds

transient-state v e l o c i t y i n pipe at the beginning of a time

interval, i n ft/sec.

transient-state v e l o c i t y i n pipe at the end of a time i n t e r v a l ,

in ft/sec.

i n i t i a l steady state v e l o c i t y i n pipe, i n f t / s e c .

transient-state volume of a i r i n a i r chamber at the beginning

3
of a time i n t e r v a l , i n f t
3

i n i t i a l steady-state volume of a i r i n a i r chamber, i n f t

transient-state volume of a i r i n a i r chamber at the end of

a time i n t e r v a l , i n f t J

distance along pipe l i n e , f r o m pump, i n f t

pipe l i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

pipe l i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n terms of absolute pressure head

parameter pertaining to a pump-discharge l i n e having an a i r

chamber, i n terms of absolute pressure head

angle the pipe makes with the horizontal
At

grid mesh r a t i o ,

time increment, i n seconds

incremental distance along the pipe l i n e , i n f t

(x)
 INTRODUCTION

Sudden stopping or s t a r t i n g of large c e n t r i f u g a l pumps i n s t a l l e d

for i r r i g a t i o n , domestic water supply systems, pumped storage hydro-

e l e c t r i c plants and other purposes cause transient pressures i n the

discharge l i n e s . Starting control mechanisms can be designed to

delay the s t a r t i n g up time s u f f i c i e n t l y to prevent excessive over

pressures. But sudden stopping i n the event of power f a i l u r e could

r e s u l t i n objectionable waterhammer pressures i n the pipe l i n e .

In small i n s t a l l a t i o n s , no s p e c i a l precautions are taken to avoid

high waterhammer e f f e c t s . Standard pipes and f i t t i n g s of small diameter

have a w a l l thickness s u f f i c i e n t to withstand appreciable transient

pressures. In large pumping i n s t a l l a t i o n s various pressure-control

devices may be used to reduce waterhammer pressures. Some of these

devices include:

(1) surge tanks,

(2) a i r chambers,

(3) surge suppressor valves, and

(4) slow closing check valves.

For c o n t r o l l i n g pressure surges i n pump-discharge l i n e s , the a i r

chamber has certain advantages over both the open-top surge tank and

the valve-type surge suppressor. For high head i n s t a l l a t i o n s where

the open surge tank i s impractical, a properly designed a i r chamber

provides good surge control. The a i r chamber can be near the pump

whereas the surge tank can not always be so located. The a i r chamber

can be designed to reduce the downsurges i n a pump-discharge l i n e , thus

1
 2

preventing collapse of the l i n e and water-column separation; o r d i n a r i l y ,

surge-suppressor valves are not suitable f o r this important function.

The main disadvantage of a i r chambers i s that the compressed a i r i s

continuously being l o s t through dissolving i n the water and p o s s i b l e

leakage. Consequently the a i r must be replenished p e r i o d i c a l l y .

After i t has been decided that certain types of pressure-

control devices w i l l meet design requirements, the f i n a l choice i s

usually based on a cost study of the various devices. The cost of an

a i r chamber i s determined primarily by i t s size and inside pressure.

In this thesis, charts are presented which provide for the rapid

determination of a i r chamber sizes required to control waterhammer

pressures i n pump-discharge l i n e s where the transient pressures are

caused by rapid pump shut down or by power f a i l u r e . The charts were

prepared using the method of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to convert the two p a r t i a l

d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of momentum and continuity into four t o t a l

d i f f e r e n t i a l equations. The solution was done by d i g i t a l computer.

Examples demonstrating the use of the charts are given i n Appendix A.

 CHAPTER I

ASSUMPTIONS AND THEORY

1.1 ASSUMPTIONS

For the purposes of this study, the following assumptions were made.

(1) A check valve on the discharge side of the pump closes immedi-

ately on power f a i l u r e . This eliminates the need to consider pump

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s but introduces an abrupt pressure wave which must be

accounted f o r throughout the computations.

(2) The a i r chamber i s situated near the pump as shown i n

Fig. 1.1. The steady-state water surface i n the chamber has an elevation

equal to that of the center l i n e of the pipe (see F i g . 3.1). The transient-

state head difference between the chamber water surface and the pipe center

l i n e i s small and therefore neglected. The head loss through the o r i f i c e ,

i f applicable, i s taken into account i n determining the absolute head, H*,

i n the tank.

(3) The pressure-volume relationship for the a i r i n the chamber

i s expressed as:

12
H* v . ' = a constant,
air

The power 1.2 i s an average of the powers 1.0 and 1.4 f o r the isothermal

and adiabatic expansions respectively.

(4) The head loss, made up of surface f r i c t i o n and loss at the

o r i f i c e , varies with the square of the v e l o c i t y . Two types of o r i f i c e s ,

one simple and one d i f f e r e n t i a l , were considered i n the study. The r a t i o

3
Sections

Sec. 1-1
A r e a of P i p e
FIG. 1.1
 5

of the t o t a l head loss f o r the same flow into and from the a i r chamber

i s 2.5:1 for the d i f f e r e n t i a l o r i f i c e , and 1:1 for the simple o r i f i c e .

(5) This study i s limited to cases i n which no water column

separation occurs. This means that water vapour pressure i s not

reached and the pipe stays f u l l of water at a l l times.

(6) A reservoir of constant elevation serves as the downstream

boundary condition.

1.2 GENERAL THEORY

Normally, with the pump operating, the flow i n the pipeline i s i n

the forward d i r e c t i o n , toward the reservoir. The check valve closes

simultaneously with pump f a i l u r e . This creates a head d i f f e r e n t i a l

across the a i r chamber outlet. The compressed a i r causes the water i n

the chamber to discharge into the pipeline to maintain the head and the

flow. Water w i l l continue to flow out of the tank u n t i l the head i n

the chamber becomes less than the head i n the pipeline at the chamber

outlet. At this instant, the water i n the discharge l i n e w i l l reverse

i t s d i r e c t i o n and flow into the a i r chamber. During this reverse flow

condition, the retardation of the flow into the a i r chamber causes the

pressure i n the discharge l i n e to increase to exceed normal operating

head and w i l l produce the maximum head for the transient. Resurges i n

the pipeline w i l l occur with diminishing i n t e n s i t y .

1.3 PARAMETERS

The pressure surges i n a pipeline equipped with an a i r chamber

depend on the two parameters, p * and a*, when f r i c t i o n i s not considered^.

Because f r i c t i o n a l resistance i s essential to the e f f i c i e n t use of an

 6

a i r chamber on a pump-discharge l i n e , Evans and Crawford introduced a

t h i r d v a r i a b l e , K, to account f o r f r i c t i o n a l losses. The v a r i a b l e

K i s defined so that KH * i s the t o t a l head loss f o r a reverse flow

Q

of Q .0 Q Q i s the i n i t i a l rate of flow i n the p i p e l i n e , i n cubic

feet per second (ft-Vsec).

The p i p e l i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , p , i s defined as

P (1.1)

i n which a i s the propagation v e l o c i t y of waterhammer waves i n the

p i p e l i n e , i n feet per second ( f t / s e c ) ; V Q i s the steady-state v e l o c i t y

in ft/sec; H Q i s the steady-state pressure head, i n feet of water ( f t ) ;

and g i s gravity acceleration i n feet per second per second ( f t / s e c . ) -

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p i s dimensionless and i s a function of the r a t i o

of the steady-state k i n e t i c energy to the t o t a l p o t e n t i a l energy i n a

unit length of conduit. In a i r chambers, the volume of the a i r i s a

function of the absolute pressure to which i t i s subjected. In terms

of absolute pressure, the p i p e l i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p becomes

p* - — (1.2)
2gH *
Q

where H * Q i s the normal absolute pressure head i n the p i p e l i n e at the

entrance to the a i r chamber.

The parameter, a*, that i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c to a pump-discharge

l i n e having an a i r chamber i s defined^ as

 7

2gC H * 0 0

ALV Q

i n which C Q i s the i n i t i a l volume of a i r i n the a i r chamber at absolute

pressure head, H *, Q i n cubic feet (ft );

3
A i s the cross-sectional
2

area of the pipe i n square feet ( f t ); and L i s the length of the

pipe i n feet. The parameter a* expresses the r a t i o of the steady-

state p o t e n t i a l energy of the a i r i n the a i r chamber to the steady-

state k i n e t i c energy of the water i n the discharge l i n e .

1.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN o* AND p*

From Eqs. (1.2) and (1.3)

a*p* = — (1.4)
ALV C

or

C q . *p*Q L/a .
a Q (1.5)

From Eq. (1.2)

o
a V

2p* = — — (1.6)
gH * Q

and the constant f o r a pipeline having an a i r chamber w i l l be defined as

or
(p*0*) ALV Q

(1.8)
C
o= a
 CHAPTER I I

METHOD OF CHARACTERISTICS

2.1 GENERAL
g

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s method converts the two p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l

equations of momentum and continuity into four t o t a l d i f f e r e n t i a l

equations. Non-linear f r i c t i o n i s retained, as well as the e f f e c t

of the pipes being non-horizontal. The equations are expressed i n

f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e form, and the solution i s carried through by d i g i t a l

computer. Advantages of the method are:

- accuracy of results as non-linear terms are retained

- there i s proper i n c l u s i o n of f r i c t i o n

- i t affords ease i n handling the boundary conditions and ease

i n programming complex piping systems

- there i s no need f o r large storage capacity i n the computer

- detailed r e s u l t s are completely tabulated.

I t i s by f a r the most general and powerful method f o r handling waterhammer.

2.2 BASIC EQUATIONS FOR UNSTEADY FLOW THROUGH PIPES

The v e l o c i t y and pressure of moving f l u i d s i n pipes are governed

by the continuity and momentum equations.

The momentum equation f o r flow through a pipe which i s i n c l i n e d

or h o r i z o n t a l , tapered or s t r a i g h t , s l i g h t l y or highly deformable, i s

given by

gH + V + W + M Z L = 0 , (2.1)
e
x t x 2D

8
 9

i n which g i s gravity acceleration, V i s fluid velocity, f i s the

Darcy-Weisbach f r i c t i o n factor, H i s the t o t a l pressure head above

the datum l i n e , D i s the inside diameter of the pipe, and fV|vl

2D

i s the f r i c t i o n a l force of the f l u i d . The absolute sign i s introduced

to ensure that the f r i c t i o n a l force w i l l always be opposite to the

d i r e c t i o n of v e l o c i t y .

The subscripts x and t indicate p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n with

respect to distance and time. For example,

II _ 3H

H.. = , i n which H i s the t o t a l pressure

head i n feet of water.

Changes i n the density of water may be neglected without intro-

ducing s i g n i f i c a n t error. Considering the density as constant, the

continuity equation may be stated as

(2.2)

i n which 0 i s the angle the center l i n e of the pipe makes with the

horizontal axis (measured p o s i t i v e downwards), and a i s the v e l o c i t y

of the waterhammer wave.

2.3 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS METHOD

In this section, a general solution f o r the continuity and mom-

entum equations i s presented. For the complete treatment, see Ref. 9.

A l l of the terms i n the equations are retained. The method of s p e c i f i e d

 10

time i n t e r v a l s which involves l i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n i s used.

The momentum and continuity equations may be written as

4 = gn + w + v + SjJvL - 0
x x t (2.3)

and
L. = H + V +VH + V s i n 9 = 0 (2.4)
g x

Multiplying Eq. (2.4) by X and adding i t to Eq. (2.3), one obtains

,2
L
± + XL = ± X [ H ( V + f ) + H ] + [ V ( V + |_ X) + V ] + X Vsin6
x t x t

(2.5)

Let £ -V+* =V+5lA . (2.6)

dt X R

Therefore, X
a (2.7)

and — = v ±a. (2.8)

dt

Through substitution of Equations (2.6), (2.7), and (2.8), Eq. (2.5) takes

the form

X dH +
_,_ iii.
dv ^ , „VsinO
+ x „,_ Q + fvlvl . 0 (2 .9)
dt dt 2D

I t follows froms Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9) that

fyjvj
VsinS 0, (2.10)
a dt dt +
2D
> C+
£ - v • (2.11)
 11

a dt dt a 2D - 0, (2.12)

and C-
dx
V - a (2.13)
dt

Because V = V(x,t), the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l i n e s C+ and C-, given by Eqs.

