Energies 12 01953 PDF

energies
Article
Diesel-Injection Equipment Parts Deterioration after
Prolonged Use of Biodiesel
Dimitrios N. Tziourtzioumis 1 and Anastassios M. Stamatelos 2, *
1 Vehicle Mechanical Engineering Dept., Alexandrion TEI of Thessaloniki, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece;
[email protected]
2 Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Thessaly, 38334 Volos, Greece
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +30-24210-74067

Received: 27 March 2019; Accepted: 14 May 2019; Published: 22 May 2019
Abstract: The application of biodiesel blends is known to significantly affect operation of

diesel-injection equipment, especially the injectors and fuel pump. This paper summarizes experience
on this subject from burning fuel blends with high-percentages of biodiesel (up to 70%) on a
common-rail, high-pressure-injection diesel engine and a conventional DI engine. Both engines were
unable to start after running for 100 h each and staying shut off for more than two months. In order
to understand the wear characteristics of the injector nozzle, pump pistons, and elastomer parts (in
the case of the high-pressure pump of the common-rail engine), due to the prolonged operation with
high-percentage biodiesel blends, their injectors and pumps parts were examined and compared
by performing normal photography and low magnification microscopy. Additionally, the various
elastomer parts of the high-pressure fuel pump of the common-rail engine were examined for wear
and deterioration. The results are compared with existing literature results from other researchers.
The observed deterioration of diesel-injection equipment is caused by use of high-percentage biodiesel
blends and subsequent engine shut down.
Keywords: diesel engine; fuel injection; biodiesel; fuel pump; fuel injectors; engine parts deterioration
1. Introduction
Biodiesel is defined as the mono alkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils
or animal fats. The term fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) [1] is often used as a generic expression for the
trans-esters of these naturally occurring triglycerides, which find application as either a replacement
for or a blending component for use with fossil-derived diesel. Significant variation in product quality
and specification is allowed by legislation for products generally described as biodiesel. The influence
of biodiesel blends on the steady-state and transient performance and emissions of various diesel
engine types has been extensively reported in the literature [2–4]. The use of biodiesel blends with less
than 10% biodiesel on diesel fuel is generally considered favorable mainly for the engine particulate
emissions, but it is legislated for sustainability reasons.
1.1. Biodiesel Fuel Quality and Stability Problems

Oxidation of biodiesel may damage fuel injection system parts and excess heating of vegetable
oils may cause polymerization of the biodiesel. The extent of biodiesel oxidation depends on its fatty
acid composition [4]. Experience has shown that several fuel quality, handling, storage, and vehicle
operability issues need to be successfully addressed whenever high-percentage biodiesel blends are to
be used in an automotive diesel vehicle fleet. This has led to numerous initiatives by fuel producers,
original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), and their industry associations to publicize their issues
and to lobby fuel legislators to include a number of parameters in regional biodiesel specifications.
Energies 2019, 12, 1953; doi:10.3390/en12101953 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 22
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 2 of 21
their issues and to lobby fuel legislators to include a number of parameters in regional biodiesel
specifications.
In
In the
the United
United States,
States, this
this has
has led
led to
to the
the first
first specification
specification standard
standard for for the
the test
test methods
methods to to be
be
employed in the determination of certain properties for biodiesel, adopted
employed in the determination of certain properties for biodiesel, adopted in 2002. In its current in 2002. In its current form,
ASTM
form, ASTMD6751-18 [5], this standard
D6751-18 [5], this addresses
standard the quality of
addresses thethequality
pure biodiesel
of the (B100) component
pure biodiesel that
(B100)
is to be blended to produce biodiesel/diesel fuel blends. In regards
component that is to be blended to produce biodiesel/diesel fuel blends. In regards to the to the specification of biodiesel
blends, the ASTM
specification D975 standard
of biodiesel blends, the forASTM
diesel D975
fuel, modified
standard in for2008,
diesel allows up to 5% in
fuel, modified biodiesel to be
2008, allows
blended
up to 5%into the fuel,
biodiesel whereas
to be blended ASTM
into D7467-18a [6] covers
the fuel, whereas ASTM fuel D7467-18a
blend grades [6]of 6 to 20
covers volume
fuel blendpercent
grades
(%) biodiesel, with the remainder being a light-middle or middle distillate diesel
of 6 to 20 volume percent (%) biodiesel, with the remainder being a light-middle or middle distillate fuel. Biodiesel blends
are generally
diesel referredblends
fuel. Biodiesel to as BX,
arewhere X isreferred
generally a number to which
as BX, denotes
where Xthe is avolume
numberpercent
which of biodiesel
denotes the
incorporated in the finished fuel. The ASTM D6751 standard specifies
volume percent of biodiesel incorporated in the finished fuel. The ASTM D6751 standard specifies biodiesel as long-chain fatty
acid methyl
biodiesel as esters from fatty
long-chain vegetable or animal
acid methyl fats from
esters containing onlyor
vegetable the alcohol
animal molecule
fats containing on oneonlyester
the
linkage. This effectively
alcohol molecule on oneexcludes raw or This
ester linkage. unrefined vegetable
effectively oils, which
excludes raw or contain threevegetable
unrefined ester linkages.
oils,
Within the United
which contain States
three esterand the European
linkages. Within Union, soybean
the United Statesoiland
[7] and rapeseed oil
the European [8], respectively,
Union, soybean oil are [7]
the leading source biodiesel feedstock. Used cooking oils are also employed
and rapeseed oil [8], respectively, are the leading source biodiesel feedstock. Used cooking in the raw oil mixture [9].
oils are
The
also European
employedCommittee
in the raw for Standardization
oil mixture [9]. The developed a uniform standard,
European Committee EN14214 [10],
for Standardization to replacea
developed
the respective national standards.
uniform standard, EN14214 [10], to replace the respective national standards.
The
The use
use ofof high-percentage
high-percentage biodiesel
biodiesel blends
blends is is known
known to to be
be associated
associated with with fuelfuel injector
injector
deposits [11] and other types of injection system effects [12,13]. On the other
deposits [11] and other types of injection system effects [12,13]. On the other hand, US and European hand, US and European
market
market fuelfuel surveys
surveys indicate
indicate that many retail
that many retail biodiesel
biodiesel samples
samples are are out of specification,
out of specification, whichwhich means
means
that
that poor
poor quality
quality biodiesel
biodiesel is is not
not scarce
scarce [14,15].
[14,15]. The
The most
most demanding
demanding issue issue with
with the
the use
use ofof biodiesel
biodiesel
is
is its
its oxidation
oxidation stability,
stability, which
which affects
affects performance,
performance, emissions,
emissions, and and engine
engine durability
durability (Figure
(Figure 1).1). The
The
more
more general
generalterm
termbiodiesel
biodieseldegradation
degradationis is referred
referred to to
thethe
modification
modification of its
oforiginal
its originalcomposition
composition and
properties
and propertiesdue to dueaging, oxidation,
to aging, and metal
oxidation, corrosion
and metal during
corrosion the storage
during process
the storage [12,16].
process [12,16].
Figure 1. Effects of biodiesel oxidation stability problems on engine operation.
The compatibility of seal and hose materials commonly encountered in automotive fuel systems
using conventional
conventionalhydrocarbon
hydrocarbonfuelsfuelshas long
has been
long established
been establishedandand
elastomer manufacturers
elastomer manufacturersare able
are
to make
able recommendations
to make recommendationsfor theirfor
use.their
Specialized studies [17,18]
use. Specialized and[17,18]
studies in-use experience
and in-usesuggest that
experience
certain
suggestseals,
that gaskets, and hoses
certain seals, mayand
gaskets, degrade
hosesunder
may harsh
degrade operating conditions
under harsh in contact
operating with B50
conditions in
or high-percentage
contact with B50 or blends. Elastomer materials
high-percentage blends. generally
Elastomersuffer physical
materials or chemical
generally changes
suffer when
physical or
in contactchanges
chemical with fuel.
whenTheinextent of with
contact thesefuel.
changes depends
The extent on thechanges
of these tendency of the on
depends material to absorb
the tendency of
fuel or on specific
the material compounds
to absorb fuel or ontospecific
be dissolved or extracted.
compounds This may
to be dissolved orlead to swelling,
extracted. This mayshrinkage,
lead to
embrittlement or modifications
swelling, shrinkage, of tensile
embrittlement properties [19].ofThe
or modifications extent
tensile of a physical
properties [19].change that can
The extent ofbea
tolerated depends
physical change on can
that the specific application.
be tolerated dependsForonexample,
the specifica material that swelled
application. or softened
For example, after
a material
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 3 of 21
contact with a fuel may continue to acceptably act for a long time as a static seal. On the other hand,
dynamic applications are more sensitive to swelling, due to increased friction and wear. Thus, a lower
degree of volume change can be tolerated.
The requirement to produce low and ultra-low sulfur fuels for environmental reasons, is generally
met by hydro-treatment. This process destroys polar nitrogen and oxygen compounds, thus leading to
a deterioration of the lubricity of diesel fuel. Fuel injection system parts deterioration after using low
quality fuels is reported in analogous situations in marine engines [20]. Several researchers reported
that biodiesel blending at low percentages may significantly improve the lubricating properties of
low sulfur diesel fuel. Moreover, the use of biodiesel blends may reduce the concentration of metallic
wear particles and increase engine durability [21]. On the other hand, the associated formation of
corrosive materials (organic acids, water, methanol) may affect engine life. Additionally, thermal
and oxidative instability and water separation may give rise to engine operability problems. The
following problems have been identified during extensive field trials: corrosion of fuel injection
system parts, seal failures and low-pressure fuel line, fuel filter blockage. High-pressure fuel system
problems include fuel injector holes blockage, engine oil dilution, and polymerization. Additional
problems reported include pump seizures at low temperatures. Due to the above reasons, Original
Equipment Manufacturers Associations are conservative regarding the use of high-percentage biodiesel
blends [22,23]. Clark et al. reported no abnormal characteristics in fuel injection system tests after
200 h of operation of a John Deere 4239 TF turbocharged diesel engine fueled with methyl and ethyl
soybean esters [24]. On the other hand, Fraer et al. reported higher sludge formation on the valve
deck around the rocker assemblies and more injector replacement for B20 fueled engine particularly
for Mack tractor engines [25]. In the same way, the National Biodiesel Board has reported that a 1000
h durability test on an engine with B20 soybean ester blend caused serious technical problems, like
failure of fuel injection pump, softening of fuel system seals, and deposits on air box covers, piston
components, and injectors.
Furthermore, truckers’ associations have complained that fuel filter plugging is increasing as
animal fat- and soybean-based fuels are being introduced nationwide [26]. Based on the previous
paragraphs, it is obvious that fuel system problems, including filter plugging by use of B100 fuel, have
been mainly documented in the United States. According to a survey conducted by the Minnesota
Trucking Association [27], 62% of 900 fleets said they had experienced fuel filter plugging. In most of
the studies, the main problems were fuel filter plugging and injector coking.
In this study, the impact of high (B70) and medium percentage biodiesel blends (B20 and B50) on
a first generation common-rail injection system and a conventional “pump-in-line” injection system,
respectively was investigated. It should be mentioned that the experiments were conducted on
unmodified diesel engines. The most serious failure was that of the common-rail high-pressure fuel
pump and the inline pump of the single cylinder engine. These failures repeated a second time, always
after the engine stayed shut down for a period of a few months each. The details of the biodiesel
impact to the injection system components are presented and discussed in this paper in an effort to
motivate the scientific and technical community to further investigate these effects that damage the
high reliability of the diesel powertrain.
1.2. Main Types of High-Pressure Pumps for Passenger Cars.

