Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 106 (2004) 759–765 DOI 10.1002/ejlt.

200401033 759

Evanthia Vorria Hazard analysis and critical control point of frying –

Virginia Giannou
Constantina Tzia safety assurance of fried foods
Laboratory of Food Chemistry Deep frying can pose hazards due to oil deterioration (oxidation, polymerization,
and Technology, hydrolysis) and harmful components formation such as trans fatty acids, highly oxi-
School of Chemical Engineering dized or polymerized constituents of fatty acids and acrylamide. An analysis of safety
National Technical University of hazards of the production of the potato chips and french fries, was carried out from
Athens, Athens, Greece
potato harvesting until final products packaging according to hazard analysis and
critical control point approach focusing mainly on the first three principles. Since frying
is considered a critical control point, the critical limits for the frying temperature and for
the potential hazards must be controlled in order to ensure fried products safety.

Keywords: Food safety, potato chips, fried products, HACCP.

1 Introduction respectively, have been enforced. Hazard analysis and

critical control point (HACCP) based on the Directive 93/
Nowadays the production of healthy food, as well as food 43/EC is the current technological food safety rationale.
with improved sensory characteristics is very important. HACCP approach on food safety focuses on the critical
Potato chips and french fries are widely consumed all control points (CCPs) of food processing and is con-
over the world, especially by young adults and children sidered to be the most effective method to maximize
due to their tastefulness. Children can find french fries in product safety. It is a cost-effective system and reduces
fast food restaurants and potato chips in almost every the risk of manufacturing and selling unsafe products.
food-selling store. Fried foods exhibit various quality Additionally, it is a highly specialized system for food
characteristics (appearance, taste, consumer accept- safety which necessitates an analytical study to deter-
ability) and pose many safety hazards (microbiological, mine microbiological, chemical and physical risks.
chemical or physical) [1]. Hazard analysis contains the identification of the potential
risks throughout food processing and the critical stages
Deep frying can pose hazards as it is conducted under (CCPs) that must be controlled to assure food safety [9].
high temperatures (,180 7C) and frequently causes
deterioration of oil or fat if some simple but very important In this study, an effort is made to describe and outline the
rules are not followed. Fats used for deep-frying gradually incoming safety hazards, starting from the harvest of raw
undergo certain chemical changes [2, 3]. The most materials, throughout processing until storage of the final
important changes are: oxidation, polymerization, hydro- product. The critical factors and the existing limits are
lysis and color formation. In addition, other changes such determined and the relative measures for their control are

Research Paper
as odor and flavor development are noted. During frying, proposed. The results from the current work can be fur-
some substances are produced which are considered ther used for the completeness of the HACCP study and
harmful for human health, such as trans fatty acids, highly the development of the safety management system for
oxidized or polymerized constituents of fatty acids and the production of potato chips and french fries.
acrylamide [4, 5].

The protection of human health comprises an objective of

fundamental importance internationally and is governed
2 Methods
by Codex Alimentarius [6]. In Europe, the Directive 93/43/ A detailed analysis of safety hazards throughout the potato
EC [7] and Regulation 178/2002/EC [8], which concern chips and french fries production, including all basic and
food hygiene and safety of the food production chain, secondary stages from harvesting the potatoes until pack-
aging of final products, was carried out according to
Correspondence: Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Technol- HACCP approach mainly focusing on the first three princi-
ogy, School of Chemical Engineering National Technical Univer-
ples as it has been applied in a previous work [10]. There-
sity of Athens, Polytechnioupoli, Zografou, 15780, Athens,
Greece. Phone: 1302107723165, Fax: 1302107723163; e-mail: fore, the analysis of potato chips and french fries produc-
[email protected] tion performed in the present study includes: i) the identifi-

