Global Chemical Outlook PDF

Global Chemicals Outlook II
From Legacies to Innovative Solutions: Implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
Copyright © United Nations Environment Programme, 2019
Reproduction
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit
purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the
source is made. The United Nations Environment Programme would appreciate receiving a copy of any
publication that uses this publication as a source.
No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever
without prior permission in writing from the United Nations Environment Programme.
Disclaimer
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations Environment Programme
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Moreover, the views expressed do not necessarily represent
the decision or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, nor does citing of trade
names or commercial processes constitute endorsement.
ISBN No: 978-92-807-3745-5

Job No: DTI/2230/GE
Feedback and contact

The United Nations Environment Programme encourages interested readers of this report to engage
and become part of the Global Chemicals Outlook II community. We are keen to hear your views about
the report and how it makes a difference on the ground.
Please contact: [email protected]
UNEP promotes
environmentally sound
practices globally and in its own
Cover photo: activities. This publication will be
© Bannafarsai_Stock/Shutterstock
available as an electronic document.
Our distribution policy aims to reduce
UNEP’s carbon footprint.
About the Global Chemicals Outlook II
T
he first edition of the Global Chemicals input and options for implementation of actions
Outlook, published in February 2013, to reach relevant Sustainable Development Goals
assembled scientific, technical and socio- and targets up to and beyond 2020. Resolution
economic information on the sound management 2/7 also requested the Executive Director to
of chemicals. It covered trends and indicators for ensure that the updated Global Chemicals Outlook
chemical production, transport, use and disposal, addresses the issues which have been identified
and associated health and environmental as emerging policy issues by the International
impacts; economic implications of these trends, Conference on Chemicals Management (the
including costs of inaction and benefits of action; governing body of the Strategic Approach to
and instruments and approaches for sound International Chemicals Management) as well as
management of chemicals. other issues where emerging evidence indicates
a risk to human health and the environment.
Decision 27/12, adopted by the Governing Council
of the United Nations Environment Programme The second edition of the Global Chemicals
in 2013, recognized the significance of the Outlook has been prepared with substantive
findings of the first Global Chemicals Outlook, contributions from more than 400 experts and
which highlighted the significant increase in the under the guidance of a Steering Committee,
manufacture and use of chemicals globally, their which provided oversight, strategic directions
importance to national and global economies and and guidance on all aspects of the report’s
the costs and negative effects on human health development, as well as technical inputs,
and the environment of unsound chemicals where applicable. The Steering Committee was
management, and made recommendations for composed of representatives from Governments,
future action. Decision 27/12 also requested the non-governmental organizations (including
Executive Director to continue work on the Global civil society, industry/the private sector, and
Chemicals Outlook, particularly in areas where academia) and inter-governmental organizations,
data were found to be lacking or inadequate, with participation from all regions and a wide
and to enhance transparency through regionally range of stakeholders.
balanced stakeholder involvement, inter alia,
with a view to developing in the future a tool The Global Chemicals Outlook
for assessing progress towards the achievement II is complemented by the
of the sound management of chemicals and Global Chemicals Outlook II
hazardous wastes, including the existing 2020 Summary for Policymakers
goal, taking into account and building upon other and the Global Chemicals
existing sources of information. Outlook II Synthesis Report.
The Synthesis Report
Resolution 2/7, adopted by the United Nations summarizes key findings
Environment Assembly in 2016, requested the and insights of the full report and follows the
Executive Director to submit an update of the first same five-part structure. It was launched at the
Global Chemicals Outlook, addressing, inter alia, the fourth session of the United Nations Environment
work carried out particularly in relation to lacking Assembly in March 2019. The shorter Summary
or inadequate data to assess progress towards for Policymakers was tabled as a working
the 2020 goal, the development of non-chemical document of the fourth session of the United
alternatives, and the linkages between chemicals Nations Environment Assembly and is available
and waste, in coordination with the Global Waste in all six UN languages.
Management Outlook, and providing scientific
i
Acknowledgements
T
he Global Chemicals Outlook II has been Claudia ten Have, Baskut Tuncak, Carolyn Vickers,
developed through substantive input Melissa Mengjiao Wang, Katherine Weber, Felix
from a wide range of experts, and Wertli, Susan Wilburn, and Kei Ohno Woodall.
through collaboration with numerous partner Back-up support to members of the Committee
organizations. The United Nations Environment was provided by, among others, Angelina Buchar,
Programme wishes to thank all individuals and Tracey Easthope, Manoj Kumar Gangeya, Vassilios
organizations that have generously contributed Karavezyris, Sunday Leonard, Eugeniy Lobanov,
their expertise, time, and energy. Andrew McCartor, Geraint Roberts, Dolores
Romano, Leigh Stringer, Michel Tschirren, Victoria
The Steering Committee provided oversight, Tunstall, and Carla Valle-Klann.
strategic direction, guidance and technical
inputs throughout the process. The members Lead authors responsible for the drafting of
of the Committee were: Keith Alverson, foundational papers and specific chapters
Ingela Andersson, Heidar Ali Balouji, Ricardo were: Francisco Alpizar, Thomas Backhaus, Nils
Barra, Andrea Brown, Leticia Carvalho, Emma Decker, Ingo Eilks, Natalia Escobar-Pemberthy,
Chynoweth, Bob Diderich, Joe DiGangi, Szymon Peter Fantke, Ken Geiser, Maria Ivanova, Olivier
Domagalski, Jutta Emig, Richard Fuller, Veronique Jolliet, Ho-seok Kim, Kelvin Khisa, Haripriya
Garny, Fernando Gomez, Florencia Grimalt, Björn Gundimeda, Daniel Slunge, Stephen Stec, Joel
Hansen, Juergen Helbig, Sverre Thomas Jahre, Tickner, David Tyrer, Niko Urho, Rob Visser,
David Kapindula, Brenda Koekkoek, Brian Kohler, Mario Yarto, and Vania Gomes Zuin. Ken Geiser
Kouame Georges Kouadio, Klaus Kümmerer, served as coordinating author for Part I. Rob
Mungath Kutty, Vladimir Lenev, Suzanne Visser served as coordinating author for Parts
Leppinen, Jianguo Liu, Christoph Neumann, Jorge II and III. Lead authors for capturing regional
Ocaña, Hanna-Andrea Rother, Tatiana Santos, perspectives were Babajide Alo, Vera Barrantes,
© UNEP
ii
Li Jinhui, Anna Makarova, and Chen Yuan, with Ocampo Lopez, Stephen Macey, Prasad Modak,
further input provided by Mohamed Abdelraouf, Naglaa Mohamed Loutfy, Jennifer McKellar, Percy
Svein Rasmussen, Jeff Seadon, Noriyuki Suzuki, Onianwa, Kamlesh Pathak, Andreas Prevodnik,
Le Viet Thang, and Htwe Win. Alexander Romanov, Mark Rossi, Ted Smith,
Gustavo Solorzano, Gerard Swaen, Mohamed
Further substantive contributions were provided Tawfic, Zijian Wang, and Meriel Watts.
by: Katinka De Balogh, Marie-Ange Baucher,
Richard Blume, Rafael Cayuela, Maria Delfina Various organizations provided contributions to
Cuglievan, Heidelore Fiedler, John Haines, Lei the development of the Global Chemicals Outlook
Huang, Nicole Illner, Molly Jacobs LeFevre, Edwin II. The International Sustainable Chemistry
Janssen, Elisabeth Krausmann, Nyree Bekarian Collaborative Centre (ISC3) (overall lead:
Mack, Rachel Massey, Frank Moser, Amos Necci, Friedrich Barth; supported by Alexis Bazzanella,
Ieva Rucevska, David Sutherland, Urvi Talaty, Nils Decker, Agnes Dittmar, Silke Megelski and
Dirk Uhlemann, Elze van Hamelen, Willem van Brigitta Meier) provided support in co-organizing
Lanschot, Melissa Mengjiao Wang, Zhanyun the four regional workshops and the global
Wang, Maureen Wood, Oliver Wootton, and workshop, as well as substantive contributions
Evetta Zenina. on megatrends and industry sectors. The
International Panel on Chemical Pollution (overall
A Consultative Meeting for the Preparation of leads: Martin Scheringer, Justin Boucher and
the Global Chemicals Outlook II took place in April Zhanyun Wang; supported by Thuy Bui, Dämien
2016 in Geneva, Switzerland. It was attended Bolinius, Elsemieke de Boer, Miriam Diamond,
by 70 experts. Subsequently a wide range of Patrick FitzGerald, Adelene Lai, Grégoire Meylan,
stakeholders provided input at five workshops. Amélie Ritscher, Thomas Roiss, Christina Rudén,
These consisted of a series of regional expert and Iona Summerson) undertook background
workshops in March-April 2018 in Nairobi, Kenya research and prepared a foundational paper
(Africa); Frankfurt, Germany (Europe, including addressing the emerging policy issues and other
Central and Eastern Europe); Panama City, issues of concern. The United Nations Institute
Panama (Latin America and the Caribbean and for Training and Research (overall lead: Jorge
North America); and Bangkok, Thailand (Asia- Ocana; supported by Oliver Wootton and Ester
Pacific and West Asia), attended by a total of 115 Hermosilla) assisted by co-organizing meetings
participants; and a global workshop (June 2018, and workshops, as well as by facilitating delivery
Bonn, Germany) with some 100 participants. Paul of substantive contributions.
Hohnen provided valuable support, including
by moderating sessions at several workshops. The following entities provided comments and
in-kind contributions throughout the process:
Independent experts, identified based on the Inter-Organization Programme for the
nominations received from the Scientific Sound Management of Chemicals participating
and Technical Advisory Panel of the Global organizations (Food and Agriculture Organization
Environment Facility, the secretariat supporting of the United Nations, International Labour
the preparation of UNEP Environment’s sixth Organization, United Nations Development
Global Environment Outlook, and the International Programme, United Nations Environment
Solid Waste Association, were invited to review Programme, United Nations Industrial
the draft GCO-II. In addition, external experts Development Organization, United Nations
were invited to review selected sections based Institute for Training and Research, World
on their expertise. The following individuals Health Organization, World Bank, Organisation
provided valuable feedback: Marlene Agerstrand, for Economic Co-operation and Development),
Tom Bond, Weihsueh Chiu, Victoria de Higa, Paul the Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam and
Dumble, Henning Friege, Martin Führ, Sarah Stockholm Conventions, the Secretariat of the
Green, Jamidu Katima, Sayed Khattari, Joy Aeree Minamata Convention, the Secretariat for the
Kim, Olwenn Martin, Ackmez Mudhoo, Carlos Vienna Convention and its Montreal Protocol
iii
(Ozone Secretariat) and the Secretariat for the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of Management (SAICM), Chemical Watch, The
the Montreal Protocol, the Secretariat of the Natural Step, Statista, and the World Economic
Forum.
The Global Chemicals Outlook II was prepared by

the United Nations Environment Programme,
Economy Division, Chemicals and Health Branch,
and coordinated and edited by Achim Halpaap
with Jost Dittkrist. Further valuable guidance,
input and contributions have been provided by
Jacqueline Alvarez, Abdouraman Bary, Llorenç
Mila Canals, Kenneth Davis, Jacob Duer, Tessa
Goverse, Mijke Hertoghs, Adam Hodge, Tim
Kasten, Stephanie Laruelle, Isabelle Louis, Kaj
Madsen, Imae Mojado, Kakuko Nagatani-Yoshida,
Desiree Raquel Narvaez, Ligia Noronha, Jordi
Pon, Pierre Quiblier, Liazzat Rabbiosi, Victor
Hugo Estellano Schulze, Nalini Sharma, Ying
Su, Eisaku Toda, Elisa Tonda, Eloise Touni, and
numerous other colleagues. Editing support has
been provided by John Smith, graphic design
and layout by Lowil Espada, with the support
of Fabrice Clavien and Elsemieke de Boer, and
referencing and data management support by
Tapiwa Nxele.
Generous financial and in-kind contributions

to develop the Global Chemicals Outlook II have
been provided by the European Union and the
Governments of Denmark, Germany, Norway,
Sweden, and Switzerland.
© UNEP
iv
Foreword
Chemicals are part of our everyday lives. From instruments. At the World Summit on Sustainable
pharmaceuticals to plant protection, innovations Development in 2002, countries committed to
in chemistry can improve our health, food minimizing the adverse effects of chemicals by
security and much more. However, if poorly used 2020. At our current pace, we will not achieve this
and managed, hazardous chemicals and waste goal. Considering the expansion of the market,
threaten human health and the environment. and the associated increase in contamination,
we cannot continue to gamble with our health.
As the second Global Chemicals Outlook lays
out, global trends such as population dynamics, Solutions do exist, as the report shows. Sustainable
urbanization and economic growth are rapidly supply chain management, innovations in
increasing chemical use, particularly in emerging green and sustainable chemistry, and adopting
economies. In 2017, the industry was worth more common approaches to chemicals management
than US dollars 5 trillion. By 2030, this will double. can reduce the risks to human health, ecosystems
Whether this growth becomes a net positive or a and economies. But a solution is only as good as
net negative for humanity depends on how we the will to implement it. Now, more than ever,
manage the chemicals challenge. What is clear key influencers such as investors, producers,
is that we must do much more. retailers, citizens, academics and ministers must
act. We have the chance to do what needs to be
Large quantities of hazardous chemicals and done. We are implementing the 2030 Agenda and
pollutants continue to leak into the environment, developing a future framework for framework
contaminating food chains and accumulating for the sound management of chemicals and
in our bodies, where they do serious damage. waste beyond 2020.
Estimates by the European Environment
Agency suggest that 62 per cent of the volume We cannot live without chemicals. Nor can we live
of chemicals consumed in Europe in 2016 with the consequences of their bad management.
were hazardous to health. The World Health My hope is that this Outlook inspires us all to
Organization estimates the burden of disease increase our efforts to safely capture the benefits
from selected chemicals at 1.6 million lives in of chemistry for all humanity.
2016. The lives of many more are negatively
impacted.
We have made some progress in managing

Joyce Msuya
chemicals through national and stakeholder Acting Executive Director
action, international treaties and voluntary UN Environment
v
Key findings
The global goal to minimize adverse impacts of

chemicals and waste will not be achieved by 2020.
Solutions exist, but more ambitious worldwide
action by all stakeholders is urgently required.
1. The size of the global chemical industry exceeded United States dollars 5 trillion
in 2017. It is projected to double by 2030. Consumption and production are
rapidly increasing in emerging economies. Global supply chains, and the trade
of chemicals and products, are becoming increasingly complex.
2. Driven by global megatrends, growth in chemical-intensive industry sectors (e.g.

construction, agriculture, electronics) creates risks, but also opportunities to
advance sustainable consumption, production and product innovation.
3. Hazardous chemicals and other pollutants (e.g. plastic waste and pharmaceutical
pollutants) continue to be released in large quantities. They are ubiquitous in
humans and the environment and are accumulating in material stocks and
products, highlighting the need to avoid future legacies through sustainable
materials management and circular business models.
4. The benefits of action to minimize adverse impacts have been estimated in the high
tens of billions of United States dollars annually. The World Health Organization
estimated the burden of disease from selected chemicals at 1.6 million lives in
2016 (this is likely to be an underestimate). Chemical pollution also threatens a
range of ecosystem services.
5. International treaties and voluntary instruments have reduced the risks of some
chemicals and wastes, but progress has been uneven and implementation gaps
remain. As of 2018, more than 120 countries had not implemented the Globally
Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals.
vi
6. Addressing legislation and capacity gaps in developing countries and emerging
economies remains a priority. Also, resources have not matched needs. There
are opportunities for new and innovative financing (e.g. through cost recovery
and engagement of the financial sector).
7. Significant resources can be saved by sharing knowledge on chemical management

instruments more widely, and by enhancing mutual acceptance of approaches
in areas ranging from chemical hazard assessment to alternatives assessment.
8. Frontrunner companies – from chemical producers to retailers – are introducing

sustainable supply chain management, full material disclosure, risk reduction
beyond compliance, and human rights-based policies. However, widespread
implementation of these initiatives has not yet been achieved.
9. Consumer demand, as well as green and sustainable chemistry education and

innovation (e.g. though start-ups), are among the important drivers of change.
They can be scaled up through enabling policies, reaping the potential benefits
of chemistry innovations for sustainable development.
10. Global knowledge gaps can be filled. This can be achieved, for example, by taking
steps to harmonize research protocols, considering health or environmental impact
information and harm caused to set and address priorities (e.g. emerging issues),
and strengthening the science-policy interface through enhanced collaboration
of scientists and decision-makers.
vii
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
ACC American Chemistry Council CMS Chemical management services
ACS American Chemical Society CO2 Carbon dioxide
AMAP Arctic Monitoring and Assessment CO2-eq Carbon dioxide equivalent

Programme
COP Conference of the Parties
AMR Antimicrobial resistance
DALYs Disability-adjusted life years
AOP Adverse Outcome Pathway
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
ASBC American Sustainable Business
Council DEHP Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
ASGM Artisanal and small-scale gold EC European Commission

mining ECHA European Chemicals Agency
BCG Boston Consulting Group EDCs Endocrine-disrupting chemicals
BHRRC Business and Human Rights EEA European Environment Agency
Resource Centre
EFPIA European Federation of
BPA Bisphenol A Pharmaceutical Industries and
BPS Bisphenol S Associations
BRS Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm EFSA European Food Safety Authority
CAGR Compound annual growth rate EHS Environment, health and safety
CAPP Chemical Accident Prevention and EIPs Eco-industrial parks

Preparedness eMARS EU Major Accident Reporting
CEE Central and Eastern Europe System
Cefic European Chemical Industry EPIs Emerging policy issues

Council EPPP Environmentally persistent
CFC-11 Trichlorofluoromethane pharmaceutical pollutants
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons ESDs Emission Scenario Documents
CiP Chemicals in Products EU European Union
CIRS Chemical Inspection and EWG Environmental Working Group

Regulation Service EY Ernst & Young
CLP Classification, Labelling and FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
Packaging of the United Nations
CMR Carcinogenic, mutagenic and GAHP Global Alliance on Health and
reprotoxic Pollution
viii
GC3 Green Chemistry & Commerce IGO Intergovernmental organization
Council
IHR WHO International Health
GCO-I First Global Chemicals Outlook Regulations
GCO-II Second Global Chemicals Outlook ILO International Labour Organization
GDP Gross domestic product ILZSG International Lead and Zinc Study
Group
GEF Global Environment Facility
IOMC Inter-Organization Programme
GHG Greenhouse gas for the Sound Management of
GHS Globally Harmonized System of Chemicals
Classification and Labelling of IP Intellectual property
Chemicals
IPEN International POPs Elimination
GPA SAICM Global Plan of Action Network
GRI Global Reporting Initiative IPM Integrated Pest Management
GRULAC Group of Latin American and ISO International Organization for
Caribbean Countries Standardization
GSCE Green and sustainable chemistry ISWA International Solid Waste
education Association
HCFCs Hydrochlorofluorocarbons IT Information technology
HDI Human Development Index IUPAC International Union of Pure and
HFCs Hydrofluorocarbons Applied Chemistry
HHPs Highly hazardous pesticides JPOI Johannesburg Plan of

Implementation
HRC Human Rights Council
KEMI Swedish Chemicals Agency
HSLEEP Hazardous substances within
the life cycle of electrical and LAC Latin America and the Caribbean
electronic products LCA Life cycle assessment
IARC International Agency for Research LMICs Low- and middle-income countries
on Cancer
MEA Multilateral environmental
ICCA International Council of Chemical agreement
Associations
Mt Megatonne
ICCM International Conference on
Chemicals Management NAFTA North American Free Trade
Agreement
IEA International Energy Agency
Natech Natural hazard triggered
IFIC International Food Information technological (accident)
Council
ng Nanogram
IFPMA International Federation of
Pharmaceutical Manufacturers NGO Non-governmental organization
and Associations
ix
ODS Ozone-depleting substance PRTRs Pollutant Release and Transfer
Registers
OECD Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene
OHS Occupational Health and Safety PV Photovoltaic
OOG SAICM Overall Orientation and PVC Polyvinyl chloride

Guidance
PwC PricewaterhouseCoopers
OPS SAICM Overarching Policy Strategy
QSP SAICM Quick Start Programme
PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
R&D Research and development
PAN Pesticide Action Network
REACH Registration, Evaluation,
PBDEs Polybrominated diphenyl ethers Authorization and Restriction of
Chemicals
PBT Persistent, bioaccumulative and
toxic Rio+20 United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development
PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls
RSC Royal Society of Chemistry
PCDDs Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins
SAICM Strategic Approach to
PCDFs Polychlorinated dibenzofurans International Chemicals
PE Polyethylene Management
PET Polyethylene terephthalate SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
PFASs Per- and polyfluoroalkyl SDS Safety data sheet(s)

substances SEA Socio-economic assessment
PFCs Perfluorinated chemicals SEI Stockholm Environment Institute
PFDA Nonadecafluorodecanoic acid SMEs Small and medium-sized
PFHxS Perfluorohexanesulfonic acid enterprises
PFNA Perfluorononanoic acid SVHC Substances of very high concern
PFOA Perfluorooctanoic acid TCE Trichloroethylene
PFOS Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid TRI United States Toxics Release

Inventory
PFRs Organophosphate-based flame
retardants TSCA United States Toxic Substances
Control Act
pg Picogram
UBA German Environment Agency
PHAs Polyhydroxyalkanoates
UK United Kingdom
PLA Polylactic acid
UN United Nations
POPs Persistent organic pollutants
UNCED United Nations Conference on
PPE Personal protective equipment Environment and Development
x
UN DESA United Nations Department of US NOAA United States National Oceanic
Economic and Social Affairs and Atmospheric Administration
UNDP United Nations Development US NRC United States National Research

Programme Council
UNEA United Nations Environment US NTP United States National Toxlcology

Assembly of the United Nations Program
Environment Programme
US OSHA United States Occcupational
UNECE United Nations Economic Safety and Health Administration
Commission for Europe
VCI German Chemical Industry
UNEP United Nations Environment Association
Programme
VOCs Volatile organic compounds
UNESCO United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural WBCSD World Business Council for
Organization Sustainable Development
UNIDO United Nations Industrial WECF Women in Europe for a Common

Development Organization Future/Women Engage for a
Common Future
UNISDR United Nations Office for Disaster
Relief Reduction WEEE Waste electrical and electronic
equipment
UNITAR United Nations Institute for
Training and Research WEF World Economic Forum
UNRISD United Nations Research Institute WEOG Western European and Others
for Social Development Group
US/USA United States WIPO World Intellectual Property

Organization
US ATSDR United States Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry WHO World Health Organization
US CDC United States Centers for Disease WMO World Meteorological

Control and Prevention Organization
US EPA United States Environmental WSSD World Summit on Sustainable

Protection Agency Development
US FDA United States Food and Drug ZDHC Zero Discharge of Hazardous
Administration Chemicals
US GAO United States Government

Accountability Office
USGS United States Geological Survey
US United States Academies of

NASEM Science, Engineering and Medicine
US United States National Health and

NHANES Nutrition Examination Survey
xi
Contents
Introduction: chemicals and waste in the broader

sustainable development context xxxii
1/ The global context for the sound management of chemicals and waste 2
2/ Milestones in international chemicals and waste management 5
3/ Opportunities to link international policy agendas 10
4/ Overview of the Global Chemicals Outlook II 14
References 15
Key messages for policymakers: a call for more ambitious

action at all levels 16
I. The evolving chemicals economy: status and trends

relevant for sustainability 22
1/ The chemical industry 24
2/ Trends in production and sales of specific chemicals 41
3/ Megatrends and chemical-intensive industry sectors: risks

and opportunities 61
4/ Global supply chains, chemicals in products, and circularity 78
5/ Chemical pollution: emissions, releases and wastes 92
6/ Concentrations of chemicals in the environment and humans 120
7/ Environmental, health and social effects of chemicals 145
8/ The economic benefits of action and the costs of inaction 164
References 176
xii
II. Where do we stand in achieving the 2020 goal –
assessing overall progress and gaps 218
1/ International agreements and frameworks on chemicals and waste 220
2/ Reporting schemes and indicators under international

agreements and frameworks 228
3/ Achieving the 2020 goal: what do we know? 241
4/ Emerging policy issues and other issues of concern 291
5/ Other issues where emerging evidence indicates a risk 320
6/ Overall progress towards the 2020 goal: what have we learned? 330
Annex: Other issues where emerging evidence indicates a risk 335
References 347
III. Advancing and sharing chemicals management tools

and approaches: taking stock, looking into the future 382
1/ Hazard assessment: progress in information generation and

hazard characterization 384
2/ Exposure assessment: benefiting from internationally

available resources 396
3/ Risk assessment: opportunities to improve and accelerate progress 406
4/ Risk management decision-making: making it work in all countries 419
5/ Assessment of chemical and non-chemical alternatives:

focusing on solutions 435
6/ Chemical risk management in facilities and during production 453
7/ Approaches to sustainability assessment 468
References 474
xiii
IV. Enabling policies and action to support innovative solutions 502
1/ Envisioning and shaping the future of chemistry 504
2/ Green and sustainable chemistry education: nurturing a new

generation of chemists 515
3/ Strengthening sustainable chemistry technology innovation

and financing 524
4/ Evolving and new business models 542
5/ Fiscal incentives to advance sound chemicals management

and sustainable chemistry 555
6/ Sustainable supply chain management for chemicals and

waste in the life cycle 564
7/ Sustainability metrics and reporting: measuring progress,

strengthening accountability 575
8/ Empowering and protecting citizens, workers and consumers 586
References 604
V. Scaling up collaborative action under the 2030

Agenda for Sustainable Development 628
1/ The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: an integrated
framework for action 630
2/ Strengthening collaborative action on chemicals and waste in

line with the 2030 Agenda 641
3/ Engaging all sectors and actors in chemicals and waste

management beyond 2020 651
References 655
Index 658
xiv
List of Figures
List of Figures

sustainable development context
1/ The global context for the sound management of chemicals and waste
Figure 1.1 Share of the volume of chemicals consumed in the European Union in 2016 by
hazard categories 3
2/ Milestones in international chemicals and waste management
Figure 2.1 Key milestones in global sustainable development governance (which also

included the sound management of chemicals and waste) 6
Figure 2.2 The Sustainable Development Goals 8
3/ Opportunities to link international policy agendas
Figure 3.1 The waste hierarchy, sustainable materials management and the circular economy 12

relevant for sustainability
1/ The chemical industry
Figure 1.1 Total chemical industry revenues, 2002-2016 (US dollars billion) 25

Figure 1.2 Chemical sales by geographic region, 2017 (EUR billion) 25
Figure 1.3 Growth in production volume, 2000-2017 26
Figure 1.4 Global chemical industry capacity growth in million tonnes, 2000-2017 27
Figure 1.5 Projected growth in world chemical sales, 2017-2030 28
Figure 1.6 Projection of annual production growth in the chemical industry by region, 2015-
2022 (per cent change per year) 28
Figure 1.7 Value chain of the chemical industry: from extraction to finished products 29
Figure 1.8 Chemical segments in the global value chain 30
Figure 1.9 Trends in materials extraction, financial value creation and greenhouse gas
emissions (1900-2050) 31
Figure 1.10 The global material footprint: extracted resources by key societal needs and
consumables (billion tonnes) 32
Figure 1.11 Resource extraction by the chemical sector and related chemicals production in
millions of tonnes (Mt) 33
Figure 1.12 Feedstocks for chemical production, 2000-2040 (quadrillion British thermal units [BTUs]) 34
Figure 1.13 Share of Asian bio-based polymer production capacity in global production,
2016 (per cent) 35
xv
Figure 1.14 International trade associations along the chemical industry value chain 36
Figure 1.15 World chemical industry structure evolution, share of revenue, 2000-2017 37
Figure 1.16 Number and value of corporate acquisitions in the chemical industry, 2008-2017
(US dollars billion) 37
Figure 1.17 Number of completed mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical industry 38
Figure 1.18 Global chemical mergers and acquisitions activity by target market, 2010-2017 38
Figure 1.19 Corporate research and development spending globally, 2007 and 2017 39
Figure 1.20 Number of chemistry-related patents granted by region, 1987-2016 40
2/ Trends in production and sales of specific chemicals
Figure 2.1 Global chemical shipments by segment in 2006, 2011 and 2016 (US dollars billion) 42
Figure 2.2 Production of DDT by decade since 1940 44
Figure 2.3 Value of global pesticide trade, 1970-2014 (US dollars billion) 47
Figure 2.4 Global and regional sales of crop protection products in 2015 (US dollars million) 48
Figure 2.5 Worldwide total prescription drug sales (US dollars billion) and growth rate
(per cent), 2010-2024 49
Figure 2.6 Geographical breakdown (by main markets) of sales of new medicines launched in
the period 2012-2017 49
Figure 2.7 Global flame retardants market by chemistry, 2017 51
Figure 2.8 Global lead consumption by product 52
Figure 2.9 Global mercury demand by sector, including uncertainties, 2005-2015 (tonnes) 53
Figure 2.10 Asbestos mine production in the largest producer countries, 2010-2017 (tonnes) 57
Figure 2.11 Global and regional plastics production, 1950-2050 (million tonnes) 57
Figure 2.12 Distribution of global plastics production 58
Figure 2.13 Uses of plastic: main downstream sectors 59
Figure 2.14 Global bioplastics production capacity, 2017-2023 60
3/ Megatrends and chemical-intensive industry sectors: risks and opportunities
Figure 3.1 Growth of basic chemical production capacity vs. population growth 63

Figure 3.2 Middle class dominance in 2030 64
Figure 3.3 The growth of e-commerce 65
Figure 3.4 Growth of the urban population by city size 67
Figure 3.5 Trends in the number of loss-relevant natural events, 1980-2016 68
Figure 3.6 Global e-waste generated by volume and per inhabitant, 2014-2021 71
Figure 3.7 Use of pesticides per area of cropland, kg/ha, sum 2006-2016 73
Figure 3.8 Global average annual net capacity additions by type of energy, 2010-2016 and
2017-2040 75
Figure 3.9 Growth of clothing sales and comparison with declining clothing utilization 77
4/ Global supply chains, chemicals in products, and circularity
Figure 4.1 Illustration of the complexity of global supply chains: the case of an electronic product 79
Figure 4.2 Relative scale of exports of toys from China by importing market 79
Figure 4.3 Global supply chain in the textile sector 80
Figure 4.4 Relationship between global value chains, product life cycles, product supply
chains and chemical supply chains in a linear economy 82
Figure 4.5 Chemicals in an office chair 83
Figure 4.6 Variations in chemical content in a body lotion and in vinyl flooring 84
xvi
List of Figures
Figure 4.7 Simplified material flow of a circular economy in a global scale with health and
environmental risks 87
Figure 4.8 Unintended residues found in recyclable waste paper 87
Figure 4.9 Concept-to-production (C2P) global regulations by subject, cumulative total 89
5/ Chemical pollution: emissions, releases and wastes
Figure 5.1 The value chain of the chemical industry, with emissions/releases to the environment 93
Figure 5.2 On-site air releases in the United States reported to the Toxics Release Inventory
(TRI), 2006-2016 (million pounds) 95
Figure 5.3 National/regional PCDD/PCDF releases per unit area 97
Figure 5.4 Potential sources of chemical water pollution 98
Figure 5.5 On-site hazardous surface water discharges in the United States reported to the
Toxics Release Inventory (TRI), 2006-2016 99
Figure 5.6 Global releases of plastic and microplastic waste to oceans (tonnes per year) 102
Figure 5.7 Average active ingredient application rates over time as a function of the decade
of introduction 103
Figure 5.8 Global glyphosate use, 1994-2014 (tonnes) 104
Figure 5.9 Contributors to VOC emissions to ambient air in Los Angeles, California 106
Figure 5.10 Spatial distribution of releases of linear alkylbenzene sulphonate (LAS) due to
household emissions in Asia, in mg/m2/day 107
Figure 5.11 Waste generation by level of national income 109
Figure 5.12 Composition of municipal solid waste in Sub-Saharan Africa 110
Figure 5.13 Recycled and composted waste as a share of total municipal waste in OECD
countries, 2013 111
Figure 5.14 Global hazardous waste generation in 2009 (1,000 tonnes) 113
Figure 5.15 Sources of hazardous waste in the United States by sector, 2011 (per cent of volume) 113
Figure 5.16 Sources of hazardous waste in EU countries by sector, 2015 (per cent) 114
Figure 5.17 Chemical accidents reported in news media in OECD, non-OECD and EU countries,
October 2016-September 2017 117
Figure 5.18 Number of chemical accidents in OECD countries with significant releases to the
environment 118
6/ Concentrations of chemicals in the environment and humans
Figure 6.1 Value chain of the chemical industry, showing emissions and concentrations 121
Figure 6.2 Exposure pathways 122
Figure 6.3 Links between the near-field environment and compartment of entry, the far-field
environment, and the human body 123
Figure 6.4 Trends in DDT concentrations in air, and ratios between DDT and total DDTs, in
Hedo, Japan, 2009-2013 127
Figure 6.5 Trends in concentrations of PCBs in Košetice, Czech Republic, 1996-2013 127
Figure 6.6 Global atmospheric concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)
and of organophosphate esters (OPEs) and other novel flame retardants (FRs) at
four location types: polar, background, rural and urban 129
Figure 6.7 Number of pharmaceuticals detected in surface water, groundwater, tap water
and/or drinking water 132
Figure 6.8 Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in surface soil by land
use category (ng/g) 134
Figure 6.9 Mercury concentrations in large lake trout collected from the East Arm of Great
Slave Lake, Canada, 1992-2012 137
xvii
Figure 6.10 Mercury concentrations in polar bears, Swalbard, Norway, 1960s-2000s 137

Figure 6.11 Blood concentrations (μg/kg plasma lipid) of p,p-DDE in pregnant Inuit women
from Nunavik, Canada 138
Figure 6.12 Concentrations of PFHxS and PFDA in the blood of Swedish first-time mothers,
1996-2010 139
Figure 6.13 Levels of PCDD/PCDF (Sum 17 PCDD/PCDF) and indicator PCB (Sum 6 PCB) in
human milk: survey results in 2005-2010 and comparison with 1980s levels 140
Figure 6.14 Concentrations of perfluorinated compounds in the blood serum of women in the
United States, 1999-2014 (median ng/ml) 141
Figure 6.15 Concentrations of mercury and selenium in women’s blood, Nunavik (Canada),
1990-2014 142
Figure 6.16 Mercury concentrations in cord blood from birth cohort studies by country 143
7/ Environmental, health and social effects of chemicals
Figure 7.1 Deaths (total: 1.6 million) attributed to selected chemicals, 2016 150
Figure 7.2 Deaths and DALYs from occupational exposure to cadmium, 1990-2017 157
Figure 7.3 Percentage of deaths attributed to unintentional poisonings by selected chemicals
by age 159
Figure 7.4 Deaths attributed to selected chemicals, by gender 161
8/ The economic benefits of action and the costs of inaction
Figure 8.1 Identifying the economic costs of inaction and the benefits of action 167
Figure 8.2 Lost lifetime earning potential for each cohort of children under five from
childhood lead exposure in 2011 (US dollars billion) 171

assessing overall progress and gaps
2/ Reporting schemes and indicators under international agreements and frameworks
Figure 2.1 Compliance with national reporting obligations, 2016: Basel and Stockholm
Conventions 231
Figure 2.2 Historical evolution of general compliance with national reporting obligations:
Basel and Stockholm Conventions 232
Figure 2.3 Average national reporting rate 2001-2016, by category of countries (developed/
developing) and by regions: Basel and Stockholm Conventions 232
3/ Achieving the 2020 goal: what do we know?
Figure 3.1 Parties to the Basel Convention 244

Figure 3.2 Basel Convention implementation: Parties which have used the option to adopt a
national definition of hazardous waste 244
Figure 3.3: Parties to the Rotterdam Convention 245
xviii
List of Figures
Figure 3.4 Parties to the Stockholm Convention 246