The high-pressure pump is the interface between a common-rail system’s low- and high-pressure
stage. Its function is to keep the quantity of fuel required by the system ready at the necessary rail
pressure level depending on the operation point [28–30]. The high-pressure stage of the common-rail
system is divided into three sections: pressure generation, pressure storage, and fuel metering. The
high-pressure assumes the function of pressure generation. Pressure storage takes place in the fuel rail
to which the rail pressure sensor and the pressure-control and pressure-relief valves are fitted. The
evolution of high-pressure pumps for passenger cars is presented in Figure 2.
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 4 of 21
(standard), CP1K (compact),

First generation common-rail andsystems
CP1H (reinforced). Compared
utilize high-pressure pumpsto CP1K/S, CP1Hshaft
with eccentric is designed
drives and for
higher
three pressures up to plungers.
radially-arranged 1600 bar. This
Thereisareachieved by reinforcing
three types the drive mechanism,
of CP1 high-pressure pumps: CP1S modifying
(standard), the
valve (compact),
CP1K units, and andintroducing measures toCompared
CP1H (reinforced). increase the strengthCP1H
to CP1K/S, of theispump
designedhousing.
for higher pressures
up toBosch
1600 bar.CP3Thisis ais monoblock-housing
achieved by reinforcing three-plunger radial high-pressure
the drive mechanism, modifying the pump valvewith suction
units, and
throttle control
introducing and antoexternal
measures increasegear
the pump
strength foroffuel
thedelivery, which is flange-mounted directly on the
pump housing.
pump. This
Bosch CP3construction of housing reduces
is a monoblock-housing the potential
three-plunger of leakage in pump
radial high-pressure the high-pressure section,
with suction throttle
and permits
control and ana external
higher delivery
gear pump rate.forThe
fuellow-pressure
delivery, which ports are mainly located
is flange-mounted in the
directly aluminum
on the pump.
pump flange, which is bolted with the forged steel housing. This pump can
This construction of housing reduces the potential of leakage in the high-pressure section, and permits withstand pressures up
atohigher
1600 bar. Unlike
delivery rate.theThe CP1 pump series,
low-pressure portstheare
polygon’s movement
mainly located in theisaluminum
not directly pumptransferred to the
flange, which
isplunger but rather
bolted with to thesteel
the forged bucket tappetThis
housing. placed
pump in can
between. This pressures
withstand keeps theup lateral forces
to 1600 bar. induced
Unlike the by
friction
CP1 pump away fromthe
series, plunger
polygon’sand movement
conducts them is not todirectly
the pump housing, to
transferred improving
the plunger the but
pump’s
rather stability
to the
under load
bucket tappet[28,30].
placed in between. This keeps the lateral forces induced by friction away from plunger
CP4 is the
and conducts latest
them toBosch
the pumpcommon-rail
housing, radial
improving high-pressure
the pump’s pump which
stability consists
under loadof[28,30].
one (CP4.1) or
two CP4
(CP4.2) radial
is the arrayed
latest Boschplungers
common-rail and aradial
drive high-pressure
shaft with a doublepumpcam, which as consists
shown inofFigure 2d (1).
one (CP4.1)
The
or twoCP4 handles
(CP4.2) radialpressure
arrayed levels from and
plungers 1800a to drive2700 bar with
shaft and aisdouble
used for cam,both
as on-and
shown in off-highway
Figure 2d
applications
(1). from passenger
The CP4 handles pressurecars, light-
levels fromand 1800medium-duty
to 2700 bar and vehicles up to
is used forsmall
both heavy-duty vehicles.
on-and off-highway
Analogous models
applications are produced
from passenger cars, by Denso
light- andcorporation,
medium-duty HP2, HP3, HP4
vehicles up to[31].
small heavy-duty vehicles.
All themodels
Analogous types of arehigh-pressure
produced by pumps operate in the
Denso corporation, same
HP2, reciprocating
HP3, HP4 [31]. mode which consists of
suction andtypes
All the delivery strokes. Thepumps
of high-pressure working pump
operate in elements are the plunger,
the same reciprocating mode barrel,
whichsuction
consistsand of
delivery
suction valve.
and The strokes.
delivery drive shaft, Figure 2a
The working pump (2), is mounted
elements are in
theaplunger,
central bearing, Figureand
barrel, suction 2a delivery
(3). The
pumping
valve. Theelements
drive shaft,are arranged
Figure 2aradially with respect
(2), is mounted in a to the central
central bearing.
bearing, FigureThe polygon,
2a (3). Figure 2c
The pumping
(4), is fitted
elements areto drive the
arranged shaft which
radially forces the
with respect pump
to the plunger,
central bearing.Figure
The 2b (5), to move
polygon, Figureup 2cand down.
(4), is fitted
to drive the shaft which forces the pump plunger, Figure 2b (5), to move up and down.
Figure
Figure 2. Comparativecross-section
2. Comparative cross-sectionviews
viewsofofthe
the different
different pump
pump generations:
generations: CP1CP1 (a,b),
(a,b), CP3CP3 (c),
(c), CP4
CP4
(d). (d).
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 5 of 21
1.3. Plunger Manufacturing Process

High-pressure fuel pumps are manufactured with extremely close tolerances, especially between
plunger and barrel (about 10 µm [32]). It is important to understand the manufacturing process for
these parts, which is summarized below.
The fuel pump plunger pushes the fuel through a positive displacement pump by reciprocating
through a chamber. This reciprocating action enables the pump to attain high-pressures.
The plunger’s pumping motion guides the fuel in the cavity from the high- to low-pressure
side. The plunger first creates suction, drawing the fuel into the chamber. It then moves the opposite
direction to build pressure, forcing the fuel to the discharge port.
Plunger manufacturing consists of the following phases:
• Preheating: To prepare for coating, the plunger barrel is mounted on a coating lathe. A spray gun
preheats it by means of a flame. The barrel is heated to 200–220 ◦ C, for a duration that depends on
plunger’s size.
• Coating: Once the plunger reaches a prescribed temperature, a hopper loaded with a mixture of
tungsten carbide powder is mounted on the gun. The gun then deposits a layer of the powder to
the plunger barrel’s surface.
• Fusing: As soon as the barrel is completely coated, the powder hopper is removed. Subsequently,
the plunger barrel is heated to 700–750 ◦ C. This results in the fusion of tungsten carbide powder
to the barrel’s surface. Then, the plunger is cooled at room temperature.
• Grinding: The plunger’s diameter is measured to check uniformity of coating. Then, the coated,
semi-finished plunger is mounted on a CNC (computer numerical control) grinder. The surface is
finished to a prescribed RMS (root mean square) roughness.
• Finishing: The plunger is checked for surface roughness, concentricity, and uniformity. If it is
found to meet the specifications, it is mounted to a CNC lathe for finishing.
1.4. Elastomer Parts Compatibility