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760 E. Vorria et al. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 106 (2004) 759–765

cation of all possible hazards (physical, chemical, micro- metals). The controls for other raw material (flavoring
biological), ii) the identification of the preventative actions materials, salt, additives and preservatives) should mainly
for the involved hazards and iii) the determination of the concern chemical and physical hazards. All raw materials
CCPs, the required controls and the relative critical limits. should satisfy the required safety specifications accord-
ing to legislation, thus the industry should cooperate with
trustable suppliers. Special precaution should be given to
3 Results and discussion the water used, which should satisfy the specifications for
drinkable water and especially those for pathogens and
The flowsheet of potato chips production is presented in chemical contaminants according to Directive 98/83/EC
Figure 1. The hazards that can be posed in each produc- [12]. Raw materials storage is a very important stage for
tion step, the preventative measures, the CCPs, the the safety of the final products. Potatoes should be stored
involved critical factors, their critical limits and the relative at 3–10 7C, at relatively high humidity and shadowy envi-
controls are presented in Table 1. The first step of potato ronment in order to keep the solanine level under 0.55%
chips and french fries production is the receipt of raw dry weight. The oil/fat should be stored in closed stainless
material. The possible hazards for potatoes may be steel silos at about 0 7C and its deterioration can be
microbiological (fungi, molds, bacteria), chemical (fungi- monitored by peroxide value and p-Anisidine measure-
cides and pesticides residuals) and physical (foreign ment (recommended values , 3meq/kg and , 5,
materials deriving from the soil or collected during har- respectively) [13]. The other raw materials (flavoring
vesting) [11]. The most possible hazards for frying oils and materials, salt, additives, preservatives) should be stored
fats are of chemical nature (antifoaming agents, heavy under dry and hygienic storage conditions.

Fig. 1. Flowsheet of potato chips production.

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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 106 (2004) 759–765 Safety of fried products 761

Tab. 1. HACCP flowsheet for hazards, preventative measures, CCPs, critical factors, critical limits and relative controls.

Stage Hazards/reasons Preventative measures Critical factors/limits/controls

1. RAW MATERIALS
RECEIPT
. POTATOES Fungi, Molds, Bacteria (M) Suppliers of potatoes (SQA) Control of safety specifications
Fungicides and Pesticides (C) Inspection of suppliers for Fungicide/pesticide residues
Foreign materials from the soil, hygiene limits (MRLs by EC directives)
harvesting (P) Control for foreign materials
. OIL/FAT Residues of Fungicides and Pesticides (C) Suppliers of potatoes (SQA) Control of specifications
Additives (C) Inspection of suppliers for Antifoaming agents limit: 0.04 mg/kg
Heavy metals (C) hygiene Heavy metals limit: 2%
. FLAVORINGS, Chemicals Residues (C) Suppliers of materials (SQA) Control of safety specifications
SALT, ADDITIVES Foreign materials (P) Chemical residues limits
& PRESERVATIVES (according to EC legislation)
. WATER Pathogens: Salmonella, Shigella, Leptospira, Cleaning and disinfection Control of specifications according
E. Coli, Pasteurella, Vibrio cholerae, of water to Dir. 98/83/EC
Yersinia enterocolica, Mycobacterium Limits for pathogens and
tuberculosi (M) chemical contaminants
Molds and Bacteria (M) according to Dir. 98/83/EC
Organic compounds, Radioisotopes,
Heavy metals (C)
Foreign materials from the soil (P)
2. RAW MATERIALS
STORAGE
. POTATOES Fungi: Phytopthora infestans, Altenaria solani, GMP – GHP Control of storage conditions RH: 90–
Fusarium sambucinum, Fusarium coeruleum, Hygienic conditions during storage 100%, T=3–10 7C
Verticillium alboatrum, Verticillium dahliae, Cleaning and disinfection of storage area Concentration of: O2 , 18%, CO2 , 5%
Heliminthosporium solani, Spongospora Use of pallets to allow ventilation Inspection of hygiene during storage
subterranean f. sp. subterranean (M) Ventilation system Inspection of programs: pest control,
Viruses: Annulus dubius Holmes, Marnor solani Pest control programs cleaning and disinfection of storage
Holmes, Solanum virus 14, 16, X,M,Y,S (M) Personnel hygiene area
Bacteria: Pseudomonas solanacearum, Solanine: max 0.55% on dry matter of
Streptomyces scabies, Erwinia carotovora ssp. potato – increase during storage:
carotovora, Erwinia carotovora ssp. atroseptica, 20 mg/100 g
Pseudonomas marginalis, Clostridium sp., Control for residues of chemicals
Corynebacterium sepedonicum (M) used to control vegetation
Chemicals used to control vegetation (C)
. OIL/FAT Oxidation products in oil/fat (in order to be GMP-GHP Control of storage conditions T, 0 7C
more stable in oxidation during frying) (C) Cleaning and disinfection Control of oil/fat deterioration
Foreign materials (P) of oil silo Peroxide Value , 3 meq/kg
Pest control programs p-Anisidine Value , 5
Protection of oil from air and light
. FLAVORING Foreign materials (P) GMP – GHP Control of storage conditions
MATERIALS, SALT, Conditions during storage Inspection of programs: pest
ADDITIVES & Pest control programs control, cleaning of storage area
PRESERVATIVES Cleaning of storage area
3. CONVEYING OF Microorganisms from surfaces (M) GMP-GHP Control of cleaning and disinfection
RAW MATERIALS Foreign materials (P) Equipment cleaning programs for surfaces and
and disinfection equipment
Cleaning agents approved
for foods
4. POTATO Microorganisms from equipment, water (M) GMP-GHP Microbiological control of water
WASHING Residues of cleaning agents in the Assurance of hygienic conditions Control of washing efficiency
equipment (C) Equipment cleaning and disinfection Control of cleaning and
Foreign materials (P) Renewal of water disinfection programs
Control of reuse of water