(2.11) and (2.13), plot as curves on the x-t plane (see F i g . 2*1).

Eqs. (2.10) to (2.13) can be written i n the following f i n i t e -

difference forms:

(V - V ) + & (H - H ) + & V sine ( t - t ) + |- V IV 1

P R a p p/ a R ' 2D R RP R
1 1

(t p - t ) = 0R
(2.14)

( X
P " R
X ) = (V
R + a ) ( t
P " V (2.15)

(V p - V ) - f
s (Hp - H ) - |g V sin6 ( t - t ) + f
s p g D V |V |
S S

- t )- 0
s
(2.16)

<P "
X
V s" = (v
a ) ( t
P " V (2.17)

Two techniques are commonly used f o r obtaining a numerical solution

for the f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e equations (2.14) to (2.17). These are:

(1) use of a g r i d of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

(2) use of s p e c i f i e d time i n t e r v a l s .

In single pipe problems as covered by t h i s study, these techniques are

identical^. The parameters x p and t are assigned d e f i n i t e values

 12

throughout the computation leaving only V p and as unknowns to be

determined. In this study the technique of s p e c i f i e d time intervals

w i l l be used. Since the conditions at points A, B, and C ( F i g . 2.1)

are known, the conditions at R and S may be evaluated by l i n e a r i n t e r -

polation.

Thus x - x V - V
C R _ C R
x - x A V - V
C A C A

But X p = x , and x - x = Ax.

Therefore, the above equation takes the form

v - c V R

*P ~ R X =
V r - V, A x
• ( 2
' 1 8 )
U
A

Since V i s much smaller than the waterhammer wave v e l o c i t y a,

•K
V« may be deleted from Eq. (2.15) without incurring any serious loss of
R

accuracy. By combining the modified Eq. (2.15) with Eq. (2.18), one

obtains
V - V
a At = Ax (2.19)
C ' A

The g r i d mesh r a t i o , 6', i s defined as

At
6
' " to '

Therefore,
a 6' (V - V ) c A = V c - V , R

and V
R = V
c ~ a 9
' (V
c " V * (2.20)
 13

Similarly,
ae' ( H -
\ = c (2.21)

ae- ( v - (2.22)
v
s = v
c " c

ae« ( H - (2.23)
H
s = c

Solve Eqs. (2.14) and (2.16) simultaneously to obtain:

V
P °-
= 5
[ R s i V + v + ( H
R-V -I A ts i n e (
\ - V - ft f

(V |V | + V |V |)]
R R S S (2.24)

Hp •- 0.5 [H R + H g + f ( V - V ) -At sine ( V + V > - §

R s R g fj£

< V
R I V
R I - sl s'>>
v v ( 2
- 2 5 )

At the boundary points ( F i g . 2.2), either Eq. (2.14) or Eq. (2.16)

or both are used together with the boundary conditions to solve f o r V

and H. Eqs. (2.14) and (2.16) are termed the negative c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

equation and the p o s i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation respectively and may

now be written i n the following forms:

The negative c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation i s

V = C + C„ H , (2.26)
P 1 2 P

where
C = V - C„ H + C V s i n 6At - FF V_I V_I (2.27)
1 S 2 S 2 S s s

C = £ , (2.28)
2 a

and FF - . (2.29)
 14

t i Ax

P
t +At
Q

\ c -
/ \
/ \
t
R S
A C B

METHOD OF SPECIFIED TIME INTERVALS

FIG. 2.1

Ax A:

CHARACTERISTICS AT THE BOUNDARIES

FIG. 2.2
 15

The p o s i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation i s

V
P =
S " °2 V (2.30)

where

C = V + C H - C V At sine - FF V_1 V_I . (2.31)

3 R 2 R 2 R R R 1 1

C 2 and FF represent pipe constants. The values of and are

constant during each time step.

2.4 CONVERGENCE AND STABILITY OF THE METHOD OF FINITE DIFFERENCES

To be assured of s t a b i l i t y and/or convergence of the solution^, i t

i s necessary that At (V + a) < Ax. Since V i s small r e l a t i v e to a,

this may be stated as follows:

T- <- 1
•
Ax - a

This indicates that i t i s important to select the grid mesh r a t i o so

that the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s through P, C +

and C~ w i l l not f a l l outside the

3
l i n e segment AB ( F i g . 2.1). The most accurate solutions are obtained

when
Ax " aAt .
 CHAPTER I I I

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

3.1 THE AIR CHAMBER ( F i g . 3.1)

Because of the assumption that the check valve closes simul-

taneously with the pump f a i l u r e , a l l the flow i n the discharge pipe

i s either from or into the chamber. This assumption eliminates the

pump c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s from the waterhammer computations.

The pressure and volume of a i r i n the chamber follow the gas

law 8

H* v a i r
m
= constant, (3.1)

where H* and v . are the absolute pressure head and volume of a i r i n

air

the chamber and m i s the power 1.0 f o r isothermal expansion and

1.4 f o r adiabatic expansion. The o r i f i c e i n the chamber may be

simple or of the d i f f e r e n t i a l type. The d i f f e r e n t i a l type of o r i f i c e

t h r o t t l e s the reverse flow of water from the discharge pipe into the

chamber while there i s very l i t t l e t h r o t t l i n g of the flow out of the

chamber. I f there i s no o r i f i c e i n the chamber, the t h r o t t l i n g loss

i s taken equal to zero.

Flow out of the chamber i s considered p o s i t i v e .

For the transient condition, Eq. (3.1) may be written:

[H + 34 + H 1 v m
= C , (3.2)
I P orf J Pair 10

i n which H_ i s the transient pressure head ( i n f t ) i n the pipe at the

16
 17

entrance to the chamber, H

_ i s the o r i f i c e resistance ( i n f t )
orf
corresponding to a discharge of q ( f t / s e c . ) and v i s the transient
3

Pair
3
volume of a i r i n the chamber ( f t ). C i s a constant given by:

"lO"".* V
oair ' °- 3 )

i n which H * and v denote the i n i t i a l steady-state absolute

o oair

pressure head and volume of a i r i n the chamber.

For the transient state conditions at the junction of the

chamber and the discharge pipe, the following equations can be written:

The continuity equation:

VA A t = v - v . (3.4)
Pair air

where V i s the v e l o c i t y of flow i n the pipe ( i n f t / s e c ) , A i s the

o
cross-sectional area of the pipe ( i n ft ), At i s the length of the time

i n t e r v a l under consideration ( i n sees), v_ . i s the volume of a i r i n

Pair

the chamber (in f t )3

at the end of the time i n t e r v a l and v a i r i s the

volume of a i r i n the chamber at the beginning of the time i n t e r v a l .

Rearranging the terms, one gets:

v_ . = v . + C At, (3.5)
Pair air 11

i n which
C
ll * V A
'
The negative c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation f o r the pipe i s :

V (l)
p " C x + C 2 Hpd), (3.6)

where (1) designates section 1 on the pipe, i . e . at the a i r chamber.

The o r i f i c e f r i c t i o n loss i s given by:

H = C ^E|£ q | q | (3.7)
orf orf 2 1 1

q
o
i n which C f OT i s the o r i f i c e c o e f f i c i e n t and H ^ Q r o i s the head loss i n

the o r i f i c e ( i n f t ) corresponding to a discharge of q . Q The absolute

value of q ensures the correct sign on the head loss f o r changes i n

d i r e c t i o n of flow through the o r i f i c e . For a simple o r i f i c e , C o r j C =

1.0 f o r flow i n either d i r e c t i o n . For a d i f f e r e n t i a l orifice, G £ =

Q r

1.0 when water flows out of the chamber, i . e . when V i s p o s i t i v e ,

and C £ =
o r when water flows into the chamber, i . e . when V i s nega-

tive. The value of depends on the amount of t h r o t t l i n g provided by

the o r i f i c e .

Substituting f o r q i n Eq. (3.7), one obtains:

orfo
H

H
orf " orf C
~T VA
' VA
'
9n

or

H *=C C C I C I (3.8)
orf orf 11' l l
r ff 1

i n which
H
r = orfo
C
f 2

Substitution of the values of v p a ^ r and ^ Q t ^ into Eq. (3.2)

gives:

h • 34 + C o r f C f C J C u | (v a i r + C u At)* - C l o

or C 1 Q

H
P = (v a l r + C U At)* " 3 4
" °rf f l l l
C C C C
lll

Letting C . » v . + C„_ At, one obtains:

air air 11

H p . 3 4 _ C o r f C f c n | C u | . (3.9)
 For each time increment, Hp can be determined from Eq. (3.9),

V p from Eq. (3.6) and V p a i r from Eq. (3.5).

3.2 RESERVOIR OF CONSTANT WATER LEVEL AT THE DOWNSTREAM END (Fig. 3.2)

At the junction of the pipe and the reservoir,

Hp(ll) = H
res

The p o s i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation f o r section 11 i s given by:

V p (11) = C 3 - C H (ll).
2 p (3.10)

From the above two equations, i t follows that:

Vp(ll) = C 3 - C 2 H ^ . (3.11)
 20

Section 1

1 2 x

AIR CHAMBER

FIG. 3.1

H
res

(
\
10
Sec tion 11

At
1

RESERVOIR AT DOWNSTREAM END

FIG. 3.2
 CHAPTER IV

THE PROGRAM

4.1 GENERAL

The program f o r this study designates to the computer a l l of

the operations which must be performed to compute the maximum upsurges

and downsurges f o r the transient phenomena. The flow chart f o r the

program i s given i n F i g . 4.1 and the entire programs f o r the entire

head loss concentrated at the o r i f i c e and entire head loss attributable

to d i s t r i b u t e d f r i c t i o n are reproduced i n Appendix C.

4.2 CHECK ON THE PROGRAM

P r i o r to proceeding with the actual study, the writer checked

the v a l i d i t y of the program with several graphical analyses. These

checks, presented i n Appendix B, indicate that the program gives

results which compare well with graphical solutions made by others.

The graphical check f o r the t o t a l head loss concentrated at

the o r i f i c e ^ shows that the program f o r this case gives v a l i d r e s u l t s .

See F i g . B-lb.

The graphical check using several o r i f i c e s to approximate head

loss due to pipe wall f r i c t i o n ^ (graphical solution by E. Ruus) indicates

that the program f o r d i s t r i b u t e d f r i c t i o n i s also v a l i d . See F i g . B-2b .

21
 Q START ^

*
READ DATA 22

COMPUTE At and Ax

CHECK FOR
CONVERGENCE

COMPUTE COEFFICIENTS
AND CONSTANTS FOR ALL PIPES

CALCULATE STEADY
STATE CONDITIONS

T - 0.0
V
l " Vo
H
i " Ho

PRINT T, H i , V i

i
CALCULATE V , Vg, H , H
R 2 s

FOR ALL SECTIONS

M - 0

I
T «• T + DT

M - M + 1

COMPUTE V P t and HPj

AT INTERIOR POINTS

COMPUTE VP and HP
AT BOUNDARY POINTS

Vi - VPi
Hi = HPi

TRUE ^ — ^ " ^ ^ FALSE

M = MM

PROGRAM FLOW CHART

FIG. 4.1
 23

4.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROGRAM

The main functions of the program are as follows:

i ) S p e c i f i c a t i o n of the storage locations f o r the subscripted

variables, the Dimension statement.

i i ) Submission of data to the computer,

i i i ) Computation of the time increment,

iv) Check for convergence,

v) Computation of constants,

v i ) Computation of steady-state values,

v i i ) Computation of transient-state conditions,

v i i i ) Check f o r maximum upsurges and downsurges.

ix) Printout.

The variables which the program reads i n are:

PLC the pipe l i n e constant, 2p*

TMAX — the length of time f o r which the transients are to be calculated,

i n seconds

CPLAC - the constant f o r a pipe l i n e with an a i r chamber adjacent to

the pump, 2 p* a*.