Figure 3.5 Countries with National Implementation Plans (NIPs) under the Stockholm Convention 247
Figure 3.6 Parties to the Minamata Convention 248
Figure 3.7 Countries which have undertaken Minamata Initial Assessments (MIAs) 249
Figure 3.8 Parties with National Action Plans (NAPs) for artisanal and small-scale gold mining 249
Figure 3.9 Countries with core capacities for chemicals under the International Health
Regulations (2005) 251
Figure 3.10 National profiles to assess the chemicals and management infrastructure 260
Figure 3.11 Engagement of sectors in coordination mechanisms 261
Figure 3.12 Global GHS implementation status 264
Figure 3.13 Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers 265
Figure 3.14 Progress in environmental and health monitoring 266
Figure 3.15 Countries with pesticide legislation, according to FAO data collected in the context
of the Code of Conduct 271
Figure 3.16 Countries that have banned the use of asbestos 271
Figure 3.17 Global status of phasing out lead in gasoline 272
Figure 3.18 Trends the in use of IOMC tools for risk reduction 272
Figure 3.19 Existence and distribution of poisons centres 273
Figure 3.20 Trends in private sector financial support 276
Figure 3.21 Trends in industry participation in multi-stakeholder committees 276
Figure 3.22 Countries with a chemical industry which have implemented the Responsible
Care® programme 277
Figure 3.23 Resource allocations for chemicals and waste by GEF round 278
Figure 3.24 GEF-6 projects by chemical group 279
Figure 3.25 Overview of the Quick Start Programme 280
Figure 3.26 Increase in percentage of developing country governments with development
assistance programmes that address chemicals 281
Figure 3.27 Comparison of results of the 2015 ICCA progress report with the 2009 baseline for
SAICM indicators under capacity building and technical cooperation 282
Figure 3.28 Selected SAICM indicators, comparing results for 2009-2010 and 2011-2013 287
Figure 3.29 Progress against objectives since the first reporting period, by region 288
4/ Emerging policy issues and other issues of concern
Figure 4.1 Economic costs of childhood lead exposure in low- and middle-income countries
(percentage of gross domestic product) 294
Figure 4.2 Status of lead paint regulation worldwide, as reported in 2017 295
Figure 4.3 The life cycle of electronic and electrical products 296
Figure 4.4 Percentage of the world population and number of countries covered by e-waste
legislation in 2014 and 2017 298
Figure 4.5 Discomfort or illness experienced during or after pesticide application in Mozambique 300
Figure 4.6 Conversion process from chemical products to articles in the supply chain 303
Figure 4.7 Schematic overview of the structure categories of identified PFASs 308
Figure 4.8 Estimated annual releases of PFCAs from PFOA production sites (left) and
fluoropolymer production sites (right) in the United States, Western Europe and
Japan (purple), as well as in China, Russia, Poland and India (orange) 309
Figure 4.9 Pathways of antibiotics for human and veterinary use in the environment 312
Figure 4.10 Milestones in the development of the EDC field 317
xix

and approaches: taking stock, looking into the future
1/ Hazard assessment: progress in information generation and hazard

characterization
Figure 1.1 From risk assessment to risk management 385

Figure 1.2 Graphical representation of a chemical category and some approaches for filling
data gaps 389
Figure 1.3 Testing and assessment based on the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) concept 390
2/ Exposure assessment: benefiting from internationally available resources
Figure 2.1 Aggregate (left) and cumulative (right) exposure 400

Figure 2.2 Transfer fractions to near-field and far-field compartments and the corresponding
product intake fraction for phenoxyethanol used as a preservative at a
concentration of 0.86 per cent in a hand lotion 404
4/ Risk management decision-making: making it work in all countries
Figure 4.1 Hazard pictograms according to the GHS 422

Figure 4.2 Risk assessment and socio-economic assessment (SEA) 432
6/ Chemical risk management in facilities and during production
Figure 6.1 Stakeholders in the change of ownership of hazardous facilities 457
7/ Approaches to sustainability assessment
Figure 7.1 Conceptual relationships of the main chemical management tools 469

Figure 7.2 General structure of the life cycle assessment (LCA) framework 470
Figure 7.3 Elements of a comprehensive framework to evaluate global chemical supply chain
impacts on humans and the environment 473
IV. Enabling policies and action to support innovative solutions
1/ Envisioning and shaping the future of chemistry
Figure 1.1 Examples of how chemistry contributes to industries expected to play important

roles in the future 506
Figure 1.2 Dimensions of a chemical enterprise: towards sustainability 509
Figure 1.3 Market size of the global green chemistry industry, 2015-2020 (US dollars billion) 510
Figure 1.4 Global green chemicals market by region, 2011-2020 511
Figure 1.5 The four industrial revolutions 512
Figure 1.6 Overview of the implications of digitalization in the chemical industry 513
xx
List of Figures
2/ Green and sustainable chemistry education: nurturing a new generation of

chemists
Figure 2.1 Number of papers published on GSCE, 1998-July 2018, concerning green chemistry
education or sustainable chemistry education 518
Figure 2.2 Number of papers published on GSCE, 1998-July 2018 518
Figure 2.3 Steps to promote GSCE 520
3/ Strengthening sustainable chemistry technology innovation and financing
Figure 3.1 Innovation ecosystem model 525

Figure 3.2 Technology innovation chain and key enabling factors 526
Figure 3.3 Stage of technology readiness and the Valley of Death 527
Figure 3.4 Venn diagram of incubator and accelerator characteristics 534
Figure 3.5 Venturing tools supporting start-ups at different innovation phases 534
Figure 3.6 Start-up development stages and typical investors along the innovation chain 536
Figure 3.7 Chemical industry leaders´ view of the evolution of the intensity of collaboration
with other stakeholders 537
Figure 3.8 New collaboration approaches in the chemical industry 539
Figure 3.9 Policy interventions that foster technology innovation 540
4/ Evolving and new business models
Figure 4.1 Traditional business models vs. Chemical Leasing 544

Figure 4.2 Visible and hidden chemicals management costs 545
Figure 4.3 Global growth of eco-industrial parks (EIPs) 546
Figure 4.4 Eco-industrial parks’ sources of revenue 547
Figure 4.5 Evolution of a social enterprise 552
5/ Fiscal incentives to advance sound chemicals management and sustainable

chemistry
Figure 5.1 Marginal cost of reducing the use of trichloroethylene (TCE) in metal degreasing 557
Figure 5.2 Effects of differentiated taxation on quantities of pesticides sold in Norway 559
6/ Sustainable supply chain management for chemicals and waste in the life cycle
Figure 6.1 Interface of demand and supply in driving the sustainability of chemicals in the
supply chain 565
Figure 6.2 Sustainable Supplier Relationship Management (SSRM) practices 570
7/ Sustainability metrics and reporting: measuring progress, strengthening

accountability
Figure 7.1 Share of the top 100 companies in 34 countries (N100) and of the world’s 250
largest companies providing corporate responsibility reports, 1993-2017 576
Figure 7.2 Snapshot of Sumitomo’s Corporate Social Responsibility Report: work-related
incident rate 577
Figure 7.3 ZDHC and PUMA’s rates of compliance with MRSL parameters in wastewater, 2017 578
Figure 7.4 Average percentage of points across four Chemical Footprint Project (CFP) pillars
scored by small, medium and large companies selling only articles 580
xxi
8/ Empowering and protecting citizens, workers and consumers
Figure 8.1 DOZN scoring example 595

Figure 8.2 Citizen science project to monitor the concentration of neonicotinoids in honey 597
Figure 8.3 Human rights impacts by life cycle stage 601

Agenda for Sustainable Development
1/ The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: an integrated framework for action
Figure 1.1 The three dimensions of sustainability 630

Figure 1.2 Linkages between chemicals and waste and the SDGs 631
Figure 1.3 Alignment of the Dow 2025 Sustainability Goals with the SDGs 634
Figure 1.4 Building blocks for a collaborative society 638
Figure 1.5 A multisectoral collaboration model to achieve transformative change 639
xxii
List of Tables
List of Tables

sustainable development context
1/ The global context for the sound management of chemicals and waste
Table 1.1 Chemicals and waste in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: SDG
Targets 3.9 and 12.4 2

Table 2.1 Total global chemical shipments, 2016 and 2017 (US dollars billion) 42
Table 2.2 Overview of estimated total production of PCBs 43
Table 2.3 Global production capacity for petrochemicals, 2016 44
Table 2.4 Evolution of global production capacity for primary petrochemical building blocks
(kg per capita) 45
Table 2.5 Global manufacture of pesticide active ingredients by region (thousand kg) 46
Table 2.6 Top 10 products used on major crops in the United States by volume, 1968 and 2016 47
Table 2.7 Geographic distribution of fluoropolymer consumption in 2015 in tonnes (per cent share)50
Table 2.8 Global refined lead production and usage (thousand tonnes), 2013-2018 52
Table 2.9 Global mercury supply, 2015 54
Table 2.10 Cadmium: refinery production by country (tonnes) 55
Table 2.11 World production of rare earth mineral concentrates (thousand tonnes) and total
estimated increase (per cent), 1990-2015 56
Table 3.1 Matrix analysis of megatrend studies 62

Table 3.2 World population prospects 63
Table 3.3 Major end markets for four primary commodity chemical groups 69
Table 3.4 End markets for chemicals 69
Table 4.1 Actors, main impact drivers and exposure over the product life cycle of toys 81
Table 4.2 Examples of studies identifying unintended chemical contaminants in products 85
xxiii
Table 5.1 Hazardous and non-hazardous wastes from six African countries (2012) 110
Table 5.2 Hazardous waste generation in selected countries, 2014 (tonnes) 114
Table 5.3 Resource efficiency in the chemical industry: ratio of products and waste generation 115
Table 7.1 Total number of agents and POPs classified by the IARC Monographs per group
(Volumes 1-123) 152
Table 7.2 Chemicals identified by Grandjean and Ladrigan (2014) as being toxic to the
human nervous system, 2006 and 2013 155

1/ International agreements and frameworks on chemicals and waste
Table 1.1 Multilateral agreements related to the sound management of chemicals and waste 221
Table 2.1 IOMC Indicators and linkages to other policy instruments 238

Table 2.2 SDGs 3, 6, 11 and 12 with targets, indicators, custodian and partner agencies, and
linkages to OOG elements 240
Table 3.1 Estimates of progress made towards elimination of PCBs use per UN region 248
Table 3.2 Examples of regional institutions and initiatives addressing chemicals and waste in
the African region 252
the Asia and the Pacific region 254
Europe 255
Latin America and the Caribbean 256
North America 258
the West Asia region 259
Table 3.8 Examples of science policy bodies and mechanisms 267
Table 3.9 Stakeholder perceptions of the degree of success regarding prevention of illegal
international traffic in chemicals and waste 285
Table 3.10 Stakeholder perceptions of the degree of success in achieving OPS objectives 289
Table 3.11 Stakeholder perceptions of the degree of success in incorporating the SAICM
emerging policy issues (EPIs) and other issues of concern in activities 290
xxiv
List of Tables


characterization
Table 1.1 Health hazards and environmental hazards – classes for global hazard classification 391
Table 4.1 Forms of standards complemented with international examples relevant to

chemicals and waste management 426
5/ Assessment of chemical and non-chemical alternatives: focusing on solutions
Table 5.1 A functional substitution approach for chemicals in products and processes 437
Table 5.2 Components of an alternatives assessment 438
Table 5.3 Examples in the literature referring to potential regrettable substitution 443
Table 5.4 Examples of treaties, regulatory actions and non-regulatory initiatives with
provisions for alternatives assessment or substitution 446
Table 6.1 Selected activities of organizations engaged in addressing chemical accidents 454

chemists
Table 2.1 Sustainable chemistry teaching: laboratory content 516
Table 3.1 Institutional venturing tools 533

Table 3.2 Potential private investors for sustainable chemistry start-ups 535
Table 3.3 Examples of investments in sustainable chemistry start-ups by different investors 535
Table 3.4 The corporate approach to start-up development 538
Table 3.5 Examples of push and pull policies to advance sustainable chemistry innovation 540

chemistry
Table 5.1 Types of market-based instruments and examples of their application to

chemicals management 556
xxv
Table 6.1 From traditional to green and biomimetic chemistry technologies 574

Table 1.1 Indicative mapping of IOMC participating organizations’ activities on the SDGs for
sound chemicals and waste management 636
2/ Strengthening collaborative action on chemicals and waste in line with the 2030
Agenda
Table 2.1 Integrating chemicals and waste management, and green and sustainable
chemistry innovation, in relevant economic sectors: some opportunities 644
Table 2.2 Examples of opportunities for the contribution of international chemicals and
waste agreements across economic sectors 645
Table 2.3 Example of a results chain to minimize adverse impacts 650
xxvi
List of Boxes
List of Boxes

Box 1.1 Women in leadership positions in the chemical industry 36

Box 1.2 The benefits of thorough due diligence during mergers and acquisitions 39
Box 2.1 Microplastics 60
Box 3.1 Lead-acid batteries: avoiding future legacies 75
Box 4.1 An example of challenges related to the interface of chemicals, waste and

circularity: the phthalate plasticizer DEHP in PVC 88
Box 5.1 Outcomes of the effectiveness evaluation of the Stockholm Convention 96

Box 5.2 Releases of chemicals used in fracking 101
6/ Concentrations of chemicals in the environment and humans
Box 6.1 Bioaccumulation and biomagnification 122

Box 6.2 Concentrations of legacy chemicals in water bodies: the Mariana and Kermadec
trenches and Lake Geneva 131
Box 7.1 Coral reefs are under threat from chemical pollution 148
Box 7.2 Endocrine-disrupting chemicals 153
8/ The economic benefits of action and the costs of inaction
Box 8.1 Externalities: the differences between market prices and social costs 165
Box 8.2 Current methodological developments: SACAME 168
Box 8.3 Utility, economic value and economic cost 169
xxvii

1/ International agreements and frameworks on chemicals and waste
Box 1.1 The elements of the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management 225
Box 2.1 The reporting mechanism for the WHO IHR 233

Box 2.2 SAICM indicators of progress 236
Box 2.3 The SAICM Overall Orientation and Guidance (OOG) 237
Box 3.1 Synergies across multilateral treaties on chemicals and waste 250

Box 3.2 SAICM Implementation Plan for Guyana 261
Box 3.3 Potential considerations for the selection of future issues of global concern 268
Box 3.4 Identified challenges in creating a coherent global knowledge base: lessons for
strengthening the science-policy interface 268
Box 3.5 SAICM independent evaluation: on-line survey of stakeholders 289
4/ Emerging policy issues and other issues of concern
Box 4.1 Preventing suicides attributable to pesticides through regulatory measures in Sri Lanka 301
Box 4.2 The Higg Index: advancing sustainability in the apparel industry 304
Box 4.3 Helping doctors to make informed prescription choices 313
Box 4.4 First standardized test method specifically for nanomaterials adopted by the OECD 315


characterization
Box 1.1 The eChemPortal 393

Box 1.2 The European Chemicals Agency’s longer-term vision for improving access to information394
2/ Exposure assessment: benefiting from internationally available resources
Box 2.1 Human exposure to chemicals – environmental pathways 397

Box 2.2 Programmes to monitor chemicals in humans and the environment 398
Box 2.3 OECD Emission Scenario Documents (ESDs) 402
xxviii
List of Boxes
3/ Risk assessment: opportunities to improve and accelerate progress
Box 3.1 Canada’s Chemicals Management Plan 408

Box 3.2 The WHO Human Health Risk Assessment Toolkit 410
Box 3.3 The OECD Environmental Risk Assessment Toolkit 410
Box 3.4 Assessing exposure to chemical mixtures: WHO and EFSA activities 412
Box 3.5 The WHO One Health initiative 413
Box 3.6 Solution-focused risk assessment 415
Box 4.1 Tools used by retailers to identify hazardous chemicals in their products and to
select safer and greener alternatives 431
Box 4.2 Decision-making for industrial chemicals: the IOMC Toolbox 434
5/ Assessment of chemical and non-chemical alternatives: focusing on solutions
Box 5.1 Dental amalgam – informed substitution in developing countries 440

Box 5.2 Proactive substitution by frontrunners: safer alternatives for brominated flame
retardants in the electronics sector 442
Box 5.3 Replacing highly hazardous pesticides through Integrated Pest Management and
non-chemical alternatives 444
Box 5.4 The mix of regulatory and non-regulatory policies to support informed substitution 447
Box 5.5 The importance of policies that include technical support structures: chlorinated
solvent substitution 448
Box 5.6 Substitution of methyl bromide: the importance of having a range of alternatives
and stakeholder engagement 450
Box 5.7 Mercury-free hospitals: the importance of participatory substitution programmes
and alternative technology replacements 451
Box 6.1 Lessons learned from Natech accidents triggered by Hurricane Harvey 459
Box 6.2 Formalizing artisanal and small-scale gold mining 466
1/ Envisioning and shaping the future of chemistry
Box 1.1 The 12 Principles of Green Chemistry 508

chemists
Box 2.1 Examples of universities offering courses in green and sustainable chemistry 517
Box 2.2 Green chemistry and sustainability in professional education and training courses:
a case study from Brazil 519
xxix
Box 2.3 The CHEM21 online learning platform 522
Box 3.1 Recommended actions for universities in low- and middle-income countries facing
the challenge of transforming themselves into third generation universities 528
Box 3.2 Insights from entrepreneurs on challenges for sustainable chemistry start-ups 531
Box 3.3 Selected sustainable chemistry awards and pitching events targeting start-up 532
Box 3.4 Open collaborations in sustainable chemistry innovation 539
Box 4.1 Chemical Leasing in a middle-income country: wastewater treatment in Colombia 544

Box 4.2 The Shanghai Chemical Industry Park 548
Box 4.3 Ocean Sole: a social enterprise in Kenya 552

chemistry
Box 5.1 Shifting taxes from labour to resource use and pollution 556
Box 5.2 Risk-based pesticide taxation in Norway and Denmark 558
Box 5.3 The fertilizer subsidy programme in India 559
Box 5.4 Chemical taxes on consumer products in Denmark and Sweden 560
Box 5.5 Different effects of charges on plastic bags in Ireland and South Africa 560
Box 5.6 The waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) recycling fund in China 562
Box 6.1 Examples of chemical sustainability initiatives in the retail sector 566

Box 6.2 Downstream sector sustainable supply chain initiatives addressing chemicals of concern 567
Box 6.3 Together for Sustainability: chemical industry collaboration with suppliers to
advance sustainability 568
Box 6.4 Strengthening information flows between the chemical industry to downstream
customers 569
Box 6.5 The Circular Economy Package 572
Box 6.6 The Design Thinking approach to advance sustainability 573
7/ Sustainability metrics and reporting: measuring progress, strengthening

accountability
Box 7.1 Johnson’s Greenlist™ Programme 579

Box 7.2 Sustainability information of relevance to the financial sector 581
8/ Empowering and protecting citizens, workers and consumers
Box 8.1 Excerpts from paragraph 15 of the SAICM Overarching Policy Strategy (OPS) 591
Box 8.2 The US EPA’s Chemical Access Data Tool 592
Box 8.3 Examples of mobile applications for disseminating chemical information 594
Box 8.4 Cases of human rights protection in matters of chemicals and waste 600
xxx
List of Boxes

Box 1.1 Planetary boundaries, chemicals and waste, and the 2030 Agenda: a research
perspective 635
2/ Strengthening collaborative action on chemicals and waste in line with the 2030
Agenda
Box 2.1 The WHO Chemicals Road Map 643

Box 2.2 The integrated results and indicator framework under the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 648
xxxi
Introduction: chemicals
and waste in the
broader sustainable
development context
© DJ Mattaar/Shutterstock

Contents
1/ The global context for the sound management of chemicals and waste 2
2/ Milestones in international chemicals and waste management 5
3/ Opportunities to link international policy agendas 10
4/ Overview of the Global Chemicals Outlook II 14
References15
1
1/ The global context for the sound

management of chemicals and waste
T
he Global Chemicals Outlook II (GCO-II) is Production, use and trade of chemicals
released at a crucial moment. Since the are growing in all regions, driven by global
publication of the GCO-I in 2013, the global megatrends
consumption and production of chemicals1 has
continued to grow, with a number of trends that Global income levels are rising and the global
are a cause for concern about human health and middle class is expanding, creating increasing
the environment. This period also witnessed demand for a range of goods and products for
the adoption in 2015 of the 2030 Agenda for which chemistry is essential. Chemical-intensive
Sustainable Development and its 17 Sustainable industry sectors (e.g. construction, agriculture,
Development Goals (SDGs), which include several electronics, cosmetics, mining and textiles) are
targets specifically related to chemicals and waste growing, affecting market demand for chemicals
management. Shortly thereafter, the International and creating both risks and opportunities. In light
Conference on Chemicals Management of these trends and the changing consumption
(ICCM), which is the governing body of the and production patterns that accompany them,
Strategic Approach to International Chemicals the chemical industry is growing rapidly. The
Management (SAICM), initiated an intersessional production and consumption of chemicals has
process to prepare by 2020 recommendations spread worldwide, with an increasing share now
regarding the Strategic Approach and the sound located in low- and middle-income countries,
management of chemicals and waste beyond many of which may have limited regulatory
2020. By using a back-casting approach that capacity. Cross-border trade in chemicals and
envisaged a sustainable future, the GCO-II has products is also growing, and increasing amounts
identified a range of actions for consideration by of chemicals are shipped through long and
policymakers around the world and informing complex global supply chains.
chemicals and waste management beyond 2020.
Table 1.1 Chemicals and waste in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: SDG Targets
3.9 and 12.4
SDG 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
Target 3.9: By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and
air, water and soil pollution and contamination.
SDG 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
Target 12.4: By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout
their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air,
water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment.
1 The term “chemicals” is understood throughout this report to include pharmaceuticals, unless otherwise noted.
2

Sound management and innovations in as computers, mobile phones, furniture and

chemistry are essential for sustainable personal care products – with billions of items
development sold each year.
From pharmaceuticals and plant protection Many chemicals, products and wastes have
products to the production of cars, computers hazardous properties and continue to cause
and textiles, many manufactured chemicals have significant adverse impacts on human health
helped improve human health, food security, and the environment because they are not
productivity and quality of life throughout the properly managed. Chemicals or groups of
world. While the number of chemicals registered chemicals that are receiving attention in research
by the American Chemical Society’s global and policymaking because of their hazardous
Chemical Abstracts Service exceeds 142 million, properties and potential risks include, but are not
only a fraction of these chemicals are placed on limited to, carcinogens, mutagens and chemicals
the market (American Chemistry Council [ACC] hazardous to reproduction, persistent bio-
2018). accumulative and toxic substances, endocrine-
disrupting chemicals, and chemicals with
A 2019 report jointly developed by the United neurodevelopmental effects. According to 2018
Nations Environment Programme and the data compiled by the European Environment
International Council of Chemical Associations Agency (EEA), approximately 62 per cent of the
estimated the total number of industrial chemicals total volume of chemicals consumed in the
in commerce globally at 40,000 to 60,000, with European Union (EU) in 2016 were hazardous
6,000 of these chemicals accounting for more to health (EEA 2018).
than 99 per cent of the total volume (United
Nations Environment Programme [UNEP] and Ensuring the sound management of chemicals
International Council of Chemical Associations and waste, as called for internationally at the
[ICCA] 2019). The number of chemicals on the highest political level during several major
market is exceeded by a larger – and growing United Nations Conferences, is essential to
– number of chemical-intensive products such advance sustainable development across its
Figure 1.1 Share of the volume of chemicals consumed in the European Union in 2016 by hazard
categories (based on European Environment Agency 2018)
38%
No classification, labelling and packaging hazards
35%
Ecosystem hazards (EH)
62%
Health hazards (HH)
No classified hazards Chronic EH Significant chronic EH Harmful HH Very toxic HH Carcinogenic, mutagenic
Significant acute EH Moderate chronic EH Severe chronic EH Toxic HH Chronic toxic HH and reprotoxic
According to data from Eurostat (the statistical office of the EU) compiled in 2018 by the
European Environment Agency, approximately 62 per cent of the 345 million tonnes of chemicals
consumed in the EU in 2016 were hazardous to health. In presenting the data, the Agency noted
that volumes of hazardous chemicals consumed are not a proxy for the risks posed by those
chemicals.
Chapter 1. The global context for the sound management of chemicals and waste 3
social, economic and environmental dimensions. and materials science, has the potential to create
Chemistry and the chemical industry have safer chemicals, increase resource efficiency, and
important roles to play in achieving the sound reduce the health and environmental impacts
management of chemicals and waste within a associated with the current global production
sustainable development context. Addressing and consumption system.
legacies, coupled with innovations in chemistry
4

2/ Milestones in international chemicals and

waste management
T
he transboundary movement of chemicals The 2002 Johannesburg Plan of
through the air or water, as well as Implementation and the 2020 timeline
international trade in chemicals and
products, call for global collaborative action to In 2002 the World Summit on
minimize adverse impacts. For several decades Sustainable Development (WSSD)
the international community has recognized adopted the Johannesburg Plan
the need for action. It has undertaken various of Implementation (JPOI), in which
initiatives to advance the sound management Governments agreed to “renew
of chemicals and waste, which have played an the commitment, as advanced in Agenda 21, to
important role in global efforts to minimize sound management of chemicals throughout
their adverse impacts. In developing a future their life cycle and of hazardous wastes for
framework for the sound management of sustainable development as well as for the
chemicals and waste beyond 2020, valuable protection of human health and the environment,
lessons can be learned from their design and inter alia, aiming to achieve, by 2020, that
implementation. Some of these initiatives are chemicals are used and produced in ways that
explored in more detail in Part II of the GCO-II, lead to the minimization of significant adverse
where progress towards the sound management effects on human health and the environment
of chemicals and waste is assessed. […]” (paragraph 23) (UN 2002). Countries further
agreed to “using transparent science-based risk
From early action to the Rio Earth Summit assessment procedures and science-based risk
management procedures, taking into account
Examples of early action include the International the precautionary approach […], and support
Labour Organization (ILO) White Lead (Painting) developing countries in strengthening their
Convention (1921), the establishment of the capacity for sound management of chemicals
Codex Alimentarius Commission (1961), and and hazardous wastes by providing technical
the United Nations Recommendations on the and financial assistance”. A number of actions
Transport of Dangerous Goods (1956). At the at all levels to achieve these goals were outlined,
1992 United Nations Conference on Environment including to:
and Development (UNCED), also known as the Rio
Earth Summit, Heads of State and Government ›› promote the ratification and implementation
adopted Agenda 21, an international action of relevant international instruments;
plan which promoted an integrated life cycle
approach and contained dedicated chapters on ›› develop a strategic approach to international
the environmentally sound management of toxic chemicals management;
chemicals (Chapter 19) and hazardous wastes
(Chapter 20). Also adopted in 1992, the Rio ›› implement the globally harmonized system for
Declaration on Environment and Development the classification and labelling of chemicals;
contained a number of principles and approaches
relevant to the sound management of chemicals ›› encourage partnerships;
and waste, including the polluter pays principle,
the right-to-know, and the precautionary ›› promote efforts to prevent international
approach. illegal trafficking;
Chapter 2. Milestones in international chemicals and waste management 5

›› encourage development of coherent and The 2020 timeline was reiterated at the Rio plus
integrated information on chemicals, e.g. 20 Summit in 2012 (referring to chemicals and
through Pollutant Release and Transfer hazardous waste) (UN 2012), as well as in the
Registers (PRTRs); and 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda through
SDG Target 12.4 (referring to chemicals and
›› promote reduction of the risks posed by heavy all wastes). SDG Target 3.9, which focuses on
metals (UN 2002). reducing deaths and illnesses, features a 2030
timeline.
Figure 2.1 Key milestones in global sustainable development governance (which also included the
sound management of chemicals and waste)
World Summit on 2030 Agenda for

Sustainable Development Sustainable Development
Public-private partnerships Adoption of the 17 Sustainable

United Nations Conference identified as key tool Development Goals
on the Human Environment
United Nations Environment

Programme is created
2002
1992 2012
2015
1972
UN
Conference on
Environment and United Nations
Development - Earth Conference on
Summit Sustainable Development
Countries agree on Idea for Sustainable

Agenda 21 Development Goals (SDGs)
defined
6

Multilateral treaties and voluntary agreements Moreover, several voluntary international

instruments adopted by the governing bodies
Since around the time of the Rio Summit and in the of international organizations address a range
following decades, the international community of chemicals and issues. Prominent examples
has taken concerted action through multilateral include the International Code of Conduct on
treaties on specific hazardous chemicals and Pesticide Management (hereinafter referred to
issues of global concern. Prominent examples, as the “Code of Conduct”), originally developed in
explored in greater detail in Part II, include the 1985 with a fourth version adopted in 2013, and
following: the Globally Harmonized System of Classification
and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), which was
›› Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete adopted in 1992. The GHS was specifically
the Ozone Layer (entry into force in 1989) mentioned in the 2002 Johannesburg Plan of
Implementation with a view to the system being
›› Basel Convention on the Control of fully operational by 2008.
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and their Disposal (entry into force Adoption of the Strategic Approach to
in 1992) International Chemicals Management in 2006
›› International Labour Organization (ILO) In 2006, following the

Conventions C170 - Chemicals Convention call made at the WSSD,
(entry into force in 1993) and C174 - Prevention the Strategic Approach
of Major Industrial Accidents Convention to International Chemicals Management (SAICM)
(entry into force in 1997) was adopted by the first session of the ICCM
(ICCM1) as a multi- and cross-sectoral and
›› Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed participatory strategic approach. SAICM’s overall
Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous objective is “to achieve the sound management
Chemicals and Pesticides in International of chemicals throughout their life cycle so that
Trade (entry into force in 2004) by the year 2020, chemicals are produced and
used in ways that minimize significant adverse
›› Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic impacts on the environment and human
Pollutants (POPs) (entry into force in 2004) health” (Secretariat of the Strategic Approach
to International Chemicals Management [SAICM
›› World Health Organization (WHO) Secretariat], UNEP and WHO 2006). SAICM
International Health Regulations (IHR) (2005) comprises the Dubai Declaration on International
(entry into force in 2007) Chemicals Management, which expressed high-
level political commitment to SAICM, and an
›› Minamata Convention on Mercury (entry into Overarching Policy Strategy (OPS).
force in 2017)

The Overarching Policy Strategy referenced sustainable development: economic, social and
the WSSD 2020 timeline, referring to the “2020 environmental. While SDG Targets 12.4 and 3.9
goal”, a term subsequently used in various are of direct relevance for a range of chemicals
international fora. Objectives to achieve this and waste management issues, SDG Target
goal are grouped under five areas: risk reduction, 6.3 focuses specifically on improving water
knowledge and information, governance, quality. The sound management of chemicals
capacity building and technical cooperation, and waste is also relevant for the achievement
and illegal international traffic. Furthermore, of many other SDGs. Those include halting
the Dubai Declaration recommends the use biodiversity loss, clean water and sanitation,
and further development of the Global Plan of facilitating access to clean energy, climate action,
Action as a working tool and guidance document ensuring quality education, and gender equality.
for meeting the commitments to chemicals Furthermore, implementation of other SDGs is
management expressed in, among others, the essential in achieving the sound management of
Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. In 2015, chemicals and waste, such as those concerned
ICCM4 endorsed the “overall orientation and with education, financing and partnerships.
guidance for achieving the 2020 goal of sound
management of chemicals” as a voluntary tool Chemicals and sustainability: concerns and
that will assist in the prioritization of efforts for opportunities
the sound management of chemicals and waste
as a contribution to the overall implementation Despite global agreement reached at high-level
of the Strategic Approach. UN Conferences and significant action already
taken, scientists continue to express concerns
Chemicals and waste in the 2030 Sustainable regarding the lack of progress towards the sound
Development Agenda management of chemicals and waste. These
include calls for systemic and transformational
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, changes towards safer chemicals and innovations
including its 17 SDGs (Figure 2.2) and 169 targets, in chemistry that will contribute to sustainable
was adopted by the United Nations General development.
Assembly at a summit of Heads of State in
2015. The SDGs, which are integrated and In this context, “green chemistry” (Anastas and
indivisible, integrate the three dimensions of Eghbali 2010), “sustainable chemistry” (Blum
Figure 2.2 The Sustainable Development Goals
Sound management of chemicals and waste cuts across the Sustainable Development Goals. It
is relevant for the achievement of much of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
8

et al. 2017), “one-world chemistry” (Matlin et al. on human health and the environment that may
2016) and related concepts are challenging be associated with some chemical production,
chemistry to help meet sustainable development use and end-of-life disposal”. They also noted
needs. Other stakeholders have raised similar “with urgency the limited time remaining to
concerns. A number of initiatives in the private achieve the 2020 goal” (SAICM Secretariat 2015).
sector have also identified opportunities to Shortly after the adoption of the 2030 Agenda
advance sustainability in relation to chemicals. in 2015, Governments and other stakeholders
These initiatives include the World Business participating in ICCM4 initiated a process to
Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) prepare recommendations regarding the
Chemical Sector SDG Roadmap (WBCSD 2017), Strategic Approach and the sound management
the Together for Sustainability initiative bringing of chemicals and waste beyond 2020. The
together 22 companies in the chemical industry, Conference agreed that the process should be
and the Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals open to all stakeholders and be concluded by
(ZDHC) initiative bringing together frontrunner ICCM5 in 2020. The period until ICCM5 in 2020
textile companies (ZDHC 2018). thus represents a historic window of opportunity
for reflection on lessons learned in international
Intersessional process on the Strategic chemicals and waste management, some of
Approach and the sound management of which has already started within the environment
chemicals and waste beyond 2020 sector, as shown in Resolution 1/5 adopted by the
United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA)
In 2015 Governments and other stakeholders in 2014 (United Nations Environment Assembly
participating in ICCM4 noted that “in most of the United Nations Environment Programme
countries more progress has to be made towards [UNEA] 2014).
actually minimizing the significant adverse effects
© International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), Delegates in plenary at ICCM4 in 2015 in Geneva

3/ Opportunities to link international policy

agendas
G
iven the relevance of chemicals and waste increase awareness of the important role of the
across the 2030 Agenda, the beyond health sector in the management of chemicals,
2020 intersessional process provides an and enhance its participation in international
opportunity to link and create synergies between chemicals management activities can build on
chemicals and waste management and other the UNEA-3 Resolution on chemicals and health
international policy agendas. (UNEA 2018a), which underlined the importance
of chemicals management for human and
Chemicals and health environmental health, and the WHO Chemicals
Road Map, developed based on the World Health
Assembly Resolution 69.4 and approved by the
70th World Health Assembly in 2017, which
aims to enhance health sector engagement in
international chemicals management (WHO
2017).
Chemicals and the world of work
Workers are among those most exposed to

hazardous chemicals in various sectors and
across global supply chains. Ratification and
implementation of international labour standards
help achieve decent work that is safe and healthy,
while simultaneously advancing towards greener
work processes.
Chemicals and climate change
Linkages range from the remobilization of

chemicals due to melting glaciers, to reducing
the greenhouse gas emissions of the chemical
industry, to the potential of chemistry to develop
adaptation and mitigation solutions. The chemical
industry and downstream sectors therefore
The sound management of chemicals and have an important role to play in achieving the
waste plays an important role in avoiding and objectives of the Paris Agreement.
minimizing risks posed by harmful chemicals
in order to protect human health, in particular Chemicals and biodiversity
that of vulnerable populations such as pregnant
women, infants and children. While the links Hazardous chemicals not only affect human
between chemicals and health are well- health, but also have significant adverse effects
established and the health sector has been an on terrestrial and aquatic life. Successful efforts
important partner in efforts to minimize risks, to minimize the risks posed by hazardous
further efforts to strengthen linkages between chemicals can thus reduce direct pressures on
the achievement of SDG Targets 12.4 and 3.9, biodiversity. The critical role of pollution and
10

chemicals was recognized in the Strategic Plan Chemicals, agriculture and food
for Biodiversity 2011-2020 (UNEP 2010), adopted
under the Convention on Biological Diversity. Chemicals play a major role with respect to
Given current activities to develop a biodiversity agriculture and food, for example in plant
framework beyond 2020, opportunities exist to protection and food conservation. This link has
create linkages with the chemicals and waste long been recognized, and many countries have
process beyond 2020. long-standing legislation to control chemicals used
in agriculture and food production. International
agreements and bodies that address these and
related topics include the Code of Conduct and
the Codex Alimentarius, which is a collection of
international food standards.
Chemicals and sustainable consumption and

production
Target 12.4 is embedded in SDG 12, “Ensure

sustainable consumption and production
patterns”, reflecting the insight that chemicals
and waste management is inextricably linked
to the broader quest for resource efficiency,
waste reduction, and the need to decouple
economic growth from natural resource
use and environmental impacts. Individuals,
© Alan D. Wilson
Sow and cub Polar Bears (Ursus maritimus) in the Arctic National Wildlife companies and organizations play a critical
Refuge, Alaska, CC-BY 3.0
role through their consumption choices and
Chapter 3. Opportunities to link international policy agendas 11

directly or indirectly impact chemicals production and waste issues were also identified as a
and sustainability. The realization that a global key dimension of a broader international and
shift towards sustainable consumption and integrated approach to address pollution. Several
production would require the commitment of resolutions were adopted which recognized these
diverse actors throughout the world spurred linkages, including on lead and on environment
Heads of State and Government at Rio+20 to and health. The UNEA-3 Declaration requested
adopt the 10-Year Framework of Programmes UNEP to prepare an implementation plan on the
on Sustainable Consumption and Production issue of a pollution-free planet for consideration
Patterns (10YFP) (UNEP 2013). The 10YFP seeks by UNEA-4 in 2019. As pointed out in that
to develop, replicate and scale up sustainable Declaration, meeting the need for rapid, large-
consumption and production policies and scale and coordinated action against pollution
initiatives in areas such as public procurement, and for moving towards a pollution-free planet is
consumer information, education, construction, a long-term endeavour. Shaping a pollution-free
and food systems. All of these areas are highly planet and contributing effectively and equitably
relevant from a chemicals and waste perspective, to the SDGs requires system-wide transformation
pointing towards opportunities to strengthen and strengthened capacities – global, national
linkages with the 10YFP. and subnational – to act on air, water, soil, marine
and coastal pollution and sound management
Chemicals and the international pollution of chemicals and waste (UNEA 2018b).
agenda
Recognizing the interface of chemicals and
As highlighted in 2017 at the third session of the waste management
United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA-
3), whose theme was “Towards a Pollution- For many years the chemicals and waste
Free Planet”, chemicals and waste issues are a agendas have been addressed separately,
key dimension of a broader international and both internationally and in many countries. For
integrated approach to pollution. Chemicals example, in Agenda 21 chemicals and waste
Figure 3.1 The waste hierarchy, sustainable materials management and the circular economy
(adapted from United States Environmental Protection Agency [US EPA] 2017)
Source reduction & reuse