Biodiesel, a mixture of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), is a renewable fuel produced from the
homogeneous catalytic transesterification of vegetable oils, like rapeseed oil, soybean oil, and animal
fats using basic hydroxides as catalysts. In a standard process of biodiesel production from rapeseed
oil there are the following process steps: esterification of oil (vegetable, rapeseed, soybean, canola),
separation of esterification products, methanol distillation, and purification of ester. Glycerol (glycerin)
is the main formed by-product of oil esterification process. In this process, soaps and fatty acids are
also created. FKM (Fluorocarbon-Based Elastomer), NBR (Nitrile Butadiene Rubber), and HNBR
(Hydrogenated NBR) are also chemically compatible with both of them.
Glycerin is a by-product of the biodiesel production process and is related to amounts of
unconverted or partially-converted fats and oils left from the manufacturing process. If the amount of
glycerin is too high, it can lead to storage tank and fuel system filter plugging.
Table 1 summarizes the compatibility properties of various commercial elastomer parts when
exposed to different types of biodiesel components, raw materials, and by-products [33], according
to the manufacturers [34]. On the other hand, a review of reported effects of liquid biofuels on the
deterioration of automotive rubbers [19] concluded that the physical and mechanical properties of
NBR decreased after exposure to almost all the commercially-available biofuels. In regards to FKM,
the main weakness of FKM rubbers towards biofuel attack was the metal oxides and hydroxides in
their curing systems.
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 6 of 21

Table 1. Elastomer materials compatibility with different types of biodiesel raw materials, components,
and by-products.
Soybean oil very good very good very good
Animal fats Biodiesel
Raw Materials, very good
Nitrile Butadiene very (Hydrogenated
HNBR good very good
Fluorocarbon-Based
Animal oil
Components, and By-Products very good(NBR)
Rubber very good
NBR) very(FKM)
Elastomer good
Rapeseed
Vegetable oil oil good *
very good good *
very good very goodgood
very **
Soybean oil very good very good very good
Glycerin (glycerol)
Animal fats very very
good good veryvery
goodgood very
very good
good
SoapsAnimal oil very very
good good veryvery
goodgood very
verygood
good
Vegetable oil very good very good very good
Fatty acids(glycerol)
Glycerin goodvery good good
very good very
very good
good
Soaps very good very good very good
* Good suitability: Some effects from exposure with some loss of physical properties. Some chemical
Fatty acids good good very good
swelling. ** Very good suitability: Elastomer shows little or no effect from exposure. Little effect on
* Good suitability: Some effects from exposure with some loss of physical properties. Some chemical swelling.
performance
** and physical
Very good suitability: properties.
Elastomer Very
shows little good
or no resistance.
effect [34]. Little effect on performance and physical
from exposure.
properties. Very good resistance. [34].
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
In this section, the specific fuel injection systems of the two engines tested, the periods and
In this
details section, the
of operation specific
points fuel injection
tested, the fuels systems
employed of the
in two engines
the tests, thetested, the periods
experimental and details
apparatus for
of operation
surface points
analysis andtested, the fuelsand
the cleaning employed in the procedures
disassembly tests, the experimental
applied for apparatus for surface
the injection system
analysis and are
components the presented.
cleaning and disassembly procedures applied for the injection system components
are presented.
2.1. Technical Data of the Engines Studied
2.1. Technical Data of the Engines Studied
Two different engines were employed in the tests with high-percentage biodiesel blends in the
Two different
Laboratory engines wereand
of Thermodynamics employed
Thermal inEngines:
the tests (a)
with high-percentage
a PSA DW10 ATEDbiodiesel
2.0 L, fourblends
stroke,infour
the
Laboratory of Thermodynamics and Thermal Engines: (a) a PSA DW10 ATED 2.0 L,
cylinder, turbocharged, equipped with Bosch first generation common-rail, ECU (Electronic Control four stroke, four
cylinder, turbocharged,
Unit)-controlled equipped
injection with Bosch
system (Figure first generation
3a, Table 2); and (b)common-rail,
a Ruggerini ECURF91(Electronic
0.5 L, fourControl
stroke,
single cylinder, naturally aspirated, equipped with a pump-in-line injection system (Figure 3b, single
Unit)-controlled injection system (Figure 3a, Table 2); and (b) a Ruggerini RF91 0.5 L, four stroke, Table
cylinder, naturally aspirated, equipped with a pump-in-line injection system (Figure 3b, Table 3).
3).
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Engine test beds: (a)
(a) PSA
PSA DW10
DW10 ATED,
ATED, (b) Ruggerini RF91.
Table 2. PSA DW10 ATED engine specifications.

Table 2. PSA DW10 ATED engine specifications.
Engine Engine
Type Type HSDIHSDI
Turbocharged Diesel Engine
Turbocharged Diesel Engine
NumberNumber of cylinders
of cylinders 4 in line4 in line
Bore ×
Bore × stroke stroke 85 × 8885mm × 88 mm
Rated power 80 kW, 4000 rpm
Rated power
Rated torque
80 kW, 4000 rpm
250 Nm, 2000 rpm
RatedCompression
torque ratio 250
18:1Nm, 2000 rpm
Compression ratio unit version
Electronic control Bosch EDC 15C218:1 HDI
Electronic control unit version Bosch EDC 15C2 HDI
Table 3. Ruggerini RF91 engine specifications.
Engine Type DI 4-Stroke Naturally-Aspirated Diesel Engine

Energies 2019, 12, 1953 7 of 21
Table 3. Ruggerini RF91 engine specifications.
Engine Type DI 4-Stroke Naturally-Aspirated Diesel Engine

Number of cylinders 1
Bore × stroke 90 × 75 mm
Rated power 8.1 kW, 3600 rpm
Rated torque 25 Nm, 2500 rpm
Compression ratio 18.5:1
2.2. Fuel Injection Systems of the Engines Studied

Bosch high-pressure pump, CP1S, can provide a 1350 bar maximum rail pressure. On the
other hand, the New Diesel conventional inline pump can increase the injection pressure up to
210 bar. Technical specifications of the tested pumps, New Diesel and Bosch, are presented in Tables 4
and 5, respectively.
Table 4. PSA DW10 ATED injection system specifications.
Fuel Injection Pump Type Bosch, CP1S3/R65/10-16S, OEM PN: 0 445 010 010
Pump displacement 0.69 cc/rev
Architecture 3-plunger
Pump plunger diameter 6.5 mm
Nominal max pressure 1350 bar
Injectors type Bosch 0445110076
Number/diameter of nozzle holes 5 × 0.123 mm
Table 5. Ruggerini RF91engine injection system specifications.
Fuel Injection Pump Type New Diesel, OEM PN: NPFR 1K60-1685
Injector needle diameter 4 mm
Number/diameter of nozzle holes 4 × 0.24 mm
Nozzle hole length 0.6 mm
Pin height 0.125–0.175 mm
Sump volume 0.36 mm3
Injector opening pressure 210 bar
Pump plunger diameter 7 mm
2.3. Properties of Fuels Employed

The fuels under investigation were three volume-based blends of biodiesel in diesel fuel, 20%,
50%, and 70%. The tested fuels were denoted as B20, B50, and B70, respectively. Diesel fuel conforms
to European standard EN 590. The biodiesel employed in the experiments was a fatty acid methyl
ester produced by 40% rapeseed oil, 30% soybean oil, and 30% recycled cooking oils. It was supplied
by ELIN Biofuels SA (Volos Greece) and conforms to EN14214-2012 [35]. The main specifications of the
fuels are summarized in Table 6 [36,37].
Table 6. Comparison of the main fuel properties, between biodiesel and diesel fuel.
Specifications/Ranges Biodiesel (FAME) Diesel

Density (15 ◦ C) [kg/m3 ] 865 825
Viscosity (40 ◦ C) [cSt] 4.7 2.5
Cetane number 55 50
Cold filter plugging point [◦ C] −3 −12
Gross heating value [MJ/kg] (measured) 40.3 46.1
Lower heating value [MJ/kg] (calculated) 37.7 43.3
Water content [mg/kg] 330 -
Acid number [mg KOH/g] 0.16 -
Sulfur content [ppm] - 50
Iodine number g iodine/100 g 117 -
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 8 of 21
High-percentage biodiesel blend, B70, was employed in the engine tests with the PSA DW10 ATED
HDi (common-rail, high-pressure injection) engine. On the other hand, medium- and low-percentage
biodiesel blends, B20 and B50, were employed in the engine tests with the Ruggerini RF91 DI diesel
engine (low-pressure injection).
2.4. Period of Operation with Biodiesel Fuels