The remaining parameters are set i n the Data statement. For any group,

the only parameter which changes i n the Data statement i s the t o t a l

head loss c o e f f i c i e n t , CK.

The programs are r e l a t i v e l y e f f i c i e n t with a t y p i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n

taking approximately 12 to 13 seconds of computer use time.

The programs f o r the four basic groups of charts, as l i s t e d i n

Section 5.1, vary only s l i g h t l y from each other.

 24

Group I - No head loss

For f r i c t i o n l e s s flow the program Data statement sets CK and

the o r i f i c e loss equal to zero. The program automatically computes

the f r i c t i o n factor, F, to be zero.

Group II - Entire head loss concentrated at the o r i f i c e

The Data statement sets the f r i c t i o n factor, F, equal to zero,

CK to some value between 0.1 and 1.0, and the o r i f i c e inflow

c o e f f i c i e n t , CORFIN, to 1.0 or 2.5 depending on whether the o r i f i c e

i s simple or d i f f e r e n t i a l .

Group III - Entire head loss attributable to distributed wall

friction

The Data statement sets the o r i f i c e l o s s , HORF, equal to zero.

The program calculates the f r i c t i o n head l o s s , HF, and the f r i c t i o n

factor, F, for the designated values of CK.

Group IV - Head loss equally divided between uniformly d i s t r i -

buted f r i c t i o n and o r i f i c e loss

The Data statement sets the o r i f i c e inflow (CORFIN) and the

t o t a l head loss (CK) c o e f f i c i e n t s . The program computes the f r i c t i o n

factor, F, the t o t a l steady-state f r i c t i o n loss and the total o r i f i c e

loss f o r a flow of Q Q into the chamber.

The steady-state f r i c t i o n factor i s used to calculate the

f r i c t i o n head loss during the transient phase.

4.4 APPROXIMATION OF VELOCITY OF FLOW OUT OF THE CHAMBER

I n i t i a l l y , the average v e l o c i t y out of the chamber, VAVAPP, after

the time i n t e r v a l was incremented, was set equal to the v e l o c i t y i n the

pipe at Section (1) (Fig. 3.1) for the previous time i n t e r v a l . The
computation was then followed through to the point where the actual

average v e l o c i t y of flow from the chamber was calculated.

i , e
* V ( l ) + VP(1)
VAV = — v
*
2

If the difference between the i n i t i a l assumed average v e l o c i t y , VAVAPP,

and the calculated average v e l o c i t y , VAV, was less than or equal to

0.0001, the program continued the transient state computation. If

the difference was greater than 0.0001, the values of HP(1) and VP(1)

were recalculated using VAV as the new approximation f o r the v e l o c i t y

of flow out of the chamber. This i t e r a t i o n continued u n t i l the

error c r i t e r i o n was met.

The writer found that i f VAVAPP was set equal to V ( l ) from the

previous time i n t e r v a l , the program would not converge to a solution,

but i n f a c t , the pressure surges would magnify increasingly causing

the computer to terminate the program with an error message.

 CHAPTER V

THE CHARTS

5.1 GROUPS OF CHARTS

Four basic combinations of conditions were investigated i n this

study. These four combinations include:

(1) No head l o s s , K = 0.0, (no wall f r i c t i o n , no o r i f i c e loss)

There i s only one chart i n this group.

(2) Entire head loss concentrated at the o r i f i c e , (no wall f r i c t i o n )

There are ten charts i n this group with K varying from 0.1 to

1.0 i n increments of 0.1. Two o r i f i c e s , one d i f f e r e n t i a l and one simple,

were investigated i n this group. The d i f f e r e n t i a l o r i f i c e had an inflow

to outflow head loss r a t i o of 2.5:1. That i s , f o r the simple o r i f i c e ,

the o r i f i c e resistance i s the same f o r inflow or outflow whereas f o r

the d i f f e r e n t i a l o r i f i c e the inflow resistance i s 2.5 times the outflow

resistance.

Note that values of K = 0.7 to 1.0 are not p r a c t i c a l but are

included f o r the sake of completeness. Because of the great resistance

to flow from the chamber for K = 0.7 to 1.0, large a i r chambers are

needed to control the downsurges whereas the upsurges are not greatly

reduced.

(3) Entire head loss a t t r i b u t a b l e to d i s t r i b u t e d f r i c t i o n ,

(no o r i f i c e loss)

K varies from 0.1 to 1.0 i n increments of 0.1.

26
 (4) Head loss equally divided between uniformly distributed

wall f r i c t i o n and o r i f i c e loss

K varies from 0.1 to 1.0 i n increments of 0.1. The o r i f i c e

considered was a d i f f e r e n t i a l o r i f i c e with inflow to outflow loss

r a t i o of 2.5:1.

Under the conditions imposed by the assumptions, the entire

transient following power interruption i s completely described by

the variables K, 2p* and 2p* a*. In the charts, the maximum upsurges

and downsurges have been plotted i n terms of these variables. Maximum

upsurges and downsurges at the pump, the midlength and the three-

quarter point of the discharge l i n e are plotted as percentages of

H * f o r various values of these parameters.

Q The normal range"*" of p*

i s from 0.25 to 2.0 and that of a* i s from 2 to 30. This range i s

covered i n the charts.

To use the i n d i v i d u a l charts, one must f i r s t determine the

parameters K, 2p* and 2p* a* f o r the p a r t i c u l a r problem. With these

known, one determines maximum upsurge by going upwards on the 2p* a*

ordinate from the zero surge abscissa to the intersection with the

2p* curve. S i m i l a r l y , the maximum downsurge i s found by going down-

wards on the 2p* a* ordinate from the zero surge abscissa to the 2p*

curve.

To i l l u s t r a t e :

Known: K = 0.1, 2p* o* = 10, 2p* = 4

No wall f r i c t i o n , D i f f e r e n t i a l o r i f i c e 2.5:1

Required: Maximum upsurge and downsurge at midpoint.

Solution: Maximum upsurge = 0.771 H * Q

Maximum downsurge = 0.358 H * Q

 28

5.2 NO HEAD LOSS, FRICTIONLESS FLOW

The single chart i n this category compares well with the

chart for f r i c t i o n l e s s flow published by Evans and Crawford

(Appendix A, F i g . A - l ) . Since f r i c t i o n l e s s flow would not occur i n

r e a l i t y , this chart would be used f o r purposes of analysis but not f o r

design problems.

5.3 ENTIRE HEAD LOSS CONCENTRATED AT THE ORIFICE

D i f f e r e n t i a l o r i f i c e - inflow to outflow head loss r a t i o 2.5:1

The graphs f o r K = 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 compare well with the

corresponding graphs published by Evans and Crawford as shown i n

Appendix A, Figures A-2, A-3, and A-4. The curves are generally well

defined except f o r the lower values of 2p* and 2p* a* f o r the upsurge

region. This i s i n the range of very low v e l o c i t i e s . The 2p* = 0.5

curves were eliminated f o r K = 0 . 8 to K => 1.0 i n c l u s i v e because the

program would not converge to a solution.

Two additional charts f o r K = 0.5 were included i n this group.

These were f o r powers of 1.0 and 1.4, the powers being the values of

m i n the equation H* v a i r
m
= constant. The Intent was to check the

possible v a r i a t i o n of r e s u l t s caused by using the power m as 1.0,

1.2 and 1.4.

A comparison of the charts and a p a r t i a l l i s t i n g of the r e s u l t s

as shown i n Table 5.1 indicate that the power 1.2 gives an approximate

average f o r the upsurges and downsurges. The charts also indicate that

one must accurately determine whether the system i s isothermal or

adiabatic when using the powers 1.0 and 1.4 because the resultant
 29

TABLE 5.1

Comparison of Results Obtained f o r the Powers 1.0,1.2 and 1.4

m = 1.0 m = 1.2 m = 1.4

2p* 2p*a* Point D U
U
P
D
n "P
D
n
n P
1 2 P .705 .572 .732 .615 .793 .649
M .435 .458 .527 .498 .669 .532
3/4 .235 .342 .290 .372 .343 .399

P .452 .475 .499 .542 ..532

4 .413
M .254 .355 .313 .386 .331 .414
3/4 .132 .264 .151 .283 .178 .302

10 P .173 .324 .208 .352 .240 .378

M .120 .250 .134 .270 .157 .287
3/4 .058 .200 .065 .210 .073 .219

30 P .061 .220 .073 .234 .085 .247

M .050 .185 .056 .194 .063 .201
3/4 .022 .165 .024 .169 .028 .172

4 8 P .782 .535 .902 .583 1.012 .623

M .435 .375 .504 .409 .575 .439
3/4 .211 .272 .249 .290 .278 .308

20 P .322 .385 .375 .421 .427 .454

M .191 .270 .220 .290 .248 .310
3/4 .089 .201 .104 .227 .118 .235

40 P .169 .286 .198 .313 .227 .339

M .102 .222 .121 .232 .137 .243
3/4 .049 .201 .056 .205 .064 .209

80 P .090 .225 .105 .234 .121 .249

M .056 .204 .065 .208 .075 .212
3 4 .025 .192 .031 .194 .035 .196
upsurges vary by as much as 50% and the downsurges vary by as much as

40%. The greater v a r i a t i o n occurs generally f o r small 2p* a* values.

Simple o r i f i c e - inflow to outflow head loss r a t i o 1:1

The curves i n this group are w e l l defined except for some scatter

in the range of low 2p* and 2p* a* values f o r upsurge only. The 2p* =

0.5 curves were eliminated for the range K = 0.7 to K = 1.0 inclusive

because the program would not converge to a solution. Note that for the

higher values of K, 2p*, and 2p* a*, the upsurges at the mid-point of

the l i n e become higher than the upsurges at the pump.

Comparison of upsurges and downsurges for 2.5:1 and 1:1 orifices

The f r i c t i o n factor, K, i s based on inflow to the a i r chamber.

To compare the upsurges and downsurges for the two o r i f i c e s , one

d i f f e r e n t i a l with a 2.5:1 inflow to outflow head loss r a t i o and the

other simple, assume that the inflow losses are equal. Therefore, the

outflow loss for the simple o r i f i c e w i l l be 2.5 times greater than the

outflow loss for the d i f f e r e n t i a l o r i f i c e . I t follows that the down-

surges w i l l be equal for the following f r i c t i o n factors:

(1) D i f f e r e n t i a l , K = 0.5; Simple, K » 0.2; and

(2) D i f f e r e n t i a l , K = 1.0; Simple, K = 0.4.

Table 5.2 does i n fact v e r i f y t h i s , except for isolated instances.