Most preferred
Recycling/composting
Energy recovery
Least preferred
Treatment &
disposal
The waste hierarchy strives to achieve similar objectives as the related concepts of sustainable
materials management and the circular economy. They have in common the quest to minimize
the use of materials and maximize reuse. The sound management of chemicals and waste and
innovations in chemistry play a key role in enabling these concepts.
12

management were covered in separate chapters. This brief discussion suggests that important
However, it has been increasingly recognized aspects of chemicals and waste management are
that the design and use of safer chemicals and converging, in line with a life cycle management
sustainable production processes is essential approach.
for reducing releases throughout the life cycles
of chemicals and products, including during the At the international level, critical progress
reuse, the recycle and disposal stages. These towards bringing the chemicals and waste
front-of-the-pipe solutions also help ensure management concepts together has been made
that secondary raw materials rechannelled through SDG Target 12.4, under SDG 12 on
into a circular economy are not contaminated sustainable consumption and production, and
with unwanted hazardous chemicals. In turn, through including waste in the mandate of the
the widely known waste hierarchy (Figure 3.1) intersessional process on the Strategic Approach
focuses on source reduction, reuse and recycling and the sound management of chemicals and
of materials, while energy recovery, waste waste beyond 2020. While GCO-II focuses on
treatment and waste disposal are seen as least the sound management of chemicals and front-
preferred options. The waste hierarchy also of-the-pipe-solutions, the interface with waste
emphasizes sustainable material management, management is addressed throughout the
resource efficiency and life cycle management. GCO-II.
Chapter 3. Opportunities to link international policy agendas 13

4/ Overview of the Global Chemicals

Outlook II
I
n responding to the UNEA mandate to provide use, and employ them more systematically
options for the implementation of actions to in all countries. Part III also provides specific
reach relevant SDGs and targets up to and suggestions for developing countries and
beyond 2020 and, among others, to assess economies in transition to consider in order
progress towards the 2020 goal, the GCO-II is to benefit from scientific work undertaken in
structured in five parts: countries with advanced management schemes.
Part I sets the scene by presenting existing and Part IV discusses enabling policies and action that
emerging knowledge on production, releases, have the potential to scale up innovative solutions
concentrations and effects of chemicals and to achieve the sound management of chemicals
waste, as well as the current state of knowledge and waste. Advancing sound management and a
for estimating the costs of inaction and benefits future chemistry that is fully sustainable requires
of action for the sound management of chemicals the engagement of new actors and the shaping
and waste. Part I also addresses relevant of enabling policies and approaches ranging
interlinkages, including global resource flows, from education reform, support for technology
megatrends, industry sector trends, and the innovation and financing, to innovative business
growing complexity of global supply chains. models, sustainable supply chain management
and empowerment of citizens, consumers and
Part II assesses, to the extent possible, progress workers through information and participation
towards achieving the sound management of rights.
chemicals and waste as called for by the 2020
goal. Given the lack of consolidated data and Part V places insights generated in the four
fragmented indicators and reporting schemes, previous parts within the context of the 2030
established through various multilateral treaties Sustainable Development Agenda, focusing on
and voluntary international instruments, a opportunities for collaborative action to achieve
qualitative approach is taken to assess progress. the sound management of chemicals and waste.
There is an emphasis on collaborative action to
Part III assesses progress and outlines integrate chemicals and waste considerations
opportunities concerning science-based into key economic and enabling sectors. Part V
approaches, tools, methodologies and concludes with a forward-looking discussion
instruments used in the management of with respect to securing commitment by key
chemicals to protect human health and the stakeholders relevant for the future framework
environment. Over the past decades, valuable on chemicals and waste beyond 2020. It also
lessons have been learned in their practical presents options for the implementation of
application, and opportunities have emerged actions at all levels until and beyond 2020.
to enhance their effectiveness, simplify their
14

References
American Chemistry Council (2018). Chemical Abstracts United Nations Environment Assembly of the
Service. http://support.cas.org/about-cas/cas-fact- United Nations Environment Programme (2018a).
sheets/registry-fact-sheet. Accessed 15 May 2018. Environment and Health. UNEP/EA.3/Res.4. Nairobi.
https://papersmart.unon.org/resolution/uploads/
Anastas, P. and Eghbali, N. (2010). Green chemistry: k1800154.english.pdf.
principles and practice. Chemical Society Reviews 39(1),
301-312. https://doi.org/10.1039/b918763b. United Nations Environment Assembly of the
United Nations Environment Programme (2018b).
Blum, C., Bunke, D., Hungsberg, M., Roelofs, E., Joas, Implementation Plan “Towards a Pollution-Free
A., Joas, R., Blepp, M. and Stolzenberg, H.-C. (2017). Planet”. UNEP/EA.4/3. Nairobi. http://web.unep.
The concept of sustainable chemistry: key drivers org/environmentassembly/implementation-
for the transition towards sustainable development. plan-%E2%80%9Ctowards-pollution-free-
Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy 5, 94-104. https:// planet%E2%80%9D.
doi.org/10.1016/j.scp.2017.01.001.
United Nations Environment Programme (2010).
European Environment Agency (2018). Consumption Decision Adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the
of hazardous chemicals, 7 December. https://www. Convention on Biological Diversity at Its Tenth Meeting:
eea.europa.eu/airs/2018/environment-and-health/ X/2. The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and
production-of-hazardous-chemicals#tab-related- the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. https://www.cbd.int/doc/
interactive-charts. Accessed 19 January 2019. decisions/cop-10/cop-10-dec-02-en.pdf.
Matlin, S.A., Mehta, G., Hopf, H. and Krief, A. (2016). United Nations Environment Programme (2013).
One-world chemistry and systems thinking. Nature The 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable
Chemistry 8(5), 393-398. https://doi.org/10.1038/ Consumption and Production: Rio+20 Adopts the 10YFP.
nchem.2498. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/
documents/944brochure10yfp.pdf.
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
Chemicals Management (2015). Report of the United Nations Environment Programme and
International Conference on Chemicals Management International Council of Chemical Associations (2019).
on the Work of its Fourth Session. http://www.saicm. Knowledge Management and Information Sharing
org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM4/doc/ for the Sound Management of Industrial Chemicals.
K1606013_e.pdf. Montevideo: Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to
International Chemicals Management. http://www.
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/meetings/OEWG3/
Chemicals Management, United Nations Environment inf/OEWG3-INF-28-KMI.pdf.
Programme and World Health Organization (2006).
Strategic Approach to International Chemicals United States Environmental Protection Agency (2017).
Management: SAICM Texts and Resolutions of the Sustainable materials management: non-hazardous
International Conference on Chemicals Management. materials and waste management hierarchy,
Geneva. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/ 10 August. https://www.epa.gov/smm/sustainable-
saicmtexts/New%20SAICM%20Text%20with%20 materials-management-non-hazardous-materials-and-
ICCM%20resolutions_E.pdf. waste-management-hierarchy. Accessed 21 November
2018.
United Nations (2002). World Summit on Sustainable
Development, Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable World Business Council for Sustainable Development
Development. 4 September. Johannesburg. A/ (2017). Chemical Sector SDG Roadmap. https://
CONF.199/20. http://www.un-documents.net/ www.wbcsd.org/Programs/People/Sustainable-
jburgdec. Development-Goals/Resources/Chemical-Sector-SDG-
Roadmap.
United Nations (2012). United Nations Conference
on Sustainable Development, Rio+20. https:// World Health Organization (2017). Chemicals Road
sustainabledevelopment.un.org/rio20. Accessed Map: Road Map to Enhance Health Sector Engagement
11 September 2018. in the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
Management towards the 2020 Goal and Beyond. http://
United Nations Environment Assembly of the www.who.int/ipcs/saicm/roadmap/en/.
Resolutions and decisions adopted by the United Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (2018). Leading
Nations Environment Assembly of the United the textile, leather and footwear industries towards
Nations Environment Programme at its first Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals. https://www.
session on 27 June 2014. http://wedocs.unep. roadmaptozero.com/. Accessed 2 August 2018.
org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/17285/
K1402364.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y.
15
Key messages for
policymakers: a call for
more ambitious action at
all levels
© Sasin Tipchai/Shutterstock
Key messages for policymakers: a call for more ambitious action at all levels
The 2020 goal will not be achieved: business learned from the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity
as usual is not an option 2011-2020, a global common vision, strategic
goals, targets and indicators could facilitate
T
he findings of the GCO-II indicate that the linkages across all relevant agreements and
sound management of chemicals and initiatives, and make reporting schemes simpler,
waste, and minimizing adverse impacts, country-driven and linked to global targets.
will not be achieved by 2020. Furthermore, Under such a scheme, indicators would need
trends data presented in Part I suggest that the to distinguish between outputs (e.g. adoption of
projected doubling of the global chemicals market legislation) and impacts (e.g. reduction of adverse
between 2017 and 2030 will increase global impacts from hazardous chemicals).
chemical releases, exposures, concentrations,
and adverse health and environmental impacts Implementation of actions up to and beyond
unless prevailing gaps to manage chemicals 2020
and waste are addressed worldwide. Business
as usual is therefore not an option. However, Responding to the United Nations Environment
accelerating progress in order to achieve sound Assembly (UNEA) mandate to provide options for
management and minimize adverse impacts in the implementation of actions to reach relevant
the context of the 2030 Agenda is possible under Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and
a sustainability scenario. This will require more targets up to and beyond 2020, and based on
ambitious, urgent and worldwide collaborative a review of implementation of the 2020 goal
action by all stakeholders and in all countries. to date, the GCO-II presents a range of options
for the implementation of actions (hereinafter
A comprehensive global framework is needed, referred to as “actions”) to reach relevant
with ambitious priorities and coherent SDGs and targets up to and beyond 2020. The
indicators identified actions are considered of particular
relevance to developing and implementing an
To address gaps, a global framework for the sound international approach for chemicals and waste
management of chemicals and waste beyond management beyond 2020. Equally important,
2020 needs to be developed that is aspirational, they target policy- and decision-makers around
comprehensive, and creates incentives to foster the world and from all stakeholder groups in
commitment and engagement by all relevant order to generate enhanced commitment for
actors in the value chain. Drawing upon lessons implementation.
17
The actions are presented under 10 topics which commitments, already agreed internationally,
were derived using a back-casting method, which require urgent attention and renewed
imagining a sustainability scenario, where legacy commitment due to implementation gaps.
problems are addressed and future legacies Examples include implementation of the Globally
are avoided, including through green and Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling
sustainable chemistry innovation and sustainable of Chemicals (GHS) and the strengthening of basic
consumption and production. They also cover chemicals and waste management systems.
1. Develop effective
management systems
Address prevailing capacity gaps across countries, strengthen national and regional
legislation using a life cycle approach, and further strengthen institutions and
programmes by:
›› promulgating, aligning and enforcing legislation and policies, including full
implementation of the GHS, promulgating legislation for industrial and consumer
products, and taking measures to address illegal international traffic;
›› developing national and regional chemicals and waste management action plans
and programmes, linked to globally agreed targets and priorities; and
›› integrating chemicals and waste considerations into national and sectoral policies
(e.g. agriculture, housing, transport and energy) to implement specific SDG targets.
2. Mobilize resources
Scale up adequate1 resources and innovative financing for effective legislation,

implementation and enforcement, particularly in developing countries and economies
in transition, by:
›› scaling up efforts to integrate chemicals and waste management into national
and sectoral budgets;
›› facilitating adequate external technical assistance, financial support and technology
transfer to address issues causing greatest harm, including through new and
innovative financing (e.g. fiscal incentives, cost recovery instruments, green bonds,
venture capital); and
›› strengthening the integrated approach to financing through assessing
its effectiveness and renewed commitment across all three components
(mainstreaming, industry involvement, and dedicated external financing).
3. Assess and communicate hazards
Fill global data and knowledge gaps, and enhance international collaboration to
advance chemical hazard assessments, classifications and communication by:
›› sharing existing hazard data and assessments globally, and increasing the mutual
acceptance of testing data and hazard assessments across countries based on
accepted methods and scientific criteria;
›› developing a global database of assessed and classified chemicals for information-
sharing and promoting harmonization of classifications; and
›› setting targets to fill data gaps in order to fully understand globally the hazards
of substances in commerce, and assessing progress.
1 To facilitate better understanding of the term “adequate” in this context, further analysis and international dialogue are needed on certain topics such
as sustainability of funding.
18
4. Assess and manage risks
Refine and share chemical risk assessment and risk management approaches
globally to promote safe and sustainable use of chemicals and address emerging
issues throughout the life cycle by:
›› sharing knowledge on existing risk assessment and management approaches
and tools (e.g. exposure scenarios) more widely;
›› further developing and refining exposure, risk assessment and life cycle assessment
(LCA) methods; and
›› taking into account and benefiting from opportunities for accelerated and effective
risk management, such as placing the burden of proof on producers, advancing
informed and non-regrettable substitution of chemicals of high concern, and
using generic risk-based approaches, when possible.
5. Use life cycle approaches
Advance widespread implementation of sustainable supply chain management, full

material disclosure, transparency and sustainable product design by:
›› promoting wide implementation of corporate sustainability and sustainable
procurement policies;
›› developing harmonized approaches across sectors to share chemical information
and to advance full material disclosure across supply chains, including chemical-
intensive industry sectors and the recycling/waste sector;
›› strengthening collaboration by all actors in the supply chain in designing and
using safer chemicals and sustainable products; and
›› promoting the integration of chemicals and waste considerations into corporate
sustainability metrics and reporting.
6. Strengthen corporate governance
Enable and strengthen chemicals and waste management aspects of corporate

sustainability policies, sustainable business models, and reporting by:
›› encouraging private sector frontrunner action to further develop voluntary
standards that exceed basic compliance, and reviewing their effectiveness through
interested stakeholders;
›› promoting sustainable business models, such as Chemical Leasing and eco-
industrial parks; and
›› enhancing systematic use by investors of corporate sustainability and chemical
footprint reporting, covering chemicals and waste management performance.
7. Educate and innovate
Integrate green and sustainable chemistry in education, research, and innovation

policies and programmes by:
›› reforming chemistry curricula in tertiary, secondary, primary and professional
education;
›› scaling up research initiatives, and technology innovation policies and programmes,
that advance green and sustainable chemistry, particularly for start-up companies;
and
›› facilitating a better global understanding of green and sustainable chemistry
concepts.
19
8. Foster transparency
Empower workers, consumers and citizens to protect themselves and the environment
by:
›› disclosing robust and understandable information about hazardous chemicals in
the supply chain to workers, consumers, citizens and communities;
›› scaling up innovative programmes and technology applications to facilitate a
better understanding by individuals of chemical and waste risks, and engaging
citizens in data collection through citizen science;
›› promoting and supporting meaningful and active participation by all actors of civil
society, particularly women, workers and indigenous communities, in regulatory
and other decision-making processes that relate to chemical safety; and
›› taking action so that citizens have ready access to justice.
9. Bring knowledge to decision-makers
Strengthen the science-policy interface and use of science in monitoring progress,

priority-setting (e.g. for emerging issues), and policymaking throughout the life cycle
of chemicals and waste by:
›› taking steps to harmonize scientific research protocols (e.g. for biomonitoring);
›› developing science-based criteria to identify emerging issues at the international
level, taking into account harm (e.g. using health impact information) and
monitoring their implementation;
›› providing research funding to fill identified gaps and priorities; and developing
a study on the global costs of inaction, and benefits of action, on chemicals and
waste management, comparable to the Stern Review on The Economics of Climate
Change; and
›› developing and improving institutional mechanisms to improve knowledge
generation and management.
10. Enhance global commitment
Establish an ambitious and comprehensive global framework for chemicals and

waste beyond 2020, scale up collaborative action, and track progress by:
›› developing an aspirational, overarching and widely owned global framework
that encourages engagement by all relevant stakeholders; and developing global
targets, milestones and indicators that distinguish between outputs and impacts;
›› providing opportunities for sharing internationally, and for input or peer reviews,
action plans and roadmaps by stakeholders under a beyond 2020 framework;
›› considering how corporate sustainability metrics and reporting can play a stronger
role in measuring progress in a beyond 2020 framework; and
›› monitoring, tracking and reviewing collective action and progress and making
adjustments in regard to ambition, as needed.
Results-based stakeholder roadmaps, mutual an ambitious and comprehensive global

reviews and accountability beyond 2020 framework – as well as to increase engagement
by all stakeholders. What mechanisms could
The period up to the conclusion of the facilitate the needed commitment, ownership,
intersessional process, by 2020, provides a mutual accountability and collective monitoring
brief but critical window in which to develop
20
of progress towards achieving the sound Chemical Sector SDG Roadmap and the WHO
management of chemicals and waste? Chemicals Road Map. This proposed roadmap
approach would be compatible with, and
To facilitate the success of the global collaborative take into account, experience gained in other
framework on chemicals and waste, all relevant international forums, such those concerned
stakeholders could be challenged to make with climate change. These have evolved to
voluntary yet clear public commitments and include a more flexible, yet results-oriented and
pledges, specifying concrete plans and steps to mutually accountable, approach to compiling
be taken. One option is that countries and all commitments and action taken, with reviews
relevant stakeholders could develop, implement taking place internationally to track process and
and share, internationally, results-based action adjust ambition levels, as appropriate.
plans and roadmaps to implement the 2030
Agenda from a chemicals and waste perspective. Collectively, these action plans and roadmaps
Action plans and roadmaps could be prepared would provide an indication of commitments and
in a collaborative manner by countries, industry allow assessing the extent to which collaborative
sectors (e.g. the chemicals industry, chemical- action succeeds in making the progress needed
intensive downstream sectors, retailers, the to achieve the sound management of chemicals
recycling industry), civil society organizations, and waste. Commitments and progress could
the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound be made available to the public in order to
Management of Chemicals (IOMC), academia monitor progress. Stakeholders could pledge
and others. They could also be prepared at the and showcase their action plans and roadmaps
thematic level and involve several stakeholders within the beyond 2020 framework and benefit
(e.g. for an initiative to fill data gaps in order to from the input of other stakeholders (which
understand the hazard potential of chemicals). might take different forms, such as peer review).
Pledges could be reviewed globally against
There are examples of roadmaps already agreed goals and targets, with adjustments made
prepared which address the sound management as appropriate. Frontrunners would be rewarded,
of chemicals and waste management, or certain and space would be given to key actors to step
aspects of it. They include the World Business up and provide leadership.
Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)
21
I. The evolving chemicals
economy: status and
trends relevant for
sustainability
Part I of the Global Chemicals Outlook II
© United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific/ Werayuth
Part I
The evolving chemicals economy: status and trends relevant for sustainability
About Part I
A wealth of economic and scientific information relevant to the sustainability of the

chemical industry has been generated since the GCO-I. Part I of the GCO-II presents
existing and emerging economic and scientific knowledge and, where possible, trends
in regard to a range of topics of relevance for chemicals and waste management. In
conjunction with Parts II and III, Part I provides information on progress made towards
the implementation of the 2020 goal, focusing on impact indicators. Findings indicate
that the international community is not on track to minimize the adverse impacts of
chemicals and waste on human health and the environment.
The overarching structure of Part I is as follows: Chapters 1 and 2 provide an overview

of the global chemical industry and the production and sales of chemicals. Part I
then proceeds by providing knowledge on chemical releases and concentrations,
followed by a discussion of the effects of chemicals on human health and the
environment, including the cost of inaction and benefits of action related to sound
management. As chemical production and sales are heavily affected by, and linked
to, global megatrends as well as trends in chemical-intensive industry sectors, these
topics are discussed in a dedicated chapter. Special attention is also given to the
increasing complexities associated with chemicals in products and global supply
chains and to circularity challenges. Throughout Part I, challenges encountered in
collecting coherent global data, developing baseline knowledge, identifying trends
and documenting knowledge gaps are highlighted.
Contents
1/ The chemical industry 24
2/ Trends in production and sales of specific chemicals 41
3/ Megatrends and chemical-intensive industry sectors: risks and

opportunities 61
4/ Global supply chains, chemicals in products, and circularity 78
5/ Chemical pollution: emissions, releases and wastes 92
6/ Concentrations of chemicals in the environment and humans 120
7/ Environmental, health and social effects of chemicals 145
8/ The economic benefits of action and the costs of inaction 164
References 176
23

Chapter Highlights
Between 2000 and 2017 the global chemical industry’s production capacity
almost doubled, from about 1.2 to 2.3 billion tonnes.
If pharmaceuticals are included, global sales totalled US (United States)

dollars 5.68 trillion in 2017, making the chemical industry the second largest
manufacturing industry in the world.
Sales are projected to almost double from 2017 to 2030.
In emerging economies the sales, production volume and production capacity of

the chemical industry have grown and are projected to continue growing rapidly,
especially in China.
The chemical industry turns large amounts of resources into chemical products,
including oil and natural gas used as primary feedstocks.
The chemical industry is going through a period of mergers, acquisitions and

other types of restructuring.
T
his chapter provides an overview of the 1.1 The chemical industry: status and
global chemical industry. It starts by historic trends
presenting available data on the status and
historic trends in the sales, production volume The chemical industry is one of the world’s
and production capacity of the chemical industry, largest industries
followed by an overview of related forecasts. The
chapter proceeds by examining the industry’s Total chemical industry revenues have a long
role as a major component of the global system history of steady growth, at 4-4.5 per cent,
of production and consumption, including its although in the past several years there has been
global value chain and its role in global resource some flattening out (Figure 1.1). The growth rate
flows. The chapter closes by exploring how the was 4.6 per cent in 2017. Global sales in 2017 are
chemical industry is restructuring and by briefly estimated at US dollars 3.47 trillion, excluding
examining important trends in research and pharmaceuticals (European Chemical Industry
development. Council [Cefic] 2018). If pharmaceuticals are
included, global sales in 2017 were an estimated
US dollars 5.68 trillion (American Chemistry
Council [ACC] 2018). This makes the chemical
industry the second largest manufacturing
industry in the world (International Labour
Organization [ILO] 2018).
24
Part I
Figure 1.1 Total chemical industry revenues, 2002-2016 (US dollars billion) (based on ACC 2017)
6,000
5,417.6
5,225.6
5,197.6
5,156.8
5,000
5,000.0
4,911.2
Revenues (US dollars billion)
4,125.2
4,000
3,842.9
3,488.2
3,373.0
3,000
2,924.3
2,653.1
2,375.1
2,000
2,047.2
1,778.5
1,000
0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Asia has rapidly increased its market share and (OECD) countries, in production facilities in non-
China now has the largest chemical industry OECD countries. Since 2000 domestic chemical
companies, particularly in China and the Middle
Throughout much of the 20th century the East, have become increasingly dominant
chemical industry was based largely in Europe, producers. Companies in India are also rapidly
North America and Japan. Since the 1970s it expanding their market share.
has expanded internationally, with much new
investment occurring in Asia and the Middle Today Asia is the largest chemical producing and
East (Budde et al. 2017). Faced with the need to consuming region (Figure 1.2). China has the
increase capacity to meet global demand in the world’s largest chemical industry, with annual
1990s, growth was driven by investments from sales of around euros 1,293 billion or about
multinational companies, based in Organisation 37 per cent of global sales. Its sales are larger
for Economic Co-operation and Development than those of the next nine counties combined.
Figure 1.2 Chemical sales by geographic region, 2017 (EUR billion) (adapted from Cefic 2018, p. 6)
154
519 542 Japan
112
EU 1,293
NAFTA* Rest of
China
Europe***
122
101 477
Rep. of Korea
India Rest of
Asia**
109
Latin America
48
Rest of the
world
* North American Free Trade Agreement *** Rest of Europe covers Switzerland, Norway, Turkey, Russia and Ukraine
** Asia excluding China, India, Japan and South Korea
Chapter 1. The chemical industry 25

© Bellchalerm/Shutterstock
The European Union (EU) ranks second with a Asia and the Middle East have experienced the
market share of about 16 per cent, followed strongest growth in production volume and
by the United States with about 13 per cent. In capacity
2017 the BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India,
China and South Africa) accounted for around In terms of production volume, Europe and
44 per cent of all chemical sales (Cefic 2018). North America stagnated between 2000 and
As of 2016, four of the top 10 largest chemical 2017. During the same period China, the Middle
companies were based in Asia or the Middle East and India experienced rapid growth at a
East (Tullo 2017a). compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.8,
8.5 and 7.6 per cent, respectively (Cayuela and
Hagan 2019) (Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3 Growth in production volume, 2000-2017 (adapted from Cayuela and Hagan 2019)
Compound annual growth rate (CAGR)

China 11.8%
Middle East 8.5%
India 7.6%
World 3.9%
Rest of Asia 2.8%
Rest of the World 2.1%
Europe 0.0%
North America 0.0%
26
Part I
Figure 1.4 Global chemical industry capacity growth in million tonnes, 2000-2017 (adapted from
Cayuela and Hagan 2019)
214
175
494
39
141
45
812
316
11
118
248 249
307 293
1,186 (2000) 2,276 (2017)
North America Europe China India Rest of Asia Middle East Rest of the World
The production capacity of the global chemical 1.2 The chemical industry: forecast
industry almost doubled between 2000 and and outlook
2017 to reach some 2.3 billion tonnes (Cayuela
and Hagan 2019), suggesting continued future Growth in sales is expected to continue in the
increases in the volume of chemicals produced. medium and long term
Growth in production capacity has been
particularly rapid in China and India (Figure 1.4). Growth in sales is expected to continue, although
more slowly than in the past decade. While
International trade in chemicals has also been estimates vary according to the period selected
increasing rapidly for analysis, some forecasts show world chemical
sales almost doubling between 2017 and 2030
As the industry and its markets have grown, to reach euros 6.6 trillion (Cefic 2018). By 2030
so has international trade in chemicals. The China’s share of the global market is projected
value of China’s exports of chemicals has to increase to almost 50 per cent (Cefic 2018)
increased by 15 per cent since 2013, the year (Figure 1.5). According to the OECD (2019),
the first Global Chemicals Outlook was published the value of the global production of chemical
(United Nations Comtrade 2018). Chemicals and products will reach almost US dollars 22 trillion
products containing chemicals are traded in large by 2060.
volumes around the world. Exports (excluding
intra-EU exports) reached a global value of Growth rates are expected to be strongest in
around US dollars 748 billion in 2017 (World Asia, Africa and the Middle East
Trade Organization [WTO] 2018). In terms of
export value, the EU is the largest chemicals It is expected that future industry growth will be
exporting region (around 20 per cent of global driven mainly by emerging markets, where gains
exports), followed by the United States (around are likely to be 6-10 per cent per year compared
10 per cent) and China (around 7 per cent). As with 2-3 per cent in higher-income economies.
regards import value, the United States (around Growth in the Asia-Pacific region, Africa and the
10 per cent of global imports) is closely followed Middle East is projected to be strongest in almost
by the EU (around 10 per cent) and China (around every year until 2022 (ACC 2017) (Figure 1.6).
9 per cent) (WTO 2018).

Figure 1.5 Projected growth in world chemical sales, 2017-2030 (adapted from Cefic 2018, p. 34)
Rest of the world

1.0%
Rest of the world Rest of
1.4% Europe
European 2.7%
Japan Rest of Asia Union
European 3.2% 14.7% 10.7%
Rest of Asia Union Rest of
20.1% 15.6% Europe
3.2% North
3.47
American
6.6
Japan Free Trade
4.4% € Agreement
North American € trillion
trillion Free Trade 13.8%
in 2017 Agreement by 2030
14.9%
China
37.2% Latin
America
3.1% China Latin
49.9% America
4.0%
Global chemical sales (excluding pharmaceuticals) are projected to grow from euros 3.47 trillion
in 2017 to euros 6.6 trillion by 2030. Asia is expected to account for almost 70 per cent of sales
by then.
Figure 1.6 Projection of annual production growth in the chemical industry by region, 2015-2022
(per cent change per year) (based on ACC 2017)
6
Per cent change in market
4
from year to year
-2 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Asia and the Pacific Africa and the Middle East North America Western Europe Latin America Central/Eastern Europe
While production of chemicals is projected to grow in each region, annual growth rates are
highest in regions with developing countries and emerging economies, particularly in Asia-
Pacific, Africa and the Middle East.
1.3 The chemical industry in the consumer products. A simplified representation

global system of production and of this value chain is shown in Figure 1.7. At the
consumption core of the chemical industry are huge, highly
capitalized installations where millions of tonnes
Value chain of the chemical industry of basic chemicals are produced as feedstocks
for the thousands of chemicals that make up
The global value chain of the chemical industry and the chemical market. However, the industry is
its products extends from the extraction of raw increasingly diversifying into high-technology
materials to the use and reuse of industrial and sectors such as biotechnology, nanotechnology
28
Part I
and new materials, which have applications, facilities is connected to innumerable product
for example, in health care, consumer goods, manufacturers in sectors such as agriculture,
manufacturing, communication, transportation construction and electronics. The various
and environmental protection (Valencia 2013; segments may span a number of countries across
Sarathy et al. 2017). the world.
Focusing on the first three of the steps in The global value chain of the chemical industry
Figure 1.7 and examining, in particular, chemical is complex and highly integrated globally
manufacture, processing or refining in more
detail, the global value chain of the chemical The linkages among chemical manufacturers and
industry can be divided into five key segments, their suppliers and downstream customers are
as shown in Figure 1.8 (Bamber, Frederick and often complex and heavily integrated. Chemical
Gereffi 2016). In a first step feedstocks – such as supply chains can be long. Customers may be
natural gas and minerals – are processed into global, often located in several countries or on
high-volume and low-value “bulk” chemicals. different continents. In addition, a change in
These are conventionally produced in high- market conditions for one high-volume chemical
capacity refineries and milling facilities with high can have important economic implications
capital investment costs. Intermediate chemicals for many other chemicals, including those
are generally developed for further use in co-produced as by-products and others
production or manufacturing processes (e.g. dyes manufactured downstream. For example,
for paint production). Specialty chemicals are production of polyethylene (PE) (the world’s most
higher in value and are designed to fulfil specific commonly used plastic) generates co-products
functions. Given the relatively lower investment used to make polystyrene (PS) and polyester.
needed, a larger number of smaller companies Reduced use of plastic shopping bags and other
can operate in this segment. Chemical processing polyethylene objects affects not only the market
and product manufacturing in downstream
Figure 1.7 Value chain of the chemical industry: from extraction to finished products
Chemical Downstream Industrial and Industrial and Industrial and

Extraction of manufacture, chemical consumer consumer consumer
raw material processing or products products products use product disposal
refining manufacture manufacture and reuse and waste

Figure 1.8 Chemical segments in the global value chain (adapted from Bamber, Frederick and
Gereffi 2016, p. vii)
Commodity Intermediate Marketing, sales

Feedstock Basic chemicals Specialty chemicals
chemicals chemicals and distribution
Organic/ Organic/
Organic Select products Key end markets
petrochemicals petrochemicals
Naptha and natural Olefins Plastic resins and Oils Paints, coating and Agriculture
gas (ethane, propane) synthetic rubber: PS, surface treatments
PP, PVC, PE
Bio-based Aromatics Pigments and dyes Fine chemicals Automotive
Organic/
oleochemicals Surfactants: Advanced polymer, Construction
Fatty acids, alcohols, ethoxylates adhesives and
methyl ester sealants
Starches and glues Consumer products
Personal care
preparations Electronics
Inorganic Inorganic Activated charcoal
Other additives
Sulphur Sulphur derivatives Explosives Manufacturing
Chlorine Packaging
Minerals
Caustic soda Pulp and paper

Brine and rock salt
Pharmaceutical
Air Titanium oxides
Textile and apparel
Industrial gases
Water treatment
R&D and engineering in technology process Formulation Branding
for polyethylene itself, but also the availability A study on the role of the Philippines in the
and price of polystyrene and polyesters. global chemical industry found that in 2014 basic
and commodity chemicals accounted for more
Emerging economies are strengthening their than two-thirds of chemical exports (Bamber,
position in higher-value markets Frederick and Gereffi 2016). However, some firms
had started to enter the market for intermediate
Value chains are governed by global markets and specialty chemicals. Emerging countries also
that regulate the processing, distribution and play a growing role in manufacturing products for
formulation of chemicals. The liberalization key end markets which are chemical-intensive.
of these markets, combined with production,
logistics and information technology innovations, The chemical dimension of global resource
have decentralized chemical production and flows
decreased costs (Nicita et al. 2013). These
developments have presented opportunities Manufactured chemicals are an integral part of
for low-income countries to participate in the the sourced, generated and stored materials
globalized market, e.g. through the production flowing through the global economy. According
and export of basic chemicals which are then to the International Resources Panel’s Global
further synthesized and polymerized elsewhere. Resources Outlook 2019 (Oberle et al. 2019),
While the chemical industries in most emerging approximately 92 billion tonnes of materials
economies are still focused on producing bulk are estimated to have been extracted globally in
chemicals, some seek to move up the value 2017. The Outlook assumes that under a historical
chain by strengthening their position in the trends scenario, this will reach 190 billion tonnes
market for intermediates and specialty products. by 2060. The 2019 Circularity Gap Report notes
30
Part I
Figure 1.9 Trends in materials extraction, financial value creation and greenhouse gas emissions
(1900-2050) (adapted from de Wit et al. 2019, p. 11)
184 Bt
170 Bt
93 Bt
92.1 Bt
€165 Tn
€153 Tn
€140 Tn
€60.4 Tn
80 Bt
26.7 Bt 60 Bt
53 Bt
€14.5 Tn
28 Bt
7 Bt
€2.6 Tn
7 Bt Projected
0 Bt
1900 1970 2015 2050
MASS VALUE CARBON

Materials extraction in billion tonnes (Bt) Gross world product in trillion euros (2010) (€Tn) Carbon dioxide equivalent emissions in billion tonnes (Bt CO2e)
To date, global materials extraction has grown roughly in line with global economic growth and
greenhouse gas emissions.
that materials use has almost tripled since 1970 The chemical industry plays an important role
(Figure 1.9). in turning raw materials and feedstocks into
valuable products. It therefore performs a key
The extraction of resources is driven by societal function in the global system of production
needs (Figure 1.10). Each of these sectors is and consumption and is one of the drivers of
chemical-intensive in terms of both production resource extraction, together with chemical-
processes and products, ranging from asbestos intensive sectors. Production of petrochemicals
used in steel beams, to pesticides in agriculture, (e.g. styrene), consumer chemicals (e.g.
to heavy metals in batteries, to parabens in detergents), specialty chemicals (e.g. dyes),
cosmetics. To date, the overarching formula basic inorganics (e.g. fertilizers) and polymers
has been that as societal needs increase, so does (e.g. plastics) relies on the extraction of fuels and
consumption of chemicals. minerals (Fantke and Ernstoff 2018). Researchers

Figure 1.10 The global material footprint: extracted resources by key societal needs and
consumables (billion tonnes) (based on de Wit et al. 2019, p. 19)
40.6 10.8
20.1
Housing Nutrition Mobility
5.5 3.6 2.5

9.7
Consumables Services Health care Communication
Six key societal needs and consumables represent the largest material footprint globally:
housing and infrastructure (ca. 44 per cent), nutrition (ca. 22 per cent), mobility (ca. 12 per cent),
consumables (ca. 11 per cent), services (ca. 6 per cent), health care (ca. 4 per cent) and
communication (ca. 3 per cent). Each of these sectors is chemical-intensive in terms of both
production processes and products, which range from asbestos used in steel beams, to
pesticides in agriculture, to heavy metals in batteries, to parabens in cosmetics.
have mapped the magnitude of the chemical The global chemical industry consumes a large
sector’s material resources flows (Figure 1.11). In amount of energy
a single year (2015) almost 1,700 million tonnes
of feedstocks and secondary reactants were used The chemical industry is the world’s largest
in this sector to produce 820 million tonnes of industrial energy consumer. It is also the third
chemical products, while also generating almost largest industrial emitter of CO2 (Levi and Cullen
the same amount of by-products. 2018). The industry accounts for approximately
10 per cent of global energy demand, or
The transformation of feedstocks and reactants 30 per cent of total industrial energy demand,
into chemical products and secondary products worldwide. Of the industry’s total energy input,
also has a qualitative dimension. In the process 58 per cent is consumed as feedstock. However,
of chemical production new compounds are this demand is highly concentrated (International
created, in some cases with new or increased Energy Agency [IEA], International Council of
hazards. Chlorine chemistry, for example, turns Chemical Associations [ICCA] and Society for
basic feedstocks such as salt and water, together Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology
with other chemicals, into useful products such [DECHEMA] 2013). For example, the manufacture
as water purification chemicals. At the same time, of some 26 basic chemical compounds (including
chlorine and many chlorine derivatives, as well as nitric acid, ethylene, propylene and butadiene)
chemicals used in related production processes within the European chemical industry consumes
(e.g. asbestos or mercury), are hazardous and some 75 per cent of the industry’s total energy use
need to be well-managed. and is responsible for more than 90 per cent of
its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Boulamanti
and Moya 2017).
32
Part I
Figure 1.11 Resource extraction by the chemical sector and related chemicals production in millions
of tonnes (Mt) (adapted from Levi and Cullen 2018, p. 1725)
Resources input Chemical sector chemical transformation Chemical products