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762 E. Vorria et al. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 106 (2004) 759–765

Tab. 1. Continued

Stage Hazards/reasons Preventative measures Critical factors/limits/controls

5. PEELING AND Microorganisms from equipment, GMP-GHP Control of cleaning and disinfection
TRIMMING surfaces (M) Assurance of hygienic conditions programs
Residues of cleaning agents in the Equipment cleaning and disinfection Control for foreign materials and
equipment and lubricants (C) Maintenance of equipment removal
Foreign materials (from metallic Lubricant approved for foods
surfaces) (P)
6. SELECTING AND Microorganisms from equipment, GMP-GHP Microbiological control
SLICING personnel (M) Assurance of hygienic conditions Control of cleaning and disinfection
Residues of cleaning agents in the Equipment cleaning and disinfection programs
equipment (C) Lubricant approved for foods Control for foreign material and
Foreign materials (from metallic Maintenance of equipment removal
surfaces) (P) Personnel training Removal of potatoes with defects
7. POTATO WASHING & Microorganisms from water, equipment (M) GMP-GHP Microbiological control of water
8. BLANCHING Residues of cleaning agents (C) Assurance of hygienic conditions Control of cleaning and disinfection
Foreign materials (P) Equipment cleaning and disinfection programs
Renewal of water Blanching max time: 5 min
(opt. T=73 7C)
9. PARTIAL DRYING Microorganisms from equipment, GMP-GHP Control of cleaning and disinfection
OF SLICES BEFORE environment (potato slices remain Assurance of hygienic conditions programs
DEEP FRYING for a short time before frying) (M) Protection the product from the Control of environment hygiene
Foreign materials (P) environment Max removal of moisture: 4%
Equipment cleaning and disinfection Control for foreign materials
Personnel training and removal
10a. DEEP FRYING The majority of microorganisms are GMP-GHP Temperature: 165–185 7C (opt.
destroyed (M) Assurance of hygienic conditions 177 7C)
Residues of cleaning agents and lubricant (C) Equipment cleaning and disinfection Turn over time of oil/fat 5–10 h
Oxidation and polymerization products Antifoaming agents and antioxidants Control of correct use of antifoaming
of oil (C) in oil/fat approved for foods agents and antioxidants
Foreign materials (P) Use lubricant and cleaning agents Replace oil/fat according to specifi-
Contamination of fresh oil/fat with approved for foods cations (country’s legislation)
used oil/fat (P) Personnel training Max consumption of: trans fatty
Maintenance of equipment acid: 2.7–12.8 g/day, acrylamide:
0.5 mg/kg
Control for foreign materials
10b. PREFRYING, Microorganisms from air, equipment, Packaging material approved for foods T: 220 7C for 7–12 min (unpacked)
FREEZING AND personnel (the product should be cooked Suppliers of packaging material (SQA) T: 220 7C for 3–7 h (packed in
PACKAGING by consumers) (M) Maintenance of freezer paper boxes)
Residues of cleaning agents (C) Protect the product from the Control of freezing rate
Foreign materials (P) environment Control of cleaning and disinfection
programs
Control for foreign materials
Check for correct sealing of the
package
11. REMOVAL OF Contamination (air, equipment, surfaces, GMP-GHP Control of cleaning and disinfection
EXTRA personnel) (M) Assurance of hygienic conditions programs
(NOT WANTED) Residues of cleaning agents (C) Cleaning and disinfection of Microbiological control of equipment
QUANTITY OF Foreign materials (P) equipment and surfaces and surfaces
OIL/FAT Personnel training Control for foreign materials
12. SALTING CHIPS Contamination (air, equipment, GMP-GHP Control of cleaning and disinfection
& ADDING personnel) (M) Assurance of hygienic conditions programs
FLAVORING Residues of chemicals in the materials (C) Equipment cleaning and disinfection Control for foreign materials
MATERIAL Foreign materials (P) Hygiene handling of materials Inspection of material handling by the
Maintenance of equipment personnel
Personnel training