Both engines are regularly employed in student laboratory exercises, and also for research and
development projects of the Lab. In the case of DW10, the engine was subjected to steady-state and
transient testing with the B70 fuel for a total of 100 h in the period 2008–2010 (Table 7) [36,37]. The
testing time was uniformly distributed among the operation points listed in Table 8. This prolonged use
led to the failure of the high-pressure pump and the wear of the injector’s moving parts. After replacing
with a new fuel pump and injector, the engine was regularly employed in student lab exercises with
regular diesel fuel (EN590 specifications, which contains about 7% biodiesel in Greece). The lab
exercises comprise short-term engine tests (typical steady-state operation points) with normal fuel,
not significantly adding to engine parts deterioration. The engine was run again on-low percentage
biodiesel blend (B20) for a further 50 h in 2016, in the frame of diesel filter loading and regeneration
tests. After a six-month stand still of the engine, it failed to start again for the student lab testing
exercises in March 2017. This time, the fuel pump was dismantled and the components were inspected
for deposits, wear, and surface texture. Photographs of the components were taken in order to confirm
the effect of biodiesel fuel. The results are presented in this section.
Table 7. Use of the two engines in tests and experiments in the period 2008–2017.
DW10 DW10 RF91

RF91 Engine
Year Engine Duration Engine Duration Duration Engine Duration
Tests
Tests Tests Tests
Engine Laboratory Laboratory
2008–2009 cycles w. 55 h exercises 5h - - exercises 2h
B70 vs B0 (students) (students)
Engine Laboratory Laboratory
2009–2010 cycles w. 35 h exercises 5h - - exercises 2h
B70 (students) (students)
Laboratory Laboratory
2010–2011 - - exercises 2h - - exercises 2h
(students) (students)
Laboratory Diesel Laboratory
2011–2012 - - exercises 2h Particulate filter 50 h exercises 2h
(students) loading B20–50 (students)
2012–2013 - - exercises 2h Particulate filter 50 h exercises 2h
(students) loading B20–50 (students)
Diesel
filter
2015–2016 50 h exercises 2h - - exercises 2h
loading
B20
2016–2017 - - exercises - Particulate filter 10 h exercises 4h
(students) loading B20 (students)
loading
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 B20 9 of 21
Table 8. DW10 engine operation points tested with B70 fuel (see Table 7).
Table 8. DW10 engine operation points tested with B70 fuel (see Table 7).
Engine Speed [rpm] 900 1260 1500 1760 2020 2400 2520 2800
Engine Speed [rpm] 900 1260 1500 1760 2020 2400 2520 2800
bmep [bar] 0 0.8 6.7 2.3 9.3 11.5 4.5 13.7
bmep [bar] 0 0.8 6.7 2.3 9.3 11.5 4.5 13.7
bmep [bar] 2.3 9.3 4.5 11.5 13.7 6.7 15.1
bmep [bar] 2.3 9.3 4.5 11.5 13.7 6.7 15.1
On the other hand, RF91 was subjected to steady-state testing with B20 and B50 fuels for a total
of 50Onandthe50other
h, respectively,
hand, RF91 in was diesel filter to
subjected loading and regeneration
steady-state testing with tests,
B20 and in the
B50 period
fuels forDecember
a total of
2011
50 andto50
January 2013 (Table
h, respectively, 7) [38–40].
in diesel The diesel
filter loading andparticulate filter
regeneration loading
tests, in thewas mainly
period carried2011
December out to
at
3250 rpm and 16.2 N-m RF91 engine operation point. Regeneration of the diesel
January 2013 (Table 7) [38–40]. The diesel particulate filter loading was mainly carried out at 3250 rpmparticulate filter was
carried
and 16.2out
N-m at RF91
the 3250 rpmoperation
engine and 22.2point.
Nm engine operation
Regeneration point,
of the with
diesel a total duration
particulate filter wasofcarried
about 4outh.
After
at the shut off ofand
3250 rpm the22.2
engine
Nm andenginestaying still for
operation 4 months,
point, it failed
with a total to start
duration again.4 h.
of about The mechanical
After shut off
pump
of and injector
the engine were disassembled
and staying in order
still for 4 months, to identify
it failed to startthe cause
again. Theof mechanical
the failure. After
pumpcleaning and
and injector
replacing
were of the pump
disassembled on the
in order engine, the
to identify the cause
engine of was routinely
the failure. employed
After cleaninginand student laboratory
replacing of the
exercises in the period 2014–2017. After being employed in 10 h diesel-filter
pump on the engine, the engine was routinely employed in student laboratory exercises in the period loading and
regeneration testing in summer 2017 (Table 7), the engine failed to start
2014–2017. After being employed in 10 h diesel-filter loading and regeneration testing in summer 2017 again for the student
laboratory
(Table tests
7), the in 2018.
engine Again,
failed the again
to start pumpfor plunger was stuck
the student and cleaning
laboratory tests inand replacing
2018. the pump
Again, the pump
on the engine was necessary.
plunger was stuck and cleaning and replacing the pump on the engine was necessary.
2.5. Cleaning and Optical Microscopy Procedure

The cleaning procedure consisted
consisted of three
three phases:
phases: (i) The injectors and both of the high-pressure
pumps were dismantled in accordance
accordance with manufacturer
manufacturer technical instructions, and the metal
components were thoroughly cleaned using diesel fuel in order to remove dirt and gummy deposits;
(ii) In the second
second phase, the components were brushed using isopropanol alcohol; (iii) In the third
phase, the components were put in in an
an ultrasonic
ultrasonic bath
bath for
for 45
45 min.
min. Surface analysis was performed
using optical microscopy [41] at
at 10×
10× magnification.
2.6. Disassembly Procedure

2.6. Disassembly Procedure of the Injection
of the Injection Systems
Systems
The
The common-rail
common-rail injector
injector consists
consists of
of two
two parts: injector body
parts: injector body and
and nozzle
nozzle body.
body. The
The most
most easily
easily
affected parts, besides the nozzle holes, are the injector’s moving components, like needle, plunger,
affected parts, besides the nozzle holes, are the injector’s moving components, like needle, plunger,
and
and spring. An exploded
spring. An exploded view
view of
of this
this injector
injector is
is presented
presented in
in Figure
Figure 4.
4.
c b
a
e d
4. Common-rail
Figure 4. Common-railinjector
injectorcomponents.
components.From
From right
right to to
left:left:
(a) (a) Injector
Injector bodybody including
including supply
supply and
and return
return fuel line,
fuel line, (b) spring,
(b) spring, (c) plunger
(c) plunger and nozzle
and nozzle bodybody including
including (d) needle,
(d) needle, (e) nozzle
(e) nozzle house,
house, and
andwasher.
(f) (f) washer.
An exploded view of the inline pump of the RF91 engine is shown in Figure
Figure 5. There is only one
pump element (single cylinder engine) and thethe components
components are
are arranged
arranged inline.
inline. The most critical
components of the high-pressure pump are the plunger,
plunger, Figure
Figure 5a,
5a, and
and the
the barrel,
barrel, Figure
Figure 5b.
5b. The
plunger is driven by the pump camshaft and reset by the plunger spring, and the plunger stroke is
constant. The plunger compresses fuel as it moves upward and delivers it to the nozzle.
nozzle.
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 10 of 21
23
b a
Figure 5. Exploded view of New Diesel pump. (a)

(a) plunger;
plunger; (b)
(b) barrel;
barrel.
The disassembly
disassemblyprocedure
procedureofofeach pumping
each pumping cylinder of the
cylinder of CP1S pumppump
the CP1S consisted of three
consisted ofstages,
three
as shown
stages, in Figure
as shown 6. At the
in Figure beginning,
6. At the four
the beginning, the overhead
four overheadtorx torx
screws are removed,
screws allowing
are removed, the
allowing
removal of the cast steel pump valve head, as presented in Figure 6a,b. In the second stage,
the removal of the cast steel pump valve head, as presented in Figure 6a,b. In the second stage, as as shown
in Figure
shown in 6c, the steel
Figure valve
6c, the plate,
steel which
valve includes
plate, whichsuction
includesand delivery
suction andvalves, is removed.
delivery valves, isFinally,
removed.the
pumping element is removed, which consists of plunger, barrel, and spring.
Finally, the pumping element is removed, which consists of plunger, barrel, and spring.
(a) head removal (b) valve plate on top
(c) valve plate removal (d) pumping element removal