5.4 ENTIRE HEAD LOSS ATTRIBUTABLE TO DISTRIBUTED FRICTION

As the t o t a l head loss increases, the distributed f r i c t i o n

s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduces the upsurges, and, to a lesser extent, the down-

surges. The downsurges are affected to a greater degree away from the
 TABLE 5.2

UPSURGES AND DOWNSURGES FOR 1;1 AND 2.5:1 ORIFICES

0.2 0.4 K - 0.5 1.0

UP DN UP DN UP DN UP EN

2p * 2p*c* h i M M i M M P M

0.5 1 .688 .587 .330 • 505 .442 .360 .608 .568 . 271 .487 . 437 . 360 .593 . 528 .250 .486 . 442 .360
2 .561 .314 .184 .442 • 371 .284 .488 .326 .153 .437 .370 .296 .478 . 308 .146 .442 .371 .284
3 .460 .311 .198 .403 • 325 .244 .376 .258 .165 .399 . 330 .264 .365 . 243 .147 .403 . 325 .244
4 .377 .320 .162 .371 .293 .220 .298 .254 .128 .369 . 303 - 246 .289 . 217 .110 .371 .293 .220
6 .295 .213 .093 .325 .252 .192 .224 .182 .083 .329 . 270 . 224 .215 .145 .071 .325 .252 .192
8 .236 .160 .080 .293 .227 .175 .177 .141 .061 .302 . 251 -213 .162 .111 .052 .293 .227 .175
10 .193 .148 .067 .269. .209 .165 .139 .116 .050 .284 . 244 . 206 .127 .092 .040 .165
.269 . 209
0.5 15 .137 .103 .048 .231 .183 .150 .092 .085 .035 .254 . 241 .202 .083 .O64 .027 .231 .183 .ISO
1.0 2 .834 .710 .405 .614 .498 .372 .725 .641 .314 .625 .522 .415 .729 .528 .290 .614 .498 .372 .571 .398 .183 .625 .522 .415
3 .737 .459 .243 • 546 • 431 .317 .622 .359 .184 .564 .463 .369 .607 .349 .188 .546 .431 .317 .400 .277 .131 .564 . 463 . 369
4 .651 .456 • 233 .497 .385 .233 .494 .362 .177 .521 .425 .342 .476 .323 .151 .497 . 385 .233 .299 .202 .100 .521 .425 -342
6 .489 .276 .142 .430 .328 .245 .349 .247 .107 .462 .378 .311 .336 .199 .101 .430 .328 .245 .203 .149 .061 .462 . 378 . 311
10 .325 .213 .099 .352 .270 .210 .221 .174 .076 .397 .330 .283 .208 .134 .065 .352 . 270 .210 .121 .099 .041 .397 . 330 . 283
15 .232 .164 .073 .300 .234 .190 • 153 .131 .058 .354 .302 . 269 .141 .096 .045 .300 .234 .190 .081 .087 .032 • 354 . 302 . 269
20 .181 .135 .057 .269 .215 .180 .116 .105 .046 .329 .298 .266 .108 .076 .035 .269 .215 .180 .063 .079 .026 .329 . 298 . 266
1.0 30 .123 .101 .045 .234 .194 .169 .081 .081 .033 .302 . 295 . 262 .073 .056 .024 .234 .194 .169 .043 .064 .022 .302 .295 .262

2.0 4 1.191 - 7 0 1
.365 •599 .461 333" .887 .510 .263
6 .288 .665
.543 .434 .878 .470 .250 .461 .335 .551 -338 .171 .665 .543 • 434
.e67 .502 .257 • 516 .391 .621 .417 .184 .599
10 .591
.481 .393 .611 .327 Il66 .391 .288 .369 -235 .113 .591 .481 .393
.572 .353 .174 •4» .319 .245 .393 .278 .126 .506
.516
15 . 4 C i .259 .123 .364 .419 .356 .379 .235 .109 .429 .319 .245 .222 .151 .070 .506 .419 • 356
.275 .221 .271 .208 . 092 .451 .150 .114 .048
20 .318 .206 .097 .322 .382 .336 .261 .162 .077 .364 .275 .221 .451 .382 • 336
.251 .203 .210 .166 .073 .418 .113 -090 .036
30 .227 .155 .071 .275 .362 .326 .200 .128 .060 .322 .251 .208 .418 .362 .326
.226 .195 .146 .122 .054 .381
40 .340 .318 .137 .091 .043 .226 .195 .077 .073 .027 • 381 .340 .318
.178 .126 .057 .251 .212 .189 .112 .275
2.0 60 .098 .043 .361
.338 .316 .105 .070 .033 .212 .189 .058 .065 .023 • 361 .338 .316
.126 ,r»3 .040 .225 .198 .182 .078 .251
.074 .031 .340
.337 .314 • 072 • 198 .182 .039 .059 .019 •340 .337
.010 -02? .225 • 314
4.0 8 1.303 .718 T36T .583 .409 .290 .914 .557 .260 .636 .519 .430 .902 504 .249 .409 .290 .636
.583 .541 .331 .158 .519 430
10 1.061 .581 .293 .543 .376 .270 .737 .466 .218 .594 . 489 .413 .725 .376 .270
.409 .199 .543 .432 .269 .128 .594 .489 .413
15 .737 413 .204 .470 .323 .241 .504 .332 .153 .528 .445 .389 .491 .286 .136 .470 • 323 .241 .289 .185 .087 .528 -A45 .389
20 335 .165 .421 .290 .227 .387 .365 .120 .488 .420 .376
• 371 .375 .220 .104 .421 .290 .227 .219 .142 .067 .488 . 420 .376
30 .404 244 .119 .355 .253 .213 .268 .191 .084 . 444 .394 .363 .258 .155 .072 .355 .253 .213 .148 .100 .046 .444 .394 • 363
40 .317 194 .095 .313 .232 .205 .207 .152 .066 .420 . 380 .357 .198 .121 .056 .313 .232 .205 .112 .079 .035 .420 .380 .357
80 .177 .113 .055 .234 .208 .194 .112 .351 .115
.086 .038 .380 .365 .065 .031 .234 .208 .194 .058 .052 .019 .-380 .365 .351
100 .147 .095 .045 .222 .203 .192 .092 .072 .031 .371 .350 .086 .203
.364 .053 .025 .222 .192 .046 .048 .017 .371 .364 .350
pump. This i s l o g i c a l because the distributed f r i c t i o n i s i n e f f e c t

over a longer distance. For K = 0.4 and above, upsurges have been

eliminated while the downsurges are divided into three d i s t i n c t groups,

at the pump, the mid-point, and the three-quarter point. For K values

above 0.6, the downsurges for the various values of 2p* i n each group

become so closely spaced as to almost merge.

5.5 HEAD LOSS EQUALLY DIVIDED BETWEEN UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED

WALL FRICTION AND ORIFICE LOSS

For K values of 0.7 to 1.0 i n c l u s i v e , the upsurges disappear

completely and the downsurges are segregated into three d i s t i n c t groups

i . e . at the pump, the mid-point, and the three-quarter point.

5.6 USE OF THE CHARTS

The downsurge charts produced by Evans and Crawford are based on

the minimum head i n the pipeline. For this reason they stated that the

charts were for preliminary design purposes only. Since this program

was derived to give the actual absolute pressure i n the a i r chamber,

the charts can be used for f i n a l design as w e l l as preliminary design

and checking purposes.

Usually when an a i r chamber i s being designed f o r a pump -

discharge l i n e , the values of L, a, V , Q , A, H * and g

q q w i l l be known

From these values, 2p* can be computed. The allowable maximum surge

values may be dictated by s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , operating conditions, or the

p r o f i l e of the discharge l i n e . For the computed value of 2p* and the

s p e c i f i e d maximum allowable surges, values of K and 2p* a* can be

chosen from the charts such that the surge l i m i t a t i o n s are met. If

the allowable surge conditions can not be s a t i s f i e d by data from the

charts, probably some means other than an a i r chamber should be used

to control the surges.

When 2 p * a* has been determined, C q can be computed from

Eq. (1.5) (i.e.):

C = p* a * Q - .
o oa

Numerical examples demonstrating the use of the charts are

given i n Appendix A.

Figure 5.1 shows the configuration of the pump, a i r chamber,

pipeline and reservoir.

The Charts begin on page 45.

 Pipe Wall F r i c t i o n
PIPELINE WITH AIR CHAMBER H
o* - Steady-state absolute pressure head at pump

FIG. 5.1
H
o - Steady-state pressure head at pump
- Total head loss
H o r f 0 - Head loss due to o r i f i c e resistance

Upsurges and Downsurges measured

from this l i n e (For uniformly distributed f r i c t i o n only)
Measured to transient ordinary
pressure head

Atmospheric
W.S..
Pressure Head

Reservoir

Pipeline

4-1
C
•rl
c
O •H
PM O
I PM
T3 I ca
•rl
ro erf
a
 CHAPTER VI

DISCUSSION

6.1 VOLUME OF AIR IN THE CHAMBER

Since a*, the parameter pertaining to a pump discharge l i n e

having an a i r chamber, i s d i r e c t l y proportional to C , 0 the i n i t i a l

volume of a i r i n the chamber, the i n i t i a l volumes of a i r and water i n

the tank must be maintained within certain l i m i t s to ensure proper

operation of the chamber. The compressed a i r which dissolves i n the

water or i s l o s t through leakage must be continually replaced. Some

means of automatic shut down of the pump or pumps must be provided

should the proper water l e v e l i n the tanks not be maintained. The

minimum controls required are shown schematically i n F i g . 6.1.

The following items^ should be considered when f i x i n g the

compressor "on" and " o f f " l e v e l s :

(a) capacity of the compressor,

(b) size of the a i r chamber,

(c) frequency of s t a r t i n g and stopping of the compressor,

(d) d a i l y temperature variations that might actuate the controls,

and (e) how quickly the system i s to be put back into operation

a f t e r a prolonged shutdown.

The emergency levels can be at nominal distances above and below

the compressor operating levels on i n s t a l l a t i o n s having only one pump or

that provide manual starting or stopping f o r i n d i v i d u a l pumps on the

same l i n e . I f automatic s t a r t i n g and stopping of the i n d i v i d u a l pumps

35
on the same l i n e are required, the emergency levels should be s u f f i c i e n t l y

removed from the compressor operating levels to contain the surges

produced by s t a r t i n g or stopping the largest of the pumps under the

most c r i t i c a l i n i t i a l conditions.

The charts can be usefully employed to check the locations of

the emergency l e v e l s .

6.2 TOTAL VOLUME OF THE AIR CHAMBER

Once 2p* a* has been determined from the charts, C Q can be c a l -

culated by using Eq. 1.8. The volume of the a i r chamber i s then deter-

mined by considering that the chamber must contain adequate a i r above

the upper emergency l e v e l to control the surges to desirable l i m i t s ,

and enough water below the lower emergency l e v e l to prevent unwatering.

With allowance f o r the volume between the upper and lower emergency

l e v e l s , the t o t a l required volume of the a i r chamber can be computed.

The minimum volume of a i r that must be maintained i n the

chamber to control the pressure surges i s the volume of the chamber

above the upper emergency l e v e l . This volume can be designated C'

which i s numerically equal to the volume C . Q By adding to this

quantity the volume of the chamber between the upper and lower

emergency l e v e l s , one determines the i n i t i a l volume of a i r i n the

chamber that w i l l r e s u l t i n the lowest water-surface l e v e l following

pump shut down. This new volume of a i r becomes C" equal to C' plus

the volume of a i r between the upper and lower emergency l e v e l s .

The downsurge at the pump with this i n i t i a l volume of a i r can

be determined from the curves by computing a new value of 2p* a* based

on C" instead of C'. Assuming that this expansion i s isothermal , the

t o t a l volume of the a i r chamber becomes

C" Ho*

H * - downsurge at pump
q

Under favorable conditions, the a i r tank volume i s about one

to two percent of the conduit volume. A conservative approximation of

tank size would be two to four percent of the conduit volume. Favourable

conditions would be interpreted as long pipe l i n e s with high f r i c t i o n

losses and no high points of topography.

The i n i t i a l a i r volume i s generally about 40 percent of the

tank volume.

6.3 ORIFICE DESIGN

Since the function of an a i r chamber i s to decrease both the

upsurges and the downsurges on pump f a i l u r e , i t i s necessary to t h r o t t l e

the reverse flow of water from the discharge l i n e into the chamber while

providing l i t t l e t h r o t t l i n g f o r flow out of the chamber.

An e f f e c t i v e device f o r producing a high head loss for inflow

while keeping the e x i t head loss at a minimum i s a d i f f e r e n t i a l o r i f i c e

as shown i n F i g . 6.2. The design i s e s s e n t i a l l y a bellmouth f o r flow

from the chamber and a re-entrant tube f o r flow into the chamber. This

design w i l l give discharge c o e f f i c i e n t s of 1.0 and 0.5 for outflow and

inflow respectively. The inflow head loss f o r a s p e c i f i e d rate of flow

would be approximately four times as great as the outflow headloss.

However, this head loss r a t i o of 4:1 i s d i f f i c u l t to obtain i n p r a c t i c e .

 Upper Emergency Level

Compressor On

Compressor Off

Lower Emergency Level

AIR CHAMBER CONTROL LEVELS

FIG; 6.1

DIFFERENTIAL ORIFICE

FIG. 6.2
 39

A r a t i o o f 2.5:1 i s more r e a l i s t i c .