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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 106 (2004) 759–765 Safety of fried products 763

Tab. 1. Continued

Stage Hazards/reasons Preventative measures Critical factors/limits/controls

13. INSPECTION & Contamination (air, equipment, personnel) GMP-GHP Control of cleaning and disinfection
COOLING (the final product remains for a short Protect the product from the environment programs
time for cooling before its packaging) (M) Assurance of hygienic conditions Control for foreign materials and
Foreign materials (P) Equipment cleaning and disinfection removal
Ventilation for good cooling Control for potato chips with defects or
Personnel training undesirable characteristics and
direct reject
Control of hygiene in the environment
during cooling
14. PACKAGING Contamination (air, equipment, personnel, Suppliers of packaging material (SQA) Check the specifications of pack-
packaging material) (M) Packaging material approved for foods aging materials
Contaminants from the packaging Protection of the packaging area/ away Control for foreign materials
materials (C) from the production area Check for the correct sealing of the
Foreign materials (P) Metal detector after packaging package
Coding of product Check for the correct coding
Removal of products with defects
Cleaning and disinfection programs
control
Control of metal detector
15. STORAGE OF Contamination (moisture, pests) in case of GMP-GHP Control of programs: cleaning and
FINISHED inappropriate sealing of packaged Assurance of hygienic conditions in disinfection, pest control
PRODUCT products (M) storage area Control of hygiene in storage area
Residues of chemicals and pesticides in Cleaning and disinfection programs Control for foreign materials
case of no correctly closed Pests control programs Check the package integrity
packaged products (C) Hygienic storage of final products

(M): microbiological hazard, (C): chemical hazard, (P): physical hazard, ** the critical controls of the significant hazards are
presented with bold letters.