Figure 6. Disassembly
Figure 6. Disassembly steps
steps of
of the
the common-rail
common-rail high-pressure
high-pressure pump:
pump: removal
removal of
of head,
head, valve
valve plate,
plate,
and pumping element.
and pumping element.
An
An exploded
exploded view
view ofof the
the dismantled
dismantled pump
pump is
is presented in Figure
presented in Figure 7.
7. The
The pump
pump consists
consists of
of three
three
pumping cylinders, as described below.
pumping cylinders, as described below.
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 11 of 21
Energies
Energies 2019,
2019, 12,
12, x
x FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 11
11 of
of 23
22
Cylinder
Cylinder 33 Cylinder
Cylinder 11
Cylinder
Cylinder 22
Figure 7. Disassembly view

Figure 7. of the Bosch CP1S high-pressure pump, showing components assessed
Disassembly view of the Bosch CP1S high-pressure pump, showing components assessed
for wear.
for wear.
3.
3. Inspection
Inspection Results
Inspection Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
In
In this section, the
this section, the impact
impact of
of high-
high- and
and low-percentage biodiesel blends
low-percentage biodiesel blends on on the
the fuel
fuel system
system
components’ durability,
durability, of
of modern
modern and
and conventional
conventional diesel
diesel engines,
engines,
components’ durability, of modern and conventional diesel engines, is presented. is
is presented.
presented.
Biodiesel is
Biodiesel is characterized
is characterized
characterizedby by poor
bypoor oxidation
pooroxidation
oxidation stability
stability thatthat
stability causes
causes
that the the
causes fuelfuel
the to
to biodegrade
to biodegrade
fuel biodegrade over
over time.
over
time.
This This
This process
time.process is
is amplified
is amplified
process due todue
amplified to
to improper
improper
due storage
improper storage and
and handling
and handling
storage along along
handling the
the retail
along retail
retail distribution
the distribution chain.
distribution
chain.
The
chain. The
results results
The of of
of oxidation
oxidation
results include
include bacterial
oxidation bacterial
include growth in growth
bacterial tanks and
growth in tanks
tanks and
in plugging and plugging
of fuel filters,of
plugging fuel
fuel filters,
ofinjectors, and
filters,
injectors, and
high-pressure high-pressure
pumps [33]. pumps
injectors, and high-pressure pumps [33]. [33].
3.1. Fuel Filter

3.1. Plugging
3.1. Fuel FilterPlugging
Fuel Filter Plugging
Following the fuel line, thethefirst component of the injection system is the fuel filter, which consists
Following thethe fuel
fuel line,
line, the first
first component
component of of the
the injection
injection system
system isis the
the fuel
fuel filter,
filter, which
which
of the
consists box and the filter. Figure 8 illustrates fuel filter’s condition after 150 h operation with B70 blend.
consists of the box and the filter. Figure 8 illustrates fuel filter’s condition after 150 h operation with
of the box and the filter. Figure 8 illustrates fuel filter’s condition after 150 h operation with
It is obviousItthat
B70 the filter wasthe totally plugged by sticky slurry, causingslurry,
problems in the fuel flow from
B70 blend.
blend. It is
is obvious
obvious that that the filter
filter was
was totally
totally plugged
plugged by by sticky
sticky slurry, causing
causing problems
problems in in the
the
the filter
fuel flow to thethe
from high-pressure
filter to the pump. A significant
high-pressure pump. quantity
A of brown
significant dense
quantity of slurry
brown was also
dense found
slurry at
was
fuel flow from the filter to the high-pressure pump. A significant quantity of brown dense slurry was
the bottom of
also the filter box.ofThis finding is in accordanceiswith the reported results of other researchers
also found
found atat the bottom
bottom of the the filter
filter box.
box. This
This finding
finding is inin accordance
accordance with
with the
the reported
reported results
results of
of
and associations
other researchers [42].
and associations [42].
other researchers and associations [42].
Figure 8. Fuel filter holder (left) and the filter cartridge (right) of the DW10 engine after 100 h operation
Figure
with B708.
Figure Fuel
8.and 50filter
Fuel holder
h operation
filter (left)
holder with and
(left)B20 the
and(see filter
filter7).cartridge
theTable cartridge (right)
(right) of
of the
the DW10
DW10 engine
engine after
after 100
100 h
h
operation with B70 and 50 h operation with B20 (see
operation with B70 and 50 h operation with B20 (see Table 7). Table 7).
Energies 2019, 12, 1953
x FOR PEER REVIEW 12of
12 of 23
21
3.2. Common-Rail Injector Wear
3.2.
3.2. Common-Rail
Common-Rail Injector
Injector Wear
Wear
The next affected component of the injection system is the injectors. The effect of biodiesel fuel
on theThe
The next
next affected
long-termaffected component
of fuelof
component
durability of the
theinjection
pumps injection system
system
or injectors is
is the
is an the injectors.
injectors.
important The
The effect
subject effect of
for all biodiesel
ofbiodiesel fuel
biodieselfleet
fuel
on the long-term
on thesince
users, long-term durability
durability
fuel injectors of fuel pumps
andofespecially
fuel pumps or injectors is an
or injectors pumps
high-pressure important
is an important subject
are costlysubject for
parts. for all biodiesel
all biodiesel
A new fleet
fleet
set of DW10
users,
users, since
since fuel
fuel injectors
injectors and
and especially
especially
common-rail injectors is shown in Figure 9. high-pressure
high-pressure pumps
pumps are
are costly
costly parts.
parts. A
A new
new set
set of
of DW10
DW10
common-rail
common-rail injectors
injectorsisisshown
shownin inFigure
Figure9.9.
Figure 9. New
New set
set of
of common-rail
common-rail injectors (left) and injector nozzle (right).
Figure 9. New set of common-rail injectors (left) and injector nozzle (right).
On the other hand, Figure 10 presents the condition of injectors after the prolonged testing with
B70 fuel. It is
On the
It isother
obvious
hand,
obvious Figure
that 10 presents
the nozzle the condition
body and totallyafter
of injectors
the holes were covered by a dense testing
the prolonged slurry.
slurry. with
B70 fuel. It is obvious that the nozzle body and the holes were totally covered by a dense slurry.
Figure 10. Used common-rail injectors (left) and closer view of the deposits (right).
Figure 10. Used common-rail injectors (left) and closer view of the deposits (right).
In orderFigure
to better understand
10. Used the impact
common-rail injectorsof(left)
biodiesel, each
and closer injector
view of the was analyzed
deposits (right).by means of
low magnification
In order to better optical microscopy.
understand Severalof
the impact photos, magnification
biodiesel, 10×,
each injector wasof the nozzleby
analyzed body,
meanstip of
low In order
the nozzle, andtothe
magnification better understand
nozzle
optical holes areathe
microscopy. impact
were
Several of
taken. biodiesel,
Figure
photos, each injector
11 shows
magnificationheavy
10×, was
oily analyzed
of deposits
the onby
nozzle themeans
body,injector
tip ofof
low
nozzle
the magnification
that and
nozzle, disturbed optical microscopy.
the flow
the nozzle holespattern Several
of the
area were photos,
injected
taken. magnification
fuel.
Figure 11 Nozzle 10×,
holes were
shows heavy of the nozzle body,
totally covered
oily deposits tip
except
on the injector of
thethe
for
nozzlenozzle,
that and the nozzle
first disturbed
injector, wherebyholes
the flow thearea
holes
patternwere taken.
remained
of the Figure
open.
injected 11Nozzle
Based
fuel. shows heavy
on these oily deposits
holesfigures,
were on and
the third
totally the injector
covered fourth
except
nozzle
injectors
for that
seem
the first disturbed
to have
injector, the flowthe
serious
whereby pattern
holes of
operation the injected
problems.
remained fuel.
open. Nozzle
Based holesfigures,
on these were totally covered
the third except
and fourth
for the first
The seem
injectors injector,
next step
to have whereby
wasserious the holes
to disassemble
operation remained
and open. Based on these figures, the third and
clean the injectors according to the official repair manual,
problems. fourth
injectors
as shownseem to have
in Figure serious
4. The operation
cleaning processproblems.
included the removal of the brownish lacquer deposit via
an ultrasonic bath in an aggressive detergent, at temperature of 60 ◦ C. After the cleaning procedure,
the surfaces of each part were carefully investigated for wear by means of the optical microscope.
Figure 12 presents photos of the clean nozzle plungers. It was obvious that the prolonged operation
with biodiesel led to further corrosion of the plungers, as indicated by the red circles.
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 13 of 21
Figure 11. Common-rail injectors magnified view (10×) after 100 h operation with B70 fuel.
The next step was to disassemble and clean the injectors according to the official repair manual,
as shown in Figure 4. The cleaning process included the removal of the brownish lacquer deposit via
an ultrasonic bath in an aggressive detergent, at temperature of 60 °C. After the cleaning procedure,
Figure 11. Common-rail injectors magnified view (10×) after 100 h operation with B70 fuel.
The next step was to disassemble and clean the injectors according to the official repair manual,
as shown in Figure 4. The cleaning process included the removal of the brownish lacquer deposit via
an ultrasonic bath in an aggressive detergent, at temperature of 60 °C. After the cleaning procedure,
Figure 12.
Figure 12. Magnified view (10×) of the injector plungers.
Even though biodiesel provides better lubricity than diesel, corrosive wear and friction increase
due to absorbing moisture. Biodiesel
Biodiesel is
is more
more hygroscopic
hygroscopic than
than diesel
diesel fuel
fuel and
and it attracts moisture,
moisture,
causing hydrolysis and the formation of organic acids and bacteria.
formation of organic acids and bacteria.
3.3. Standard Mechanical