55 Mt/yr
222 Mt/yr
199 Mt/yr coal
thermoplastics
natural gas/natural gas liquids 107 Mt/yr
fibre, rubber, etc.
260 Mt/yr 107 Mt/yr
liquid oil products solvents, additives, etc.
N fertilizers 275 Mt/yr

163 Mt/yr refinery olefins and aromatics
others 109 Mt/yr
274 Mt/yr H 20 C02 287 Mt/yr

222 Mt/yr 02 H 20 140 Mt/yr
152 Mt/yr C02 CH4 43 Mt/yr
142 Mt/yr N2 HCl 25 Mt/yr
61 Mt/yr H3 PO4 CaCl2 8 Mt/yr
109 Mt/yr other secondary reactants other secondary products 313 Mt/yr
In 2013 around 513 million tonnes (Mt) of fossil fuels and around 163 Mt of olefins and aromatics
were used as feedstock by the chemical industry. In addition, it used almost 1,000 Mt of
secondary reactants (water, oxygen, carbon dioxide [CO2], nitrogen and phosphoric acid). These
feedstocks were transformed through various stages of upstream and downstream production
to produce 820 Mt of chemical products. Around 34 per cent of this output consists of nitrogen
fertilizers and around 27 per cent of thermoplastics. The chemical industry also generated 815
Mt of secondary products, including 140 Mt of methane and 287 million tonnes of CO2.
The chemical industry has made efforts to large amount of energy needed to manufacture
reduce energy consumption and to invest in most chemical products (Figure 1.12). Moreover,
energy conservation. Investments have focused several of the world’s largest chemical producers
on redesigning catalytic processes; improving are owned by fossil fuel producers. The increase
membranes and separation processes; improving in the amount of available, low-cost natural gas
efficiencies in production, storage and transport; has boosted chemical production in several
better tailoring of heating and cooling; use of global regions. Shale gas can now be obtained
lower-carbon fuels; and integrating carbon economically using horizontal drilling and
capture and storage (IEA, ICCA and DECHEMA hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”) technologies.
2013). Nevertheless, its energy consumption In the United States, which currently produces
continues to grow (Wernet et al. 2011; Darkow and almost all the natural gas it uses, this technology
von der Gracht 2013). has encouraged significant new investments in
petrochemical capacity (ACC 2013; Center for
Chemical production continues to rely on oil, International Environmental Law n.d.).
natural gas and coal
Fossil fuels (oil, gas and coal) are the feedstocks

for basic petrochemicals and the source of the

Figure 1.12 Feedstocks for chemical production, 2000-2040 (quadrillion British thermal units
[BTUs]) (adapted from Exxon Mobil 2018)
70
Quadrillion British thermal units
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040
Gas liquids Naphtha Other oil Natural gas Coal Electricity/market heat
Use of renewable and bio-based feedstocks is lignocellulosic biomass. Such a shift could reduce
increasing the need for crops as feedstocks in favour of wood
pulp. However, significant land use would still be
While oil and natural gas will continue to needed for large-scale production. Progress has
provide the energy and primary feedstocks also been made in the bioprocessing of microbial
for the industry, sustainability concerns are production of chemicals from renewable
driving a growing shift towards the use of bio- feedstocks (Kawaguchi et al. 2016).
based and renewable resources as feedstocks.
Some chemicals have long been produced from The next two decades are likely to see significant
renewable resources. Examples are the lactic growth of the global bio-based chemical industry.
acid esters used as a substitute for chlorinated The market for bio-based chemicals is expected
solvents in cleaning and degreasing agents, and to grow from 2 per cent of the total chemical
corn used as the basis for a significant share of market to 22 per cent by 2025. While the global
the ethanol used as motor fuel. Today many polymer market is predicted to exceed US
high-value polymers and industrial enzymes dollars 450 billion by 2025, the share of bio-
can be produced from biological feedstocks based chemicals is expected to increase to
(Bomtempo et al. 2017). The feedstocks used 10-20 per cent of that market (United States
to produce bio-based chemicals have recently Department of Agriculture 2008).
expanded from edible sugars to inedible and
34
Part I
Figure 1.13 Share of Asian bio-based polymer production capacity in global production, 2016
(per cent) (adapted from Baltus 2017, cover page)
100 100 100
80
60
63 61
Per cent
40
41
20
28 27 27 26
10
0 PBS(X) APC-cyclic PA PET PTT PBAT Starch PHA PLA PE

blends
Asia is the largest producer of bio-based of China and the Middle East into the global
polymers chemical industry and increasing competition.
By 2016 global capacity for bio-based polymers The global chemical industry is represented by
production reached 2.4 million tonnes, with more national and multinational associations
than 45 per cent of the most important bio-based
polymers produced in Asia (primarily in China, The ACC and Cefic are the largest chemical
Japan, Malaysia, the Republic of Korea, Taiwan industry associations in the United States
and Thailand) (Figure 1.13). Global capacity for and Europe, respectively. However, there are
bio-based polymers production is expected to international trade associations that represent
reach 3.6 million tonnes in 2021, with nearly each step along the chemical industry value chain
52 per cent installed in Asia (Baltus 2017). (Figure 1.14).
The International Council of Chemical

Associations (ICCA) is the trade association of the
1.4 Chemical industry structure and global chemical industry, including both national
organization and regional associations. It represents chemical
companies in 69 countries. ICCA members
The chemical industry is made up of several account for more than 90 per cent of global
hundred highly integrated multinational chemical sales. ICCA works with companies and
corporations and thousands of small and medium- associations around the world by means of its
sized chemical processing and compounding Responsible Care® Leadership Group, through
enterprises. In some industry segments, such as which global chemical manufacturers commit
basic chemicals and pharmaceuticals, there are to an ethic of safe chemical management and
a few very large dominant firms. On the other chemical management performance excellence
hand, the specialty chemical segment is highly (ICCA 2015).
fragmented, with hundreds of sub-segments
and thousands of producers distributed widely Chemical distributors play an important role in
around the world. In the last two decades the the increasingly globalized chemical industry.
chemical industry has undergone significant They have an essential role to play in chemical
transformations, triggered by the entrance supply chains by providing access to hard-to-

Figure 1.14 International trade associations along the chemical industry value chain (adapted from
International Chemical Trade Association [ICTA] 2018a)
International International Federation

International Association International Council of Chemical Trade of Warehousing and CropLife
of Oil and Gas Producers Chemical Associations Association Logistics Association
International Chamber World Paint and Coatings

of Shipping Industry Association
International Petroleum
Industry Environmental
Conservation Association International
International Road
Organization of Motor
Transport Union
Vehicle Manufacturers
International Union International Association

of Railways of Color Manufacturers
International Freight International Food

Forwarders Association Additives Council
reach markets, solving logistical challenges and The proportion of state-owned enterprises in
providing handling services (e.g. repackaging the chemical industry is rising
or formulating) while ensuring safety, quality
and compliance when working with chemicals. The chemical industry ownership structure
The International Chemical Trade Association is undergoing significant shifts. State-owned
(ICTA) represents the interests of over 1,500 enterprises accounted for only 9 per cent of
chemical distributors worldwide. It promotes global chemical industry revenues in 2000,
the voluntary practices of Responsible Care® compared with 26 per cent in 2017 (Cayuela and
and Responsible Distribution, particularly among Hagan 2019). Public petrochemical corporations
small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) (ICTA (those whose shares are traded) have lost some
2018b). of their market share (Figure 1.15). Following a
period of lower profitability for pure chemical
producers, integrated oil and gas petrochemical
companies are moving back into chemicals and
Box 1.1 Women in leadership positions in the chemical industry
In 2017 Chemical and Engineering News undertook a survey to explore gender diversity in
chemical companies. While it was noted that the situation is “far from […] equal representation
of women and men in leadership roles”, the survey found significant progress in recent years.
In particular, the share of women in board of director positions reached a record high at some
19 per cent. Among executive officers, women accounted for 17 per cent, significantly up from
around 10 per cent in the years 2010-2012. 2017 was also a record year for women in leadership
positions at chemical companies (Tullo 2017b).
36
Part I
Figure 1.15 World chemical industry structure evolution, share of revenue, 2000-2017 (adapted
from Cayuela and Hagan 2019)
18% 21%
16%
34%
22%
31% 15%
9% 26%
9%
Share, 2000 Share, 2017
State-owned enterprises Integrated oil and gas petrochemicals Public material companies
Private petrochemical corporations Public petrochemical corporations
materials, spurred by lower oil and gas prices, companies have sought mergers and acquisitions
reduced refining margins and a positive growth (M&A) to realize higher efficiencies through
outlook for chemical demand. New direct crude- vertical integration (e.g. through the production
oil-to-chemical-product processes have begun to of a basic chemical as well as downstream
be pursued, challenging the traditional upstream- chemicals) and tighter internal integration. Their
refining-petrochemical-materials model (Cayuela aggregate value has reached unprecedented
and Hagan 2019). levels, with a handful of very large deals (e.g.
Linde-Praxair, Dow-DuPont, Monsanto-Bayer and
A period of corporate restructuring, mergers Syngenta-ChemChina) taking the value of M&A in
and acquisitions 2016 to the record level of US dollars 260 billion
(Sarathy et al. 2017; Deloitte 2018; Gryzwa et al.
Current market instability, increasing competition 2018) (Figure 1.16). However, following a string
and greater manufactured product recycling of highly publicized megadeals the number of
(which reduces demand for virgin materials) are mergers and acquisitions appears to be returning
reducing the growth rates of many multinational to historic levels (Deloitte 2018).
chemical producers. The industry has responded
with a period of restructuring and consolidation Significant M&A activity can be observed in
during the past decade. To achieve greater focus, the commodities, fertilizers and pesticides
Figure 1.16 Number and value of corporate acquisitions in the chemical industry, 2008-2017 (US
dollars billion) (adapted from Gryzwa et al. 2018)
350 350
Number of deals, total for year
300 300
Aggregate deal value
(US dollars billion)
250 250
200 Others 200
150 Linda/Praxair 150
Others ChemChina/
100 Syngenta 100
Dow/DuPont Bayer/
50 Mosanto 50
0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 0
278 165 308 414 201 219 358 600 849 270
Plastics and fibres Fertilizers Diversified Specialty X Average deal value, US dollars million Number of deals

Figure 1.17 Number of completed mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical industry (adapted
from Gagnon and Volesky 2017, p. 4)
45
40
35
Number of deals
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Global 0 1 1 1 2 5 9 8 12 20 22 17 28 28 17 18 23 15 20 22 34 42
US 0 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 5 9 11 5 7 6 6 5 7 4 6 7 16 17
Excluding US 0 0 0 0 1 3 6 6 7 11 11 12 21 22 11 13 16 11 14 15 18 25
markets (Deloitte 2018). However, mergers of mergers and acquisitions between 2013 and
and acquisitions have increased most rapidly 2017 (Figure 1.18). State-owned enterprises in
in the pharmaceutical industry, especially emerging markets have played a strong role in
in the United States. Globally, in 1995 there M&A in recent years, with significant implications
were no deals, in 2014 there were 22 worth for the industry given their emphasis on low-cost
US dollars 1.86 billion, in 2015 there were 34 production (Deloitte 2018).
totalling US dollars 33.56 billion, and in 2016 there
were 42 worth more than US dollars 44 billion Cost considerations also offer a strong motivation
(Gagnon and Volesky 2017) (Figure 1.17). for SMEs to merge with competitors. In China
this trend can be observed as a consequence
A small number of countries account for most of higher costs associated with increasing
mergers and acquisitions regulatory requirements. At the same time,
mergers and acquisitions by Chinese companies
Between 2010 and 2017 the United States was have decreased in recent years because of capital
by far the largest target market in terms of outflow restrictions. Drivers may be different
volume of transactions, followed by China, which in other countries. For example, portfolio
experienced significant growth in the number optimization (e.g. a focus on specialty chemicals)
Figure 1.18 Global chemical mergers and acquisitions activity by target market, 2010-2017 (adapted
from Deloitte 2018, p. 11)
250
200
Volume (no. of
transactions)
150
100
50
0 United States China United Germany Netherlands Japan Brazil
Kingdom
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
38
Part I
Box 1.2 The benefits of thorough due diligence during mergers and acquisitions
Companies engage in mergers and acquisitions because they offer significant benefits such as
improving the company’s portfolio, increasing production scale and lowering costs. However,
a number of risks may manifest themselves and the company’s competitiveness may be
damaged, with problems ranging from lower than expected economic performance to the costs
of litigation and lawsuits. Various risks are of particular concern in the chemical industry due
to potential product liabilities (Deloitte 2016). Companies undertaking mergers and acquisitions
in the chemical value chain therefore stand to benefit from thorough due diligence that takes
into account environmental and human health factors. A comprehensive due diligence helps to
identify potential risks and to internalize potential costs associated with liabilities in the price of
the acquisition.
Recent cases illustrate the risk of potential financial liabilities associated with mergers and
acquisitions. For example, multinational companies recently experienced heavy losses in stock
values in the range of billions of US dollars, or had to pay significant compensation, following
allegations of lack of diligence or unsound management practices (Bellon 2018; LaVito 2018).
In another case, more than 10 years after the acquisition of a humidifier manufacturer in the
Republic of Korea by a British company, authorities fined the company for having sold humidifier
sterilizer products linked to local cases of lung disease including some 100 deaths, although the
product was launched years prior to the acquisition. Fines were imposed, a former executive
received a prison sentence, a multi-million US dollar fund was established, and the company
publicly apologized (Niemiec 2016; British Broadcasting Corporation 2017).
has been a key factor in M&A of German 1.5 Research and development
companies (Deloitte 2018). As companies acquire trends in the chemical industry
assets, particularly when these assets are located
in other countries with different regulations, due The industry is investing in R&D, especially in
diligence plays an important role in maximizing China
opportunities and minimizing the risks of
liabilities (Box 1.2). The chemical industry continues to invest in
potentially high-value areas of research and
Figure 1.19 Corporate research and development spending globally, 2007 and 2017 (adapted from
Cefic 2018, p. 66)
8.1
0.4
5.7 9.7 5.1
0.5 1.0
European 2.2 6.1
9.3 2.0
Switzerland Union 0.6 1.6
Japan
USA 1.6
India China Rep. of Korea
0.1
0.2
Brazil
1.2
1.6
Rest of the world
2007 EU chemicals research and development spending (euros

(EUR billion)
billion) 2017 EU chemicals research and development spending (euros
(EUR billion)
billion)

development (R&D), including nanotechnology, period R&D spending by the Indian chemical
high-density resins, conductive polymers, industry grew by 7.8 per cent and that by the
organometallics, hydrogels, conversion industry in Brazil by 4 per cent (Cefic 2018).
technologies and biochemistry. In 2017 the
global industry spent euros 39.4 billion on R&D. The significant growth of spending on R&D in
R&D spending by China’s chemical industry has Asia is consistent with the number of patents
exceeded that of all other countries. Between filed. Data available from the World Intellectual
2007 and 2017 the European industry’s spending Property Organization (WIPO) show a rapid
on R&D grew by 4.6 per cent (Figure 1.19) and increase in the number of chemistry-related
that by the industry in the United States by patents in Asia between 2003 and 2016 compared
2.6 per cent, while the Chinese industry’s R&D with other regions (WIPO 2018) (Figure 1.20).
spending grew by 18.8 per cent. During this
Figure 1.20 Number of chemistry-related patents granted by region, 1987-2016 (based on WIPO
2018)
200,000
150,000
Number of patents
100,000
50,000
0 1987 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2016
Africa Asia Europe Latin America and the Caribbean North America Oceania
40
Part I
2/ Trends in production and sales of specific

chemicals
Chapter Highlights
The chemical industry spans several market segments, of which basic organic
and inorganic chemicals represent the largest share by volume and continue to
grow.
Production of some phased-out legacy chemicals of concern has declined

significantly.
Production of fertilizers and pesticides, pharmaceuticals, perfluorinated

chemicals, flame retardants, nanomaterials, and other groups of chemicals is
increasing in many regions.
The market for most heavy metals (including lead and mercury) is stable
or increasing, despite regulatory action taken in many countries and at the
international level.
Production of plastics, including primary microplastics, is increasing rapidly.
T
he previous chapter presented an overview 2.1 Market segments in the chemical
of the chemical industry. This chapter industry value chain
focuses on trends in production and sales
of specific chemicals or groups of chemicals, The chemical industry spans several market
many of which are of concern because of their segments
impacts on human health and the environment.
Groups of chemicals can be classified in a The chemical industry can be divided into
number of ways. This chapter is structured five market segments: basic chemicals,
around basic chemicals, agricultural chemicals, specialty chemicals, agricultural chemicals,
pharmaceuticals, specialty chemicals, metals, pharmaceuticals, and consumer products. Basic
manufactured fibres, and plastics. Since the organic and inorganic chemicals (also called
first Global Chemicals Outlook was published in “commodity chemicals”) are produced in large
2013 the scale of production of some chemicals quantities. They are the foundation feedstock
has remained steady while that of others has for a wide range of downstream chemicals.
changed appreciably, along with the rates of Basic organic chemicals include methanol;
growth and regional profiles of their markets. olefins such as ethylene and propylene; and
aromatics such as xylenes, benzene and toluene.
Inorganic chemicals include acids and bases;
salts; industrial gases; and elements such as the
halogens. These chemicals are the feedstocks
and intermediaries used to make thousands of
specialty chemicals such as solvents; coatings;
surfactants and electronic chemicals; agricultural
Chapter 2. Trends in production and sales of specific chemicals 41

Figure 2.1 Global chemical shipments by segment in 2006, 2011 and 2016 (US dollars billion)
(adapted from ACC 2017a, p. 31)
6,000
5,000
US dollars billion
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0 2006 2011 2016
Basic chemicals Specialties Agricultural products Consumer products Pharmaceuticals
chemicals, including pesticides and fertilizers; petrochemicals and intermediates accounted

and the wide array of consumer products sold for about 17 per cent (Table 2.1). Plastic resins
around the world. made up roughly 13 per cent, and agricultural
and consumer products about 8 per cent. The
Recent growth varies by market segment smallest categories were adhesives and sealants
and manufactured rubber (1 per cent each) (ACC
The ACC provides information on trends in 2018).
the value of global chemical shipments by
market segment. In both 2016 and 2017 There was a rapid increase in global chemical
pharmaceuticals accounted for 25 per cent of the shipments between 2006 and 2011, followed
value of global chemical shipments, while basic by slower growth between 2011 and 2016
Table 2.1 Total global chemical shipments, 2016 and 2017 (US dollars billion) (ACC 2018)
2016 2017
Total chemicals 5,198 5,681

Pharmaceuticals 1,304 1,431
Chemicals, excluding pharmaceuticals 3,893 4,250
Basic chemicals 2,150 2,394
Agricultural chemicals 421 425
Specialty chemicals 897 967
Consumer products 425 465
Basic chemicals
Inorganic chemicals 386 422
Bulk petrochemicals & intermediates 846 943
Plastic resins 651 744
Synthetic rubber 50 52
Manufactured fibres 216 232
Specialty chemicals 
Adhesives and sealants 69 76
Coatings 197 214
Other specialties 631 677
42
Part I
© Sturmovik, PCB warning label on a power transformer known to © Cjp24, Power transformer originally filled with PCB decontaminated and
contain PCBs CC BY-SA 3.0 refilled with mineral oil CC BY-SA 4.0
(Figure 2.1). In the decade 2006-2011 shipments Convention, are classified by the International
of basic chemicals and pharmaceuticals increased Agency for Research on Cancer as Class 1
more rapidly than those of chemicals in other carcinogenic to humans. A total of around 1 to
segments. 1.5 million tonnes of technical grade PCBs have
been produced (Table 2.2). Production stated in
Production of legacy chemicals – the examples 1929/1930 and was progressively phased out
of PCBs and DDT during the second half of the century. However,
one country US dollars was reported to still be
Due, among other reasons, to international producing PCBs as of 2016 (United Nations
action taken, the production and use of some Environment Programme [UNEP] 2015; UNEP
hazardous chemicals has been successfully 2016a).
reduced or phased out. However, ensuring
environmentally sound waste management of In the case of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
these chemicals still poses significant challenges. (DDT), another one of the original 12 persistent
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), production of organic pollutants (POPs) covered by the
which is prohibited for Parties to the Stockholm Stockholm Convention, production and use
Table 2.2 Overview of estimated total production of PCBs (UNEP 2016a, p. 11)
Country Start of production End of production Quantity (1,000 tonnes)
Earliest estimate Latest estimate Lowest estimate Highest estimate

Korea (DPR) 1960s >2006 25 30
Soviet Union/Russia 1938 1993 180 180
Spain 1930 1986 25 29
Czechoslovakia 1959 1984 21 21
West Germany 1930 1983 59 300
Italy 1958 1983 24 31
France 1930 1984 102 135
Poland 1966 1977 2 2
United States 1929 1977 476 648
China 1960 1983 7 10
Japan 1952 1972 59 59
UK 1951 1977 66 67
Total     1,046 1,512

Figure 2.2 Production of DDT by decade since 1940 (adapted from UNEP 2015, p. 44)
1,200,000
Tonnes of DDT produced
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0 1940-49 1950-59 1960-69 1970-79 1980-89 1990-99 2000-09 2010-13
has been significantly reduced. DDT production ash and caustic soda sales are growing rapidly as
increased rapidly from the 1940s and reached its demand for glass and paper products increases.
peak in the 1960s, with total production exceeding Rising demand for food and cosmetic products
1 million tonnes annually (Figure 2.2). Thereafter, is also driving the inorganic chemicals market.
production quickly and steadily decreased. The global inorganic chemicals market totalled
During the first decade of the new millennium US dollars 277 billion in 2017. It is estimated that
only three countries continued producing DDT. this market will reach US dollars 362 billion by
As of 2017, India was the only known remaining 2022, increasing at a CAGR of 5.5 per cent (BCC
producer (UNEP 2015; UNEP 2016a). Both these Research 2018).
examples demonstrate the important role of
multilateral treaties in stimulating reductions in The global organic chemicals market is largely
the production and use of chemicals of concern composed of petrochemicals (chemicals derived
as well as promoting research and development from fossil fuels). More than 90 per cent of all
of alternatives (see also Part II, Ch. 3 and Part III, organic chemistry products are derived from
Ch. 5). seven petrochemicals: benzene, toluene and
xylene (aromatics); ethylene, propylene and
butadiene (olefins); and methanol. (ACC 2017b).
Globally, shipments of petrochemicals and their
2.2 Basic chemicals derivatives (e.g. organic intermediates, plastic
resins and synthetic fibres) account for the
The basic chemicals market continues to largest share of shipments of basic chemicals.
expand The highest global production capacity for
petrochemicals includes ethylene, propylene
Basic organic and inorganic chemicals represent
the largest share of global chemical production
and consumption by volume (roughly two- Table 2.3 Global production capacity for
thirds of the industry total). The manufacture petrochemicals, 2016 (Smith,
Glauser and Eramo 2017)
of basic chemicals is characterized by high capital
costs, large-scale production and high energy
Chemical Percentage of global market
consumption. Production of basic chemicals is
considered a mature industry: the fundamental Ethylene 27.9%
products, processes and production technologies Propylene 20.3%
have changed little during the past 50 years.
Methanol 19.6%
The global inorganic chemicals market is highly Xylenes 12.6%

concentrated. There are a few very large multi- Benzene 10.6%
product producers. Nitrogen compounds make Toluene 6.6%
up the largest share of the market. However, soda
Butadiene 2.5%
44
Part I
Table 2.4 Evolution of global production capacity for primary petrochemical building blocks (kg per
capita) (Cayuela and Hagan 2019)
World High-value chemicals Average

population high-value
(billion) Olefins Aromatics chemicals
Ethylene Propylene Butadiene Benzene Toukene Xylenes
1990 5.3 11.9 7.1 1.5 5.8 3.1 4.1 33.5
2000 6.1 16.0 10.8 1.5 7.1 3.7 6.2 45.4
2010 6.9 21.1 15.0 1.8 8.3 4.9 8.7 59.9
2017 7.4 23.0 18.2 2.0 8.5 5.4 10.2 67.3
Estimated growth
by 2030
8.5 26.2 19.4 2.2 8.7 7.1 16.4 79.9
(business as
usual scenario)
CAGR 1.2% 2.0% 2.5% 1.0% 1.0% 2.1% 3.5% 2.2%
and methanol, followed by xylenes, benzene and rising living standards, which require an
and toluene (Smith, Glauser and Eramo 2017) increasing and diverse food supply. The global
(Table 2.3). market for agricultural chemicals was US
dollars 215.18 billion in 2016 and is projected
The petrochemical industry has been robust to reach US dollars 308.92 billion by 2025 (ACC
since the start of the century, buoyed by high 2017b).
demand in the emerging economies and low-
cost gas feedstocks. The global market for 2.3.1 Fertilizers
petrochemicals is expected to grow at a CAGR of
around 8.8 per cent to reach US dollars 975 billion The market for agricultural chemicals is
by 2025. Factors influencing this growth include dominated by fertilizers
increasing demand for propylene products,
favourable regulatory policies in emerging Fertilizers make up the largest share of
economies, and increasing use of coal and shale agricultural chemicals by volume. The Food and
gas as major feedstocks for petrochemicals Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
production (Cision 2017). The global production (FAO) has estimated that global consumption
capacity for primary petrochemical building of the three fertilizer nutrients nitrogen
blocks has been growing faster than the world (N), phosphorous (expressed as phosphate
population (Table 2.4), pointing to increased (P2O5)) and potassium (expressed as potash
future per capita chemicals consumption. For (K2O)) reached 186.67 million tonnes in 2016,
example, the production capacity for xylenes, an increase of 1.6 per cent compared with
which was 4.1 kg per capita in 1990, is projected 2015. The FAO further forecast that demand
to reach 16.4 kg per capita by 2030 (Cayuela and for N, P2O5 and K2O will grow by 1.5, 2.2 and
Hagan 2019). 2.4 per cent annually until 2020. Global capacity
for producing fertilizers, intermediates and raw
materials was also expected to increase during
this period (FAO 2017). The International Fertilizer
2.3 Agricultural chemicals Association (IFA) has estimated that between
2018 and 2022 the industry will invest close to US
Markets are growing to keep pace with dollars 98 billion in more than 60 new fertilizer
demand for food and fibre production units, adding 78 million tonnes of
production capacity (IFA 2018). The largest share
The global market for agricultural chemicals is of fertilizer consumption occurs in Asia, where
driven by continuing world population growth

the fertilizer market has been growing most Over the past decades the insecticide market
rapidly (Mateo-Sagasta, Zadeh and Turral 2017). has shifted away from organochlorinated
compounds to organophosphorus
2.3.2 Pesticides compounds and biopesticides
(including  m ic r obia ls   [ ba c te r ia , a lga e ,
Continued growth in the pesticide/crop protozoa viruses and fungi], pheromones and
protection industry semiochemicals, macrobials/invertebrates such
as insects and nematodes, and plant extracts/
Pesticides include herbicides, insecticides, botanicals). Table 2.6 shows the transition in
termiticides, nematicides, rodenticides and pesticide sales in the United States between 1968
fungicides. These products are largely used for and 2016, noting changes due to government and
crop protection in agriculture. While biocides international agreement regulations, product
(including bactericides, preservatives and innovation and market pressures (Phillips
disinfectants) are included in this economic McDougal 2018).
segment, they are largely used in manufacturing,
medical facilities, commercial facilities, schools Around 300 biopesticide active substances and
and residences. In 1960 the global crop protection organisms are currently available, including
industry was worth less than US dollars 10 billion products derived from fermentation, microbes
and around 100 active ingredients were available and pheromones, and predatory insects (Phillips
to farmers. Today the industry is valued at over McDougal 2018). As the growth of low-pesticide
US dollars 50 billion and there are around organic and sustainable or agroecological
600 active ingredients. Herbicides account for agriculture increases globally, the market for
approximately 80 per cent of all pesticide use conventional pesticides used in agriculture is
(Phillips McDougal 2018). expected to decline. Although the rate of new
product approvals has fallen in recent years,
Asia has been the largest producer of pesticides in investment remains high, with major companies
the past decade, with the largest manufacturing investing 7-10 per cent of their sales annually
capacity in China. Pesticide production in Europe (Phillips McDougal 2018). Major constraints on
and the United States has remained fairly stable, the development of new pesticides include high
while growth in Latin America has been increasing R&D costs and the extensive testing necessary
steadily (Table 2.5). to apply for government registrations (Elsevier
2017; European Federation of Pharmaceutical
While pesticide production has grown steadily in Industries and Associations [EFPIA] 2018; Phillips
volume, the value of global trade has grown even McDougal 2018; Transparency Market Research
more rapidly, particularly since 2002 (Mateo- n.d.).
Sagasta, Zadeh and Turral 2017) (Figure 2.3)
Table 2.5 Global manufacture of pesticide active ingredients by region (thousand kg) (Oliver 2018)
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016
Asia 822,485 1,066,678 1,236,767 1,204,490 1,265,285

China 417,477 454,239 678,545 760,416 887,564
India 104,557 124,018 133,754 161,912 195,983
Latin America 410,366 419,694 475,955 549,150 645,412
North American Free Trade Agreement 410,751 502,257 523,957 576,254 547,625
United States 406,102 477,830 492,070 498,155 498,149
Europe 382,352 434,846 464,858 513,745 515,490
Total global 1,979,402 2,342,879 2,577,086 2,665,617 2,837,770
46
Part I
Figure 2.3 Value of global pesticide trade, 1970-2014 (US dollars billion) (adapted and updated
based on Mateo-Sagasta, Zadeh and Turral 2017, p. 10)
35
30
US dollars billion
25
20
15
10
5
0
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
Table 2.6 Top 10 products used on major crops in the United States by volume, 1968 and 2016
(Phillips McDougal 2018, p. 4)
Top 10 products in 1968 Top 10 products in 2016
Atrazine Glyphosate
Toxaphene - banned Metolachlor
DDT - banned* Pyraclostrobin
2,4-D Mesotrione
Methyl parathion - banned Thiamethoxam
Aldrin - banned Acetochlor
Trifluralin Azoxystrobin
Propachlor Atrazine
Dinoseb - banned Abamectin
Chloramben - banned Clothianidin
*DDT is banned globally as an agricultural and household pesticide, but is allowed for vector
control in some countries when locally safe, effective and affordable alternatives are not
available.
© NRCS Photo Gallery

Figure 2.4 Global and regional sales of crop protection products in 2015 (US dollars million) (based
on Informa 2017, p. 40)
Latin America* 14,052

Asia 14,040
Europe 11,604
NAFTA** 9,356
Rest of the World 2,158
Total 51,210
5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 50,000 55,000 60,000
Product sales in US dollars million
* Excluding Mexico ** NAFTA - North American Free Trade Agreement
Historically the largest pesticide markets have 2.4 Pharmaceuticals

been in North America and Europe; however,
markets for crop protection products are The production and sales of pharmaceuticals
currently growing faster in Asia and South are growing rapidly
America than in those regions (Informa 2017)
(Figure 2.4). Between 2013 and 2014 the value The global pharmaceutical market will reach
of markets in South America increased by nearly US dollars 1,485 billion by 2021, up from
13 per cent, while the value of those in Africa US dollars 1,105 billion in 2016 (International
and the Middle East, Europe and the Asia-Pacific Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers
grew at lower rates and the value of markets in and Associations [IFPMA] 2017), equivalent to
North America (Canada, the United States and an annual growth rate exceeding 6 per cent.
Mexico) fell by more than 4 per cent. Important Global prescription drug sales are projected
regional factors influencing these trends include to grow quickly, at 6.4 per cent CAGR in 2010-
a strong agricultural sector in South America, 2024 (Figure 2.5). Assuming a similar growth
increasing food demand worldwide, and declining rate thereafter would see global sales almost
crop prices in Europe, North America and Asia double by 2030.
(CropLife International 2015).
48
Part I
Figure 2.5 Worldwide total prescription drug sales (US dollars billion) and growth rate (per cent),
2010-2024 (adapted from EvaluatePharma 2018, p. 8)
Worldwide total prescription drug 1,400

+6.4% CAGR 2018-24
1,200 828
sales (US dollars billion)
785
749
1,000 706
631 663
800 583 608
590 572 569 581 565 576
558
600
400 749 240 262
151 169 192
82 94 100 112 125 138
200 69 77 88
60 66 67 70 76 78 80 81 84 89 95 100 104 109 114
0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
Prescription excluding generics & orphan Orphan* Generics
* An orphan drug is a pharmaceutical agent developed to treat medical conditions which,

because they are so rare, would not be profitable to produce without government assistance.
Emerging markets in Asia, Latin America, Russia, Algeria, Argentina, Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia,
the Middle East and Africa are expected to Chile, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan,
stimulate new growth during the next decade Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines, Poland,
owing to increasing demand (Gautam and Pan Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey and
2016). The term ‘Pharmerging’ markets has been Viet Nam (EFPIA 2018). Another factor driving the
introduced to refer to 21 countries ranked by growth in pharmaceuticals production and sales
IQVIA (formerly Quintiles and IMS Health, Inc.) is increasing demand from an ageing population
as high-growth pharmaceutical markets, namely in developed countries (IFPMA 2017). Despite
Figure 2.6 Geographical breakdown (by main markets) of sales of new medicines launched in the
period 2012-2017 (adapted from EFPIA 2018, p. 4)
18.1%
Europe 7.1%
64.1% (Top 5)
Japan
USA
9.2%
Rest of 1.5%
the world Pharmerging
The figure shows the share of sales of new medicines covering all new active ingredients
marketed for the first time on the world market during the period 2012-2017, with Europe (Top
5) comprising Germany, France, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom. While this figure suggests
that innovation markets are still concentrated in the US and Europe, pharmaceutical markets
in emerging economies, including the pharmerging countries, are projected to experience
significant growth.