I f head l o s s i n the p i p e l i n e due t o w a l l f r i c t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d

as c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t h e o r i f i c e , the o r i f i c e d e s i g n s h o u l d a l l o w f o r

t h i s assumption. F o r example, d e s i g n a d i f f e r e n t i a l o r i f i c e f o r an

i n f l o w l o s s o f 60 p e r cent o f H * and o u t f l o w l o s s o f 30 p e r cent o f

q

H * f o r an i n f l o w and o u t f l o w o f Q . F o r a flow o f Q , t h e p i p e l i n e
o o o

s u r f a c e - f r i c t i o n l o s s i s 10 p e r cent o f H *. The o r i f i c e s h o u l d be
r
o
designed f o r a head l o s s o f 50 per cent o f H * f o r an i n f l o w of Q and
q q

a head l o s s o f 20 p e r cent o f H * f o r an o u t f l o w o f Q . The a c t u a l

r
o o

o r i f i c e d e s i g n , head l o s s r a t i o o f inward flow t o outward f l o w s h o u l d

be 2.5:1.

An o r i f i c e may be designed t o g i v e a maximum i n i t i a l head l o s s

through the o r i f i c e e q u a l t o the maximum downsurge. This condition i s

known as normal t h r o t t l i n g ^ . G r e a t e r or s m a l l e r t h r o t t l i n g l o s s e s may

be s a i d t o g i v e o v e r - t h r o t t l i n g or u n d e r - t h r o t t l i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The

minimum head i n the p i p e w i l l correspond t o the maximum a i r expansion

i n the chamber f o r the c o n d i t i o n s o f normal t h r o t t l i n g and under-

throttling. F o r o v e r - t h r o t t l i n g the minimum head i n the p i p e can n o t

be used t o determine the maximum a i r expansion i n the chamber. F o r the

c o n d i t i o n o f o v e r - t h r o t t l i n g , the minimum p r e s s u r e i n the tank must be

known i n o r d e r t o determine t h e maximum a i r expansion.

Large c o m p u t a t i o n a l e r r o r s r e s u l t when f r i c t i o n i s i g n o r e d . The

i n c l u s i o n o f d i s t r i b u t e d w a l l f r i c t i o n i n c r e a s e s the accuracy o f the

maximum and minimum p r e s s u r e s and c o r r e s p o n d i n g maximum a i r expansion

i n t h e chamber. Thus the c h a r t s i n c l u d i n g d i s t r i b u t e d w a l l f r i c t i o n

give h i g h l y accurate r e s u l t s .
 40

6.4 WATER-COLUMN SEPARATION IN PUMP DISCHARGE LINES

Water - column separation^ i s the f i r s t phase i n the development

of one of the most destructive types of waterhammer surge i n pump-

discharge pipe l i n e s . Following pump f a i l u r e , the sudden pressure

drop downstream might be severe enough to bring about a temporary

vapour pressure condition, and possibly the formation of a void i n the

pipe l i n e . The subsequent closure of this void often results i n v i o l e n t

l o c a l surges well above any possible transient pressure r i s e s i n a

continuous water column. The extent of pressure r i s e i s proportional

to the f l u i d v e l o c i t y destroyed at the instant of vacuous space closure.

The four major f a c t o r s ^ influencing water - column separation

are: (1) rate of flow stoppage,

(2) length of system,

(3) normal operating pressure at c r i t i c a l points,

(4) v e l o c i t y of flow.

(1) For pumps that have small r o t a t i o n a l i n e r t i a s the r e s u l t i s

complete pump stoppage from within a f r a c t i o n of a second to a very few

seconds a f t e r pump f a i l u r e . This very much aggravates the downsurge

problem.

(2) The length of the system determines the length of time

the pressure w i l l continue to f a l l before p o s i t i v e pressure waves r e f l e c t e d

from the f a r end of the l i n e counteract the pressure drop. A long l i n e

with a pump having a small r o t a t i o n a l i n e r t i a very often w i l l experience

water - column separation on pump f a i l u r e .

(3) Points of low pressure are c r i t i c a l . At points of low

pressure such as the crests of h i l l s over which a pipe l i n e passes, a

 41

s l i g h t interruption of flow may r e s u l t i n a drop to vapour pressure and

r e s u l t i n g column separation.

(4) The fourth major element i n water-column separation i s the

v e l o c i t y of water i n the pipe l i n e preceding the cause of perturbation.

As the steady state v e l o c i t y increases, the size of the vacuous space,

the reverse flow v e l o c i t y , and the f i n a l surges following the void

collapse a l l become greater.

A l l of these elements are i n t e r - r e l a t e d . For example, extensive

water-column separation may occur even with a very low v e l o c i t y i f the

pipe l i n e i s long enough and the steady state pressure head i s low.

An a i r chamber i s one means of preventing or c o n t r o l l i n g water-

column separation f o r medium to high-head systems. An example i s given

i n Appendix A indicating the manner i n which the charts can be used to

determine the p o s s i b i l i t y of water-column separation.

Although these charts cannot be used to analyze the water-column

separation condition, the high degree of accuracy does enhance the a b i l i t y

of being able to predict i f water-column separation w i l l occur.

Further studies could be carried out to attempt to determine

maximum and minimum pressures occurring f o r the water-column separation

phase of waterhammer.
 CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSIONS

(1) Since the program was evolved from the basic d i f f e r e n t i a l equations

for momentum and continuity to give the absolute pressure i n the a i r

chamber, nonlinear terms are retained and f r i c t i o n i s included, the

charts can be used f o r f i n a l design purposes*.

(2) The v a l i d i t y of the charts i s demonstrated by comparing the

results obtained by the method of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with those obtained

by the graphical method.

(3) I t i s important to analyze the system properly and to use the group

of charts which most closely approximate the system i n order to get v a l i d

results. In some cases i t might be advantageous to interpolate between

graphs within the same group. For example, K might be in the range 0.0
to 0.1.
(4) I t i s important to determine whether the expansion and compression

of a i r i n the chamber i s adiabatic or isothermal because the r e s u l t s

vary s i g n i f i c a n t l y f o r the powers m = 1.0 and m = 1.4, where m i s the

power i n the equation H * v ^ a r

m
= constant. For example, for 2p* = 4 and

2p* o* = 8, the upsurge at the pump f o r m = 1.0 i s 0.782 H* q and for

m = 1.4 i s 1.012 H* , the downsurge at the pump for m =

Q 1.0 i s 0.535 H* Q

and for m = 1.4 i s 0.623 H* . Q

* The charts produced by Evans and Crawford are to be used only f o r

preliminary design purposes. The authors stress that " f o r f i n a l design
of an i n s t a l l a t i o n having an a i r chamber, i n d i v i d u a l solutions s i m i l a r
to that shown by Mr. Angus ('Air Chambers and Valves i n Relation to
Water-Hammer', Transactions, ASME, V o l . 59, 1937, p.661) should be made
to ensure that the a i r chamber w i l l f u l f i l l design requirements".

42 -
 The power m = 1.2 gives an approximate average f o r the upsurges

and downsurges. For the same p i p e l i n e constants as above, f o r m = 1.2,

the upsurge at the pump i s 0.902 H* 0 and the downsurge at the pump i s

0.584 H* . D

(5) The charts produced by Evans and Crawford are quite accurate as

shown by the computer check on these charts using the method of charac-

teristics. The accuracy of the charts produced i n this work i s enhanced

by the i n c l u s i o n of f r i c t i o n and nonlinear terms.

The charts presented i n this thesis cover a much wider range of

variables than those published by Evans and Crawford. For each group

the following charts are presented: No Line F r i c t i o n , Line F r i c t i o n Only

No O r i f i c e Loss, and F r i c t i o n Loss Equally Distributed between O r i f i c e

Loss and wall F r i c t i o n , the range of K i s from 0.1 to 1.0.

(6) Bergeron's method of graphical analysis considering l i n e f r i c t i o n

concentrated at f i v e points i s quite accurate as demonstrated by the

computer check using the method of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

(7) The number of sections used i n analyzing the pipe system i s

important. I f N i s too large, excessive computer time w i l l be required;

i f N i s too small, the program w i l l not converge to a solution. In this

program, f o r instance, N was set equal to ten and gave good r e s u l t s .

For N equals f i v e , the program would not always converge to a solution.

(8) For high values of K, 2p*, and 2p* a* the upsurges at the mid-point

can be higher than those at the pump.

 44

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. A l l i e v i , L., " A i r chambers f o r Discharge Pipes", Trans. ASME,

Vol. 59, Paper Hyd-59-7, November 1937, pp. 651-659.

2. Bergeron, L., Water Hammer i n Hydraulics and Wave Surges i n

E l e c t r i c i t y , John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, Copyright 1961
by the ASME.

3. Chaudhry, M.H., Boundary Conditions f o r Analysis of Water Hammer

i n Pipe Systems, A thesis submitted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the
requirements f o r the degree of Master of Applied Science at the
University of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1968.

4. Evans, W.E., and Crawford, C.C., "Design Charts f o r A i r Chambers on

Pump Lines", Trans. ASCE, September 1954, pp. 1025-1036.

5. Parmakian, J . , Waterhammer Analysis, Dover Publications, Inc.

New York, 1963.

6. Paynter, H;M., Discussion of "Design Charts f o r A i r Chambers on

Pump Lines", Trans. ASCE, September 1954, pp. 1039-1045.

7. Richards, R.T., "Water-Column Separation i n Pump Discharge Lines",

Trans. ASME, Paper No. 55-A-74, 1955, pp. 1297-1304.

8. Ruus, E., and Chaudhry, M.H., "Boundary Conditions f o r A i r Chambers

and Surge Tanks", Trans. EIC, November 1969, EIC-69-HYDEL 22, V o l .
12, No. C-6.

9. Streeter, V.L., and Wylie, E.B., Hydraulic Transients, McGraw-Hill

Book Company, New York, 1967.
 45

THE CHARTS
 GROUP I

NO HEAD LOSS, FRICTIONLESS FLOW

(No wall f r i c t i o n , no o r i f i c e loss)

M A X . DOWNSURGE MAX.UPSURGE
 GROUF I I

ENTIRE HEAD LOSS CONCENTRATED AT THE ORIFICE

(no wall f r i c t i o n )

A. DIFFERENTIAL ORIFICE, RATIO 2.5:1

B. SIMPLE ORIFICE, RATIO 1:1

 MAX. DOWNSURGE MAX.UPSURGE
H * 0 H *
o o p p o p o p p p p p p p p p — — — —
o ui ^ w ro — O . — K> OJ A 01 ff> co co P '— ro 01

4^
to
 MAX. DOWNSURGE MAX. UPSURGE
H; H,
o o o o o o o
o o o o p ho o
bi
cr> O co
 MAX. DOWNSURGE MAX.UPSURGE '1
H*0 Hi?
o o o o o o O O o o o o o o
Ln ro
0>
co to

4—

^ i 2

T> -0 TJ

I I
I I
'I to
MAX. DOWNSURGE MAX. UPSURGE
MAX. DOWNSURGE MAX. UPSURGE
H* H*
 GROUP I I I

ENTIRE HEAD LOSS ATTRIBUTABLE TO DISTRIBUTED FRICTION

(no o r i f i c e loss)
75
 GROUP IV

HEAD LOSS EQUALLY DIVIDED BETWEEN UNIFORMLY

DISTRIBUTED WALL FRICTION AND ORIFICE LOSS

 APPENDIX A

COMPARISON OF CHARTS AND NUMERICAL EXAMPLES

Comparison of the charts derived by the method of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

and those produced by Evans and Crawford.

Example on the design of an a i r chamber f o r a short p i p e l i n e of

large diameter.