Potato processing starts with potato washing, during at higher temperatures, the frying fat temperature must be
which the specifications for the processing water as well kept at the levels required for cooking. However, during
as the reused water should be checked. Afterwards, the industrial frying it can reach 204 7C, because many of the
potatoes are being peeled, trimmed and sliced. The foods are conveyed through the frying oil for as little as 1–
knives and drums used for potato slicing must be made of 2 min. In order to keep the oxidation level of the frying fat
stainless steel, while they must be maintained and fre- to a minimum, it is important to use a good-quality frying
quently inspected for their integrity. After slicing, the fat, keep the temperature of the fat as low as possible,
potatoes are washed and blanched; the microbiological adjust the maximum rate of fat turnover and remove food
quality of the water as well as the blanching conditions particles from the fat [15, 16]. Excessive oxidation of oil
should be controlled (i.e. 73 7C for 5 min). Before deep and fats is often accompanied by polymerization and for-
frying, the potato slices are partially dried. The maximum mation of various decomposition products. Such prod-
moisture removal must not exceed 4%, so that the ucts as peroxides, monoglycerides, diglycerides, alde-
appearance and taste of potato slices are not affected. hydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are volatile at frying
temperature and have relatively little responsibility in
The deep frying of potato chips and the prefrying of french developing polymers. The non-volatile decomposition
fries are the most important processing steps for the products (cyclic monomers, dimmers, trimers, other high-
safety of these products. Fat changes occurring during molecular-weight compounds) include polar compounds
frying as well as the possible harmful substances pro- which may result in gumming and foaming. All these
duced must be monitored [14]. Oxidation occurs by the products are undesirable in the frying process [3]. Hydro-
reaction of air oxygen with the fat and some of the reac- lysis that occurs through reaction of the food water with
tion products which remain in the fat can accelerate fur- frying fat leads to the formation of free fatty acids. The
ther fat oxidation. Since oxidation proceeds more rapidly rate of hydrolysis depends on the amount of water

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764 E. Vorria et al. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 106 (2004) 759–765

released into the frying fat, the frying temperature and the absorbed oil/fat is removed and salt or other flavoring
fat turnover rate. Foods contain several components/ materials are added. The salted or flavored potato chips
substances (sugars, starch, proteins, phosphates, sul- are inspected for foreign materials or defects (burnt, too
phur compounds, trace metals) which are extracted into small, too fatty), cooled and packaged. The packaging
the fat during the frying process and may turn brown and/ materials should be approved for foods while strict hygi-
or react with the fat and cause its darkening. enic conditions should be assured in the packaging area.
The final products are inspected for their correct package
The most harmful products formed during frying are the sealing and the possible existence of metal pieces by the
trans fatty acids and acrylamide [4, 18–20]. Serious con- use of a metal detector and stored. Hygienic conditions
sequences for human health caused by such components should be assured (Good Manufacturing Practices –
are: coronary and other cardiologic diseases [3, 17]. Trans GMPs and Good Hygiene Practices – GHPs) by the indus-
fatty acids may be formed during hydrogenation, however try in each production line stage, particularly after deep
their content in the fats increases during their use. It has frying. The agents and lubricants used for cleaning and
also been shown that trans fatty acids increase cholesterol disinfection should be suitable for use in food products.
levels in human blood. It is difficult to determine the max-
imum daily allowance for the consumption of trans fatty
acids, as their content may vary depending on the foods. 4 Conclusions
A person should not consume more than 2.7–12.8 g of
trans fatty acid per day. A recent study showed that the Industries should try to produce healthy foods with spec-
daily intake of trans fatty acids from foods per person var- ifications in accordance with food legislation. For the
ies from 1.4 g (0.5% of total energy intake) in the Medi- production of safe potato chips and french fries the most
terranean countries to 5.4 g (2.1% of total energy) in Ice- important factors are the following: i) the frying stage
land. Acrylamide is a b-insaturated active molecule found which is a CCP and therefore must be monitored, ii) the
in starch containing products which have been fried, processing oil/fat, especially its initial oxidative state, iii)
heated or cooked in temperatures higher than 171 7C. The the temperature of frying and iv) the oil/fat renewal during
existence of high acrylamide concentrations in fried frying. The critical limits for the frying temperature and for
potato products was first reported in 2002 by researchers the potential hazards (trans fatty acids, acrylamide) must
of the Swedish National Food Administration (NFA) and be satisfied. The above results can be useful for the
the University of Stockholm. Acrylamide is considered to completeness of the HACCP study and the development
promote carcinogenesis and has only been recognized to of the safety management system for the production of
affect the human organism by inducing toxic effects in the potato chips and french fries.
nervous system. Experiments in pigs showed that acryl-
amide destroys the genitals of male pigs and has negative
effects on the fertility. It can cause DNA mutations, but in References
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