Table 2.7 Geographic distribution of
significant growth in the emerging economies, fluoropolymer consumption in
2015 in tonnes (per cent share)
the pharmaceutical sector is still dominated (Zhang et al. 2016)
by markets in North America and Europe,
particularly in sales of medicines marketed for PTFE All fluoropolymers
the first time on the world market in recent
United States 15 22
years (Figure 2.6). Most consumption occurs in
the higher-income countries where most of the Western Europe 18 16
top 10 drug companies are located, although Japan 5 5
drug manufacture often occurs in emerging
China 44 38
economies. The United States dominates the
Rest of the world 17 19
global market, in terms of both consumption and
development, and is projected to hold around
41 per cent of the global market share in 2020
(IFPMA 2017). Between 2010 and 2016 total consumption of all fluoropolymers in 2015 was
expenditure on pharmaceuticals in that country 297,000 tonnes, with polytetrafluoroethylene
grew from approximately US dollars 316 billion (PTFE) accounting for more than half of all
to US dollars 450 billion. This represents about consumption. China was both the largest
64.7 per cent of global sales of new medications producer and largest consumer of PTFE in 2015
launched between 2010 and 2015 (McGovern (Zhang et al. 2016) (Table 2.7). Overall, production
2018). of fluoropolymers is shifting from the United
States, Europe and Japan to China, as it is an
The pharmaceutical industry is highly innovative important producer of fluorspar, from which
and competitive. It is heavily dependent on fluorine is derived (Zhang et al. 2016) (Table 2.7).
research and is subject to strong government
regulation in higher-income countries. The Production and use of PFOS and PFOA have
industry has been shifting away from the been restricted in the EU (Janshekar et al. 2015)
development of primary care and small-molecule and in Canada since 2009 and 2016, respectively
medicines, while progressively transitioning (Government of Canada 2019a; Government
towards specialty medications and biologics of Canada 2019b), and voluntarily phased out
targeted at high unmet patient needs (United by manufacturers in the United States due
States Food and Drug Administration 2018). to concerns about health and environmental
effects. PFOS is currently listed as restricted
under the Stockholm Convention, while PFOA
has been proposed for listing (Secretariat of
2.5 Specialty chemicals the Stockholm Convention 2008). Consequently,
these chemicals are being replaced by shorter-
2.5.1 Per- and polyfluorinated chain (e.g. six- or four-carbon) perfluorinated
chemicals compounds. However, these shorter-chain
compounds are also highly persistent in the
The variety of per- and polyfluorinated environment and present some of the same
chemicals is large and increasing health and environmental concerns as their
longer-chain counterparts (Brendel et al. 2018).
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are
used in firefighting foams and as coatings for 2.5.2 Flame retardants
textiles, paper, non-stick cookware and other
products. Long-chain compounds (eight carbons), Production and use of certain flame retardants
such as perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) and is increasing, but shifting due to regulatory
perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), are used as inputs action
in the production of a range of fluoropolymers
(OECD 2013). The OECD has identified some 4,700 Flame retardants are used to deter or extinguish
PFASs-related compounds (OECD 2018a.). World flame propagation in many plastics, resins,
50
Part I
textiles, elastomers, coatings, adhesives and (IHS Markit 2017; United States Environmental
sealants. There are around 80 types of brominated Protection Agency [US EPA] 2017a). The use of
flame retardants with widely varying chemical hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), once one of
properties. There are five brominated flame the largest-volume products, is restricted under
retardants that, historically, are the most widely the Stockholm Convention and is no longer
used and about which there is considerable allowed in Japan and the EU. Because of such
knowledge: pentabromodiphenyl ether, pressures there is an ongoing shift from most
octabromodiphenyl ether, decabromodiphenyl brominated compounds to organophosphorus,
e t h e r , t e t r a b r o m o b i s p h e n o l   A and aluminium trihydroxidephosphorus compounds,
hexabromocyclododecane. or brominated co-polymers of styrene and 1,3
butadiene in insulating foams. China is the
In 2017 worldwide consumption of flame largest market for flame retardants; however,
retardants amounted to more than 2.25 million since restrictions have been placed on HBCD
tonnes per year. Aluminium hydroxide is the the market is shifting towards phosphorous
largest selling flame retardant (38 per cent of the compounds (IHS Markit 2017).
market). Halogenated flame retardant systems
comprising brominated and chlorinated products, 2.5.3 Nanomaterials
which are commonly used together with the
synergist antimony trioxide, make up another The nanomaterials market is expanding rapidly
31 per cent. Organophosphorus and other
flame retardants (e.g. inorganic phosphorus Nanomaterials are materials with at least
compounds, nitrogen- and zinc-based flame one dimension measuring between 1 to 100
retardants) make up the remaining 31 per cent nanometres. They can be made from various
(IHS Markit 2017) (Figure 2.7). combinations of gold, copper, carbon, silver,
iron, platinum and other elements, as well as
Global consumption of flame retardants has been clays and cellulose (Rothfeder 2017). According to
forecast to grow at an average annual rate in the one set of estimates, the global nanotechnology
lower 3 per cent range between 2016 and 2021. market could grow from US dollars 39.2 billion
Government regulations and policies targeting in 2016 to US dollars 90.5 billion by 2021 (a five-
some or (in some cases) all chemical flame year CAGR of 18.2 per cent). This would include
retardants have slowed growth of consumption well-established commercial applications such
as nanoparticle-based sunscreen products and
nano-catalyst thin films for catalytic converters,
Figure 2.7 Global flame retardants market by as well as new technologies such as thin film
chemistry, 2017 (adapted from IHS solar cells, nanolithographic tools and nanoscale
Markit 2017)
electronic memories. Nanoparticles and
nanoscale thin films dominate the nanomaterials
Aluminium market (BCC Research 2017).
trihydroxide
38%
The largest end-use markets for nanotechnology
Other in 2015 were environmental applications
13%
(38.8 per cent of the total market), electronics
(22.4 per cent) and consumer applications
(21.1 per cent) (BCC Research 2017). Nano
Brominated silver, due to its antibacterial and antimicrobial
Organophosphorous 17%
18% properties, is among the most popular
Antimony nanomaterials used in the manufacture of
oxides
9% consumer products, with most uses in electronics,
Chlorinated information technology, health care, textiles and
5% personal care products. Titanium dioxide and

silicon dioxide nanoparticles are also widely used Table 2.8 Global refined lead production and
(Inshakova and Inshakov 2017). usage (thousand tonnes), 2013-
2018 (ILZSG 2018)
However, a range of scenarios and estimates exist
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
regarding the future of the global nanomaterials
market. Factors affecting its development include Mine lead
5,089 4,946 4,850 4,679 4,703
concerns about impacts on human health and production
the environment during product production, use Total lead
11,225 11,023 10,959 11,158 11,445
production
and disposal, as well as evolving government
regulations (US EPA 2017b; European Chemicals
Agency [ECHA] 2018; OECD 2018b).
States was second, accounting for an estimated
10 per cent (United States Geological Survey
[USGS] 2018a). China was also the top lead
2.6 Metals consumer and the top producer of lead-acid
batteries in 2015 (Guberman 2017).
2.6.1 Lead
The market for lead-acid batteries is projected
Global lead production has remained stable to grow significantly in some regions
Global lead production and use remained roughly Globally, in 2018 about 86 per cent of lead was
constant between 2013 and 2017, although used in lead-acid batteries. Most of this lead came
over half comes from secondary production from battery recycling (ILZSG 2019) (Figure 2.8).
as recycled lead (International Lead and Zinc Spent lead-acid batteries from vehicles are one of
Study Group [ILZSG] 2018). Mine production fell the world’s most recycled consumer products. In
somewhat during this period, primarily due to the United States and Europe nearly 100 per cent
declining mine production in China (Guberman of these batteries are recovered for recycling
2017) (Table 2.8). (International Lead Association 2018). In China
the growing production of lead-acid batteries
China is the largest producer of lead from mines, for use in automobiles, electronic bicycles and
accounting for 52 per cent of global production in other applications is the key driver of the global
2017. It is also the top producer of refined lead, market (Guberman 2017). The market for lead-
estimated to have produced about 43 per cent acid batteries in Africa (where lead-acid battery
of total global refined lead in 2015; the United recycling and the presence of these batteries as
Figure 2.8 Global lead consumption by product (adapted from ILZSG 2019)
Miscellaneous sectors
including alloy and solder
1%
Shot and ammunition
1%
Lead compound
including lead oxide
and lead salt Lead-acid
5% batteries
86%
Rolled and extruded
products
7%
52
Part I
hazardous waste present risks to health and the artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM),
environment) is expected to grow significantly, vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) production,
potentially increasing from around US dollars measuring and control devices, chlor-alkali
709 million in 2014 to more than US dollars production, dental amalgams and batteries.
1,000 million in 2021 (Transparency Market ASGM and VCM production are responsible for
Research 2016). over 60 per cent of global mercury demand.
Between 2005 and 2015 worldwide mercury use
Lead use in other applications is declining increased overall. While consumption for some
following regulatory action taken in many applications (including chlor-alkali production,
countries. For example, 71 countries have legally batteries and electrical/electronic devices) has
binding controls to limit the production, import decreased, other applications have increased
and sale of lead paints (UNEP 2018). In addition, significantly, particularly VCM production and
lead-free options are used increasingly for wire ASGM (Figure 2.9). By 2015 global mercury
and cable jacketing; tin is replacing lead for demand was in the range of 4,500 to 4,900
solder in drinking water systems; and electronic tonnes, over half of which in East and Southeast
products are increasingly manufactured without Asia (UNEP 2017).
lead.
The global mercury market is highly dynamic.
2.6.2 Mercury One of the major changes in mercury supply
since the 2013 Global Chemicals Outlook is the
Driven by continued growth in major reduced supply of residual mercury from the
applications, global mercury mining has chlor-alkali industry due to restrictions imposed
increased rapidly by export bans. The former EU and United
States trading hubs have given way to those in
Mercury is used in a variety of applications, emerging economies. Recent shifts in mercury
including (in order of magnitude as of 2015)
Figure 2.9 Global mercury demand by sector, including uncertainties, 2005-2015 (tonnes) (adapted
from UNEP 2017, p. 63)
3,000
2,500
Shaded areas represent uncertainty
of the mercury demand estimates
2,000
Tonnes
1,500
1,000
500
0 2005 2010 2015
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining Chlor-alkali production Other Maximum estimate
Vinyl chloride monomer production Products Average Minimum estimate
Products refers to batteries, dental applications, measuring and control devices, lamps, electrical
and electronic devices.
Other refers to paints, laboratory, pharmaceutical, cultural/traditional uses, etc.

Table 2.9 Global mercury supply, 2015 (UNEP tonnes (UNEP 2017). In addition, a number of
2017, p. 21) countries produce mercury as a by-product
during the mining of non-ferrous ores and the
Mercury source Min. mercury Max. mercury
supply (tonnes) supply (tonnes)
extraction of oil and natural gas. The entry into
force of the Minamata Convention on Mercury
Primary (mined) is expected to affect global mercury production
1,630 2,150
mercury
and use significantly (see Part II, Ch. 1-3).
By-product
440 775
mercury 2.6.3 Cadmium
Chlor-alkali
370 450
residual mercury Production of cadmium is stable as demand
Mercury recycling 1,040 1,410 shifts across applications
Total supply 3,480 4,785
The largest use of cadmium is in nickel-cadmium
(NiCd) batteries. Other end uses include
trade have also been accompanied by an increase pigments, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) stabilizers,
in undocumented or illegal trade (UNEP 2017). anti-corrosive coatings, non-ferrous alloys and
photovoltaic devices. Global cadmium production
In 2015 global supply from various sources has remained approximately constant since
totalled between 3,480 and 4,785 tonnes 2012, somewhat above 20,000 tonnes per year
(Table 2.9). As demand for mercury for ASGM and excluding production in the United States,
VCM production has increased, this demand has which is not reported (Table 2.10). However,
been met through increased primary mercury the geographic distribution of production has
mining, including opening of new mercury changed significantly. Most of the world’s primary
mining sites in Mexico and Indonesia, most production (e.g. mining) takes place in the Asia-
of which are informal (UNEP 2017). The only Pacific region (59 per cent), followed by Europe
other countries mining mercury are China and and Central Eurasia with 22 per cent production,
the Kyrgyz Republic. China is by far the largest North America with 15 per cent and South
producer of mercury. In 2015 global primary America with 4 per cent. Secondary production
mercury production, both formal and informal, (e.g. recycling of NiCd batteries) currently takes
was estimated to be in the range of 1,630-2,150
© Zoï Environment Network, Primary mercury mine in Khaidarkan, Kyrgyzstan
54
Part I
Table 2.10 Cadmium: refinery production by country (tonnes) (Tolcin 2018, p. 16.8)
Country 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Argentina 37 28 30e 30e 30e

Australia 380 380 350 380 400
Brazil 200 200 200 200 200
Bulgaria 360 411 382 344 340e
Canada 1,290 1,310 1,190 1,160 2,310
China 7,270 7,500 8,200 8,200e 8,200e
Germany 400 400 400 400 400
India 396 285 107 200e 21
Japan 1,860 1,830 1,830 1,960 1,990
Kazakhstan 1,170 1,320 1,630 1,460 1,500e
Korea, Republic of 3,900 3,900 4,090 3,600 3,600
Mexico 1,480 1,450 1,410 1,280 1,190
Netherlands 560 610 640 640 630
Norway 310e 310 310 310 310e
Peru 684 695 769 757 820
Poland 370 460 628 383 400e
Russia 1,500r 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,300
United States W W W W W
Uzbekistan 300 300 300 300 300
Total 22,500 22,600 23,700 22,800 23,900
e = estimated, p = preliminary, w = withheld to avoid disclosing proprietary data; not included
in total
place in facilities in Asia, Europe and the United fall. Nevertheless, NiCd batteries continue to be
States (Tolcin 2018). used in industrial applications such as electric
vehicles and hybrid power systems that generate
In the future it is likely that some factors will electricity in remote locations. Regardless of
reduce cadmium demand while others will cadmium demand, zinc smelting processes and
increase it. The amount of cadmium used in NiCd battery retirement will continue to produce
NiCd batteries is decreasing. However, use of by-products containing cadmium, which may
cadmium telluride (CdTe), a principal component need to be managed as demand for cadmium
of lightweight, low-cost thin-film photovoltaic (PV) continues to decline (Tolcin 2018).
solar panels, will likely soar in years to come as
more thin-film PV panels are produced globally 2.6.4 Rare earth minerals
(Fthenakis n.d.). Regulations, especially in the
EU, are reducing or eliminating cadmium use China dominates the market for rare earth
in many applications (USGS 2016). Lithium- minerals
ion batteries have significantly replaced NiCd
batteries in some low-cost electronic products. Seventeen elements found within the Earth’s
This trend is expected to continue as lithium-ion crust are considered rare earth elements. The
efficiency increases and manufacturing costs largest global use of these elements globally is

in production of high-performance lightweight 1.4 million tonnes in 2016; asbestos cement

neodymium ion boron (NdFeB) and samarium products are expected to continue to be the
cobalt (SmCo) permanent magnets, which are leading global market for asbestos (USGS 2018a).
used in the growing markets for wind turbines
and electric vehicles. Other end products include Notwithstanding, production of asbestos
polishing powders, vehicle emissions control continues. As of 2016, the leading producers were
catalysts, rechargeable batteries, glass additives Russia China, Kazakhstan and Brazil (Figure 2.10).
and phosphors (Wietlisbach and Gao 2016; Pavel Brazil accounted for roughly 10 per cent of
et al. 2017). global production and consumption in 2017;
however, in that year the Brazilian Supreme
China has been the dominant supplier and Federal Court enacted a ban on the extraction,
user of rare earths during the last 20 years commercialization and use of asbestos (Kazan-
(Table 2.11). In 2015 it produced 84 per cent and Allen 2017). Pending further legal action, the only
consumed 65 per cent of available global rare remaining commercial producers will be China,
earths. China’s influence on world production has Kazakhstan, Russia and potentially Zimbabwe,
fallen slightly since 2012 as a result of increased where two former asbestos mines could possibly
production in Australia and the United States. reopen (Guberman 2017).
World consumption of rare earths peaked at
138,000 tonnes in 2007; it was estimated to be
121,000 tonnes in 2015. Global consumption is
expected to increase by 2.4 per cent annually 2.8 Plastics
through 2020 (Dutta et al. 2016; Wietlisbach and
Gao 2016). Plastics production is growing exponentially
Plastics are polymers derived from fossil

material (coal, natural gas, crude oil) and/or
2.7 Asbestos organic resources (cellulose, salt) and renewable
compounds (grains, corn, potatoes, palm, sugar
Regulatory action has successfully reduced beet). During the manufacture and compounding
the demand for asbestos, but production of plastics other chemicals are used, including
continues initiators, catalysts, solvents and a wide range
of additives.
Increasing regulation at the national level has
slowed the consumption and production of Global plastics production has increased
asbestos. In 1980 only three countries had exponentially since the 1950s (UNEP 2016b;
asbestos bans, but the number has grown to 70 Boucher 2017; Pravettoni 2018). While 1.5 million
today (Kazan-Allen 2018). Estimated worldwide tonnes were produced in 1950 (Boucher 2017),
consumption of asbestos minerals fell from in 2017 global production reached almost
approximately 2 million tonnes in 2010 to nearly 350 million tonnes (Plastics Europe 2018). If
Table 2.11 World production of rare earth mineral concentrates (thousand tonnes) and total
estimated increase (per cent), 1990-2015 (Wietlisbach and Gao 2016)
Year Australia China US Other Total
1990 6.1 16.5 22.7 14.7 60.0

2000 0.0 73.0 5.0 7.0 85.0
2010 0.0 120.0 1.0 3.4 124.0
2015 10.0 105.0 4.2 6.7 125.9
Total estimated % increase 1990-2015 63.9% 536.4% -81.5% -54.4% 109.8%
56
Part I
Figure 2.10 Asbestos mine production in the largest producer countries, 2010-2017 (tonnes) (based
on USGS 2018b)
2017 690,000
2016 1,100,000
2015 1,100,000
2014 1,100,000
Russia 2013 1,050,000
2012 1,050,000
2011 1,000,000
2010 1,000,000
2017 200,000
2016 400,000
2015 400,000
2014 400,000
China 2013 420,000
2012 420,000
2011 440,000
2010 400,000
2017 210,000
2016 200,000
2015 215,000
2014 240,000
Kazakhstan 2013 242,000
2012 241,000
2011 223,000
2010 214,000
2017 150,000
2016 300,000
2015 311,000
2014 284,000
Brazil 2013 307,000
2012 307,000
2011 302,000
2010 270,000
200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 1,00,000 1,200,000
Production in tonnes
current production and use trends continue tonnes in 2015, a CAGR of 8.4 per cent. About
unabated, annual global production is estimated 7.8 billion tonnes of plastic resins and fibres were
to increase to about 2,000 million tonnes per year manufactured between 1950 and 2015. Half of
by 2050 (Pravettoni 2018) (Figure 2.11). Global this amount was produced in the past 13 years
production of plastic resins and fibres increased (Geyer, Jambeck and Law 2017).
from 2 million tonnes in 1950 to 380 million
Figure 2.11 Global and regional plastics production, 1950-2050 (million tonnes) (adapted from
Pravettoni 2018)
2,000
49
50
1,800 North
EU 62
1,600 America
18 China 11
1,400 Middle East Japan
41
Million tonnes
1,200 and Africa 7 Rest of

12 Commonwealth
1,000 Asia
Latin of Independent
800 America States
600
400
200
0 1950 1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

Figure 2.12 Distribution of global plastics production (adapted from Plastics Europe 2018, p. 19)
18.5% 2.6%
Europe Commonwealth 29.4%
17.7%
of Independent China
7.1% 3.9%
States
NAFTA Middle Japan
East 16.8%
Rest of Asia
4.0%
Latin
50.1%
America
Asia
Includes thermoplastics, polyurethanes, thermosets, elastomers, adhesives, coatings and

sealants, and polypropylene fibres. Polyethylene terephthalate, polyamide and polyacrylic
fibres are not included.
About half the world production of plastics by four main classes of thermoplastics:
occurs in Asia (Figure 2.12). Europe and North polyethylene (PE) (73 million tonnes in 2010),
America (including Mexico) account for some polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (53 million
19 and 18 per cent, respectively (Plastics Europe tonnes), polypropylene (PP) (50 million tonnes)
2018). China accounts for 28 per cent of global and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (35 million tonnes)
polymer resin and 68 per cent of global polymer (UNEP 2016b).
fibre production (Geyer, Jambeck and Law 2017).
Plastics are used in a variety of downstream
Many types of plastic are produced. Thermosets sectors (Figure 2.13). Durable products, ranging
such as polyesters, epoxies and polyurethanes from construction materials to medical devices,
make up a significant share of the plastics market, make up nearly half the global plastics market,
but the largest share of the market is dominated but packaging is the largest single application
58
Part I
Figure 2.13 Uses of plastic: main downstream sectors (adapted from Plastics Europe 2018, p. 24)
39.7%
10.1%
19.8%
Packaging Building and construction Automotive
16.7%
3.4%
4.1%
6.2%
Electrical and electronic Household, leisure and sports Agriculture Others
Others refers to medical equipment, plastic furniture and furniture equipment, technical parts
used for mechanical engineering or machine-building, etc.
for plastics. Growth in the plastic packaging manufacturing processes to carry out a range
market has been stimulated by a global shift from of specific functions (Galloway 2015) (Box 2.1).
reusable to single-use containers, particularly in Primary microplastics include capsules used to
the prepared food, beverage and pharmaceuticals blast clean surfaces, plastic powders used in
markets. Asia is the fastest growing region for moulding, pellets used in plastic manufacturing
plastic packaging currently and will be in the process, microfibres in textiles, and plastic
future, with the most rapid national growth taking nanoparticles used in a variety of industrial
place in China and India (Zion Research 2016). processes (Gibb et al. 2017). Microplastics are
also used in personal care and cosmetic products
There are strong vertical linkages between the oil and, more recently, 3-D printing (UNEP 2016b).
and gas industry and plastic resin producers. At
the feedstock level, plastic production is shifting Production of bioplastics is growing, but
from naphtha to low-cost natural gas. This means remains a marginal share of the market
that ethylene, which had been conventionally
produced with propylene as a co-product, can Bioplastics currently represent about 1 per cent
now be produced alone and firms reliant on of the about 335 million tonnes of plastic
propylene need to produce it separately. China, produced annually. However, global bioplastics
already the world’s leading propylene producer, production capacity is set to increase from around
is building new production facilities to turn both 2.11 million tonnes in 2018 to approximately
oil and methanol (from coal) into propylene 2.62 million tonnes in 2023 (Figure 2.14).
(Plotkin 2015). Innovative biopolymers such as polylactic acid
(PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are
Primary microplastics are used in a variety of the main drivers of this growth. Packaging is
products and processes the largest field of application for bioplastics, at
almost 65 per cent of the total bioplastics market
Global plastics production also includes (1.2 million tonnes) in 2018 (European Bioplastics
microplastics, very small plastic particles and nova-Institute 2018).
intentionally added to products or used in

Box 2.1 Microplastics
Microplastics are extremely small pieces of plastic. They are commonly considered to be
micrometre-sized particles less than 5 millimetres (mm) in length (United States National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration [US NOAA] 2018; Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects
of Marine Environmental Protection n.d.). This definition is used in some regulatory instruments
(e.g. France, Ministry of Environment Energy and the Sea 2017).
There are two types of microplastics (Essel et al. 2015):

›› Primary microplastics are directly manufactured as microscopic particles that are used in
certain products and other applications.
›› Secondary microplastics are fragments of macroscopic plastic materials which arise, for
example, through the fragmentation of plastic bottles or the abrasion of tyres and textiles.
Microbeads are a type of primary microplastics that are intentionally added to cosmetics and
personal care products (e.g. scrubs and toothpastes). Exfoliating agents, for example, may contain
more than 10 per cent microbeads (Brande-Lavridsen n.d.).
Figure 2.14 Global bioplastics production capacity, 2017-2023 (adapted from European Bioplastics
and nova-Institute 2018, cover page)
3,000
2,700 2,616
1,328
2,357
2,400 1,244
2,194 2,216 2,205
2,112 1,200 1,190 1,179
2,060
2,100 1,200
1,175
1,800
In 1,000 tonnes
1,500
1,288
1,200
1,113
994 1,026 1,026
900 885 912
600
300
0 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Bio-based/non-biodegradable Biodegradable Forecast Total
60
Part I
3/ Megatrends and chemical-intensive

industry sectors: risks and opportunities
Chapter Highlights
Megatrends such as global economic shifts, urbanization and climate change

have significant and diverse implications for chemicals and waste.
Megatrends affect the patterns of chemical production and consumption and

may enhance exposure and related impacts; they also influence the direction and
pace of innovation.
Driven by megatrends, many chemical-intensive industry sectors are growing,

fuelling demand for chemicals.
Growth in chemical-intensive downstream industry sectors may create risks,

depending on which technologies and chemicals of concern are used.
Downstream industry sector growth also creates opportunities for innovation

towards improved production processes and safer products.
T
he evolution of the chemical industry 3.1 Megatrends
is heavily influenced by (and needs
to be understood within the context 3.1.1 The chemicals and waste
of) megatrends such as population growth, dimension of megatrends
urbanization, globalization, digitalization and
climate change. The implications of these Megatrends and their implications for
megatrends for the sound management of chemicals and waste
chemicals and waste are discussed in the first
section of this chapter. The chapter then turns The future of the chemical industry is being
to trends in chemical-intensive industry sectors, shaped by many internal and external factors.
which create both risks and opportunities. While All these factors exist in the context of large, long-
megatrends and industry sector trends are often term transitions or megatrends. Megatrends,
global in nature, they may play out with important which affect the economy and societies globally,
differences across regions. can be defined as “large-scale, high impact
and often interdependent social, economic,
political, environmental or technological
changes” (EEA 2015). To identify the megatrends
influencing global development and innovation,
particularly in relation to the chemical industry,
11 studies were assessed and synthesized for
six key megatrends, shown in Table 3.1. These
megatrends and their implications for chemicals
and waste are examined in greater detail below.
Other megatrends referred to in the literature
Chapter 3. Megatrends and chemical-intensive industry sectors: risks and opportunities 61
Table 3.1 Matrix analysis of megatrend studies
Intelligence Council
Frost and Sullivan
Deloitte and VCI

Assembly 2017
Industry Group
Manufacturing
Ernst & Young
Valencia 2013
Dugarova and
Gülasan 2017
KPMG 2014
UN General
OECD 2016
EEA 2015
National
Global
2017
2016
2014
2017
2010
Economic shifts - - -
Technological change - - - -
Resource use, scarcity
- - - - ( )
and competition
Demographic changes - - - - -
Urbanization - - - - -
Climate change, - -
pollution
include health, disease and well-being; the labour these challenges may also provide new solutions,
market; interconnectivity; consumption patterns; both to address legacies and to develop greener
and poverty and inequality. and more sustainable chemistry (Valencia 2013;
Whitesides 2015).
The megatrends discussed below (and others not
treated here in depth) have implications for the 3.1.2 Demographic changes
sound management of chemicals and waste. They
affect patterns of production and consumption in Demographic changes include growth in the total
the chemical industry and downstream sectors. world population, greater life expectancy, and
They also influence the direction and pace of ageing populations in most countries. In 2017
innovation with respect to new chemicals and the global population was nearly 7.6 billion. It is
chemical applications (Valencia 2013; Whitesides expected to reach 8.6 billion in 2030 and almost
2015). Rapidly accelerating innovation may 10 billion in 2050. Africa is projected to have
exacerbate current trends and create yet new the fastest growing population during the next
challenges for chemicals management. However, decades, with millions of new consumers. By
62
Part I
Table 3.2 World population prospects (UN DESA 2017, p. 1)
Region Population in millions

2017 2030 2050 2100
World 7,550 8,551 9,772 11,184

Africa 1,256 1,704 2,528 4,468
Asia 4,504 4,947 5,257 4,780
Europe 742 739 716 653
Latin America and the Caribbean 646 718 780 712
Northern America 361 395 435 499
Oceania 41 48 57 72
2050 over one-quarter of the global population from economic growth, enhance resource and
will live on the African continent (OECD 2016; eco-efficiency, advance sustainable materials
United Nations Department of Economic and management, and prioritize source reduction,
Social Affairs [UN DESA] 2017) (Table 3.2). reuse and recycling, as called for by the waste
hierarchy.
A growing population will drive demand for
chemicals and chemical-intensive products. A rapidly increasing population in Africa and Asia,
Under a business as usual (BAU) scenario, the along with the growing global middle class, are
rate of growth of chemical production is projected likely to lead to changing consumption patterns
to exceed that of population growth at least – from necessity-based to choice-based spending
until 2030 (Figure 3.1). This means per capita – which will increase demand for chemicals and
consumption of chemicals is increasing steadily, cause resource scarcity, land use conflicts, and
further amplifying the effect of population growth pressure on social and health care systems
on demand for chemicals. These developments (Kharas 2017). At the same time, a relatively young
highlight the need to achieve sustainable and well-educated work force could lead to an
consumption and production, as called for by increase in the number of scientists, researchers
Sustainable Development Goal 12 of the 2030 and innovators addressing present and future
Agenda for Sustainable Development. They also challenges (OECD 2016). An ageing population
reinforce the need to decouple material use in developed countries will likely correspond to
Figure 3.1 Growth of basic chemical production capacity vs. population growth (based on UN DESA
2018 and Cayuela and Hagan 2019)
500
Projected growth index
400 367
300
265
200 203
134 146 160
115 131
100 100 100
0 1990 2000 2010 2220 2030
Global chemical production Global population
The growth rates of chemical production capacity are derived from the past and projected
growth rates for basic petrochemical building blocks (ethylene, propylene, butadiene, benzene,
toluene and xylenes).
a shift in these countries from being economic middle class accounts for approximately two-
powerhouses to being more socially and health thirds of global household consumption and is
care-oriented societies (UN DESA 2015), which is growing more rapidly than other segments. It is
likely to increase demand for pharmaceuticals. estimated that by 2030 around 5.3 billion people
will belong to the middle class, significantly
3.1.3 Global economic shifts more than to the other segments combined
(Figure 3.2). Trends in the chemical industry
Profound economic shifts are taking place owing reflect larger changes and increasing consumer
to dynamic global economic growth, especially purchasing power (Schulz, Rings and Forrest
in some emerging economies. While long-term 2012). As explained in Part I, Ch. 1, chemical
projections come with uncertainties, the global production and consumption have shifted to
economy could more than double by 2050. In Asia.
2050 six of the seven largest economies in the
world are projected to be current emerging 3.1.4 Technological change
economies, led by China and India. At the same
time, the EU is expected to lose a significant R&D efforts and expenditure, as well as the
market share. Despite these dynamics, most of rate at which new technologies are adopted,
the largest developed countries are projected have increased significantly in the past decades
to continue to have higher per capita incomes (DeGusta 2012; Arbesman 2016; United Nations
than the emerging economies, although the gap Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
will be closing (PricewaterhouseCoopers [PwC] Institute for Statistics [UIS] n.d.). A surge in
2017). Meanwhile, multinational corporations innovation can be seen in the increasing number
have grown to vast size: among the 100 largest of patents, which has doubled since 2002 and
economic entities worldwide, 31 are countries surpassed 3 million in 2016 (WIPO 2017). North
and 69 are corporations (Green 2016). America is the largest investor in science,
technology and innovation (OECD 2016) and
Economic growth is also driving the expansion of many European countries rank among the world
the global middle class, which accounts for the leaders in R&D expenditure (UIS n.d.).
majority of demand in the global economy. The
Figure 3.2 Middle class dominance in 2030 (adapted from Kharas and Hamel 2018)
5.3 Bn
5
Number of people (in billions)
2.3 Bn
2
1
450 M 300 M
0 Poor (-150 M) Vulnerable (-900 M) Middle class (+1.7 Bn) Rich (+100 M)
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate the increase/decrease in the number of people in each category by
2030 compared to 2018.
64
Part I
A related development is a shift in innovation Agricultural Productivity and Sustainability 2017;

capacities, including for chemistry innovation. Geisler 2018; OECD 2018).
The number of substances registered with
the Chemical Abstracts Service has grown The nature of the production and sales of goods
exponentially. It took 50 years to see the listing and products is also undergoing fundamental
of 100 million substances, yet in the following changes. New business models, such as
two years another 30 million chemicals were additive manufacturing (or 3-D printing; see
registered. Since 1965 an average of one new Part IV, Ch. 4) and e-commerce are driving the
substance has been registered every 2.5 minutes; decentralization of production and sales. Direct
by 2016 this rate increased to one new substance sales of chemical products via the internet are
every 1.4 seconds. This increase in the number circumventing traditional distributors, many of
of new substances is likely to lead to greater which have management systems in place. Retail
complexity in chemical management. e-commerce sales may hit US dollars 4,479 trillion
and surpass 16 per cent of total retail sales by
Digitalization is predicted to lead to profound 2021 (Figure 3.3). Cross-border e-commerce is
changes in the chemical industry (Deloitte and growing by 25 per cent annually (DHL 2016).
German Chemical Industry Association [VCI]
2017; Klei et al. 2017). Data utilization will become 3.1.5 Resource use, scarcity and
increasingly important for value creation through competition
further automation of manufacturing processes
– allowing the use of advanced decision- The increasing demand and competition for
making methods, realizing efficiency gains, and finite and increasingly scarce resources, including
improving products and services for increased water, land, food and minerals, presents major
customer utility. This may offer opportunities challenges for the global community. For example,
for chemicals and waste management in, for in the Asia-Pacific region rapid economic growth,
example, the digitalization of agriculture, which intensified industrialization, urbanization and
includes the use of soil analysis sensors, drones the changing lifestyles of a growing middle class
and automated, data-driven steering systems have led to a sharp increase in natural resource
to allow targeted application of fertilizers and use and consequently emissions of GHGs and
pesticides (European Innovation Partnership for other pollutants (Singhsachakul 2014).
Figure 3.3 The growth of e-commerce (adapted from McNair 2017)
5,000 100
4,479
% change and % of total retail sales
4,000 3,879 80
US dollars trillion
3,305
3,000 60
2,774
2,290
2,000 1,859 40
23.2% 21.1% 19.1% 17.4% 16.1%
1,000 24.6% 20
13.1% 14.6% 15.5%
8.7% 10.1% 11.6%
0 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 0
Retail commerce sales % change % of total retail sales
The complexity of this megatrend and its relevance the life of existing ones as one way to reduce
for chemicals and waste can be illustrated by unessential production and consumption and
the interplay of growing food demand and the consequent demand for particularly scarce
water scarcity. Overall food production needs resources, thus making a contribution to waste
to increase by about 60 per cent between prevention (Barra and Leonard 2018). There are
2005/07 and 2050, while global water demand is also opportunities for the industry to substitute
projected to increase by 55 per cent (OECD 2016; raw materials with renewable feedstocks,
FAO 2017). In most regions of the world over increasing the reuse and recycling of end user
70 per cent of freshwater is used for agriculture, products, and to promote energy recovery
and water withdrawals are projected to increase and carbon utilization, which requires phasing
(Khokhar 2017). Depending on the practices used, out and substituting hazardous chemicals in
growth in food demand is likely to increase the manufacturing and in products (Accenture 2017;
use of pesticides and fertilizers, which, in turn, ECHA 2018).
may further aggravate water scarcity by polluting
freshwater. Some regions are particularly 3.1.6 Urbanization
affected. For example, agriculture accounts for
around 23 per cent of exports from the Latin Urbanization is taking place on a historically
America and Caribbean region (Bárcena et al. unprecedented scale. In 2008 for the first
2015) and consumes double or triple the water time, more people lived in cities than in rural
volumes of countries in other regions (Cadena areas. By 2050 an additional 2.5 billion people
et al. 2017). Agriculture is the main economic will move to cities, where 66 per cent of the
sector in the Mashriq sub-region of West Asia, global population will live. While 28 cities had
where water is a scarce resource. Discharges more than 10 million inhabitants in 2014, by
from marine desalination in the region are 2030 the number will increase to 41 (UN DESA
associated with chemical releases, including 2014a) (Figure 3.4). With already relatively high
heavy metals (Alshahri 2017). rates of urbanization in North America (where
82 per cent of the population lives in cities), Latin
An innovative chemical industry has the potential America and the Caribbean (81 per cent) and
to provide solutions to address challenges related Europe (74 per cent), the related dynamics are
to resource use and scarcity. It can be an engine less discernible in these regions. On the other
for generating safe new materials and extending hand, the Asia-Pacific region (50 per cent) and
66
Part I
Africa (43 per cent) are still much more rural needs in regard to employment and mobility,
and increased urbanization has a much higher food and a healthy environment. Material
impact there: about 90 per cent of people who consumption in the world’s cities is expected
will be moving to cities by 2050 are (and will be) to increase from 40 billion to 90 billion tonnes
living in Asia-Pacific and Africa (UN DESA 2018). by 2050 (Swilling et al. 2018). Depending on
the substances used in construction (e.g. for
The rate and scale of urbanization will likely lead to insulation), significant risks may emerge from a
the need to develop accompanying infrastructure, chemicals and waste perspective. New business
including housing and transportation (UN DESA opportunities for safer materials in the building
2014b). This strong growth demands massive sector may also emerge, however, for example
resources for construction purposes, as well as following the regulation of asbestos in many
for maintenance and use by inhabitants, all of countries.
which will increase the use of chemicals. By 2050
China needs to create housing for 292 million 3.1.7 Climate change and pollution
new urban inhabitants, while in India 404 million
people are expected to move to cities (UN DESA Global emissions of CO2 and other GHGs continue
2014a, p. 56). Urbanization also leads to changing to increase rapidly. In order of magnitude, fossil
Figure 3.4 Growth of the urban population by city size (adapted from UN DESA 2014a, p. 10)
Number of cities
6,000
Population (in millions)
5,000 41
63
4,000 28
43 558
3,000 417 731
21 10 525
2,000 239
294
1,000
0 1990 2014 2030
Megacities of Large cities of Mid-sized cities of Cities of Urban areas

10 million or more 5–10 million 1–5 million 500,000–1 million smaller than 500,000
Figure 3.5 Trends in the number of loss-relevant natural events, 1980-2016 (adapted from Munich
Re 2017)
800
700
600
500
Number
500
300
200
100
0
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Geophysical events Meteorological events Hydrological events Climatological events
Earthquake, tsunami, volcanic activity Tropical storm, extra tropical storm, Flood, mass movement Extreme temperature, drought, forest fire
convective storm, local storm
fuel combustion and agriculture are among the for e-mobility, as well as through research
largest sources of CO2 emissions (OECD 2016). on artificial photosynthesis processes and
The chemical industry is a significant source of microorganisms for biofuel production.
pollution and contributor to GHG emissions
(see Part I, Ch. 5). Global warming also leads to
the remobilization of pollutants such as POPs
due to melting glaciers and thawing permafrost 3.2 Chemical-intensive industry
(Grannas et al. 2013). Moreover, climate change sectors
may affect pesticide use (i.e. in the form of higher
amounts, doses and frequencies, and different 3.2.1 The chemicals and waste
varieties or types of products applied) (Delcour, dimension of industry sectors
Spanoghe and Uyttendaele 2015). Chemical
accidents are frequently caused by natural Chemicals are used across industry sectors
disasters and weather-related events (see Part I,
Ch. 5), adding another dimension to the increase The chemical industry is an important backbone
in the frequency of climate-related loss events of various downstream industry sectors such
(Hoeppe 2016) (Figure 3.5). Three out of five of as electronics, agriculture, pharmaceuticals,
the countries most affected by the impacts of construction, textiles, transportation and
weather-related loss events between 1996 and energy. It supplies raw materials, feedstocks
2015 are in Latin America and the Caribbean. and speciality chemicals to each of these sectors.
Table 3.3 provides an overview of the primary
The chemical industry can also help reduce commodity chemical groups used in chemical-
pollution, not only through improving resource intensive downstream sectors (or “end markets”).
efficiency in the chemicals sector but also by
supporting innovations leading to materials and Megatrends and industry sector trends create
products which can reduce emissions of CO2 and risks and opportunities
other pollutants in many other sectors or, for
example, by providing innovations for carbon Many chemical-intensive industry sectors are
capture and storage. Biotechnology can make expected to grow, responding to the dynamics of
a positive contribution to the reduction of the global megatrends. In turn, growth in chemical-
negative health and environmental impacts of intensive industry sectors and markets continues
the petroleum and petrochemicals industries to drive growth in the markets for chemicals
through the development of bio-based batteries used in these sectors. This includes construction,
68
Part I
Table 3.3 Major end markets for four primary commodity chemical groups (adapted from Bamber,
Frederick and Gereffi 2016, p. 18)
Petrochemicals: Industrial gases: Inorganic chemicals: Oleochemicals:

Polyethylene, Oxygen, nitrogen, Caustic soda, hydrochloric acid, Fatty acids, fatty
polyprolylene, argon, hydrogen, liquid chlorine, sulphuric acid, alcohol, methyl
polyvinyl chloride, acelyne, CO2 chlorine, sodium hypochlorite, esters, glycerine
polystyrene ferric chloride, titanium dioxide
Agriculture
Automotive
Construction
Personal care & detergents
Electronics
Food & Beverage
Manufacturing
Packaging
Pulp & paper
Pharmaceutical
Textiles & apparel
Water and waste treatment
Table 3.4 End markets for chemicals (adjusted based on Global Manufacturing Industry group, 2011,
p. 18)
End market size and Megatrends likely to have the most significant impact
chemical revenue from end market
Chemical End market New Conver-
revenue size Resource Green/ pattern of Demographic Human Patterns of
gence of Urbanization
(US dollars (US dollars scarcity sustainability consumption change technologies health mobility
billion) billion)
Construction 695 8,016
Electronics 371 2,458
Household 159 800
Agriculture 142 1,772
Paper and packaging 130 702
Automotive 128 1,932
Health care 113 1,368
Energy 113 3 833
Transportation 61 1,023
Nutrition 29 4,022
Personal care 20 225
Machinery 15 457
Apparel and textiles 11 1,097

Mining and metals 4 1,333
electronics, agriculture, pharmaceuticals, market projected to grow by 6.2 per cent annually

energy, transportation and textiles (discussed between 2018 and 2023 (Mordor Intelligence
in this chapter), as well as other sectors such as 2018). This growth will primarily be driven
mining and cosmetics. These chemical-intensive by the rapidly urbanizing Asian and African
downstream sectors vary considerably in terms regions (UN DESA 2014a). It is estimated that
of the size of the respective industry, as well the United States, China, India, Indonesia, the
as the types and volumes of chemicals used. United Kingdom, Mexico, Canada and Nigeria
An overview of the size of the end markets will account for 70 per cent of global construction
and the chemical revenue in each end market growth by 2030, with India the fastest growing
is presented in Table 3.4, which also indicates market (Global Construction Perspectives and
megatrends that are likely to have the most Oxford Economics 2015). The global market for
significant impacts on the respective sectors. construction chemicals (comprising concrete
Construction is the largest end market and is admixtures, protective coatings, asphalt
also the sector generating the largest chemical modifiers, adhesives and sealants) is expected
revenue. to grow by 9 per cent per year and increase to
more than US dollars 50 billion by the end of
Industry sector growth creates opportunities 2024 (Global Market Insights 2017).
for innovation, such as replacing chemicals of
concern with safer chemicals or non-chemical Some of the chemicals used in construction cause
alternatives. However, growth may also increase severe harm to workers on construction sites.
risks when old technologies that are dependent These chemicals can also affect the health of
on chemicals of concern are used even when future building occupants and office workers
adequate risk management measures are not in as a result of indoor air pollution. In developing
place. In some cases, conflicting objectives may countries asbestos use for construction remains
play a role, such as use of better insulation to a serious hazard. The World Health Organization
save heating energy leading to higher emissions (WHO) has estimated that 125 million people
of facade coatings (biocides) to the environment, in the world are exposed to asbestos in the
which then need to be reduced (Burkhardt et al. workplace and that 107,000 die each year due
2011). to diseases caused by occupational exposure to
asbestos (WHO 2014). PVC materials are a major
3.2.2 Construction source of indoor chemical residues of substances
such as DEHP, which have, for example, been
The global construction sector is expected to linked to asthma (Jaakkola and Knight 2008;
grow by 3.5 per cent annually, with its chemicals Kanchongkittiphon et al. 2015). Plastic is a widely
70
Part I
used construction material: about 21 per cent of half of global electrical and electronic product
the 47 million tonnes of plastic used in Europe production takes place in China. Investment in
goes into the construction sector (Plastics Europe electronics manufacturing in India is increasing
2012). Labour- or technology-intensive sorting is at a CAGR of 27 per cent and could reach
needed in order to obtain a high quality recyclate US dollars 104 billion by 2020. For almost all
from construction waste (Hahladakis et al. 2018). electrical and electronic products, chemicals are
There are also concerns about lead exposure essential. It has been estimated that the global
during the demolition, retrofit or renovation electronic chemicals and materials market will
of older buildings, both in occupational and grow to US dollars 30.5 billion by 2020, compared
residential (do-it-yourself) settings (US EPA 2011). with US dollars 22 billion in 2014 (McWilliams
2016).
There are many opportunities to use safer
chemicals in construction, particularly for Electronic and electrical products contain a
siding and roofing materials, structural number of hazardous substances including lead,
members, insulation and coatings. There are mercury and other metals, flame retardants
also opportunities to use safer chemicals in and certain phthalates (Nimpuno and Scruggs
information technologies, particularly those 2011). There are risks of exposure to harmful
that integrate sustainability criteria into chemicals during production and end-of-life
material selection decision-making (Agarwal, recycling, when e-waste is informally scrapped
Chandrasekaran and Sridhar 2016). The global to obtain valuable material (Perkins et al. 2014).
green building materials market is expected to In 2016, 44.6 million tonnes of electronic waste
grow from 2016 to 2022 at a CAGR of 11.9 per cent were generated (Figure 3.6), of which 80 per cent
(Prasad and Sinha 2016). Stronger incorporation was handled illegally (Baldé et al. 2017). Workers
of recyclability criteria in choosing construction in the supply chains of developing countries are
materials provides additional opportunities particularly at risk of exposure to these chemicals
(Zimmann et al. 2016). due to the unregulated nature of the electronic
waste (e-waste) recycling sector (Lundgren
3.2.3 Electronics 2012). While informal e-waste operations are
among the world’s most hazardous occupations
The consumer electronics market continues to (Pure Earth and Green Cross Switzerland 2016),
grow rapidly. The top producing regions are Asia exposure to toxic substances is common even
(73 per cent), the Americas (12 per cent) and in formalized e-waste recycling in developed
Europe (14 per cent). The top three countries countries (Julander et al. 2014).
in terms of output and market share are China
(51 per cent), the United States (10 per cent) Opportunities exist for the safer design of
and Japan (7 per cent) (ZVEI 2017). More than products for longevity and ease of recycling, as
Figure 3.6 Global e-waste generated by volume and per inhabitant, 2014-2021 (adapted from
Baldé et al. 2017, p. 5)
e-waste totals e-waste per inhabitant

Values for 2017-2021 are estimates Values for 2017-2021 are estimates
70 7
6.8
60 6 6.1
per inhabitant (kg/inh)
52.5
World totals (Mt)
50 5
44.7
40 4
30 3
20 2
10 1
0 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 0 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
well as for using “products as service” to make growth rate, with Brazil and Argentina being
the sector more sustainable. The value of the significant markets (Reuters 2018).
raw materials in all e-waste is estimated to be
around US dollars 55 billion (Baldé et al. 2017). While agrochemicals have helped to
The Apple GiveBack programme, Dell’s laptop significantly increase food production, the use
line that uses post-industrial recycled carbon- of pesticides and fertilizers has nevertheless
filled polycarbonate, and Samsung’s cadmium- caused widespread adverse impacts on soils,
free high-definition televisions are examples of ecosystems and human health (Carvalho 2017).
electronic companies’ initiatives aimed at greater Exposure to some pesticides has adverse effects
sustainability (Stanislaus 2017). on humans, including reproductive disorders
and cancers as well as acute poisonings, and
3.2.4 Agriculture and food production pose threats to biodiversity (Kim, Ko and Lee
2013; Hallmann et al. 2017; Rim 2017). Pesticide
Agriculture and food production are chemical- use varies significantly across countries (FAO
intensive. Output will increase considerably in 2018) (Figure 3.7). Moreover, excessive use of
the coming decades due to the growing global nitrate-based fertilizers may lead to ground and
population and changing, more resource- surface water contamination (Liu et al. 2014).
intensive diets (UN DESA 2017). The FAO estimates Agriculture remains the largest economic sector
that overall food production needs to increase in terms of contribution to gross domestic
by about 60 per cent between 2005/07 and product (GDP) and employment in Africa (African
2050 (FAO 2017). This demand, and increasing Development Bank [ADB], OECD and United
pressure on farmland, will lead to significant Nations Development Programme [UNDP] 2017),
growth of the agrochemicals market, which had which presents challenges regarding exposure
a value of US dollars 215.18 billion in 2016 and to certain agrochemicals and the management
is projected to reach US dollars 308.92 billion of stockpiles of obsolete chemicals.
by 2025 (Grand View Research 2017). However,
the increasing trend of organic agriculture and Biological alternatives to synthetic or chemical
agroecology in many countries may affect this fertilizers and pesticides are in increasing demand.
forecast growth. The Asia-Pacific region accounts The global biological crop protection market is
for the largest share of the global agrochemicals forecast to grow at a CAGR of 11.33 per cent
market, with China and India as major consumers. during 2016-2021 (Business Wire 2016). This shift
Latin America is expected to have the highest in the consumer market offers opportunities for
72
Part I
Figure 3.7 Use of pesticides per area of cropland, kg/ha, sum 2006-2016 (adapted from FAO 2018)
< = 2.44 < = 10.89 < = 26.17 < = 73.83 > 73.83 (kg/ha) No data
new chemical nutrients and plant protection large, with 2,240 drugs in the late-stage pipeline
biologicals. In 2016 the global organic food and an expected 45 new active substances (NAS)
market was worth US dollars 110.25 billion and per year forecast to be launched on average
it is projected to grow to US dollars 262.85 billion through 2021” (QuintilesIMS 2016).
by 2022 (Produce Marketing Association Research
2017). However, in these areas it is important to From a chemicals and waste management
assess the alternatives’ hazard properties and perspective, environmental and health concerns
potential adverse impacts, including on other in this sector are primarily related to releases
ecosystem services, in order to avoid regrettable of pharmaceuticals to the environment, where
substitution. Significant opportunities also they can lead to detrimental effects, especially
exist to scale up Integrated Pest Management on aquatic life, or contribute to antimicrobial
(IPM) and agroecological approaches, including resistance (Owens 2015; see also Part I,
the development and use of non-chemical Ch. 5, 7; Part II, Ch. 4). Sources of releases of
alternatives and other good agricultural practices. pharmaceuticals to the environment include
direct emissions from drug manufacturing,
3.2.5 Pharmaceuticals patient and animal excretion, and disposal of
unused or expired medicines (Larsson 2014;
Global spending on medicine is projected to Some of Us 2015; Changing Markets Foundation
reach nearly US dollars 1.5 trillion by 2021, about and Ecostorm 2016; Nordea 2016; Access to
US dollars 370 billion higher than in 2016. The Medicine Foundation 2018; Health Care without
total volume of medicines consumed globally will Harm Europe 2018). Workers engaged in the
increase by about 3 per cent per year through manufacture of pharmaceuticals may be at
2021. In 2016 North America accounted for risk due to occupational exposure to harmful
49 per cent and Europe for 21.5 per cent of chemicals; nearby communities and ecosystems
world pharmaceutical sales (QuintilesIMS 2016). may also be at risk because of pharmaceutical
North America is also among the regions with the discharges (Gathuru et al. 2015; Nordea 2016;
greatest number of pharmaceuticals detected in Changing Markets Foundation and Nordea
its water sources (Owens 2015). Pharmaceuticals 2018). Given the critical role of pharmaceuticals
research, development and production capacities in human and veterinary health, addressing
are growing quickly in emerging economies such chemicals and waste issues in this area requires
as Brazil, China and India. “The number of new careful balancing and consideration of potential
medicines reaching patients will be historically trade-offs.
The pharmaceutical industry has been described the world’s largest consumers – are expected
as moving towards the development of more to account for the largest share of the increase
efficient, less polluting processes, the use of less in primary energy demand. Overall, developing
hazardous reagents, and the development of countries in Asia will account for two-thirds of
improved catalysts American Chemical Society global energy growth, with the remainder coming
(2015). Companies such as Pfizer and Merck mainly from the Middle East, Africa and Latin
have developed new biocatalytic processes for America (IEA 2017). Key trends in the global
their drugs Lyrica and Januvia, respectively, energy system include the rapid advance of
that decrease the use of solvents as well as renewable energy (IEA 2017) (Figure 3.8) and
the organic chemical waste produced (Sharma increasing electrification of energy. It is estimated
2015). Founded on the principles of product that one-third of the world’s new wind power and
stewardship and a life cycle perspective, the ECO- solar photovoltaic technology will be installed in
Pharmaco-Stewardship (EPS) initiative has been China. Among industrial activities, the chemical
developed to identify the potential environmental sector is expected to see the highest growth in
risks of pharmaceutical ingredients; improve energy demand at around 45 per cent between
manufacturing effluents management; and 2015 and 2040.
use extended environmental risk assessments
(EFPIA 2016). Substitution of viscosity and binding Hazardous chemicals used in renewable energy
agents in pharmaceuticals with alternatives that solutions may pose threats to human health
have lower environmental impacts (e.g. the use and the environment and create future legacies.
of starch-based polymers) is another promising For example, carcinogenic chemicals such as
area for innovation (Kadajji and Betageri 2011). cadmium and lead are used in the manufacture
Governments could take action, for example, of solar panels (Aman et al. 2015). With many
through regulations and fiscal incentives to first-generation solar panels nearing their end
promote green and sustainable pharmacy. of life, the challenge of adequate disposal comes
to the forefront. A similar spectre is being raised
3.2.6 Energy about the future management of energy storage
provisions. As regards wind power, it has been
Global energy demand is projected to increase estimated that by 2040 more than 400,000
nearly one-third by 2040 despite a slowdown tonnes of composite material per year from
in demand growth due to energy efficiency blades will have to be disposed (Ramirez-Tejeda,
regulations (IEA 2017). India and China – currently Turcotte and Pike 2016). Currently there are
74
Part I
Figure 3.8 Global average annual net capacity additions by type of energy, 2010-2016 and 2017-
2040 (adapted from IEA 2017)
2010 – 2016
2017 – 2040
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Gigawatts (GW)
Coal Gas Nuclear Solar Wind Other renewables
no established recycling solutions for the large example by providing resins for blades and
amounts of blades that have reached the end coating materials used in wind turbines or
of their life (Liu and Barlow 2017). sealants for PV panels (ICCA 2017). Chemistry
innovations can help decrease the costs of
Chemicals will play a central role in incorporating renewable energy solutions and increase their
resource efficiency and climate friendliness in durability (e.g. through novel polymers used in
energy generation, storage, distribution and wind turbines) (Scott 2017). The global market
use. Chemistry is essential to the development for energy efficiency technology is expected
of innovative battery technologies, wind to grow from US dollars 995 billion in 2017 to
turbines and solar panels, among others, for US dollars 1,781 billion by 2025. It is estimated
Box 3.1 Lead-acid batteries: avoiding future legacies
In 2018, around 86 per cent of all lead was used in the production of lead-acid batteries, whose
primary use is in conventional vehicles (ILZSG 2019). The growing market for automobiles in low-
and middle-income countries is expected to lead to an increasing number of lead-acid batteries.
The total annual generation of used lead-acid batteries (ULABs) in Africa is estimated to amount
to more than 1.2 million tonnes (Tür, Manhart and Schleicher 2016).
When conducted informally or without proper pollution and occupational health and safety
controls, recycling of ULABs can be highly polluting. Globally, 1.9 million people are at risk from
severe damage to their health from lead exposure due to unsound lead-acid battery recycling
(Daniell et al. 2015; Pure Earth and Green Cross 2016). The often informal operations in many low-
and middle-income countries pose severe health risks, especially to children (Haefliger et al. 2009;
García and Marín 2016) while implying a high burden of disease predominantly in Southeast Asian
countries but also in China (van der Kuijp, Huang and Cherry 2013), Africa and Latin America. A
90-country study estimated that from 10,599 to 29,241 informal lead-acid battery processing sites
were putting the health of as many as 16.8 million people at risk in 2013 alone (Ericson et al. 2016).
As an alternative to lead-acid batteries, lithium-ion batteries are also expected to pose a quickly
growing environmental and health challenge in coming decades with their own specific recyclability
challenges (Lv et al. 2018), particularly the very diverse mix of compounds that are not easily
separated (Gaines 2014). Innovation needs to be encouraged not only in order to develop cheaper
batteries with higher capacities, but also to design them to be more sustainable throughout their
life cycle with a special focus on end-of-life and recyclability (Larcher and Tarascon 2015).
that the global market for environmentally lighter weight materials and high-performance
friendly technology for the generation, storage polymers in vehicle construction (BASF 2013).
and distribution of energy will nearly double in Opportunities for more sustainable materials
the same period (Berger et al. 2018). Extended and technologies also exist in the paving industry.
producer responsibility systems for batteries Some have already found their way onto the
would minimize the risk that batteries will end up market, such as recycled asphalt pavement or
in informal recycling operations or dump sites. warm mix asphalt technology (Huang et al. 2017).
3.2.7 Transportation 3.2.8 Textiles
Although the global transportation sector has The global textiles sector has doubled in
experienced relatively low growth rates in production over the last 15 years (Ellen MacArthur
recent years, it is likely to continue growing Foundation 2017) and the annual retail value of
(KPMG 2017). Passenger transport is projected apparel and footwear is expected to increase
to more than double by 2050. Low growth rates by 30 per cent between 2017 and 2030 (Eder-
are projected in OECD countries, with most Hansen et al. 2017). A key driver is a phenomenon
of the increase expected in Asia (OECD and known as “fast fashion”, characterized by quick
International Transport Forum [ITF] 2017; PwC turn-arounds of new styles, a larger number of
2018). Urbanization, population growth and a collections offered per year, and lower prices
growing middle class (particularly in emerging coupled with a lower cloth utilization rate (Ellen
economies) are expected to lead to continuous MacArthur Foundation 2017) (Figure 3.9). The
growth in car sales at around 2 per cent per Asia-Pacific textile chemicals industry is expected
year (Hannon et al. 2016; Pucher and Buehler to experience the fastest growth while China is
2017). The World Bank (2018) has estimated that likely to remain the world’s largest manufacturer
there will be twice as many vehicles on the roads of textiles and apparel, although many garment
by 2050 than the 1 billion in 2015. Non-urban makers are exploring new manufacturing
transport (particularly aviation) is expected to facilities in other Asian countries. Bangladesh,
grow strongly, while construction of rail networks Viet Nam and India have large textile industries.
is also projected to grow. Freight transport may Ethiopia is projected to become a fast-growing
triple by 2050 (OECD and ITF 2017). manufacturing hub in Africa (Berg, Hedrich and
Russo 2015). Several other African countries are
Air pollution, particularly that due to road traffic expected to expand their garment and textile
via particulate matter and sulphur emitted industry as part of national industrialization
by diesel motors, is a significant health and strategies (ADB, OECD and UNDP 2017).
environmental concern (UNEP 2017). Growth
in the transport sector also presents challenges A growing textile industry leads to an increase
from a chemicals management perspective. in the chemicals used in textile processing,
Lithium-ion batteries containing heavy metals the market value of which is estimated to
and other toxins are expected to pile up after be US dollars 31.8 billion by the end of 2026
their use in electric vehicles (Stanway 2017). (Transparency Market Research 2018). For
Lead-acid batteries used in combustion engines example, increased demand for weather-resistant
also present a risk, particularly during recycling textiles may, depending on the chemicals and
(Daniell et al. 2015) (Box 3.1). technologies used, increase the use of PFASs.
When washed, some garments release plastic
The shift from internal combustion to electric microfibres, 0.5 million tonnes of which leak
motors will have mixed implications: an increase into oceans each year. Less than 1 per cent of
in volume is expected for battery materials and the material used to produce clothing is recycled
polymers, while demand for lubricants, catalysts, into new clothing, representing a loss of over
fuel additives and automotive fluids is expected US dollars 100 billion worth of materials each
to decrease (Kumpf, Eliaz and Aldred 2018). Green year (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017). The
and sustainable chemistry opportunities exist for World Bank has estimated that 20 per cent
76
Part I
Figure 3.9 Growth of clothing sales and comparison with declining clothing utilization (adapted
from Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017, p. 18)
>100 bn
units
Number of times clothing is worn (2015)
200
2x
180
Index 100 in 2000
160
140 -50 bn
units
(2000)
120
100 2000 2005 2010 2015
Clothing utilization Clothing sales World GDP
Refers to the average number of times a garment is worn before it ceases to be used.
of industrial wastewater pollution worldwide Regulatory restrictions, increasing consumer

originates from the textile industry (Kant 2012). concern, civil society campaigns (e.g. DETOX,
73 per cent of clothing ends up in landfills or is Greenpeace) and industry-driven initiatives
incinerated at the end of their life. Hazardous such as Zero Discharge of Harmful Chemicals
chemicals can leach out as textiles degrade in (ZDHC 2018) drive innovation in the industry.
landfills, while incineration can lead to harmful Leading brands have introduced sustainable
emissions. It has been estimated that eliminating collections without harmful chemicals, and
the negative health impacts emanating from poor with low water and carbon footprints (Ellen
chemicals management in the textile industry MacArthur Foundation 2017). Sustainable textile
would yield an economic benefit of around fibres such as hemp, sisal and jute are becoming
US dollars 8 billion per year (Eder-Hansen et al. popular. The ecofibre market is estimated to
2017). grow, with a CAGR of more than 10 per cent by
2022 (Technavio 2018). Other opportunities for
innovation include safer textile chemistries and
advanced technologies for chemical recovery
from wastewater (Sustainable Business 2013).
4/ Global supply chains, chemicals in

products, and circularity
Chapter Highlights
Chemicals fulfil various performance functions in materials and products; they

are also widely used in auxiliary processes, manufacturing, waste treatment and
other areas.
Modern-day products contain a large number of chemicals at varying

concentrations; unintentional contaminants are present in a range of products.
Hazardous chemicals in secondary raw materials create specific challenges for

recycling and for a circular economy.
Complex chemical and product supply chains span the globe; adverse
effects may occur at various stages in the life cycle, including manufacturing,
consumption, reuse and disposal.
Understanding and managing chemicals in global supply chains is critical

to advance sustainable consumption and production; a holistic life cycle
perspective is essential to avoid burden shifting.
W
hile the international community has 4.1 The complexity of global supply
been paying significant attention to the chains and management
management of individual chemicals, challenges
momentum is growing to better understand
the complexities associated with chemicals in Global trade of chemicals and products
products and product life cycles, as well as the
sustainability dimensions. This chapter sheds The evolution of global value chains has
light on the interface of chemical and product significantly affected global trade and supply
supply chains, within the broader sustainable chains for chemicals and products. Business
consumption and production system. Some between companies around the world involves
of the concepts introduced, such as life cycle trade in chemicals, materials, and intermediate
assessment and sustainable supply chain and final products at various stages of their life
management, are further discussed in Part III, cycle, including waste. The trade of chemicals
Ch. 7 and Part IV, Ch. 6. such as benzene, methanol and sulphuric acid
78
Part I
Figure 4.1 Illustration of the complexity of global supply chains: the case of an electronic product
(adapted from Sourcemap 2012)
Silicon
Silicon
Neodymium
Distribution
Rare earth metals
Cobalt
Rare earth metals
Lithium
Raw materials Final product
Chemical-intensive products, such as the electronic product depicted here, are traded through
increasingly complex global supply chains, spanning many countries and regions. This poses a
variety of management challenges.
has increased significantly in the past decades products across countries with distinct regulatory
(Chua 2017). This adds further to the complexity frameworks, create challenges. The supply chain
of supply chains, particularly where imported for electronics illustrates fragmentation in a
chemicals are used in the production of articles specific economic sector and across geographic
and products which are then exported, or where locations (Figure 4.1).
products are recycled and materials are returned
to exporting countries for re-manufacturing. This Figure 4.2 shows the relative scale of exports of
complexity of global supply chains, and the cross- toys from China by importing market, illustrating
border trade of chemicals and chemical-intensive the increasing interdependence and global
Figure 4.2 Relative scale of exports of toys from China by importing market (based on Atlas 2018)
12.4 Bn
USA
834 Mn
1.8 Bn Russia
1.2 Bn
UK 108 Mn
Germany
Iraq
632 Mn
Mexico
111 Mn
Indonesia
Below 110 million Over 110 million Over 800 million Over 1 billion Over 2 billion No data
Chapter 4. Global supply chains, chemicals in products, and circularity 79

character of current supply chains. In 2017 China Supply chains are fragmented and complex
imported more than US dollars 61 billion worth
of plastic materials, some of which were used Global production and supply chain systems span
in the manufacture of toys. In the same year it the globe, creating value across entire production
exported approximately US dollars 43.7 billion and product systems and product life cycles,
worth of toys. industries and consumers. The global supply
chain of each sector includes various networks
The automotive industry is another example. around the world for raw materials extraction;
Divestment of large portions of the automotive production and processing of intermediate goods
supply chain has occurred, including outsourcing and materials; final products manufacturing;
of cost- and labour-intensive manufacturing export and distribution; and marketing of the final
portions as semi-independent or wholly products. A generalized global supply chain for
independent units (Bitran et al. 2006). Such the textile sector is presented in Figure 4.3. Some
disintegration leads to a more complex, but of these networks have introduced innovative
also more flexible, automotive supply chain management action, such as a sector-specific
network. As a result, the level of interaction and restricted substance list (Apparel and Footwear
coordination between actors involved in the International RSL Management Group 2018).
supply chain increases significantly even if the (Further examples are provided in Part III, Ch. 4
number of supply chain layers, from components and Part IV, Ch. 7.)
to finished products, remains the same.
Figure 4.3 Global supply chain in the textile sector (adapted from Martin 2013, p. 6)
Garment
Textile companies Retail outlets
manufacturers
Yarn Grey fabric Finished Garment

Spinning Weaving, fabric Designing, cutting,
knitting Dyeing, sewing, ironing,
printing, buttonholing
finishing
Department
stores
Natural fibres Prime Brand name Speciality

contractors apparel stores
Cotton, wool, Public, Public, companies
silk Public and
private and private and
(domestic private
supply/
handloom handloom Partly prime
sectors Overseas Mass
import) sectors sector contractors/
buying merchandise
partly sub-
houses chains
Man-made contractors
fibres
Rayon,
polyester,
nylon Sub- Trading Discount
Import Import Import
(domestic contractors companies chains
supply/
import)
Off-price
factory
outlet, mail
order and
others
Raw material Production Export Marketing

Intermediate goods network
network network network network
80
Part I
Table 4.1 Actors, main impact drivers and exposure over the product life cycle of toys
Life cycle stage Actors Main impact drivers and Evaluation tools and Management tools and
exposures challenges entry point
Oil extraction and Oil companies Worker exposures and Life cycle inventory of
refinery industrial releases raw materials and oil
refinery processes
Chemical Chemical and plastic Worker exposures and Environmental genome Supply chain
and plastic manufacturers industrial releases of industrial products management (SCM)
manufacturing (EGIP) (Overcash 2016)
Toy design, Original equipment Product design worker Design for Environment SCM, ensure traceability
manufacturing, Manufacturers, market exposure and industrial worker exposure of products, components
assembling surveillance enforcement releases assessment (Kijko, Jolliet
authorities and Margni 2016)
Trade – Retailers, traders, Transportation Disclosure of product Retailer disclosure policy
distribution, retail enforcement authorities composition labels
testing organizations
Purchase and use Consumers, NGOs Near-field exposures to Product Intake Fraction
chemicals in products, modeling (Fantke et al.
energy usage 2016)
Recycling Recyclers – both formal Chemical residues Material flow analysis, Dismantling as focus for
and informal sectors and contamination of life cycle assessments informal sector, recycling
recycled material (LCAs) and waste treatment for
formal sector
Waste Municipalities, waste Waste treatment End-of-life LCAs From waste management
management treatment facilities, releases to resource management
recycling facilities, etc.
Traditional hierarchical and one-dimensional at company level must address the complexity
supply chains have largely been transformed of its (global) supply chains.
into fragmented networks, involving strategic
partnerships between many companies located
in different parts of the world.
4.2 Understanding chemicals in
Different commodities involve different key products and product life cycles
players
Manufactured chemicals are constituents of
The complexity of global supply chains implies materials and products that we encounter in
that multiple stakeholders are involved, including daily life. The global value chain of chemicals
resource extractors, chemical manufacturers, and products has several stages: raw materials
product manufacturers, bystanders, retailers, are extracted and synthesized into chemicals,
consumers, civil society organizations, and polymers and materials; products are
governments and international regulators. manufactured and distributed; and, following
Table 4.1 shows key actors, drivers of chemicals- consumption, products enter recycling or
related impacts, evaluation tools and challenges, become waste. The life cycles of chemicals and
and indicative management options for each life of products are therefore closely interconnected.
cycle stage of toys. The institutional framework Each chemical has its own life cycle, from
established on the international and national resource extraction, to chemical synthesis,
levels must be designed in a way that adequately to incorporation into a chemical formulation,
responds to this complexity (responsive composite material or product, to product use, to
regulation), while the governance mechanisms end-of-life treatment. Products, in turn, have their
own resource extraction, product manufacturing

Figure 4.4 Relationship between global value chains, product life cycles, product supply chains and
chemical supply chains in a linear economy
Global value chain
Product life cycle

Product supply chain
Chemical
supply chain
Raw Chemical Downstream Retail and Consumer Waste

materials manufacturing manufacturing distribution use handling
extraction
Supply chains are concerned with the flow (and purchase) of materials from the point of origin
(e.g. raw material) to the point of use (product). The product life cycle extends from raw material
extraction to waste handling. The global value chain concept refers to the broader system of
adding value to an article (e.g. through production, marketing, and after-sales service and
product stewardship).
or end-of-life treatment processes. Emissions sodium hydroxide to remove paint from disposed
of, and exposure to, chemicals may occur products).
throughout all stages of the chemical and product
supply chains and product life cycle. Figure 4.4 Most chemicals are synthesized and
illustrates the relationship between global value manufactured in complex production systems.
chains, product life cycles, product supply chains During this process, some chemicals are used
and chemical supply chains in a linear economy. as processing input (e.g. catalyst) while others
are generated as intentional co-products or
Use and functions of chemicals along the unintentional by-products (Overcash 2016).
product life cycle Unintentional chemical by-products may
include persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic
Chemicals fulfil diverse specific functions, as basic compounds, such as dioxins formed as the result
constituents of simple and composite materials of incomplete combustion (Baker and Hites 2000)
and polymers (e.g. as stabilizers or adhesives) or during the manufacturing of chlorinated
and to shape the quality of end market products pesticides (Holt et al. 2010). In contrast, chemical
(e.g. colour, viscosity, stability). Furthermore, they co-products are subsequently used, for example,
fulfil specific functions in the realm of production as solvents in specialty chemicals. An example
and product systems within the product life cycle. is the production of polyethylene from crude
For example, chemicals are used in auxiliary oil, which also yields, among others, benzene
processes for resource extraction (e.g. potassium as chemical co-product.
chloride to recover crude oil from shale rock),
in manufacturing (e.g. hydrogen peroxide in The chemical content in products varies
pulp and paper bleaching), during product use
(e.g. hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants to run Modern-day products often contain hundreds of
air conditioners) and in waste treatment (e.g. chemicals (Figure 4.5). Many of these chemicals
82
Part I
Figure 4.5 Chemicals in an office chair (e.g. cadmium, mercury, molybdenum, antimony

(adapted from Swedish Chemicals and cobalt) if they were present in children’s
Agency [KEMI] 2016a, p. 7)
products that were sold (Uding and Schreder
Foam plastics 2013). In the United States textiles, skin products,
residues of blowing plastics and other children’s items have been
agents (CFC)
found to contain potentially hormone-disrupting
Wood chemicals such as certain phthalates, bisphenol A,
paint; varnish parabens, nonylphenol and D4; low levels of
phthalates have been found in more than 700
Textile products (Kay 2013).
flame retardant
Concentrations of chemicals in products vary
Plastic widely, depending on the intended function
chemical additives (Isaacs et al. 2018), with some formulated
products containing chemicals of concern at
Metal significant concentrations. For certain classes of
chromium surface products, such as cleaning products, the chemical
coating
composition and content have been relatively
Rubber well-characterized. They are available through
chemical additives different databases (e.g. Goldsmith et al. 2014) or
can be estimated based on the chemical function
(Phillips et al. 2017). Concentrations range, for
example, from up to 50 per cent in plasticizers
may have hazardous properties. The universe or flame retardants to less than 0.01 per cent
of products includes formulated chemical in pigments or some solvents (Hansen, Nilsson
products (often sold as liquids, gels or aerosols and Ravnholt Vium 2014). Solvents in body lotion
with certain performance properties) as well as account for approximately 60 per cent of mass/
articles (products whose function is determined volume (Figure 4.6, left side), while colourants
primarily by shape rather than by a particular account for approximately 0.5 per cent.
chemical composition). Examples of chemicals
in products include formaldehyde in shampoo, However, for many products, such as building
microbeads in toothpaste, phthalates in food materials, the chemical composition is often
packaging, certain flame retardants in televisions, unknown. This creates challenges for assessing
and antimicrobials (e.g. triclosan) in soaps. Many associated exposure and risks. At present,
formulated products (e.g. personal care products
and household cleaners) contain multiple
chemical compounds of distinct composition
(as a function of brand, regulatory requirements
and target consumers), yet fulfil the same desired
function.
In a number of cases simple metal or wooden

tools, toys and household products have been
replaced by products made of complex polymer
and composite materials filled with a wide range
of functional additives. Some of the intentionally
added chemicals in today’s complex composite
materials may have hazardous properties. For
example, in 2013 in the State of Washington in
the United States companies were required to © Africa Studio/Shutterstock
disclose the use of chemicals of high concern

Various unintended chemical contaminants have been found in rubber on playgrounds and football fields.
assessments of such products rely on databases In some cases, products may contain chemicals
derived from product safety datasheets (e.g. for despite the existence of regulations that limit
vinyl flooring) (Figure 4.6, right side) and current or prohibit their use. Several such cases have
composition industry databases (e.g. the Pharos been reported in recent years. For example,
database developed by the Healthy Building the Swedish Chemicals Agency analyzed a
Network). number of electrical and electronic products
Figure 4.6 Variations in chemical content in a body lotion and in vinyl flooring (adapted from Fantke
et al. 2019 and Isaacs et al. 2016, p. 728)
Composition of body lotion Composition of vinyl flooring
Finish B
Masking agents Chelating agents 0.04%
Pigment
2.1% 1.1% 0.5%
Viscosity-controlling/ Finish C
Antioxidants Stabilizer 0.02%
emulsion 0.5% Finish A
3% 4% 0.94%
Plasticizer
Colourants 16%
Finish
0.2% 1%
Skin Preservatives
conditioners 0.9%
5.9% Filler
Surfactants/cleaners/ 42%
emulsifiers
5.5%
Emollients Solvents
7.7% 44.3%
Resin
37%
84
Part I
and found 38 per cent to contain too high levels Jolliet 2012). Food contaminants typically include
of prohibited chemical substances, including environmental contaminants, food processing
lead and short chain chlorinated paraffins (KEMI contaminants, unapproved adulterants and
2016b). food additives, and chemical migrants from
packaging materials. If they are characterized
Unintentional chemical residues show up in by a high fat content, food products are likely
articles and products to absorb chemicals from plastic packaging and
other materials. Some persistent environmental
In addition to intentionally added chemicals that contaminants tend to accumulate in meat,
fulfil a certain performance function, products poultry, fish and dairy products. Other chemicals,
and their articles may also contain unintended such as perchlorate and pesticides, are present
chemical contaminants. These chemicals may in fruits, vegetables and other agricultural
be residuals from the chemicals used in product commodities at various concentrations. This is
manufacture, or may originate from packaging further explored in Part I, Ch. 6.
or other sources such as cross-contamination
via recycling. Moreover, chemicals included Table 4.2 provides some specific examples
in pharmaceuticals, pesticide formulations or of studies which have identified residues of
plastics may become residues in other products unintentional chemicals in products. Unintended
such as food products (Fantke, Friedrich and chemical residues are usually found at trace
Table 4.2 Examples of studies identifying unintended chemical contaminants in products
Product/article Chemical(s) Example study
Thermo cups and brominated flame retardants, e.g. decabromodiphenyl ether Samsonek and Puype 2013
kitchen utensils (decaBDE), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA)
Electrical articles lead KEMI 2014
Waste paper and mineral oil hydrocarbons, phthalates, phenols, polychlorinated Pivnenko et al. 2016
board from households biphenyls, and selected toxic metals
polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and phosphate flame Ionas et al. 2014
Children’s toys
retardants (PFRs); plasticizers such as phthalate esters
Packaging material hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD) Bodar et al. 2018
Rubber on playgrounds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates, antioxidants Llompart et al. 2013,
football fields (e.g. BHT, phenols), benzothiazole and derivatives Bodar et al. 2018
phthalates and synthetic biocides Pieke, Smedsgaard and
Pizza board package
Granby 2018
Various food samples bisphenols Liao and Kannan 2013
Commercial salt microplastics (polypropylene, polyethylene and others) Karami et al. 2017
neonicotinoids (acetamiprid, clothianidin, imidacloprid, thiacloprid Mitchell et al. 2017
Honey
and thiamethoxam)
Lettuce various pesticides Skovgaard et al. 2017
Various food samples DDE (a DDT metabolite), PCB congeners, PFOA and others Schecter et al. 2010
Wine lead (584 μg/kg, sample taken in 2015) WHO 2018
Cooked crabs dioxins (WHO TEF; 740 pg/kg; sample taken in 2010 WHO 2018
Whether the presence of chemical contaminants in products poses a risk depends on exposure
and is determined by a number of factors, as further explored in Part III. This overview does not
provide an assessment of whether measured concentrations exceeded relevant thresholds set
by regulatory bodies (further information is provided in Part I, Ch. 6).