Example on checking the maximum upsurges and downsurges f o r a long

pipeline.
 APPENDIX A - l

COMPARISON OF THE CHARTS DERIVED BY THE METHOD OF CHARACTERISTICS

AND THOSE PRODUCED BY EVANS AND CRAWFORD

FIGURE A - l No f r i c t i o n loss

FIGURE A-2 Total f r i c t i o n loss 0.3 H *Q (orifice loss)

FIGURE A-3 Total f r i c t i o n loss 0.5 H *Q (orifice loss)

FIGURE A-4 Total f r i c t i o n loss 0.7 H *Q (orifice loss)

FIG Al
 96

FIG. A-?
F I G . A-3
 98

1.3

1.2 i—r
PUMP Evans ft

I.I
} Crawford
MI0LENGTH

PUMP | Computer study

1.0 . _ ..
T r

MIDLENGTH

0.9

UJ 0.8
o
or
z>
CO * o 0.7
CL X
Z)
X
0.6
<

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

H , (- H r-
4 5 6 7 6 9 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 8090
1
! I 1
' i : ! ! M I i
. . 2 :/?V.V ....)._

0.2 . -L...
UJ
o
or 0.3
r>
co * o
z:
0.4
o
Q
X 0.5
<
2
0.6

0.7

FIG. A-4
 APPENDIX A-2

EXAMPLE ON DESIGN OF AN AIR CHAMBER

FOR A SHORT PIPELINE OF LARGE DIAMETER

PROBLEM

Given the following data, design the most economical a i r chamber

which w i l l l i m i t the waterhammer surges to the s p e c i f i e d limits.

Atmospheric Pressure
E l . 400 "

DATA

Check valve closes immediately on pump f a i l u r e .

Length of p i p e l i n e (L) = 3220 feet.

Area of pipe (A) - 3.142 f t 2

Steady-state discharge (Q ) = 18.5 cu.ft

Q per sec.

Steady-state v e l o c i t y (V ) = 5.9 f t per sec.

Q
 100

Steady-state head at pump (H ) = 300 f t Q

Water hammer wave v e l o c i t y (a) = 3660 f t per sec.

Atmospheric pressure = 34.0 f t of water.

Neglect l i n e f r i c t i o n losses.

ALLOWABLE HEADS

Maximum at pump = 400 f t of water.

Maximum negative heads at midlength and three-quarter point =

20 f t . of water (sub-atmospheric).

SOLUTION

The allowable surges are:

At pump - allowable upsurge = 400-300 =0.30 H*

Q

At midlength - allowable downsurge = 400-350+20 =0.21 H*

Q

At three-quarter point - allowable downsurge = 400-370+20 = 0.15 H*

D

2 o * = = (3660)(5.9) = 2 0
2 p
1S7 (32.2)(334) 2 , 0

From the charts i n Group I I , E n t i r e Head Loss Concentrated at the

O r i f i c e , D i f f e r e n t i a l O r i f i c e 2.5:1, the surge conditions can be met using

the values:

K = 0.1, 2p* o* = 35

K = 0.2, 2p* a* = 24

K = 0.3, 2p* a* - 22

K = 0.4, 2p* a* =60

The volume of a i r i n the chamber w i l l vary d i r e c t l y as a*, so the

smallest value of 2p* o* w i l l be used. For the values,

K = 0.3

2p* a* - 22

2p* = 2.0
 101

At the pump: Maximum upsurge = 0.26 H * Q

Maximum downsurge = 0.32 H * Q

At the midlength: Maximum upsurge = 0.155 H *

Maximum downsurge = 0.21 H * Q

At the three-quarter point: Maximum upsurge = 0.07 H * Q

Maximum downsurge = 0.15 H * Q

The d i f f e r e n t i a l o r i f i c e should be designed to provide a head loss

of (0.3)(334) = 100 f t f o r a flow of 18.5 cu.ft per sec. into the chamber.

From Eq. 1.8,

(2p* a*) ALV Q

C
° 2a

= (22) (3.142)(3220)(5.9)
(2)(3660)

= 179 cu.ft

C'=C 0 - 179 cu.ft

Assume: Volume between upper and lower emergency l e v e l s i s 20% of C'.

Then, C" = 1.20 C = 215 cu.ft

and 2p* a* = 1.2 x 22 - 26.4.

The maximum downsurge at the pump becomes 0.295 H *. Q

Total a i r chamber volume = C"H *0

H * - downsurge at pump
Q

- 215
1-.295

= 305 cu.ft.

REMARKS

The c r i t i c a l points with respect to water-column separation occur

for t h i s example at the midlength and three-quarter point. The design

ensures that water-column separation w i l l not occur. I f the problem

were one of analysis, the maximum downsurge at the c r i t i c a l points

would be determined. A pressure of -34 f t or less would indicate

the formation of a vacuous space.

 103

APPENDIX A-3

EXAMPLE ON CHECKING THE MAXIMUM UPSURGES

AND DOWNSURGES FOR A LONG PIPELINE

PROBLEM

Given the following data, determine the maximum upsurges and

downsurges at the pump, the midlength and the three-quarter point of

the p i p e l i n e .

Atmospheric Pressure
Head = 34 f t - ^ 7
o

z
II
W

4-1
o VO
m 'rH
ro
ro
II
II
O
sa

d.
•7
9192 f t

DATA

Check valve closes immediately on pump f a i l u r e .

Length of p i p e l i n e (L) = 9192 f t

Area of pipe (A) =0.79 f t 2

Steady-state discharge (Q ) =5.0 f t / s e c

Q
3

Steady-state v e l o c i t y (V ) = 6.3 ft/sec

Q
 Steady-state head at pump (H ) = 316 f t . Q

Line f r i c t i o n loss (Hp) = 70 f t .

Waterhammer wave v e l o c i t y (a) = 3660 f t / s e c .

Atmospheric pressure = 34.0 f t . of water.

I n i t i a l a i r volume i n chamber (C ) = 50 f t . 3

SOLUTION

(A) No o r i f i c e loss

2C a Q 2(50)(3660)
2p* a* = = = 8.0
ALV C (0.73)(9192)(6.3)

70
K - — - 0.20

aV (3660)(6.3)
2p* = = = 2.04
gH * Q (32.2)(350)

From the charts i n Group I I I , Entire Head Loss Attributable to

Distributed Friction:

(1) At pump: Maximum upsurge = 0.285 H * Q

Maximum downsurge = 0.55 H * Q

(2) At midlength: Maximum upsurge =0.15 H *

Q

Maximum downsurge = 0.32 H * Q

(3) At three-quarter point: Maximum upsurge = 0.075 H * Q

Maximum downsurge = 0.175 H Q

(B) Total head loss evenly divided between l i n e f r i c t i o n loss

and o r i f i c e loss (2.5:1 d i f f e r e n t i a l o r i f i c e ) .

(1) At pump: Maximum upsurge = 0.50 H *

Q

Maximum downsurge = 0.515 H Q

 105

(2) At midlength: Maximum upsurge = 0.28 H * Q

Maximum downsurge = 0.32 H * Q

(3) At three-quarter point: Maximum upsurge = 0.14 H * Q

Maximum downsurge = 0.19 H * Q

REMARKS

I t i s obvious from the foregoing r e s u l t s that care must be exercised

i n s e l e c t i n g the charts to best approximate the actual physical condition.

The surge r e s u l t s (especially the upsurges) vary considerably f o r d i f f e r e n t

types of head l o s s .
 106

APPENDIX - B

GRAPHICAL CHECKS ON PROGRAM

B-1 Check f o r t o t a l head loss concentrated at the o r i f i c e .

B-2 Check f o r t o t a l head loss attributable to distributed f r i c t i o n .

 APPENDIX B - l

CHECK FOR TOTAL HEAD LOSS CONCENTRATED AT THE ORIFICE

PROBLEM

Determine the transient state pressures and v e l o c i t i e s i n the

p i p e l i n e adjacent to the pump at A. The transient conditions are caused

by pump f a i l u r e .

Atmospheric
I

^B

Throttling = ±50 f t for Q = ±20 f t / s e c . 3

FIG. B-la
DATA

Check valve closes immediately on pump f a i l u r e .

Length of pipe l i n e (L) = 3220 f t .

3

Steady-state discharge (Q ) « 20.0 f t /sec.

Q

Steady-state v e l o c i t y (V ) ~ 5.00
Q ft/sec.

Waterhammer wave velocity (a) = 3220 ft/sec.

Pipe l i n e constant (2p*) =2.00

Constant f o r a pipe l i n e having an a i r chamber

 2C a
(2p* a* = -^-j-) = 10.0
o

Atmospheric pressure = 34.0 f t of water.

O r i f i c e t h r o t t l i n g loss = ± 50 f t f o r Q q = + 20 f t / s e c .
3

A i r expansion i n the chamber i s given by

1 2
H* v . = a constant, i n which H* and v .
air air

are the absolute pressure and volume of a i r i n the chamber.

Neglect l i n e f r i c t i o n losses.

CHECK

Results obtained on the d i g i t a l computer using the method of

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are close to those obtained by Parmakian^ (page 135) by

the graphical method (see F i g . B-3b ).

103
 APPENDIX B-2

CHECK FOR TOTAL HEAD LOSS ATTRIBUTABLE TO DISTRIBUTED FRICTION

PROBLEM

Determine the transient state pressures and v e l o c i t i e s i n the

pipe l i n e adjacent to the pump at B. The transient conditions are caused

by pump f a i l u r e .

FIG. B-2a

DATA

(Water supply l i n e f o r c i t y of T r a i l ) .

Check valve closes immediately on pump f a i l u r e .

Length of p i p e l i n e (L) = 9150 f t .

3
Steady-state discharge (Q ) = 4.0 f t /sec.
Q

Steady-state v e l o c i t y (V ) = 5.1 f t / s e c .
2C a
Pipe l i n e constant (2p*) =1.38 o
Q L -)= 5
x
o
Constant f o r a pipe l i n e having an a i r chamber (2p* a*
 Ill

Atmospheric pressure = 33.0 f t . of water

Total f r i c t i o n loss (H^,) = 90.0 f t . of water.

Pressure head at the pump (H ) = 387.0 f t . of water

Q

Steady-state volume of a i r i n the chamber (C ) = 25.0 f t

3
Q

1 2
A i r expansion i n the chamber i s given by H* C = a constant,
i n which H* and C are the absolute pressure and volume of a i r i n the chamber.
1.2 H* C
This may be written as h* c = 1 where h* = rr~ and c = ~r~ •
o H
o c

There i s no loss f o r flow into or out of the chamber.

The f r i c t i o n loss i n the pipe i s considered concentrated at the

orifices shown on the diagram.