3.3. Standard Mechanical Injector Wear
Injector Wear
Taking into account the previous
Figure findings,
12. Magnified the(10×)
view sameofprocedure
the injectorwas applied to the RF91 mechanical
plungers.
injector. Figure 13 presents a comparative view of the injector after 100 h operation with biodiesel
blends.
EvenThe nozzlebiodiesel
though holes area and thebetter
provides nozzle body were
lubricity thancovered by oily deposits
diesel, corrosive wear andandfriction
white additive
increase
ash,
due influencing
to absorbinginjection andBiodiesel
moisture. combustion efficiency.
is more hygroscopic than diesel fuel and it attracts moisture,
causing hydrolysis and the formation of organic acids and bacteria.
3.3. Standard Mechanical Injector Wear

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22
14 of 23
Taking into account the previous findings, the same procedure was applied to the RF91
mechanical injector. Figure 13 presents a comparative view of the injector after 100 h operation with
biodiesel
Energies blends.
2019, 12, 1953The nozzle holes area and the nozzle body were covered by oily deposits and 14
white
of 21
additive ash, influencing injection and combustion efficiency.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 13. RF91 nozzle tip magnified (a) after 100 h operation with B20 and B50, including 50 ppm
cerium-doped
Figure fuel
13. RF91 additive;
nozzle and (b) after
tip magnified ultrasonic
(a) after 100 hcleaning.
operation with B20 and B50, including 50 ppm
cerium-doped fuel additive; and (b) after ultrasonic
ultrasonic cleaning.
cleaning.
3.4. Common-Rail High-pressure Pump Disassembly
3.4. Common-Rail High-pressure
3.4. Common-Rail High-pressure Pump
Pump Disassembly
Disassembly
As reported above, the critical failure was that of the high-pressure pump. A summary of the
As
As reported
diagnosis procedure
reported above, the
the critical
is presented
above, critical failure
below.
failure Aswas that
that of
reported
was inthe
of high-pressure
[43],
the in October 2010,
high-pressure pump.
pump. afterA summary
Arepeated
summaryfailuresof
of the
the
diagnosis procedure
to start, a procedure
diagnosis is presented
thorough inspection
is presented below.
of below. As
the fuelAslinesreported in [43],
and injection
reported in October
in [43], insystem
October 2010,
was after
carried
2010, repeated
afterout. failures
The findings
repeated to
failures
start,
were
to a
start,thorough
presented
a thorough inspection
above. of
Starting of
inspection the
from fuel
thethe lines
fuel fuel and injection
filter,
lines system
anda significant
injection system was
quantitycarried out.
wasofcarried The
dense slurry findings
out. The were
richfindings
in fatty
presented
were presented above. Starting from the fuel filter, a significant quantity of dense slurry rich inesters
esters was above. Starting
observed. Afterfrom the
cleaning fuelthe filter,
fuel a significant
filter, the quantity
fuel injectorsof dense
were slurry
removed. rich in
The fatty
injector’s
fatty
was
nozzle
estersobserved.
was After
and observed.
holes were cleaning the fuel filter,
foundcleaning
After covered by heavy,
the thefilter,
fuel fuel
oilyinjectors
carbon were
the fueldeposits. removed.
injectors were The
Proceeding injector’s
removed. Thenozzle
with disassembling and
injector’s
holes
the setwere
nozzle and found
of injectors, covered
holes were a certain
found bycovered
heavy,
quantity oily carbon
byofheavy,
the same deposits.
oily oily
carbon Proceeding
deposit
deposits. with disassembling
wasProceeding
found in the needle
with the set
tip.
disassembling of
After
injectors,
installing
the a certain
set of ainjectors, quantity
new setaofcertain of the same
fuel injectors,
quantity the oily
of thedeposit
engine was
samestill found
oilycould
deposit in the
notwas needle
startfound tip.
and the After
in the installing
indication
needle tip. froma new
the
After
set of fuel injectors,
ETAS-INCA
installing [44] set
a new theofengine
interfacefuelwas still could
zero
injectors, rail not
the start and
pressure.
engine thecould
indication
Inspection
still from and
continued
not start the ETAS-INCA
with thetheindication [44]from
high-pressure interface
fuel
the
was
lineszero
andrail
ETAS-INCA pressure.
the[44]
common-rail Inspection
interface without
was zerocontinued
any pressure.
rail with Inspection
important the high-pressure
findings. Finally,fuel
continued lines
thewith andhigh-pressure
high-pressure
the the common-rail
fuel pump fuel
without
was examined
lines any important findings.
and it was without
and the common-rail Finally,
found that the high-pressure
anyallimportant
fuel wasfindings. fuel pump
diverted Finally, was
to the returnexamined and it
line. Dismantled
the high-pressure was found
dirty
fuel pump
that
was all
componentsfuel was
examined diverted
of and
CP1Sit pump to the
was foundreturn
are line.
presented
that allDismantled
in Figures
fuel dirty
14–17.
was diverted components
Examination of CP1S
to the return ofline.pump
the fuelare presented
pump
Dismantled parts
dirty
in Figuresa14–17.
revealed
components thin Examination
of brownish
CP1S pump of the
lacquer
are fuel pump
coating
presented onintheparts revealed
barrel
Figures and the
14–17. aExamination
thin brownish
internal oflacquer
cavities theoffuel coating
the valveon
pump the
head.
parts
barrel and
The lacquer
revealed the internal
wasbrownish
a thin cavities
hard, dry, of the
and could
lacquer valve
coating head.
be removed The
on the barrel lacquer
by way was
andofthe hard,
aninternaldry,
ultrasonic and could
bath. of
cavities be
Inthe removed
addition, by
there
valve head.
way
The ofsticky
an ultrasonic
werelacquer dark
was brown
hard,bath.and
dry,Inand
addition,
black there
particles
could were
on
be removed thesticky
barrel,
by way dark ofbrown
spring, anand and black
valve
ultrasonic particles
chamber,
bath. In as on the barrel,
indicated
addition, by
there
spring,
the red
were and valve
circles
sticky chamber,
in Figures
dark brown and as
14 and indicated
black 16,particles by the
respectively. red circles in Figures 14 and 16, respectively.
on the barrel, spring, and valve chamber, as indicated by
the red circles in Figures 14 and 16, respectively.
Figure 14. Pumping elements of the CP1S pump cylinders (barrel, plunger, spring). Two out of the
three elements were stuck in the Top Dead Center position (end of delivery stroke).
Figure
Energies 2019, 12,14. Pumping elements of the CP1S pump cylinders (barrel, plunger, spring). Two out of the 15 of 21
1953
Figure 14. Pumping
three elements wereelements
stuck in of
thethe CP1S
Top pump
Dead cylinders
Center (barrel,
position (end plunger, spring).
of delivery Two out of the
stroke).
three elements were stuck in the Top Dead Center position (end of delivery stroke).
Figure15.
Figure
Figure 15.Top
15. Top
Top view
view
view of
ofof pumping
pumping
pumping elements
elements
elements covered
covered
covered by
bygummy
by gummygummy deposits.
deposits.
deposits.
Figure
Energies 2019, 12, 16.
x FOR16.
Figure Affected
PEER REVIEW
Affected valve
valveheads.
heads.Black sticky
Black particles
sticky werewere
particles observed in twoin
observed of two
them.
of them. 16 of 23
Figure 16. Affected valve heads. Black sticky particles were observed in two of them.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 17. High-pressure delivery tube (a) and delivery valve (b) of the third cylinder, which were
Figure 17. High-pressure
High-pressure delivery
delivery tube
tube (a)
(a) and
and delivery
delivery valve
valve (b)
(b) of
of the
the third
third cylinder, which were
totally covered by sticky deposits.
totally covered by sticky deposits.
It should be noted that in this type of pump (CP1S) the plunger is not subjected to a purely axial
It should be noted that in this type of pump pump (CP1S)
(CP1S) the plunger is not subjected
subjected to aa purely
purely axial
load. Thus, a certain degree of surface wear may be present, which is enhanced by the presence of
load. Thus, aa certain
Thus, certain degree ofof surface wear
wear may
may bebe present,
present, which
which is is enhanced
enhanced by by
biofuel, as shown indegree
Figure 18.surface
The most important parameter when one deals with the presence of