levels and at the lower end of the range of content as well as the global flows of recycled products
fractions compared to intentional chemical often being unknown, potentially impeding
ingredients, unless there is mishandling or an management intervention that could ensure
accident in chemical formulation. Yet they may undesired chemicals re-entering supply chains
create challenges for recycling and for ensuring are not causing health and safety problems at
that material cycles are non-toxic. various stages of the material flow (Figure 4.7).
Chemicals, waste and circularity As various products such as paper and cardboard,
plastics and lubricants are recycled, they may
The circular economy concept seeks to minimize become “secondary raw materials”. Products
the extraction of natural resources, keep the made from recycled materials (e.g. textiles and
extracted resources in use as long as possible, carpets) may contain, for example, heavy metal
and promote recovery and regeneration of traces from the original product applications.
products and materials at the end of their life Studies have found, among others, flame
cycles. Such reuse and recycling is compatible retardants in consumer products most likely
with international policy objectives that aim at originating from recycled plastics (Schecter et al.
promoting environmental sustainability and 2011) and various chemical contaminants in
resource efficiency (Bodar et al. 2018). Despite recyclable waste paper derived from households
some differences in interpretation, the circular (Figure 4.8) Another study (Llompart et al.
economy concept has recently been gaining 2013) found various hazardous substances
attention in the scientific and policy communities in rubber playground equipment, including
(Homrich et al. 2018) as well as the private sector high concentrations of polycyclic aromatic
(Accenture 2017). hydrocarbons (PAHs) likely originating from
recycled rubber tyres. Furthermore, there is
The increasing trade of chemicals and related mounting evidence that the demand for black
products, and the quest to recycle products plastics in consumer products is partly met by
and materials, create opportunities but also sourcing materials from the plastic housings
raise concerns regarding the fate of chemicals of end-of-life waste electronic and electrical
and chemicals in products once they reach the equipment. This creates a potential to introduce
waste stage or become secondary raw materials. restricted and hazardous substances into the
Challenges include the chemical content of recyclate (e.g. including brominated flame
products becoming secondary raw materials, retardants; antimony, a flame retardant synergist;
Various chemical contaminants have been found in recyclable waste paper.
86
Part I
Figure 4.7 Simplified material flow of a circular economy in a global scale with health and
environmental risks (adapted from Grundmann et al. 2013, p. 2)
Raw material + chemicals Internal

A C D recycling
Production process process
B C D Consumer products
B C
Industrial waste Consumption Reuse

A B D C D C D
Recovered material Waste

B C D A B C
Waste management
C D
Residue Recyclables
A C D B C D
Recycling process
C D
A Transportation risks B Containing unidentified chemicals C Unidentified health risks D Environmental risks
and the heavy metals cadmium, chromium, The presence of hazardous substances in
mercury and lead) (Turner 2018). products, whether intentional or unintentional,
including through recycling, thus poses challenges
Figure 4.8 Unintended residues found in recyclable waste paper (adapted from Pivnenko et al.
2016, p. 51)
100
10
1
mg/kg
0.1
0.01
1E-2
p < 0.05 p < 0.05 p > 0.05 p > 0.05 p < 0.05
1E-3 MOHs MOHs Phenols Phenols Phthalates Phthalates PCBs PCBs Metals Metals
(R) (SS) (R) (SS) (R) (SS) (R) (SS) (R) (SS)
R - residual SS - source-segregated MOHs - mineral oil hydrocarbons
Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

The values for PCBs are in μg/kg. The p values indicate a significant (p < 0.05) or non-significant (p > 0.05)
difference between residual and source-segregated waste paper.

to circularity and the implementation of the waste ›› scarce information on characteristics related
hierarchy, which emphasizes source reduction, to use of chemicals;
reuse and recycling. A coherent approach to
the sound management of chemicals and waste ›› associated uncertainty missing for in vivo
in a circularity context implies that undesired experiments;
substances are not used in consumer products,
and that potential cross-contamination and ›› the need to increase the acceptability of
related exposures or releases to the environment alternative methods;
are avoided. A challenge for all actors engaged
in the supply chain is therefore to effectively ›› lack of information and missing common
address potential trade-offs between increasing databases for additives;
recycling rates on the one hand, and consumer
and environmental exposure associated with ›› limited specific data about informal recycling
cross-contaminated products on the other. At processes (e.g. efficiency, emissions);
the same time, these considerations create a
driver and opportunity for the chemical and ›› lack of more detailed emission models for
engineering sciences to provide the basis for products; and
innovative products that can be reused and
recycled without sustainability trade-offs. Under ›› lack of a clear link between emissions and
this paradigm, substances and chemicals in impacts of chemicals.
products are considered as a resource and not
as potential wastes (Clark et al. 2016).
Further gaps and research needs closely related 4.3 Sustainability considerations
to achieving the sound management of chemicals across chemical supply chains
and waste throughout the life cycle include the and product life cycles
following (Grundmann et al. 2013):
Management challenges across complex
›› lack of data about chemicals in products; supply chains
›› risks of chemical mixtures; Global supply chains within and across industry
sectors, along with the increasing global trade
›› releases of chemicals from materials and of goods, have created challenges from a
goods; sustainability perspective. These challenges
Box 4.1 An example of challenges related to the interface of chemicals, waste and circularity: the
phthalate plasticizer DEHP in PVC (adapted from EC 2018)
Flexible PVC from post-consumer waste can contain up to 20 per cent of the plasticizer substance
DEHP. This plasticizer is classified as hazardous due to its adverse effects on the human
reproductive system and is subject to certain use restrictions and to authorization in the EU.
When PVC containing DEHP is recovered, it is subject to authorization under the EU’s Registration,
Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) Regulation and must comply with
the REACH and Classification, Labelling and Packaging (CLP) rules for hazardous mixtures in order
to reach end-of-waste status. There are, however, no EU harmonized or national end-of-waste
criteria applicable to PVC waste containing DEHP and no relevant national case-by-case decisions.
Yet a number of recycling companies have applied for authorization to use the recycled material
under REACH, considering their PVC containing DEHP no longer to be in the waste phase. Lack of
harmonization and different interpretations of waste classification and end-of-waste provisions
have led to uncertainties about the conditions under which operators must continue to manage
and trade this material as waste rather than as a product.
88
Part I
Figure 4.9 Concept-to-production (C2P) global regulations by subject, cumulative total (adapted
from Compliance and Risks 2018)
25,000
20,000
Total regulations
15,000
10,000
5,000
0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 and

pending
Chemicals in products Climate change Chemicals management Chemicals & environmental Chemicals & environmental
Energy efficiency Consumer protection Wireless health and safety: occupational health and safety: environment
Product safety e-waste health and safety
include unintended releases of chemicals Managing complex supply chains: policy

during resource extraction and manufacturing; instruments and challenges
occupational exposures during manufacturing;
consumer exposures during use; and releases The number of standards and regulations to
during recycling or disposal at the end of a manage global supply chains and extended
product’s useful life. Many of the companies producer responsibility has increased significantly
involved (sometimes SMEs) operate in countries over the last 15 years (Figure 4.9). These include,
with limited regulatory capacity. In addition, but are not limited to, regulations addressing
international trade may shift problems from one production processes, individual substances and
region to another (Wiedmann and Lenzen 2018). harmful product constituents, product safety
measures and waste handling. However, while
In complex global supply chains it may be difficult codes, standards and regulations are mostly
for final product brand-identified corporations, national, supply chains are global, complicating
such as Apple, Nike, Adidas, Unilever, Ford effective management. This situation, and
and Volkswagen, to manage their suppliers. the increasing global trade of chemicals and
One challenge is to know what chemicals are products (described in Part I, Ch. 1, 2), create
in the components or articles that go into the opportunities to explore approaches for effective
products that they bring onto the market. For global governance that can reduce impacts along
example, the lead paint discovered in 2007 the entire supply chain. This includes measures
on the toy trains Mattel marketed worldwide to avoid burden shifting (i.e. avoiding adverse
appear to have been the result of undisclosed impacts associated with imported goods in the
activities of second and third tier suppliers in exporting manufacturing countries) (Normile
the supply chain (Jennings 2007). The same 2017), or avoiding waste from exporting countries
applies to environmental emissions associated creating adverse impacts in importing countries.
with the different extraction, manufacturing and Agreements that facilitate trade therefore need to
processing steps along the entire supply chain foster effective regulations that take into account
of a product. human health and environmental considerations
related to chemicals and waste across countries.

One growing challenge to ensuring compliance Assessing impacts across supply chains and
with regulatory requirements in different parts of product life cycles
the world, and for complex supply chains, relates
to cross-border trade and e-commerce. Recent Addressing chemical and product life cycles in a
research shows that imported chemicals or sustainable way requires proper management
products often do not comply with the chemicals of information flows and feedback loops among
legislation of the importing country (see also stakeholders involved in the supply chain.
Part II, Ch. 3). For example, various products Approaches are emerging which complement
imported into the EU were found to contain illegal market-based supply chain management,
amounts of restricted chemicals (ECHA 2018a). measuring the environmental as well as social
Similar challenges have been encountered in impacts associated with chemical pollution
the United States. For example, 12 per cent of and working conditions along the supply
imported shrimp tested for drug residue and chain and throughout the life cycle. Measuring
other toxins were rejected (US Government environmental and social sustainability upstream
Accountability Office 2017). and downstream can provide a basis for increasing
full supply-chain sustainability (O’Rourke 2014).
As regards e-commerce, many chemicals can Advances in life cycle assessment (LCA) and in the
now be ordered directly from anywhere in the calculation of product environmental footprints
world by private entities which may be unaware may help translate impacts into decision support
of safety regulations and responsibilities. In 2017 for companies (Hellweg and Milà i Canals 2014).
the ECHA conducted an inspection of 1,314 However, LCA is not without its own limitations,
internet advertisements for chemical mixtures challenges and critiques; it should therefore be
to determine whether they complied with EU applied and interpreted with caution (Gutowski
CLP regulations. It found that 82 per cent did 2018). Opportunities also exist to advance the
not contain the required hazard information. integration of the chemicals dimension in LCA
Most of the advertised chemical mixtures were models and tools. Further details are provided
used in households (37 per cent), were used in Part III, Ch. 7.
in construction (16 per cent) or were motor
products (14 per cent) (ECHA 2018b). Life cycle management (LCM) encourages a
holistic perspective. It covers the entire chemical
The trend towards circularity also creates or product life cycle and calls for managerial
challenges for aligning chemicals and waste decisions that consider environmental and health
standards and regulations. In a non-circular impacts. LCM provides an opportunity to minimize
economy, products usually become waste and the environmental and socio-economic burden
thus fall under the respective waste legislations. while maximizing economic and social value (Bey
However, in a circular economy recyclable 2018). Applying the life cycle perspective is also
materials and products increasingly become of key relevance in advancing a circular economy
“secondary raw materials” to which different and closing material loops along chemical and
regulatory requirements apply, such as specific product life cycles and creating self-sustaining
end-of-waste criteria. The challenge is to ensure production systems. A holistic view in assessing
that hazardous materials do not re-enter the life chemical-related releases to the environment,
cycle in new materials as a result of a circular or human exposure, helps identify and avoid
approach. In Europe end-of-waste criteria have performance improvements at one life cycle
already been specifically developed for iron, steel stage (e.g. decreased raw material extraction
and aluminium scrap, glass cullet and copper through recycling) at the expense of increased
scrap. Opportunities exist to develop such criteria impacts at another stage (e.g. increased residues
for a wider realm of recyclable materials and of contaminants in recirculates and related
products, such as waste plastic re-entering the consumer exposure and related human health
market (Villanueva and Eder 2014). risks). It helps avoid what is commonly known as
90
Part I
burden-shifting (Hellweg and Milà i Canals 2014). Management (SAICM) for many years, and was
Finally, assessing and managing chemicals along added in 2015 to the International Organization
entire product life cycles allows environmental for Standardization (ISO) 9000 series on quality
performance of products, and their supply management and quality assurance management
chains, to be benchmarked against pollution series. It is a key feature to address product
and exposure reduction targets set by the global stewardship along the supply chain. In this respect,
sustainable development agenda in support of the “Proactive Alliance” is developing criteria for a
developing products and technologies that are cross-sectoral global standard heading towards
sustainable in absolute terms (Fantke and Illner a “Full Material Disclosure” (FMD) as a governance
2019). response to the complexity and various interlinks
of the global supply chain. Regulatory approaches
Enhancing traceability of chemicals in the aiming to support a circular economy, such as the
supply chain substances of very high concern (SVHC) database
to be hosted by the ECHA, have been triggering
Ensuring the traceability of chemicals along this development (Global inter-sector standard
the supply chain has been addressed by the for Substances in Articles [SiA] communication
Strategic Approach to International Chemicals 2018; Stringer 2018).

5/ Chemical pollution: emissions, releases

and wastes
Chapter Highlights
Large amounts of manufactured chemicals continue to be released to the air,

water and soil.
Releases of heavy metals continue to pollute soils worldwide.
Total fertilizer and pesticide applications to soil are increasing, but application
rates are decreasing.
Globally, atmospheric releases of mercury remain high.
Chemicals of concern are released indoors from consumer products and building
materials.
Significant progress has been made in reducing releases of some chemicals of

concern, including ozone-depleting substances and some persistent organic
pollutants (POPs).
Waste dumps and informal recycling are major sources of pollution in many
countries.
Industrial accidents and natural disasters result in significant pollution.
T
his chapter compiles and synthesizes Emissions to air, water and soil
available information on the emissions
and releases of chemicals to indoor and Every year millions of tonnes of manufactured
outdoor environments and on the generation chemicals are released to the environment as
of waste, particularly hazardous waste. Since air emissions, water discharges, and solid and
chemicals are released to various media and hazardous waste. While simulation models can
released from various sources, both the media be used to estimate the scale of the releases, an
and the sources are considered. The first part of accurate assessment of their volumes is inhibited
the chapter addresses the environmental media by the multitude of sources. Traces of these
as an entry point, using knowledge on releases to emissions and releases are found as pollutants
air, freshwater and oceans, and soil. The second in environmental media in every world region. In
part takes the source categories as an entry point, many parts of the world emissions and releases
exploring releases from products, production of many hazardous chemicals are increasing. Not
processes, municipal and hazardous waste, only do these emissions pose risks to human
and industrial accidents and natural disasters. health and the environment. They also represent
The chapter concludes with a brief discussion lost opportunities to realize economic benefits. 
of challenges and opportunities in regard to
compiling pertinent data and knowledge.
92
Part I
Figure 5.1 The value chain of the chemical industry, with emissions/releases to the environment

Emissions/releases to the environment
Manufactured chemicals can be released industrial facilities (OECD 2018). PRTRs are useful
at each step in the value chain of the global for monitoring national emissions. However, their
chemicals economy (Figure 5.1). Large volumes usefulness for aggregating data and assessing
occur as waste materials generated by specific global trends is restricted by the limited number
technologies and economic processes. Significant of chemicals and diverse types of facilities
amounts are also released as unintentional leaks, covered, as well as varying reporting thresholds
spills and fugitive emissions. and periods (US EPA n.d. a) (see also Part II, Ch. 3).
Some of the largest sources of releases of 5.1.1 Emissions to air

hazardous chemicals are mining, agriculture,
wastewater treatment, energy generation, Manufactured chemicals enter the atmosphere
chemical production, and product manufacturing, through direct emissions, including from
use and disposal. There is no comprehensive stationary point and area sources such as
global system for monitoring and tracking these factories and parking lots; mobile sources such
releases. While ambient air measurement and as cars and airplanes; diffuse emissions, including
modelling can provide important insights, they pesticide spraying; and fugitive emissions such as
cannot replace production or release inventories. those from commercial and household products.
Some 30 countries have established national Because air emissions travel long distances and
Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTRs) have impacts on countries outside the country
to track releases of hazardous chemicals from
Chapter 5. Chemical pollution: emissions, releases and wastes 93

of their origin, air pollution is a significant sites was constant from 2002 to 2012. It slowed
transboundary issue. by about 50 per cent after 2012. Based on a
simple model analysis, an increase in CFC-11
Releases of ozone-depleting substances have emissions of 13 ± 5 gigagrams per year since 2012
been sharply reduced has been suggested, despite reported production
being close to zero since 2006. According to
National policies established in conformance the study, the increase in emissions of CFC-11
with the Montreal Protocol on Substances appears unrelated to past production, suggesting
that Deplete the Ozone Layer, which entered unreported new production. Further research on
into force in 1989 (see Part II, Ch. 1-3), have this matter is being undertaken. However, the
led to the phase-out of 99 per cent of ozone- recent discovery of the rate of decline of CFC-11
depleting chemicals, resulting in significant in the atmosphere, and the potential increase
reductions in releases (Secretariat of the Vienna in emissions, demonstrate the importance of
Convention and its Montreal Protocol 2018). continued atmospheric monitoring even when
The remaining 1 per cent consists largely of global compliance is high.
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), a group
of controlled substances with ozone-depleting The chemical industry is a significant source of
potential much lower than that of the ozone- greenhouse gas emissions
depleting substances (ODS) they replace
(e.g. chlorofluorocarbons [CFCs] and halons). The chemical industry generates about
In 2009 it was estimated that this reduction 5.5 per cent of global CO2 emissions (7 per cent
had contributed to climate change mitigation of global GHG emissions) and about 17 per cent
through averting the emission of 135 billion of all industrial CO2 emissions (20 per cent of
tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-eq) to all industrial GHG emissions). During the past
the atmosphere (Molina et al. 2009). decade it has made significant reductions in
its energy consumption and GHG emissions,
In 2007 the Parties to the Montreal Protocol a trend which is expected to continue (IEA,
decided to accelerate the phase-out of HCFCs. In ICCA and Society for Chemical Engineering and
2016 they agreed to phase down the consumption Biotechnology 2013).
and production of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
as stipulated in the Kigali Amendment to the Some of the chemicals manufactured by the
Montreal Protocol (UNEP 2016a). While HFCs are chemical industry also contribute to GHG
not ODS, they are powerful GHGs that are used emissions. Use of nitrogen-based fertilizers in
as ODS substitutes primarily in air conditioning, agriculture (which rose from 11 million tonnes in
refrigeration and foam insulation. HFCs can be 1961 to 108 million tonnes in 2014) contributes
thousands of times more harmful to the climate substantially to emissions of nitrous oxide, an
than CO2. In 2010, however, 5.4 million tonnes extremely potent GHG. Sulphur hexafluoride,
of ODS were estimated to be banked in existing another extremely potent GHG, continues to
refrigeration and air conditioning equipment, be used in (and released from) the electronic
and contained in insulation foam, that could product manufacturing and magnesium
gradually be vented into the atmosphere (UNEP industries, while fluorinated ethers used in
2009). degreasing applications are emitted directly to
the atmosphere (EEA 2017a).
A recent study published in Nature (Montzka et al.
2018) indicated that trichlorofluoromethane (CFC- Releases of hazardous air pollutants vary by
11) still contributes one-quarter of all chlorine region
reaching the stratosphere, while a timely recovery
of the stratospheric ozone layer depends on In middle- and higher-income countries
a sustained decline in CFC-11 concentrations. governments monitor and regulate national
The rate of decline of atmospheric CFC-11 “priority air pollutants” (e.g. particulate matter,
concentrations observed at remote measurement ground level ozone, carbon monoxide, lead,
94
Part I
Figure 5.2 On-site air releases in the United States reported to the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI),
2006-2016 (million pounds) (adapted from US EPA 2019, p. 39)
On-site air releases
1,500
Millions of pounds
1,000
500
0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Stack emissions Fugitive air emissions
and sulphur and nitrogen oxides) that are air pollutants such as heavy metals and volatile
largely generated by combustion. There has organic compounds (VOCs) also declined, while
been a general long-term decline in releases emissions of lead, cadmium and mercury, dioxins
of these chemicals except in the case of lead, and furans, hexachlorobenzene and PCBs
whose emission rates vary between countries decreased by 67 per cent or more compared with
(EEA 2017b; US EPA n.d. b). However, emissions 1990 (Guerreiro et al. 2015). Around 94 per cent
of these same chemicals are increasing in the of air emissions of ammonia in Europe are from
rapidly urbanizing cities of many emerging agriculture. According to a recent EEA report,
economies, often leading to highly polluted these emissions decreased by 23 per cent
urban air. between 1990 and 2015 but increased between
2014 and 2015 by 1.8 per cent, with much of
Atmospheric releases of manufactured chemicals that increase occurring in France, Germany and
from industrial sources are tracked by national Spain (EEA 2017b).
PRTRs (see above). Those chemicals with the
largest volume releases to air reported under The extent of atmospheric releases of
the United States Toxics Release Inventory manufactured chemicals from industrial
(TRI) (the PRTR in the United States) include sources in lower-income countries is difficult to
ammonia, hydrochloric acid, methane, sulphuric determine in the absence of national monitoring
acid and hydrogen sulphide, along with organic systems, such as national PRTRs, in many of
chemicals such as methane, n-hexane, styrene these countries.
and toluene. Between 2006 and 2016 releases of
these chemicals to air decreased by 58 per cent Emissions of some POPs have decreased but
(829 million pounds); the most significant those of others continue
reductions were of hydrochloric acid, sulphuric
acid, hydrogen fluoride, methanol, toluene Atmospheric emissions of various POPs have
and styrene (US EPA 2019). Figure 5.2 shows decreased significantly since 1990 among
trends for hazardous chemicals released to the Parties to the Convention on Long-range
atmosphere by regulated facilities, as reported Transboundary Air Pollution (e.g. 95 per cent
to the TRI. for hexachlorobenzene, 75 per cent for PCBs,
70 per cent for dioxins and furans and 83 per cent
The European Environment Agency (EEA) PRTR for PAHs) (EEA 2018). A review of monitoring
has reported that emissions of nitrous oxide, data from the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment
sulphur dioxide and ammonia decreased Programme (AMAP) collected over 20 years
significantly in most European countries between reveals that primary emissions of most of the
1990 and 2012 (EEA 2015). Emissions of industrial POPs first listed under the Stockholm Convention

© Alex Proimos, Burning waste on a landfill in Peru CC BY 2.0
are declining. Trends are less positive for other Cancer) are not commercially produced, but
POPs, notably polybromated diphenyl ethers are formed as trace amounts of undesired
(PBDEs), HCB and PCBs, among others, due in impurities in the manufacture of other chemicals
part to their remobilization (Hung et al. 2016). or during combustion processes. PCDD/PCDF are
released from a variety of sources, with open
While releases of the POPs first listed under burning of waste by far the most significant
the Stockholm Convention have decreased in source of emissions to air, particularly in
most higher-income countries, some compounds developing countries (Fiedler 2007). According
continue to be manufactured and released in to the effectiveness evaluation of the Stockholm
lower-income countries. For example, DDT is Convention, reported releases of PCDD/PCDF
manufactured in India and continues to be remained almost unchanged between the
used also in some African countries for disease baseline (2001-2011) and the update (2001-
vector control. According to the effectiveness 2015). The Asia-Pacific region reported the
evaluation of the Stockholm Convention, the highest increase and the Western Europe and
Convention is expected to result in decreasing Others region the strongest decline (Secretariat
levels of unintentional POPs in all regions. Data of the Stockholm Convention 2017). A 2016 study
on releases of unintentionally produced POPs (Wang et al. 2016) provided a global estimate
at different times, especially from developing of PCDD/PCDF releases. Figure 5.3 shows the
countries and economies in transition, is releases per unit area that account for the
limited, although initial results show positive observation that the environmental burden
trends (UNEP and Secretariat of the Stockholm from the release of a certain amount of PCDD/
Convention 2017). PCDF generally depends on the size of the area
to which the release occurs. While the highest
PCDD/PCDF (classified as human carcinogens releases were estimated to be in Asia, per capita
by the International Agency for Research on releases in that region were below the global
Box 5.1 Outcomes of the effectiveness evaluation of the Stockholm Convention (UNEP and Secretariat
of the Stockholm Convention 2017, p. 4)
The effectiveness evaluation of the Stockholm Convention made available in 2017 found, among
other outcomes, that “monitoring results indicate that regulations targeting POPs are succeeding
in reducing levels of POPs in humans and the environment. For POPs listed in 2004 under the
Convention, concentrations measured in air and in human populations have declined and continue to
decline or remain at low levels due to restrictions on POPs that predated the Stockholm Convention
and are now incorporated in it. For the newly listed POPs, concentrations are beginning to show
decreases, although in a few instances, increasing and/or stable levels are observed”.
96
Part I
Figure 5.3 National/regional PCDD/PCDF releases per unit area (adapted from Wang et al. 2016,
p. 307)
Release per unit area (mg Toxic Equivalent (TEQ) km-2 yr-1)
Reprinted with permission from Elsevier

0.001–0.1 (4) 0.1–0.5 (41) 0.5–1 (32) 1–5 (79) 5–10 (21) 10–15 (9) 15–28.2 (10)
average; by contrast, while the lowest releases Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM)
were estimated to be in Oceania, this region is also a significant source of mercury released
was estimated to have the highest releases per to air: 37 per cent of global air emissions of
capita (also due to non-anthropogenic sources). mercury are produced by ASGM. Mercury
vapour in the air around amalgam burning
Atmospheric emissions of mercury are a sites almost always exceeds the WHO limits
significant source of air pollution for public exposure (Gibb and O’Leary 2014).
Other important sources of mercury emissions
It is estimated that cumulative global include stationary coal combustion, power plants,
anthropogenic releases of mercury to the vinyl chloride monomer production, industrial
environment up to 2010 amounted to about uses and domestic/residential burning. These
1.54 million tonnes, 73 per cent of which are followed by emissions from non-ferrous
had been emitted since 1850 (Streets et al. metal production and from cement production.
2017). Anthropogenic mercury emissions Emissions associated with the disposal of
to the atmosphere are currently more than mercury-containing product waste make up
2,000 tonnes per year, or about 30 per cent some 7.6 per cent of the air emissions (UNEP
of total annual global atmospheric mercury and AMAP 2017).
emissions. A significant share of these emissions
comes from industrial areas in East and South Global mercury emissions show a slow decline
Asia, Central Europe, South Africa and eastern with regional differences. Significant decreases
North America. The remainder come from in emissions in Europe and North America are
natural processes (60 per cent) that result in offset by increases in Asia. Trends observed in
re-emissions of mercury previously deposited to North America and Europe reflect the phase-
soils and water (much of which are derived from out of mercury from commercial products, the
earlier anthropogenic emissions and releases) closing of coal-fired power plants, and improved
and from natural sources (10 per cent) (UNEP pollution controls on remaining coal-fired utilities
and AMAP 2017). (Zhang et al. 2016).

Releases from waste dumps are a key source concern such as carbon black, dioxins and
of air pollutants furans (Zhang et al. 2017). Given the difficulty
of including open dump burning in inventories,
Roughly 33 per cent of the world’s solid waste air emissions from waste dumps are significantly
ends up in open dumpsites. Decomposition of underestimated (Wiedinmyer et al. 2014).
waste in dumps and landfills releases various
volatile chemicals originating from decomposing Hazardous chemicals are also released indoors
products, as well as a heavy mix of methane
and CO2. It is estimated that GHG emissions In many lower-income countries fuel combustion
of 1.6 billion tonnes CO2-eq. were generated for cooking and heating is the primary source of
from solid waste treatment and disposal in indoor air contamination in homes (WHO 2014).
2016, driven primarily by open dumping and However, in higher-income consumer economies
disposal in landfills. This is about 5 per cent the most common sources of indoor air
of total global GHG emissions (Kaza et al. contaminants (in addition to cigarettes) are
2018). As urbanization and population growth building materials, household furnishings and
continue, it is expected that these dumpsites products. For example, formaldehyde volatilizes
will increase in size and number and that, by from pressed wood products and biocides leach
2025, municipal and domestic dumps will account from indoor carpeting. Phthalates such as DEHP
for 8-10 per cent of global anthropogenic GHG are widely released to indoor air, including dust
emissions (International Solid Waste Association from flooring materials (Jeon, Kim and Choi
[ISWA] 2015). 2016). The growing use of building insulation
materials, which are increasingly installed to
Open burning is common in many low-income conserve energy, has introduced new health
countries (Kumari et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2017). concerns related to contaminates in household
An estimated 620 million tonnes of global dust coming from the aging of the insulation.
domestic waste are burned openly every year Products such as perfumes, hairsprays, air
(Cogut 2016). Burning of this waste, typically fresheners, furniture polish, cleaning solvents,
at low temperatures and in an uncontrolled hobby and craft supplies, pesticides, glues,
manner, releases large amounts of hazardous adhesives, sealants, and carpet and fabric dyes
substances to the environment, making dumps and fibres are all likely sources of VOCs in indoor
a major source of some substances of high air (Apte and Salvi 2016).
Figure 5.4 Potential sources of chemical water pollution (adapted from Arefin and Malik 2018,
p.100)
Non-point sources
Urban streets
Wastewater Factory
treatment plant
Suburban development Rural homes
Animal feedlot
Cropland
Point sources
98
Part I
The WHO has identified the most common lower-income countries the rates are even higher.
chemicals emitted to household indoor air Up to 90 per cent of industrial and agricultural
globally. These include benzene, carbon wastewater in these countries flows untreated
monoxide, formaldehyde, naphthalene, into rivers, lakes and coastal zones; it is also
nitrogen dioxide, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, estimated that globally 2 million tonnes of
trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene (WHO sewage and industrial and agricultural wastes
2010). are discharged into freshwater bodies every
day. Facilities thus represent a major point
5.1.2 Releases to freshwater and source of releases. For example, 80-90 per cent
oceans of PFOS/PFOA contamination in the Chinese
environment has been estimated as originating
Manufactured chemicals contaminate water from manufacturing and industrial facilities,
bodies through direct discharges from industrial primarily via wastewater discharges (Liu et al.
facilities and municipal wastewater treatment 2017). Agriculture is a leading source of nitrogen
plants, as well as indirect discharges from landfills pollution and nitrate has been identified as the
and leaking pipes and storage tanks. Non-point most common chemical contaminant in the
sources such as agricultural fields, roadways and world’s groundwater aquifers (Shukla and Saxena
parking lots are harder to identify and control 2018).
(Arefin and Malik 2018) (Figure 5.4). Chemicals
are also released to water through wastewater “China has been the largest producer and emitter
containing commonly used commercial products of perfluorooctanoic acid and its salts (PFOA/
such as soaps, detergents and personal care PFO)” (Meng et al. 2017, p. 11254). A study
products flushed through municipal sewage showed that in 2012 most PFOA releases in China
treatment facilities. are due to the activities of the fluorochemical
industry (94 per cent) rather than releases from
Releases of chemical wastes to water bodies consumer products containing PFOA (Li et al.
throughout the world remain significant 2015); however, this situation may have changed
over the past years.
It is estimated that globally more than 80 per cent
of municipal and industrial wastewater is While releases of hazardous chemicals to surface
released to the environment without adequate waters remain high in most countries, rates are
treatment (United Nations Educational, Scientific falling in the United States, Japan and northern
and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] 2017). In Europe. According to the TRI in the United States,
Figure 5.5 On-site hazardous surface water discharges in the United States reported to the Toxics
Release Inventory (TRI), 2006-2016 (adapted from US EPA 2019, p. 44)
On-site surface water discharges
300
250
Millions of pounds
200
150
100
50
0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

hazardous surface water discharges in that the intensity of pesticide use globally has
country fell by 24 per cent (60 million pounds) been falling (see Part I, Ch. 5). The growth of
between 2006 and 2016. Most of the decrease intensive livestock production has introduced
was due to reductions in water discharges of a new class of agricultural pollutants released
nitrate compounds from agriculture, which to the environment: veterinary medicines such
declined by 25 per cent (56 million pounds) and as antibiotics, vaccines and growth promoters
were attributable to reduced nitrification and contaminate both surface and groundwater. Such
nitric acid formation in wastewater treatment pollution has become significant as soil and water
facilities (US EPA 2019) (Figure 5.5). contaminants near large-scale animal feed lots
and industrial-scale egg and meat production
Agricultural production is the primary source facilities (Boxall 2012).
of surface water pollution globally
Releases of pharmaceuticals to water are an
In many higher-income countries and most lower- emerging concern
income ones, pollution from agriculture exceeds
that from municipal and industrial discharges. About 4,000 active pharmaceutical ingredients
Farming and food processing generate some are administered worldwide in prescription
40 per cent of water pollution in higher-income medicines, over-the-counter therapeutic drugs
countries and 54 per cent in lower-income and veterinary drugs. Globally some 100,000
countries (UNESCO 2009). In the United States tonnes of active ingredients are produced
agriculture is the main source of water pollution every year (Weber et al. 2014). A large number
of lakes, rivers and streams, the second largest of studies document the pollution of rivers and
source in wetlands, and the third largest source groundwater (as well as soil and sediment)
in lakes (Mateo-Sagasta et al. 2017). In the EU with active pharmaceutical ingredients from
water quality in 38 per cent of water bodies has pharmaceutical manufacturing in different
been degraded by agricultural runoff (UNESCO regions (Larsson 2014). Conventional wastewater
2015). Agriculture is the source of a large share treatment facilities are often ineffective in fully
of surface water pollution in China, where it is removing pharmaceuticals from wastewater,
responsible almost exclusively for groundwater with removal efficiencies ranging from 20 to
pollution by nitrogen (Mateo-Sagasta et al. 2017). 80 per cent for individual pharmaceuticals
(Owens 2015; Beek et al. 2016). Antibiotics and
Herbicides, insecticides, fungicides and synthetic hormones are widely used in humans
bactericides applied directly in fields can wash and animals; once excreted, they are released
off soil into nearby surface water or percolate directly to surface water or waste treatment
to lower soil layers and groundwater. However, facilities. Additional burdens to water arise
100
Part I
when unused medicinal products in domestic

settings are disposed of in sinks and toilets
(Review on Antimicrobial Resistance [Review
on AMR] 2016). Yet another critical source of
antibiotics is animal husbandry, including fish
farming (Singer et al. 2016; Wall et al. 2016; Topp
2018). In some countries the use of antibiotics in
agriculture exceeds its use in humans (Review on
AMR 2016). Scientists have highlighted the need
to address knowledge gaps regarding the role of
the environment in the transmission of antibiotic
resistant pathogens, including regarding release
pathways (Larsson et al. 2018).
Groundwater pollution resulting from chemical

discharges remains significant
Despite considerable progress globally in reducing

discharges of chemical pollutants to aquifers and © UNEP, Versova Beach, Mumbai, India CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
water collection basins, pesticides, industrial

chemicals and household chemicals continue to
affect the quality of regional groundwater in many discharged untreated into the ocean. In many
areas. Hazardous chemicals used in industry lower-income countries between 80 and
and commercial products such as solvents 90 per cent of municipal sewage entering coastal
(particularly trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene zones is estimated to be raw and untreated.
and methylene chloride) are a common source of Nearly 50 per cent of the urban sewage
groundwater contamination. There are growing discharged to the Mediterranean Sea is untreated
concerns about groundwater contamination (EC 2006). This sewage often contains heavy
by the chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury, as
(Michalski and Ficek 2016; Luek and Gonsior well as a variety of POPs found in conventional
2017) (Box 5.2). domestic and commercial products (US NOAA
2018). In addition, plastic waste washed through
Discharges from land-based sources into wastewater treatment facilities contains a broad
oceans range of additive chemicals. Contaminants may
also be re-emitted/remobilized in the marine
Roughly 80 per cent of ocean pollution comes environment. Tornero and Hanke (2016) lists
from land-based sources. This includes much 276 substances potentially released into the sea
of the world’s urban sewage, which is often from sea-based sources.
Box 5.2 Releases of chemicals used in fracking
Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) has expanded natural gas production, particularly in the United
States. The use of additives in the fluids used to fracture rock formations is causing increasing
concern. Some of these additives have been shown to migrate into groundwater (i.e. drinking
water resources) (USGS 2016). While the oil and gas industry has been reluctant to divulge the
ingredients of these fluids, it has been suggested that upwards of 750 substances could be
found in fracking fluids, ranging from benign salt and citric acid to benzene, toluene, xylene and
lead. Methanol is the most common component, but other chemicals include hydrochloric acid,
isopropyl alcohol, 2-butoxyethanol and ethylene glycol (United States House of Representatives
2011; Michalski and Ficek 2016). Hydraulic fracturing involves five stages, each of which potentially
causes water pollution (US EPA 2016; Luek and Gonsior 2017).