CHECK

Results calculated on the d i g i t a l computer using the method of

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are close to those ( F i g . B-2b) obtained by Eugen Ruus,

who analyzed this system by the method of graphical water hammer analysis

concentrating the pipe l i n e wall f r i c t i o n at f i v e points as shown i n

F i g . B-2a.
pump. Check v a l v e c l o s e s on pump f i i l u r e ) .;. -<
! ; 1
V )
 APPENDIX - C

PROGRAM FOR THE ENTIRE HEAD LOSS CONCENTRATED AT THE ORIFICE

PROGRAM FOR THE ENTIRE HEAD LOSS ATTRIBUTABLE TO DISTRIBUTED FRICTION

 114

1. ENTIRE HEAD LOSS CONCENTRATED AT THE O R I F I C E

$LIST AIRCHAMIO
2 C WATEPHAMfER PROG P AM. PUMP AT UPSTREAM END WITH AIR CHAMBER ADJACENT
? 3 C TU THE PUMP. RESERVOIR AT DOWNSTREAM END.
4 C CHECK VALVE CLOSES I MM EC I AT EL V ON PUMP F A I L U R E .
5 C NO LIME F R I C T I O N . HEAR LOSS CONCENTRATED AT O R I F I C E .
5. 5 C NO MI NCR L O S S E S .
6 01 KENS ION V ( 2 0 ) , V P ( 2 0 ) , H ( 2 0 ) H P ( 20 ) , V P ( 2 0 ) , V S ( 2 0 ) , H R ( 2 0 ) , H S { 2 0 ) ,
t

7 1HMAXI I C) , H MI N (1 C) ,HSS( 10) . SUM AX ( 10 ) , S U M I N (1 0 ) , SUNSS ( 10 ) ,

8 2UPSMAX( 10) , IJNSMAXI 10),UPSANS( 10) ,DNSANS< 10)
9 DATA N / 1 0 / , V A / 3 2 1 6 . / , G / 3 2 . 1 6 / , F L / 3 2 1 6 . / , P M / l . 2 / , M M / l / ,
10 IF/0.0/,CORFIN/2.5/.AP/3./,
11 2CK/0.1/,
12 3VO/3.5/
13 WRITE! 6, 15) N»VA,G,FL,PM,N'M,F,CORFIN,AP,CK,VO
14 1S» FORMAT !/• THE PARAMETERS ARE NOW...'/
15 1' N= »,I5,' VA= ' , F 8 . 2 , ' G= »,F6.2,' FL= ' , F 8 . 2 /
16 2' PM= ' • F 6 . 2 , ' MM = • I 5,'
t F= " ^ 6 . 3 ^ C 0 R F I N = «,F6.2/
17 3* AP= ' t F8 .2 t' CK= ' , F 6 . 2 , ' V0= «,F8.2)
18 27 W R I T E ( 6 , 3 0 )
19 30 FORM AT( ' PLC TMAX CPLAC UPSANS(l) UPAN10 UP SANS(6) UPAN3Q'/
20 119X,' D N S A N S ( l ) DN AN 10 DNS ANS(6 ) DNAN3Q * )
21 6 READ!5,10) PLC,TMAX,CPLAC
22 10 F O R M A T ( 3 F 8 . 3 )
23 I F ( C P L A C . L E . O . O ) GO TO 110
24 C COMPUTE DT •
25 DT = FL/ ( (VO + V A ) * F L O A T ( N ) )
26 c CHECK FOR CONVERGENCE.
27 DX=F L / F L O A T ( N )
28 T HET A= DT / DX
29 I F < T H E T A . L E . ( 1 . / V A ) ) GO TO 2 0 ^ "
30 17 GO TO 110
31 c COMPUTE C O E F F I C I E N T S AND CONSTANTS FOP. ALL P I P E S .
32 20 A P I = 3 . 1 4 2
33 DP=SQRT(4.*AP/API)
34 C2 = G/VA
35 HF=(F*FL*VO*VO)/(2.*G*DP)
36 c HOABS= HO + HF + 34 .
37 H0ABS=VC/(C2*PLC)
37. 5 c H0= HEAD AT RE SE RVOIR.
38 HC=H0ABS-HF-34.
38.5 c H0RF0= O R I F I C E HEAD LOSS FOR FLOW QO FROr* TANK.
39 HORFO= (C.K*HOABS-HF) /CORFIN
39. 5 c VOAIR= I N I T I A L AIR VOLUME IN TANK.
40 VOAIR=(CPLAC*V0*AP*FL)/(2.*VA)
40 .b c 00= STEADY STATE DISCHARGE.
41 CO=VO*AP
42 FF=F*DT/(7.*0P)
43 CF=HOPFC/(CG*CO)
44 C10=HOA6S*V0AIR**PM
45 c STEADY' STATE C A L C U L A T I O N S .
46 DHF=F*FL*VO*VO/(2.*G*DP*FLOAT(N))
47 NN=N+1
48 CO 25 1=1,NN
49 VI I ) =V0
50 • TE MP=MM-1
\. 51 H( I ) = HO +TFVP*OHF
 115
52 25 CONTINUE
• 52.5 C I N I T I A L I Z A T I O N 1 f: F M A X . A NO M I N . H E A D S .
53 DO 2 6 IM,6,5
54 H M A X U )=H( I )
55 H M J N l I )=H( I )
56 H S S ( I )=H< I )
57 26 C O N T I N U E
58 S U M S S I 1) =H< 3 ) -»H( 4 )
59 SUM.SS ( 2 ) = H ( 8 ) + H I 9 )
60 SUM A X ( 1 ) = H ( 3 ) + H ( 4 ) ' ' ~ "
61 SUM IN ( 1 ) = H( 3 ) + H ( 4 )
62 SUM A X ( 2 )=H(tt ) « H < 9 )
63 SUM I N I 2 ) = H ( 8 ) + H { 9 )
63. 5 C TIME INITIALIZATION.
64 T= 0 . 0
65 VAIK=V0A1R
65. 5 C PRINTOUT INTERVAL INITIALIZATION.
66 K=0
67 C C O M P U T A T I O N OF V K , V S , H R , H S FOR A L L S E C T I O N S .
68 C INTERIOR SECTIONS.
69 4 0 DO 5 0 I = 2 , N
70 ' VR( I )=V( I ) - V A * T H E T A * l V I I ) - V < I ~ l ) ) " " " " " ~
71 HR( I ) = H( I ) - V A * T N E T A * { H I I ) - H ( I - 1 ) )
72 VS( I ) = V ( I ) - V A * T H E T A * ( V I I ) - V ( 1 + 1) )
73 HS( I ) = H( I ) - V A * T H E T A * < H( I ) - H ( I + 1) )
74 5 0 CONTINUE
75 C BOUNDARY S E C T I O N S .
76 C RESERVOIR.
77 V R ( N + 1 )=V(N+1 > - V A * T F , E T A * ( V ( N + l ) - V ( N ) )
78 HHIN+1)=H(N+1)-VA*THETA*(H(N+1)-H(N))
7 9 C 3 = V R ( N + l > + C 2 * H R ( N + l ) - F F * V R ( N + l ) * A B S < VR(N+ 1))
80 C AIR CHAMBER.
81 54 V S ( 1 ) = V ( 1 ) - V A * T H E T A * < V ( 1 ) ~ V l 2 ) )
82 HS(1)=HI 1)—VA*THET A * ( H ( I ) - H ( 2 ) }
83 C1=VSI 1)-C2*HS(i)-FF*VS(1)*ABS(VS(1))
84 38 T=T+.OT
85 M=M+ 1
86 I F I T . G E . T M A X l GO TO 1 0 7
87 C T I M E I NCR EMFNT E D . BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.
88 C AIR CHAMBER. H O A B S * V O A l R * * P N =CONSTANT.' ~
88. 5 C LOOP ( 8 9 , 1 0 6 ) TO A F P R O X . A V E . V E L O C I T Y FROM C H A M B E R .
89 VAVAPP=V(1)
90 GO TO 2 1 0
91 200 VAVAPP=VAV
92 210 C11=VAVAPP*AP
93 CAIR = VAIR + C 1 1 * 0 T " ~ . "
94 IFIC11) 53,5 2,51
95 51 C O R F = 1 . 0
96 GO TO 59
97 52 CORF=0.0
98 GO TO 5 9
99 5 3 C(iKF=2.5
100 59 H0RF=C0RF*CF*C11*ABSICl1)
10 1 60 HP( 1 ) = ( C 1 C / C A I R * * P ' - 1 ) - H 0 R F - 3 4 .
101. 5 C NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION.
102 VPI1)=C1+C2*HP(1)
103 V A V = ( V I 1 ) + V P ( 1) Ml.
104 VEHR=VAVAPP-VAV
105 IF(ABSlVERR).LE.0.0001) GO TO 2 3 0
< 106 2 2 0 GO TO 2 0 0
 116
107 2 JO VPAIR = VAIRMAP*DT*VAV)
108 C RESERVOIR AT DOWNSTREAM END.
109 HP(N+l)=hO
109.5. C P O S I T I V E C H A R A C T E R I S T I C EQUATION.
110 VP( N+l )=C3-C2*HP(N«-1)
11 1 C COMPQTATICN OF INTERIOR POINTS.
112 00 5 5 1=2,M
113 V P ( I ) = 0 . 5 * I V R ( I ) + V S ( I ) + C2*(HR( I )-HS( I ) )-FF * ( V R ( I ) * A B S ( V R ( I ) ) +
114 1VS(I)*ARS(VS(I))))
115 H P ( I ) = C.5*(HR (I)+HS( I ) M V R ( I ) - V S ( I ) ) / C 2 - F F * ( V R ( I ) * A R S ( V R ( I ) ) - V S ( I )
116 l * A F S ( V S ( I ) ) )/C2)
117 5 5 CONTINUE
118 C CONVERT V ( I ) = V P ( I ) , AND H ( I ) = H P ( I ) FOR ALL S E C T I O N S .
119 80 DO 90 1=1,NN
120 VI I >=VP( I )
121 H ( I ) = HP( I )
122 90 CONTINUE
123 VAIR = VPAIR
123.5 C TABULATION OF MAX. AND MIN. HEADS.
124 DO 95 1=1,6,5
125 I F ( H ( I ) . L T . H M I N l I ) ) GO TO 123
126 121 I F ( H ( I ) . G T . H M A X ( I ) ) GO TO 125
127 122 GO TO 95
128 123 HM IN(I ) = H(I )
129 GO TO 95
130 125 H M A X ( I ) = H { I )
131 95 CONTINUE
132 I F ( ( H ( 3 ) + H ( 4 ) ) . L T . S U M I N ( 1 ) ) G O T O 13 5
133 131 I F ( ( H ( 3 ) + H ( 4 ) ) . G T . S U M A X ( 1 ) ) G O T O 137
134 132 GO TO 140
135 135 SUM INI 1 ) = H ( 3 ) + H ( 4 )
136 136 GO TO 140
137 137CSUMAXI 1) = H( 3 H H ( 4 )
138 140 COMTINUF '
139 I F ( ( H ( 8 ) + H ( 9 ) ) . L T . S U M I N I 2 ) ) . G O TO 147
140 142 IF( ( H ( 8 ) + H ( 9 ) ) . GT .SUM AX ( 2 ) ) GO TO 150
141 144 GO TO 155
142 147 S U M I N ( 2 ) = H ( 8 ) + H ( 9 )
143 149 GO TO 155
144 150 S U M A X I 2 ) = H ( 8 ) + H ( 9 )
145 155 CONTINUE
146 GO TO 40
146.5 C COMPUTATION OF MAX. UPSURGES AND DOWNSURGES.
147 107 DO 170 1=1,6,5
148 UPS MAX(I ) = H M A X ( I ) - H S S ( I )
149 ONSMAXII)=HSS(Il-HMINII)
150 UPS ANS(I)=U PSMAX(I)/HOABS
151 ON SANS ( 1 ) =DNSMAX ( I ) /HOABS
152 170 CONTINUE
153 HMAX1C=SUMAX(1)/2.
154 HMIN1Q=SUMIN(1)/2.
155 HMAX30=SUHAXl 2 ) 1 2 .
156 HMIN3U=SUMIN(2)/2.
157 HSS1Q=SUMSS( 1 ) /2.
T58 HSS3Q=SU,MSS( 2 1/2.
159 UPMA10=H^AX1^-HSS1Q
160 DNMA1G=HSS10-HMINIO
161 UPKA30 = HMAX3G-HSS3Q -----
162 DNMA3G=HSS3C-HMIN3Q
163 UPAM 10 = UPMA10/HOABS
 117
164 DNA NL C = D M " A 1 C / H O A B S
165 U P A N 3 0 = UPKA 3 0 / H O A B S
166 DN AN 30 = 0 Pv M.A 3 QI HO A 8 S
167 - W R I T E ( 6 , 1 8 0 ) PL C , T'AAX , C PL AC , U PS ANS ( 1 ) , U P AN 1 0 , UP S AN S ( 6 ) , UP AN 30 ,
168 1 0 N S A N S I 1 ) » D NA N 1 0 , 0 N S A N S ( 6 ) , ONAN3Q
169 180 FCRN ; AT (/ F4 . 1, 2X , E 5 . 1, 2 X , F 5 . 1, 4 X , f b . 3 , 3X , F 6 . 3 , 4 X , F 6 . 3 , 3 X , F 6 . 3 /
170 1 2 2 X , F 6 . 3 , ? . X , F 6 . 3 , 4 X , F 6 . 3 t 3X , F 6 . 3 )
171 GO TO 6
172 110 STOP
173 END
END OF FILE

tCOPY *SKIP *SINK*

 118

2. ENTIRE HEAD LOSS ATTRIBUTABLE TO DISTRIBUTED FRICTION

$LIST AI RCHA.M1 1
2 C WATERHAMMFP PROGRAM. PUMP AT UPSTRFAM END WITH AIR CHAMBER ADJACENT
3 C TO THE P U M P . Rt-SERVO IK AT DOWNSTREAM END.
4 C CHECK VALVE CLOSES IMMEDIATELY CN PUMP F A I L U R E .
5 C L I N E F R I C T I O N ONLY. NO O R I F I C E LOSS. NO MINOR L O S S E S .
6 DIM ENS ION V ( 2 0 ) , V P ( 2 0 ) , H ( 2 0 ) , H P ( 2 0 ) , V R ( 2 0 ) , V S ( 2 C ) ,HR(20) ,HS(20) ,
7 1 H M A X ( 1 0 ) , H M I M 1 0 J , HS S (10) .SUM AX ( 10 ) , SUM. IN ( 1 0 ) . SUM SSI 10) ,
8 2UPSMAX( 10),DNSMAX(10) ,UPSANS( 10) ,0NSANS(10)
q CAT A N/10/,VA/3216./,G/32.16/,FL/3216./,PM/1.2/,MM/1/,
10 1H0RF/0.0/,AP/3./,
ll 2CK/1./,
12 3V0/3.5/
13 WRI TE ( 6, 15) N,VA,G,FL,PN',r'i ,H0RF,AP,CK,VO
v