fuel-injection
biofuel,
biofuel, as shown in Figure 18. The
The most important
important parameter
parameter when
when one deals with fuel-injection
system parts is the surface roughness of the high-pressure mating components. It is important to
system
system parts is the surface roughness of the high-pressure
high-pressure mating
mating
investigate if any deterioration is present. The surface areas positioned components.
components.
close to the Itbottom
It is important
important
of the to
investigate ififany
pump plungers anydeterioration
and to the topisof
deterioration present.
is The
present.
barrels surface
The
were areas
surface
examined positioned
areas
with closeclose
positioned
optical to thetobottom
microscopy. of the of
the bottom pump
the
plungers and to the top of barrels were examined with optical microscopy.
pump plungers and to the top of barrels were examined with optical microscopy.
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 16 of 21
Figure18.
Figure 18.Magnified
Magnified view (10×)
(10×)of
ofthe
theclean
cleanpump
pumpplungers.
plungers.
It It
cancanbebeclearly
clearlyseen
seenthat
thatfirst
firstplunger
plunger (to the left)
left) was
was found
foundininthe
theworst
worstcondition.
condition.Only thethe
Only
third
third oneone (Figure
(Figure 18,18, right)
right) shows
shows thethe characteristic
characteristic bright
bright appearance
appearance of of
thethe chromium
chromium plating
plating (20(20
µm).
μm). Furthermore, the wear on barrels was localized in the fuel flow line and appeared
Furthermore, the wear on barrels was localized in the fuel flow line and appeared in the form of brown in the form
of brown
imprints thatimprints
should that should beto
be attributed attributed to thebehavior
the corrosive corrosiveofbehavior
biodiesel,of as
biodiesel, as presented
presented in Figure in
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 19.
23
Figure 19.
Figure 19.
Figure19. Magnified
19.Magnified top
Magnified top view
view (10×)
top view (10×) of the clean pump barrels.
Figure (10×)ofofthe
theclean
cleanpump
pumpbarrels.
barrels.
As shown
showninin Figure 19, the first pump
pump barrel
barrel was, again, in the worst condition in regards to
AsAsshown inFigure
Figure19,
19,the
thefirst
first pump was,
was, again,
again,ininthe
theworst
worstcondition in in
condition regards to to
regards
surface
surface corrosion, and
corrosion,and the
andthe third
thethird one
thirdone was
onewas in
wasin the
in the best
the best condition.
best condition.
condition.
surface corrosion,
3.5. Gasket O-Rings and Seal Condition
3.5.3.5. Gasket
Gasket O-Rings
O-Rings andand SealSeal Condition
Condition
After
After careful
careful inspection
inspection of the
the pump
of pump pump head gaskets, delivery ports
ports gaskets, teflon
teflon washers,
After careful inspection of the headhead gaskets,
gaskets, delivery
delivery ports gaskets, gaskets,
teflon washers, washers,
camshaft
camshaft
camshaft housing,
housing, O-rings,
O-rings, and
and the
the drive
drive shaft
shaft seal,
seal, it
it was
was concluded
concluded that
that no
no significant
significant wear
wear from
from or
housing, O-rings, and the drive shaft seal, it was concluded that no significant wear from oxidation
oxidation
oxidation or swelling
or swelling were
wereno present,
present, and no visible leaks were observed (Figure 20a,b).
swelling were present, and visibleand no were
leaks visible leaks were
observed observed
(Figure (Figure 20a,b).
20a,b).
Gaskets
Gaskets and
and O-rings
O-rings are
are made
made by
by Nitrile
Nitrile and
and Fluorocarbon
Fluorocarbon elastomer
elastomer compounds,
compounds, which
which are
areare
Gaskets and
compatible O-rings areTaking
made by Nitrile andtheFluorocarbon elastomertechnical
compounds, which
compatible with biodiesel. Taking into account the seal manufacturer’s technical notes [45], it
with biodiesel. into account seal manufacturer’s notes [45], it
compatible
becomes with biodiesel. Taking into account thefluorocarbon.
seal manufacturer’s technical notes [45], it becomes
becomes obvious
obvious that
that their
their sealing
sealing compound
compound is is fluorocarbon. The The drive
drive shaft
shaft seal
seal type
type is is indicated
indicated
obvious
with that theirAccording
sealing compound is fluorocarbon.[19,46], The drive shaft seal type is indicated with
with red
red boxes.
boxes. According to to the
the specialized
specialized literature
literature [19,46], these
these compounds
compounds would would be be expected
expected
red
to boxes. According to the specialized literature [19,46], these compounds would be expected to
to deteriorate
deteriorate after
after prolonged
prolonged use use and/or
and/or high-percentage
high-percentage biodiesel
biodiesel blends.
blends. However,
However, in in our
our case,
case, nono
deteriorate
significant after prolonged use and/or high-percentage biodiesel blends. However, in our case, no
significant deterioration
deterioration or or swelling
swelling was was observed,
observed, which
which is is expected
expected duedue toto the
the limited
limited hours
hours of of
significant
testing. deterioration
Thus, the main or swelling
damage to the was
pumpobserved,
remains which
the is expected
sticking of two dueoftothe
out the limited
three hours of
unit-pump
testing. Thus, the main damage to the pump remains the sticking of two out of the three unit-pump
testing.
plungers
plungersThus,
on the main
on their
their barrels,
barrels,damage
close totheir
close to
to the pump
their TDC remains the
TDC positions,
positions, andsticking
and the of twosticking
the additional
additional out of the
sticking of three
of the
the unit-pump
suction
suction and
and
plungers
delivery on their
valves barrels,
for all close
three to
pump
delivery valves for all three pump units. their
units.TDC positions, and the additional sticking of the suction and
delivery Based
valveson the
for above
all three findings,
pump which
units. agree with experience from other
Based on the above findings, which agree with experience from other researchers [27,47,48], it researchers [27,47,48], it
wouldBased
would not
notonbe wise
bethe
wise to
to exploit
above the
the full
findings,
exploit range
which
full of
of biodiesel
rangeagree blending
blending with
with experience
biodiesel from
with these
other
these types of
of engines
researchers
types until
until the
engines[27,47,48], the it
required
would
required fuel
not be system
fuelwise modifications
to exploit
system are
the full are
modifications rangedecided by
of biodiesel
decided the manufacturers.
blending with these
by the manufacturers. A maximum blending
types ofblending
A maximum enginesof of 20%
until
20%the
on
on average
required would
would be
fuel system
average aa more
more conservative
modifications
be are decided
conservative approach.
by the manufacturers. A maximum blending of 20% on
approach.
average would be a more conservative approach.
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 17 of 21
(a) (b)
(c)
(c)
Figure
Figure 20. Elastomer
Figure
20. Elastomer parts
20. Elastomer
parts ofof
parts
of CP1S pump
CP1Spump
CP1S (gaskets,
pump(gaskets, O-rings,washers,
(gaskets, O-rings,
O-rings, washers,
washers,andand seal).
seal).
and (a)pump
(a) pump
seal). (a) pump gaskets
gaskets and
and and
gaskets
o-rings;
o-rings; (b) (b) pump
pump drive
drive shaftseal;
shaft (c)
seal;(c) materials
materials employed
employed in diesel
in fuel
diesel pump
fuel pump shaft
o-rings; (b) pump drive shaft seal; (c) materials employed in diesel fuel pump shaft seals [44]. seals
shaft [44].
seals [44].
3.6. 3.6. Standard

3.6. Standard
Standard Pump-In-Line
Pump-In-Line
Pump-In-Line Disassembly
Disassembly
Disassembly
The design and principle of the operation of the pump-in-line system employed in the RF91
The
Thedesign
designandandprinciple
principleof of
thethe
operation of the
operation of pump-in-line system
the pump-in-line employed
system in the in
employed RF91
thesingle
RF91
single cylinder engine is shown in Figure 21.
cylinder engine is shown in Figure 21.
single cylinder engine is shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21. Design

Figure21. Design and
and functional
functional principle
principleof
ofthe
theinline
inlinepump
pumpinjection
injectionsystem.
system.
Analogous findings with the previous case were observed in the unit pump of the single
cylinder engine. The pump plunger was stuck at the top dead center position (see Figure 22, view
from the top, and Figure 23, right, after the dismantling of the plunger). Deposits were found also on
the inside of the pump housing (Figure 23). Signs of wear were also visible on the pump cylinder
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 18 of 21
Analogous findings with the previous case were observed in the unit pump of the single cylinder
engine. The pump plunger was stuck at the top dead center position (see Figure 22, view from the top,
and Figure 23, right, after the dismantling of the plunger). Deposits were found also on the inside of
the pump housing (Figure 23). Signs of wear were also visible on the pump cylinder (Figure 24) and
the plunger’s surface (Figure 25).
As reported above, the surface quality of precision assemblies in the injection pump has a large
impact on the proper operation of the engine. Both the plunger and the barrel of the pumping section
are adjusted, so that the gap between the side surface of the plunger and the inner surface of the barrel
is approximately 2–5 µm. This clearance provides sufficient lubrication of the side surfaces of the
plunger and
Energies barrel,
2019, while
12, x FOR PEERstill providing enough sealing to maintain the high-pressure of
REVIEW 18 fuel.
of 22 The
penetration of slurry deposits between the surface of the plunger and the barrel can cause the sticking
Analogous
of the pumping findings
elements, withthe
as was thecase
previous case
with the were observed
reported findings.inThe
the sticking
unit pump of the single
of pumping elements
cylinder engine. The pump plunger was stuck at the top dead center position (see Figure 22, view
was repeatedly observed after operation with high-percentage biodiesel blends and the shutdown of
from the top, and Figure 23, right, after the dismantling of the plunger). Deposits were found also on
the engines for12,
Energies 2019, a period of two
x FOR PEER months or more. Moreover, this damage happened in two 19
REVIEW fuel pumps
of 23
the inside of the pump housing (Figure 23). Signs of wear were also visible on the pump cylinder
of different technologies and injection pressures.
(Figure 24) and the plunger’s surface (Figure 25).
Figure 22. Closer view of the New Diesel pump’s stuck plunger.
Figure
Figure 22.22.
Figure Closer
Closer
22. view
view
Closer of
viewof the
ofthe New Diesel
NewDiesel
the New Diesel pump’s
pump’s
pump’s stuck
stuck plunger.
stuck plunger.
plunger.
Figure Figure
Figure
23.23. 23.
Inside Inside
Inside view
view
view ofof
of thepump
the
the pump housing.
pump housing.
housing. Gummy
Gummydeposits
Gummy are are
deposits
deposits present.
present.
are present.
Figure 23. Inside view of the pump housing. Gummy deposits are present.
Figure 24. Details of wear on the pump cylinder.
Figure24.
Figure 24.Details
Details of
of wear
wearon
onthe
thepump
pumpcylinder.
cylinder.
Figure 24. Details of wear on the pump cylinder.
Energies 2019, 12, 1953 19 of 21
Figure25.
Figure 25. Details
Details of
ofwear
wearon
onthe plunger.
the plunger.
4. Conclusions
As reported above, the surface quality of precision assemblies in the injection pump has a large
impact on the proper operation of the engine. Both the plunger and the barrel of the pumping
This paper summarizes experience on the deterioration of diesel-injection equipment parts from
section are adjusted, so that the gap between the side surface of the plunger and the inner surface of
the use
the of fuelisblends
barrel with high-percentages
approximately of biodiesel
2–5 μm. This clearance (upsufficient
provides to 70%)lubrication
on a common-rail,
of the sidehigh-pressure
surfaces
injection diesel engine and a single cylinder diesel engine.
of the plunger and barrel, while still providing enough sealing to maintain the high-pressure of fuel.
In regards
The to the
penetration high-pressure
of slurry fuel pump
deposits between of theofcommon-rail
the surface engine,
the plunger and it was
the barrel canfound that the
cause the
mainsticking
mode ofof failure was sticking
the pumping of as
elements, thewas
pumpthe pistons
case withnear
thetheir TDCfindings.
reported positions,Thedue to oxidation
sticking of
pumping
of their sleeveselements
at this was repeatedly
position. The observed
same mode afterof
operation with found
failure was high-percentage
with the biodiesel blends
inline fuel pump of
and the
the single shutdown
cylinder of theThis
engine. engines
typefor a periodisof
of failure nottwo months
fatal or pump
for the more. Moreover,
and can bethis damageby the
repaired
happened in two fuel pumps of different technologies and injection pressures.
disassembly and cleaning of the pump. However, successive repairs lead to increased wear on the
plunger-cylinder surfaces, and oxidation proceeds with prolonged use of high-percentage biodiesel
4. Conclusions
blends. The condition of the various gaskets and O-rings in the high-pressure pump of the common-rail
system wasThisfound
papertosummarizes experience
be normal without anyonsigns
the of
deterioration
deterioration.of diesel-injection
This should beequipment
expected parts
due to the
from the use of fuel blends with high-percentages of biodiesel (up to 70%) on a common-rail,
short operation time with biodiesel blends. However, this relatively short operating time, of the order
high-pressure injection diesel engine and a single cylinder diesel engine.
of 100 h, was sufficient to cause damage to the pumps.
In regards to the high-pressure fuel pump of the common-rail engine, it was found that the
As a mode
main general remark,
of failure thesticking
was use of of
biodiesel
the pump blends
pistonshigher thanTDC
near their B20positions,
must be combined with of
due to oxidation engine-
and fuel-injection
their sleeves atsystem protection
this position. measures
The same mode and thesewas
of failure engines
foundshould not
with the stayfuel
inline shut down
pump of for
the more
than single
one month in such
cylinder cases,
engine. Thisintype
orderof to avoidis sticking
failure not fataloffor
thethe
fuel pump
pump andplungers. The most
can be repaired by probable
the
reason that suchand
disassembly instances areofnot
cleaning the reported in the specialized
pump. However, literature
successive repairs leadistothat the durability
increased tests are
wear on the
plunger-cylinder surfaces, and oxidation proceeds with prolonged use of high-percentage
accelerated tests, which do not normally include large periods of intermediate engine shut down. biodiesel
blends. The condition of the various gaskets and O-rings in the high-pressure pump of the
Author Contributions:
common-rail Conceptualization,
system was found to be A.M.S.;
normal Methodology,
without anyA.M.S.;
signs D.N.T.; Investigation,
of deterioration. ThisD.N.T.;
shouldResources,
be
A.M.S.; D.N.T.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, D.N.T.; Writing—Review & Editing,
expected due to the short operation time with biodiesel blends. However, this relatively short A.M.S.; Visualization,
D.N.T.; Supervision, A.M.S.; Project Administration, D.N.T.
operating time, of the order of 100 h, was sufficient to cause damage to the pumps.
Funding: AsThisa research
general received
remark, notheexternal
use of funding.
biodiesel blends higher than B20 must be combined with
engine- and fuel-injection
Acknowledgments: The authorssystem
would protection measures
like to thank theirand these Mechanical
former engines should not stay shut
Engineering downNikos
students
for more
Sakalidis than one
and Manos month in such
Papadopetrakis forcases,
their in order toinavoid
assistance sticking
the tests of the fuel pump
and disassembly of theplungers. The in the
RF91 engine,
framemost
of their Diploma
probable Thesisthat
reason in the Laboratory
such instancesofare
Thermodynamics
not reported inand theThermal Engines,
specialized University
literature is thatofthe
Thessaly.
Additionally, special thanks are due to personnel from the company Sielman SA, Volos Greece,
durability tests are accelerated tests, which do not normally include large periods of intermediate for their assistance
with the disassembly and photographing of the Bosch CP1S common-rail fuel pump.
engine shut down.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.S.; Methodology, A.S.; D.T.; Investigation, D.T.; Resources, A.S.;
D.T.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, D.T.; Writing—Review & Editing, A.S.; Visualization, D.T.;
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article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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energies

Abstract: The application of biodiesel blends is known to significantly affect operation of

1.1. Biodiesel Fuel Quality and Stability Problems

Energies 2019, 12, 1953; doi:10.3390/en12101953 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Figure 1. Effects of biodiesel oxidation stability problems on engine operation.

1.2. Main Types of High-Pressure Pumps for Passenger Cars.

(standard), CP1K (compact),

1.3. Plunger Manufacturing Process

1.4. Elastomer Parts Compatibility

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 22

Table 2. PSA DW10 ATED engine specifications.

Table 3. Ruggerini RF91 engine specifications.

Engine Type DI 4-Stroke Naturally-Aspirated Diesel Engine

Table 3. Ruggerini RF91 engine specifications.

Engine Type DI 4-Stroke Naturally-Aspirated Diesel Engine

2.2. Fuel Injection Systems of the Engines Studied

Table 4. PSA DW10 ATED injection system specifications.

Table 5. Ruggerini RF91engine injection system specifications.

2.3. Properties of Fuels Employed

Specifications/Ranges Biodiesel (FAME) Diesel

2.4. Period of Operation with Biodiesel Fuels

DW10 DW10 RF91

2.5. Cleaning and Optical Microscopy Procedure

2.6. Disassembly Procedure

Figure 5. Exploded view of New Diesel pump. (a)

(a) head removal (b) valve plate on top

(c) valve plate removal (d) pumping element removal

Figure 7. Disassembly view

3.1. Fuel Filter

3.3. Standard Mechanical

3.3. Standard Mechanical Injector Wear

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23

3.6. 3.6. Standard

Figure 21. Design

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23

Figure 24. Details of wear on the pump cylinder.

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