14 15 FORMAT!/• THE PARAMETERS ARE NOW...'/

15 1* N= ' , 1 5 , ' VA= ' , F 8 . 2 , ' G= ' , F 6 . 2 , ' FL= ' , F 8 . 2 /
16 2' PM= » , F 6 . 2 , ' MM= ',15,' HQRF = ',F6.3/
17 31 AP= ' ^ 8 . 2 , ' CK= , F 6 . 2 , '
,
V0= S F 8 . 2 )
18 2 7 WRITE(6,30)
• 19 30 FORMAT( * PLC TMAX CPLAC UPSANS(l) UPAN1Q UPS ANS(6) UPAN30' /
20 119X, 1
DNSANS(l) CN AN 1Q DN SANSt 6) DNAN30')
21 6 READ(5,1C) PLC,TMAX,CPLAC
22 10 FORMAT(3F8.3)
23 I F ( C P L A C . L E . 0 .0) GO TO 110
24 C COMPUTE DT
25 DT= F L / ( ( V O +VA ) AFLOAT(N))
26 C CHECK FOR CONVERGENCE.
27 DX=FL/FLOAT(N)
28 THETA= DT/DX
29 I F I T H E T A . L E . ( 1 . / V A ) ) GO TO 20
30 17 GO TO 110
31 C COMPUTE C O E F F I C I E N T S AND CONSTANTS FOR ALL P I P E S .
32 20 API =3. 142
33 DP=S0RT(4.*AP/API)
34 C2 = G/VA
36 C H0ABS=H0+HF+34.
37 H0ABS=V0/(C2*PLC ) " '
37.1 C HEAD LOSS FOR FLOW INTO CHAMBER.
37.2 HF = CK*HOAP. S
3 7.5 c H0= H0=H0ABS-HF-34.
HEAD AT RESERVOIR.
38
38.5 c F= F R I C T I O N FACTOR.
39 F=(HF*2.*G*0P )/(FL*VO*VO) " " - —-
39. 5 c VOAIR= I N I T I A L AIR VOLUME IN TANK.
40 VCAIR=(CPLAC*VO*AP*FL)/(2.*VA) " '
41 CO=VO*AP
42 FF=F*DT/(2.*DP)
44 C10=H0ABS*V0A IR**PM
45 c STEADY STATE C A L C U L A T I O N S . ' "
46 OHF=HF/FLOAT!N)
47 NN=N+1
48 DO 25 I=1,NN
49 V(I)=VO
50 T EM P = NN- I
51 H ( I )=HC+TEMP*OHF
52 25 CONTIlsMJE
V 52.5 c I N I T I A L I Z A T I O N OF MAX. AND MIN. HEADS.
 119
f 53 DO 26 1=1,6,5
54 HMAX < I ) = M 1 )
55 HMINJI)=H(I)
56 HSSI I )=H(1 )
57 26 CONTINUE
58 SU^SSI1)=H(3)+H{4)
? 59 SUN SSI 2 ) = H ( 8 ) +H( 9)
60 SUMAX ( 1 ) = H ( 3 H H ( 4 )
61 SUM IN( 1 ) = H ( 3 ) + H ( 4 )
62 SUf'AXI 2)=H( 8) +H( 91
63 SUMIM(2)-=H(8)-»H(9)
63. 5 C TIME I N I T I A L I Z A T I O N .
64 T=0. 0
65 VAIR=VCAIR
65. 5 c PRINTOUT INTERVAL I N I T I A L I Z A T I O N .
66 M.= 0
67 c COMPUTATION OF VR,VS,HR,HS FOR ALL S E C T I O N S .
68 c INTERIOR S E C T I O N S .
69 40 DO 50 I=2,N
70 V R ( I ) = V ( I ) - V A * T H E T A * ( V ( I )-V( I-1) )
71 HR ( I )=H( I ) - V A * T H E T A * ( H ( I ) - H ( I - D )
72 VS( I ) = V( I ) ~ V A * T F E T A * ( V ( I )-V( 1 + 1) ) " ' ~ ~
73 HS(I)=H(I)-VA*THETA*IH(I)-H11+1))
74 50 CONTINUE
75 c BOUNDARY SECT IGNS.
76 c RESERVOIR.
77 VR{N+l ) = V ( N + l ) - V A * T H E T A * ( V I N + 1 ) " V ( N ) )
78 HRIN + l ) = H(N+1 ) - V A * T H E T A * ( H ( N + 1 ) - H ( N ) )
79 C3= VR(N+ 1)+C 2 *HR(N+1)—FF * V R ( N + l ) * A B S ( V R ( N + l ) )
80 c AIR CHAMBER.
81 54 V S ( 1 ) = V ( 1 ) - V A * T H E T A * I V ( 1 ) - V ( 2 ) )
82 HS( 1)=H( 1 )-VA*THETA*(H( 1 J-H12) )
83 C1=VS(1 ) - C 2 * h S ( 1 ) - F F * V S ( 1 > * A B S I V S ( 1>) ; _
84 38 T= T + DT
85 P = M+1
86 I F ( T . G E . T M A X ) GO TO 107
87 c TIME INCREMENTED. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.
88 c AIR CHAMBER. hOABS*VGAIR**PM=CONSTANT.
88. 5 c LOOP ( 89, 106) TO APPROX. AVE. VELOCITY FROM CHAMBER. . __
89 VAVAPP=V(1)
90 GO TO 210
91 200 VAVAPP=VAV
92 210 Cl1=VAVAPP*AP
93 CAIR=VAIR+C11*DT
101 60 H P ( l ) = ( C 1 0 / C A I R * * P M ) - H 0 R F - 3 4 .
10.1 .5 c NEGATIVE C H A R A C T E R I S T I C EQUATION.
102 VP( 1)=C1 + C 2 * H P ( 1 )
103 VAV=(V( 1 ) + VP( 1 ) ) / 2 .
104 VERR=VAVAPP-VAV
105 I F ( A B S ( V E R R ) . L E . 0 . 0 0 0 1 ) GO TO 230
106 220 GO TO 200
107 230 VPAIR=VAIR+<AP*0T*VAV)
108 c RESERVOIR AT DOWNSTREAM END.
109 HP(N+l)=H0
109. 5 c P O S I T I V E CHARACTERISTIC EWUATION.
110 VP(N+J)=C5-C2*HP(N+1)
111 c COMPUTATION OF INTERIOR POINTS.
112 DO 55 1=2,N
113 VP( I ) = 0. 5*( VP. (I 1 + V S I I ) +C2*(HR( I ) -HS ( I ) )-F F* ( VR ( I )* ABS (VR I
114 1VS( I ) * A B S ( V S ( I ) ) ))
 120
( 115
116
HP( I 1 = 0 . 5 * ( H R ( I ) + H S I I ) + ( V R ( I ) - V S ( I ) ) / C 2 - F F * < V R ( I ) * A B S ( V R ( I ) ) - V S ( I )
1 * A B S ( V S ( I ) ) )/C2 )
117 5 5 CONTINUE
118 C CONVFPT V ( I ) = V P ( I ) , AND H ( I ) = H P ( I ) FOR ALL S E C T I O N S .
119 80 DO 90 I-l.NM
120 V(I)-VP(I)
? 121 H ( I ) = HP ( I )
122 90 CONTINUE
123 VAlR=VPAIR
123.5 C TABULATION OF MAX. AND MIN. HEADS.
124 DO 95 1 = 1 ,6 ,5
125 I E ( H ( I ) . L T . H M I N I I ) ) GO TO 123
126 121 I F ( H ( I).GT.HM A X( I ) ) GO TO 125
127 122 GO TO 95
12 8 123 HMINl I )=H(I )
129 GO TO 95
130 125 U M A X ( I ) = H ( I )
131 95 CONTINUE
132 IF( <H<3>+H(4)).LT.SUM IN( 1) ) GO TO 135
133 131 I F ( ( H ( 3 ) + H ( 4 ) ) . G T . S U M A X ( 1 ) ) G O T O 137
134 132 GO TO 140
135 135 SUMIN(1) = H(3 ) *H<4 )
136 136 GO TO 140
137 1370SUMAX(1)=H(3)+H(4)
138 140 CONTINUE
139 IF( (H( 8 ) + H ( 9 ) ) . L T . S U M I N ( 2 ) ) GO TO 147
140 142 I F ( ( H ( 8 ) + H ( 9 ) ) . G T . S U M A X ( 2 ) ) GO TO 150
141 144 GO TO 155
142 147 S U M I N ( 2 ) = H ( 8 ) + H ( 9 )
143 149 GO TO 155
144 150 S U K A X ( 2 ) = H ( 8 ) + H ( 9 )
145 155 CONTINUE
146 GO TO 40
146. 5 C COMPUTATION OF MAX. UPSURGES AND DOWNSURGES.
147 107 DO 170 1=1,6,5
148 UPS MAX(I )=HMAX( I J - H S S ( I )
149 DNS MAX(I )=H S S I I ) - H M I N ( I )
150 UPSANStI )=UPSMAX( I ) /HOABS
151 DNS A N S ( I ) = DNSMAX( I)/HOABS
152 170 CONTINUE ~ "
153 HMAX1Q=SUMAX(1)/2.
154 HMIN10=SUMIN(l)/2.
155 HMAX3Q=SUMAX(2)/2.
15(3 HM IN 30= SUM I N ( 2 ) / 2 .
157 HSS10=SUMSS(1)/2.
158 HSS3Q=SUMSS(2)/2.
159 UPMA10=HMAX1Q-HSS1Q
160 DNMA10=HSS1 G-HMIMQ
161 UPN A 30 = H Mi A X 30 -H S S 3Q
162 DNMA3G= HSS 3Q-HMIN3Q
163 UPA N10= UPMA10/HO ABS
164 DNAN 1Q= DNMA IC /HOAB S
165 UPAM3 0=U PMA30/H0ABS
166 DNAN 30 = 0NMA30/HOABS
16 7 W R I T E ( 6 , 1 8 0 ) P L C , T M A X , C F L A C , UP SANS(1) ,UPAN10,UPSANS(6) ,UPAN30 ,
168 1 DNSANS(1) ,DNAN1Q,DNS ANS(6),DNAN3Q
16 9 180 F 0 P M A T I / F 4 . 1,2X,F5. 1 , 2 X , F 5 . 1 , 4 X , F 6 .3,3X,F6.3 , 4 X , F 6 . 3 , 3 X , F 6 . 3 /
170 1 2 2 X , F 6 . 3 , 3 X , r 6.3,4X,F6.3,3X,F 6.3)
171 GO TO 6
172 110 STOP
 12)
173 END
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