Large amounts of plastic are released to water modelling studies suggest that the largest
bodies along various pathways share of microplastic wastes that end up in the
ocean are secondary wastes generated from
Plastic enters the oceans along various pathways. the breakdown of clothing and textiles during
Land-based sources (e.g. waste disposed at machine washing (around 35 per cent) and
beaches) are the largest source of releases to erosion of tyres on roadways during normal
the marine environment; others include marine- vehicular travel (around 29 per cent). A smaller
based sources (e.g. due to aquaculture and but significant share comes from primary
fishing) and other environmental media (rivers microbeads added as functional constituents to
and atmospheric transport) (Lebreton et al. detergents and personal care products (Boucher
2017). Studies suggest that about 6-10 per cent and Friot 2017) (Figure 5.6).
of global plastic production is released to the
ocean (Essel et al. 2015). Van der Wal et al. 5.1.3 Releases to soil
(2015) found that the Danube River released Hazardous chemicals are released to soil
between 530 and 1,500 tonnes of plastics into during activities such as agriculture, mining,
the Black Sea each year. It has been estimated manufacturing and treatment of sewage sludge,
that 275 million tonnes of plastic waste were or as solid and hazardous wastes deposited in
generated in coastal countries in 2010, of which dumps and landfills. Conventional applications
4.8 to 12.7 million tonnes entered the ocean of pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture result
(Jambeck et al. 2015). The total mass of plastic in direct releases of pesticides to soil (Rodríguez
debris added to the marine environment from Eugenio, McLaughlin and Pennock 2018).
2010 until 2025 is expected to grow by an order
of magnitude and may amount to some 100- Releases to soil through mining and metal
250 million tonnes (UNEP and Grid Arendal 2016). processing are very significant
Macroplastic litter originates from various The mining industry generates large amounts of
sources, including poorly managed plastic overburden and mining wastes. The mining and
recycling, packaging, agriculture, construction metal processing industries are responsible for
and coastal tourism (UNEP 2016b). Recent the largest releases of hazardous pollutants in
Figure 5.6 Global releases of plastic and microplastic waste to oceans (tonnes per year) (adapted
from Boucher and Friot 2017, p. 11)
2.21
1.99
0.07 0.26 0.28 0.24

North America Europe and Central Asia 0.24
1.53
0.28 China
1.3
India and South Asia
0.58
0.34
0.13 0.23
South America
East Asia and Oceania
Africa and Middle East
Plastic waste (Mt/yr) Primary microplastics (Mt/yr)
102
Part I
North America. The top five pollutants in 2013 Total fertilizer and pesticide applications to
reported to PRTRs In North America (Canada, soil are increasing, but application rates are
the United States and Mexico) were zinc and its decreasing
compounds, lead and its compounds, manganese
and its compounds, copper and its compounds, Because use of fertilizers and pesticides typically
and nitric acid and its compounds, all of which involves direct application to crops, trends in their
are found in mining wastes (Commission for use are a rough indicator of the volumes released
Environmental Cooperation 2016). Of the reported to soils. As explored in Part I, Chapter 2, the
chemicals released to the environment in the market for pesticides and fertilizers is increasing
United States, 44 per cent (1.52 billion pounds) globally. Between 2018 and 2022 the fertilizer
came from the metal mining industry; most of industry is expected to add 78 million tonnes
this was deposited on land as overburden and of production capacity. Global manufacture
waste (US EPA 2018). of pesticide active ingredients increased from
1.9 million tonnes in 2008 to 2.8 million tonnes
Wastes from mining often contain hazardous in 2016.
chemicals such as arsenic, lead and cyanide
in concentrations that pose serious hazards Meanwhile, it has been estimated that use rates
to ecosystems and human health. Acid mine have declined over the past decades. A 2018
drainage (AMD) is one of the largest sources of report (Phillips McDougal 2018), estimated
the mining industry’s soil and water pollution average application rates in the 1950s at 1,200,
(Hudson-Edwards et al. 2011). In many parts 1,700 and 2,400 grams of active ingredient used
of the world gold, gems, precious stones and per hectare (g/ha) for fungicides, insecticides, and
metals are extracted by artisanal and small-scale herbicides, respectively. By the 2000s the average
miners. About 25 per cent of the world’s gold is use rates were reduced to 100, 40, and 75 g/ha
produced through artisanal and small-scale gold (Figure 5.7). Schreinemachers and Tipraqsa (2012)
mining (ASGM) operations in over 55, mostly studied levels and trends in agricultural pesticide
lower-income countries. Mercury releases from use for a large cross-section of countries using
tailings and vaporized mercury at these mines FAO data for the period 1990-2009. Their analysis
exceed 1,000 tonnes per year, making ASGM showed that a 1 per cent increase in crop output
responsible for the largest releases of mercury per hectare was associated with a 1.8 per cent
to the soil of any sector globally (Esdaile and increase in pesticide use per hectare, and that the
Chalker 2018). growth in intensity of pesticide use levelled off
as countries reached a higher level of economic
development. On the other hand, few higher-
income countries had significantly reduced the
Figure 5.7 Average active ingredient application rates over time as a function of the decade of
introduction (adapted from Phillips McDougal 2018, p. 6)
3,000
2,500
g ai/hectare
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000
Decade in which product was introduced
Herbicides Insecticides Fungicides

Figure 5.8 Global glyphosate use, 1994-2014 (tonnes) (based on Benbrook 2016)
1994 56,296
1995 67,078
2000 193,485
2005 402,350
2010 652,486
2012 718,600
2014 825,804
100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000 900,000 1,000,000
Use in thousand kilograms
level of intensity of their pesticide use since size). According to de Souza Machado et al.
decreases in insecticide use were largely offset (2018) one-third of all plastic waste ends up in
by increases in herbicide and fungicide use. soils or freshwater. Municipal sewage systems
distribute microplastics both in wastewater and
The FAO maintains a database for the purpose sludge. It is estimated that 80-90 per cent of the
of tracking pesticide use by country, but few microplastics in municipal sewage ends up in
data have been uploaded. A study in the United the sludge that is typically spread on farms or
States on trends in pesticide use for 21 of that forests (de Souza Machado et al. 2018). Zhang
country’s largest-volume crops found that use and Liu (2018) identified soil amendments and
increased from the 1960s to 1980 and levelled irrigation with wastewater as important sources.
off thereafter, at some 500 billion pounds per Application of sewage sludge was also identified
year. Herbicides made up the largest share of by the Norwegian Institute for Water Research
the pesticides, and the most common herbicides (2018) as an important source of releases of
were glyphosate-based (Fernandez-Cornejo et al. microplastics to agricultural soils and estimated
2014). Glyphosates are the largest-volume that 110,000-730,000 tonnes of microplastics are
herbicides in use today (Benbrook 2016). released each year to agricultural soils in Europe
Figure 5.8 shows the significant growth of and North America.
glyphosate use worldwide.
Trace elements such as cadmium, boron and iron

are increasing in agricultural soils where there 5.2 Chemical releases from products
has been prolonged use of rock phosphate and
phosphorus-containing fertilizers (Kratz, Schick, Chemicals are released during production, use
and Schnug 2016). Increased use of treated and disposal of products
municipal sewage can also distribute various
heavy metals, including lead and cadmium, to Chemicals in products are released during product
soil (Najam et al. 2015). manufacturing, expected use and disposal, or
during product transportation, storage, accidents
Microplastics are another source of soil or unintended uses. Releases from products
pollution are diffuse, and quantifying the amount of
these releases is challenging. However, some
If discarded plastic is not incinerated, most releases from products have been well-studied.
of it ends up in dumps and landfills where it For example, mercury-containing products were
may disintegrate into microplastic particles recognized as significant contributors to global
(commonly understood to be 5 millimetres in mercury releases to air, soil and water from the
diameter or less) that break down further into late 19th century onwards. Given the diversity
nanoparticles (between 1 and 100 nanometres and magnitude of the products currently in
[i.e. between 0.001 and .01 micrometre] in commerce, chemical releases from products
104
Part I
are receiving yet further attention. New research can reach water bodies) (Csiszar et al. 2014;
is examining the respective contributions of Melymuk et al. 2014).
consumer products to total global emissions,
as well as the contributions of specific chemicals Volatile and semi-volatile compounds
such as those used as flame retardants (Wei et al. volatilize from articles and building products
2015) and plastic articles (Steinemann 2015;
Cousins et al. 2018). Chemically-intensive products such as furniture,
carpets, textiles, toys and building products
Releases from products are a substantial part contain a diverse collection of chemical
of total emissions ingredients. These products are important
sources of chemical releases. People are in
Volatile and non-volatile organic compounds regular proximity to or in contact with such
(VOCs and NVOCs) released from products are products. Plastic products, in particular, are a
a major source not only of indoor air pollution, common source of chemical releases indoors and
but also of pollution of outdoor air and outside. Because polymerization of monomers
freshwater and marine environments. A recent is rarely complete, and additives may not be
study suggests that releases of chemicals from chemically linked into the polymeric structure,
consumer products (e.g. cosmetics and paints) unreacted monomers, plasticizers, binders,
have become the primary source of VOCs from flame retardants, dyes, colorants, nanoparticles,
petrochemical sources in some industrialized biocides and contaminants from processing can
cities (McDonald et al. 2018) (Figure 5.9). The leach from plastic products (Rydberg et al. 2011).
amount of chemicals released to the environment Direct human exposure to plastic components
from products varies substantially, depending on also occurs, especially in the case of children
product applications and chemical properties. through toy mouthing or dermal contact (Bouma
A combination of modelling and empirical and Schakel 2002; Babich et al. 2004).
approaches has been used to trace specific
chemical sources from products to environmental VOCs such as phenol or benzene diffuse
media (e.g. flame retardants in products that relatively rapidly through a product and are

Figure 5.9 Contributors to VOC emissions to ambient air in Los Angeles, California (adapted from
McDonald et al. 2018, 763)
Diesel exhaust
1 (+/-1)%
Upstream
emissions
14 (+/-4)%
Consumer
volatile
Gasoline chemical
fuel products
13 (+/-6)% (VCPs)
38 (+/-9)%
Gasoline exhaust
19 (+/-7)%
Industrial VCPs
15 (+/-5)%
Volatile organic compound emissions = 350 +/- 50 Gigagrams (Gg).

Reprinted with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS).
often entirely released to indoor air over the Personal care and household chemical
product lifetime, leading to emissions to ambient releases
urban air (McDonald et al. 2018). The amount
and rate of release of such VOCs are driven by In many consumer economies indoor air is
the diffusion characteristics within the material, increasingly polluted with releases of VOCs
which depends on chemical properties, material from products such as perfumes, hairsprays,
type and temperature (Huang and Jolliet 2016; air fresheners, furniture polish, cleaning solvents
Huang et al. 2017). and household biocides. Chemicals in personal
care products are directly released during
Semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), normal use through dermal contact. Of particular
such as phthalates and several classes of concern are skin lightening creams that contain
flame retardants, are released to indoor air mercury, which are commonly used in some
from products more slowly and in smaller Asian and African countries. In one study the
fractions due to their lower atmospheric vapour WHO found that 40 per cent of women in China,
pressure. Exposure to these compounds can, 61 per cent in India and 76 per cent in Nigeria
however, cause concern due to their relatively used such creams (WHO 2011). A large share of
large content in products and to exposure via the substances in personal care products can
dust or gaseous dermal uptake (Weschler and be washed off. They may then reach freshwater
Nazaroff 2014; Morrison et al. 2016). In addition, and marine environments. Figure 5.10 presents
a substantial part of SVOCs is present at the end findings on the geographical distribution of
of the product lifetime. It can then be released to releases of linear alkylbenzene sulphonate
the environment during disposal (e.g. landfilling (LAS), primarily from the use of biodegradable
or incineration). laundry detergents in China. Spatially explicit
chemical release inventories are becoming
available at the global level to estimate releases
106
Part I
Figure 5.10 Spatial distribution of releases of linear alkylbenzene sulphonate (LAS) due to household
emissions in Asia, in mg/m2/day (underlying data from Wannaz et al. 2018, elaborated
according to Hodges et al. 2014)
0.0e+000–3.8e-003 1.6e-002–5.1e-002 1.7e-001–4.9e-001 1.6e+000–4.6e+000 1.5e+001–4.3e+001

3.9e-003–1.5e-002 5.2e-002–1.6e-001 5.0e-001–1.5e-000 4.7e+000–1.4e+001 4.4e+001–1.3e-002
from household products to the freshwater indicates that food packaging contributes to
environment, accounting for the presence or type measurable levels of phthalates in take-out foods
of wastewater treatment processes (Hodges et al. in the United States (Varshavsky et al. 2018).
2014; Wannaz et al. 2018) (Figure 5.10).
Product distribution transports chemicals
Migration from packaging to food throughout the world
Chemical releases to food occur unintentionally Many products formulated or assembled in one
from packaging materials (e.g. releases of region are transported worldwide. If they contain
bisphenol A [BPA] or bisphenol S [BPS] from hazardous chemicals, they may become a vehicle
plastic water bottles). The EU’s Rapid Alert System for transporting these chemicals to distant
for Food and Feed (RASFF) shows a significant users and landfills. There the chemicals may be
upward trend in the migration of hazardous released and pollute local ambient and indoor
chemicals from materials in contact with food, environments. Where supply chains are long and
including migration of lead from ceramic ware; involve transporting chemicals or components
releases of chromium and nickel from metal across continents, they can be responsible for
ware; migration of isopropyl thioxanthone a significant share of the transfer of hazardous
from carton packages; and releases of aromatic chemicals throughout the environment. This is
amines from kitchen utensils (EC 2014). Research further explored in Part I, Ch. 4.

Chemicals accumulate in human-made 5.3 Releases from municipal and

material stocks, creating potential legacies hazardous waste
A significant share of materials accumulates Large volumes of manufactured chemicals are

in “human-made material stocks” (buildings, deposited on soil as hazardous or solid wastes.
infrastructure and machinery). It was estimated Industrial wastes that are flammable, reactive,
that 36 billion tonnes of such materials were corrosive or toxic to human health or the
added to the global material stock in 2015 alone environment are considered to be hazardous
(Krausmann et al. 2017a). The total mass of the wastes. Solid wastes are typically divided into
human-made infrastructure has been estimated municipal (or household) wastes, commercial
at about 30 trillion tonnes (Zalasiewicz et al. wastes, industrial wastes, and construction and
2016). Large quantities of chemicals are thus demolition wastes. As the proportion of discarded
stored in the accumulated products of societies chemically intensive products (e.g. motor oil,
around the world and, over time, may lead to batteries, paints and varnishes, cleaning agents,
substantial releases to the environment (Rydberg electronic products, solvents and pesticides)
et al. 2011). In many cases these materials contain increases, municipal wastes are becoming as
chemicals of concern (e.g. certain building hazardous as hazardous wastes.
materials containing asbestos).
Municipal solid waste is increasing, particularly
When products are disposed, the majority in lower-income countries
of materials (and the chemicals in them) are
dispersed as releases to the environment and/ The best estimate of the global amount of
or unrecoverable wastes. Only around 8.4 billion municipal solid waste is around 2.1 billion tonnes
tonnes or 9.1 per cent of global material per year with at least 33 per cent of that amount
resources used in 2015 were recycled (de Wit not managed in an environmentally safe manner
et al. 2018). Consistent with this trend, less than (Kaza et al. 2018). If commercial, industrial, and
9 per cent of the 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic construction and demolition wastes are included,
waste generated up to 2015 has been recycled, the estimates grow to 7 to 10 billion tonnes per
while 12 per cent has been incinerated and year. Globally, some 37 per cent of municipal solid
79 per cent has been disposed in landfills or in waste is disposed of in some form of a landfill,
the environment (Geyer, Lambeck and Law 2017). 8 per cent of which is disposed of in sanitary
Where persistent chemicals such as brominated landfills with landfill gas collection systems.
and fluorinated compounds, and metals such Open dumping accounts for about 33 per cent of
as mercury, lead and other heavy metals, are waste, 19 per cent is recovered through recycling
incorporated into products that are disposed and composting, and 11 per cent is incinerated
in the environment as wastes, the potential for for final disposal. (Kaza et al. 2018). In lower-
exposures of people and biota may persist for income countries indiscriminate dumping of
decades. solid and liquid waste by industry, small-scale
108
Part I
Figure 5.11 Waste generation by level of national income (adapted from UNEP and ISWA 2015a, p. 2)
1,000
800
Kg per capita per year
600
400
200
0 200 1,000 10,000 100,000

Lower-
Low Upper-middle High
middle
Income level (gross national income per capita [in US dollars])
Note: Data for selected countries
artisans and automotive garages is common, as In terms of chemical-intensive products in global

proper waste collection and disposal facilities are municipal waste streams, plastics are estimated
lacking. In rural areas most wastes are burned in to make up 8 to 12 per cent across most countries,
open dumps or directly released to unmanaged while the proportion of paper varies from a high
landfills, leading to contaminated soils, surface of 23 per cent in higher-income countries to
waters and groundwater (ISWA 2015; ISWA 2016). 11 per cent in middle-income countries and a
low of 7 per cent in lower-income countries.
Although waste generation rates and measures Metals and textiles make up about 12 per cent
vary significantly across countries, there is of municipal waste generated in higher-income
generally a positive correlation between waste countries, 9 per cent in middle-income countries
generation and national income level. In 2010 and 6 per cent in lower-income countries.
the traditional higher-income countries, with Estimates suggest that household hazardous
16 per cent of the world population, accounted wastes make up less than 1 per cent of municipal
for about 34 per cent (or 683 million tonnes) of wastes, but up to 5 per cent if electronic waste
the world’s solid waste. Low-income countries (e-waste) is included (UNEP and ISWA 2015a).
accounted for 9 per cent of the world population,
but generated 93 million tonnes or about Global solid waste is expected to grow to 3.40
5 per cent of global solid waste (UNEP and ISWA billion tonnes by 2050. In projecting trends
2015a; Kaza et al. 2018) (Figure 5.11). beyond 2015, the Global Waste Management
Outlook (UNEP and ISWA 2015a) shows a
China generated some 203.6 million tonnes of flattening of the growth curve and, in some cases,
municipal solid (consumption) waste in 2016 a decline of municipal waste generation rates
(National Bureau of Statistics of China 2017). in higher-income countries, while such rates
By 2030 it will likely produce twice as much are growing and expected to continue to grow
municipal solid waste as the United States.
Sub-Saharan Africa generates approximately
174 million tonnes per year. The total amount
of waste generated per year in Latin America
and the Caribbean is 231 million tonnes, while In
East Asia and the Pacific the amount generated
per year is at least 468 million tonnes (Kaza et al.
2018).
© Brandon Bourdages/Shutterstock

Table 5.1 Hazardous and non-hazardous wastes from six African countries (2012)
Non-hazardous waste (tonnes/year), 2012 Hazardous waste (tonnes/year), 2012
Algeria 10,430,000 2,910,000

Morocco 69,070,000 1,910,400
Egypt 51,000,000 6,528,300
Tunisia 6,555,000 166,000
Mauritania 540,000 126,000
Sudan 1,528,000 not available
in middle- and lower-income countries. Daily On average, some 57 per cent of these wastes
per capita waste generation in higher-income are organic material while 13 per cent are
countries is projected to increase by 19 per cent plastic. More than 90 per cent are disposed
by 2050, compared to lower- and middle-income in uncontrolled dumpsites and landfills. An
countries where it is anticipated to increase by estimated 70-80 per cent are recyclable, but only
approximately 40 per cent or more. 4 per cent are reported to be currently recycled
(Figure 5.12).
Asian counties are expected to become the largest
generators of municipal waste by 2030, while Solid waste recycling is increasing around the
Africa is expected to exceed even these rates by world
later in the century (UNEP and ISWA 2015b; Kaza
et al. 2018). The social and economic megatrends Waste recycling is considered a benefit to
driving African development are affecting the environmental sustainability and a critical
continent’s waste generation. 125 million tonnes component of a circular economy. The rates
of municipal solid waste was generated in African of municipal waste recycling vary considerably
countries in 2012 and that amount is expected among countries, from a high of 65 per cent in
to double by 2025. Table 5.1 presents data on Germany in 2013 to less than 1 per cent in Turkey,
hazardous and non-hazardous wastes from six with Estonia and Spain at 33 and 30 per cent
African countries (United Nations Economic and (McCarthy 2016) (Figure 5.13).
Social Commission for Western Asia 2015).
Figure 5.12 Composition of municipal solid waste in Sub-Saharan Africa (adapted from UNEP and
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research [CSIR] n.d., p. 2)
Other
13%
Metal
4%
Glass
4%
Plastic
13% Organic
57%
Paper
9%
110
Part I
Figure 5.13 Recycled and composted waste as a share of total municipal waste in OECD countries,
2013 (adapted from McCarthy 2016)
Germany 65%
Rep. of Korea 59%
Slovenia 58%
Austria 58%
Belgium 55%
Switzerland 51%
Sweden 50%
Netherlands 50%
Luxembourg 48%
Iceland 45%
Denmark 45%
United 44%
Kingdom
Australia 43%
Italy 41%
Ireland 41%
Norway 40%
France 39%
United States 38%
Finland 35%
Estonia 33%
Spain 30%
Poland 29%
Hungary 26%
Portugal 26%
Canada 24%
Czech 24%
Republic
Israel 19%
Greece 19%
Japan 19%
Slovakia 5%
Mexico 5%
Chile 1%
Turkey 1%
New Zealand 0%
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Waste recycling is increasing in many countries, The waste industry depends closely on the
for example through the growth of waste material secondary materials industry to provide the
separation and accessible municipal recyclable market for recycling. It is estimated that some 700
product collection services as well as collection to 800 million tonnes of “waste” are recycled as
and disposal fees for wastes not recycled. Local “secondary commodities”, derived from municipal
and national bans on plastic bags, cups and solid waste and other waste streams. In terms
packaging are another incentive to recycle and of tonnage, recycling markets are dominated
reuse. However, separation and collection for by ferrous scrap (steel) followed by paper and
recycling only makes economic sense if the board. In terms of value, steel ranks first while
material is actually recycled. non-ferrous metals such as aluminium and

copper rank second. The main traded secondary young children being particularly at risk (Daniell
materials represent around 10-15 per cent et al. 2015; WHO 2017). Where such recycling is
of overall world waste generation, excluding carried out in urban areas with high population
construction and demolition, agricultural and densities, large numbers of people may be
forestry, and mining and quarrying wastes (UNEP exposed to high levels of lead.
and ISWA 2015b).
China recently instituted a series of import
Informal sector recycling generates significant restrictions on “foreign wastes” that were
releases of hazardous substances previously exported to China for potential
treatment and recycling. This ban covers imports
Where wastes are exported from wealthy of 24 types of materials, including unsorted paper
countries for recycling in lower-income countries, and the low-grade polyethylene terephthalate
the potential for adverse environmental and used in plastic bottles. Before this, China had
health exposures is present. In some regions been processing at least half of the world’s
and countries, up to 95 per cent of electronic exports of waste paper, metals and used plastic
waste is treated and processed informally (7.3 million tonnes in 2016) (de Freytas-Tamura
and by untrained workers lacking appropriate 2018).
equipment. This often results in significant
releases of chemicals such as heavy metals Hazardous waste is generated worldwide
(lead, cadmium, mercury, etc.), PCBs, brominated
flame retardants, PAHs and dioxins and furans Data on the generation and management of
to the environment (Annamalai 2015; Heacock hazardous waste are lacking or remain weak
et al. 2016). Heavy metals and other pollutants for many countries. Furthermore, comparisons
are routinely released from e-waste recycling are difficult when the types of hazardous waste
operations to air, water and soil (Awashthi, Zeng covered and the definitions and methods
and Li 2016; He et al. 2017). used differ. Global data on hazardous waste
generation are therefore not exhaustive despite
A good example involves lead battery recycling. the progress made by many countries (UNEP
Non-regulated, informal battery recycling and ISWA 2015a). Figure 5.14 provides a global
practices occur in many countries and have overview of hazardous waste generation by
resulted in lead exposure and poisoning, with major country.
© Jcaravanos, CC BY-SA 4.0
112
Part I
Figure 5.14 Global hazardous waste generation in 2009 (1,000 tonnes) (adapted from United Nations
Statistics Division 2011)*
0–1,000 1,001–5,000 5,001–10,000 10,001–30,000 30,001–141,020 No data
Units: 1,000 tonnes *Note that data correspond to the latest year available Last update: March 2011
Data from the EU PRTR show that the waste and 90- 95 per cent is deep well injected (US EPA
wastewater management sectors account for 2018). The chemical industry is the largest source
the largest total transfers of hazardous waste of the country’s hazardous waste, but much of
in Europe, followed by the chemical industry this waste is treated on-site. The oil, gas and coal
and the metal production and processing industries are the next largest source (UNEP and
sector (EEA n.d.). Some 20.3 to 28.8 million ISWA 2015a). Figure 5.15 and Figure 5.16 show
tonnes of hazardous waste are reported to be the sources of hazardous wastes in the United
generated every year in the United States, of States and the EU.
which 5-10 per cent goes to landfill and some
Figure 5.15 Sources of hazardous waste in the United States by sector, 2011 (per cent of volume)
(adapted from UNEP and ISWA 2015a, p. 93)
Iron and steel mills and Non-ferrous metal

ferroalloy manufacturing (except aluminium)
4% production and
processing Others Other sectors generating more than 100,000 tonnes per year
3% 3% 4%
Pesticide, fertilizer and

other agricultural chemical
manufacturing
5%
Waste treatment and

disposal
6%
Basic chemical
manufacturing
Petroleum and 56%
coal products
manufacturing
19%

Figure 5.16 Sources of hazardous waste in EU countries by sector, 2015 (per cent) (adapted from EEA
n.d.)
e-PRTR 2015 in EU countries hazardous waste generation
Other
products
12% Metal production 13%
Wastewater
and soils Main Chemicals 11%
management activities
51% 37%
Core and petroleum 8%
Metal products 2%
Pharmaceuticals 2%
Automotive 1%
Regional hazardous waste generation largely Table 5.2 Hazardous waste generation in
reflects the degree of industrialization selected countries, 2014 (tonnes)
(BRS Secretariat 2016)
Asian countries report that they are generating
Country Volume (tonnes)
increasingly large volumes of hazardous waste.
The National Bureau of Statistics of China reported Australia 10,031,053
that in 2014 China produced 3,256.7 million Austria 1,252,125
tonnes of industrial solid waste, including
Bulgaria 17,792,272
36.3 million tonnes of hazardous waste (of which
20.6 million tonnes were treated and further used China 36,335,236
and 9.3 million tonnes were disposed) (National Estonia 10,484,292
Bureau of Statistics of China 2015). Table 5.2
Germany* 17,000,000
shows hazardous waste generation data in
selected countries that provided updated figures Iran 1,099,215
as of September 2016 (Secretariat of the Basel, Malaysia 1,665,347
Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions [BRS Morocco 5,900,000
Secretariat] 2016). China reports the generation
Norway 1,380,000
of the largest volumes of hazardous wastes.
Philippines 1,712,394
Whatever the region of the world, there is a gap Poland 1,974,866
between the generation of hazardous waste and
South Africa 11,353,856
the treatment capacity for the waste and proper Data rounded to the nearest integer. Many
information on its chemical composition. As an countries provided no data. Data cannot be
example, in the EU, where hazardous waste is used to draw conclusions about regional or
largely well-handled and treated, the gap between global patterns, or about countries not listed
the amounts of hazardous waste generated and here.
* Preliminary figure, subject to verification
treated is 28 per cent (up to 29 million tonnes).
114
Part I
Generation of electronic waste is increasing tonnes), Africa (2.2 million tonnes) and Oceania
throughout the world (0.7 million tonnes) (Baldé et al. 2017).
The enormous growth of the electronic Informal recycling markets in China, India,
technologies of the “Digital Age” has created a Pakistan, Viet Nam and the Philippines handle
significant impact on global waste generation 50-80 per cent of this e-waste. Much of the
in the form of electronic product waste, or recycling processes involves shredding, burning
e-waste. Electronic waste often contains toxic and dismantling products, often in “backyards”.
chemicals such as mercury, lead and brominated According to a study carried out in India, over
flame retardants, as well as a variety of precious 30,000 computers were estimated to have
metals and rare materials. Large quantities of this been decommissioned every year in the city of
waste are disposed of illegally when electronic Bangalore alone. This resulted in waste containing
waste is transferred within and between more than 1,000 tonnes of plastics, 300 tonnes of
countries, misrepresented as second-hand lead, 0.23 tonne of mercury, 43 tonnes of nickel
products (Rucevska et al. 2015). The unregulated and 350 tonnes of copper (Needhidasan, Samuel
international transfer of hazardous wastes has and Chidambaram 2014). During the 2000s more
been reduced since the signing of international than 20 million tonnes of e-waste was recycled
agreements such as the Basel Convention on per year, mostly within the informal sector in
the Control of Transboundary Movements of and around Guiyu, China (Rucevska et al. 2015).
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal and the Today much of the most hazardous recycling
Bamako Convention; however, unregulated has been closed at Guiyu and replaced with
electronic waste trade continues across national more regulated operations. However, e-waste
borders (Obradović et al. 2014). recycling in the informal sector still continues
in other parts of Asia and Africa.
In 2016 the global economy generated some
44.7 million tonnes of e-waste, which is expected Significant amounts of waste are generated in
to grow to 52.2 million tonnes by 2021. Of the the chemical industry
generated waste, approximately 1.7 million
tonnes are disposed in municipal waste in higher- An analysis shows that the amount of waste
income countries and are likely to be incinerated generated per kg of chemical product increases
or landfilled. Globally, only 8.9 million tonnes up the chemical value chains from oil refining
of e-waste are documented to be collected and via bulk (basic) chemicals to fine chemicals
recycled, corresponding to 20 per cent of all and pharmaceuticals. In the production of
the e-waste generated. In 2016 Asia was the pharmaceuticals, for example, at least 25 kg of
region that generated the largest amount of emissions and waste (and at times more than
e-waste (18.2 million tonnes), followed by Europe 100 kg) are generated for every kg of product,
(12.3 million tonnes), the Americas (11.3 million highlighting resource inefficiencies (Sheldon
2017) (Table 5.3).
Table 5.3 Resource efficiency in the chemical industry: ratio of products and waste generation
(Sheldon 2017, p. 19)
Industry segment Tonnes per year e-factor (kg waste per kg product)
Oil refining 106-108 < 0.1

Bulk chemicals 10 -10
4 6
< 1-5
Fine chemicals 102-104 5-50
Pharmaceuticals 10-10 3
25- >100
The e-factor is a measure to indicate the amount of waste created for each unit of product
manufactured. An e-factor of 10 means that 10 kg of waste is generated for 1 kg of product.

5.4 Chemical releases: industrial corrosives and ammonia liquids (Li et al. 2014).
accidents and natural disasters In addition, the Work Accident Map of the China
Labour Bulletin shows 42 accidents involving
5.4.1 Releases from chemical gas or chemical exposure, 33 explosions and 28
accidents are significant fires occurring in workplaces in China in 2017
Chemical accidents often cause significant (China Labour Bulletin 2018). Some accident data
impacts on human health and the environment are also available regarding specific industries,
and severely disrupt community and economic collected either by government regulators or by
life (see also Part III, Ch. 6). The best known industry associations. The EU tracks chemical
example is the exposure of more than half a accidents through its Major Accident Reporting
million people, including thousands fatally, to (eMARS) System.
methyl isocyanate gas released from the Union
Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, India in 1984 A review of chemical accidents reported in
(Broughton 2005). the news media between October 2016 and
September 2017 identified 667 facility accidents,
Accidents at mining sites also cause significant with 184 taking place at chemical processing
chemical releases to the environment. Tailing sites (Wood 2017). The great majority of these
ponds often hold large amounts of hazardous incidents occurred at fixed facilities (454) and a
chemicals, and the greatest releases occur when smaller number during transport (147), followed
dams burst. It is estimated that 3,500 tailings by pipelines (37) and offshore (9). The study
impoundments exist globally, and that every year also looked at the differences in incident data
two to five major failures and 35 minor failures between OECD, non-OECD and non-EU countries.
occur (Martin and Davies 2000). The magnitude The reports indicate that chemical accidents
of such incidents was illustrated in the case of and near misses continue to occur frequently
the Baia Mare spill, when some 100,000 m3 of in OECD countries, but have lower fatality rates
cyanide and other contaminated waste were than those in non-OECD countries. According to
released into nearby rivers in Romania (Soldán the study, OECD countries accounted for nearly
et al. 2001). More recently, the catastrophic failure two-thirds of events (421 out of 668), but barely
of the Bento Rodrigues iron mine tailings dam in one-third of deaths (201 out of 579). The study
Brazil caused a toxic flow of mud into the Doce also looked at reports from EU countries (many
River region, killing 19 people and disrupting the of which belong to OECD). Similarly, EU countries
livelihoods and adversely affecting livelihoods accounted for one-third of incidents collected
of more than 1 million people (Fernandes et al. but only four deaths (Figure 5.17).
2016). In the same year the fire and explosion
of a hazardous goods warehouse at Tianjin Port A similar study of accidents with significant
resulted in the deaths of 165 people and the injury releases to the environment in OECD and EU
of nearly 800 others. The incident caused euros countries undertaken by the Major Accident
1 billion in damages without taking account of the Hazards Bureau of the European Commission
vast economic costs to neighbouring businesses identified 86 accidents between 1986 and 2013
and residents (China State Administration of that resulted in measurable pollution, notably
Work Safety 2016). releases to watercourses but also to soil and
air (Gyenes and Wood 2014) (Figure 5.18). The
Chemical accident trends in emerging economies majority (30 per cent) of the identified accidents
are difficult to assess because of a lack of data. occurred in the chemical industry.
Some data are available regionally. For example,
a recent review of sudden chemical leakage Chemical releases are also caused by natural
accidents in China identified 666 incidents disasters
between 2006 and 2011. Ninety-five per cent
of the pollution came from industrial facilities. In a recent report the WHO has drawn attention
Petroleum accidents made up the largest number to chemical releases that may be directly and
of these incidents, followed by those involving indirectly triggered by the increasing frequency of
116
Part I
Figure 5.17 Chemical accidents reported in news media in OECD, non-OECD and EU countries,
October 2016-September 2017 (adapted from Wood 2017, p. 10)
800
700
668
600
Reported numbers
579
500
400 421
378
300
248 242
200 201
100 102 41 17
62 4
0 All countries OECD Non-OECD EU
Accidents in media Deaths in media “Major” accidents in media
natural hazards such as earthquakes, hurricanes, an example. (Griggs et al. 2017; Tabuchi and
tsunamis, floods and forest fires (WHO 2018). Such Kaplan 2017; Horney et al. 2018) (see also Part III,
natural hazards may cause releases of chemicals Ch. 6). In more than a dozen chemical plants and
from damaged fixed chemical installations, oil refineries in the Houston area damaged storage
and gas pipelines, storage sites, transportation tanks, ruptured containment systems and broken
links, waste sites and mines (Krausmann et al. pressure relief valves were reported. At least
2017b). 14 tanks failed when their floating roofs sank
under the weight of the heavy rain; others floated
The recent effects of Hurricane Harvey on or toppled over, tearing flowlines and spewing
petrochemical facilities in Texas in 2017 provides thousands of barrels of oil and waste water. A
© Karl-Ludwig Poggemann, an aerial view of a large hole in the ground in the aftermath of a huge explosion that rocked the port city of Tianjin, China, 15 August 2015
CC BY 2.0

Figure 5.18 Number of chemical accidents in OECD countries with significant releases to the
environment (adapted from Gyenes and Wood 2014, p. 10)
40
Number of chemical accidents
35
33
30
25
20
15 15
10
8
5
0 Release to soil Release to water Release to air
spill of almost 11,000 barrels of gasoline into the their availability is regionally varied. Published
floodwaters occurred at a storage terminal where data are available for a few higher-income
tanks had floated and released their content countries, but not for most low- and middle-
(Texas Commission on Environmental Quality income countries. Consistent data are available
2017). At a chemical facility fires and explosions across some countries on five to seven priority
occurred when the site lost power and therefore air pollutants, but not on industrial chemical air
its refrigeration capabilities (Sutherland et al. emissions or water discharges. Information on the
2018). Benzene, vinyl chloride, butadiene and global and regional use and release of pesticides
other known human carcinogens were among the is very limited. Despite efforts to systematically
dozens of tonnes of toxic substances released, collect information about chemical accidents, a
which polluted the air in the Houston area in the consolidated database does not exist, creating
wake of the hurricane (US EPA n.d. c). challenges for researchers (Hemmatian et al.
2014).
Removing wastes after a disaster in a timely
and environmentally sound manner is also Reporting data on the uses of ozone-depleting
a significant challenge. These wastes can be chemicals, and modelling data on GHG emissions,
highly heterogeneous. They may include not only provide some broadly accepted global trend
construction materials (e.g. concrete, steel and metrics. New initiatives such as the Global
timber), but also hazardous substances such as Mercury Observation System, the Stockholm
asbestos, pesticides, oils and solvents (Greenwalt Convention Global Monitoring Plan and the
et al. 2018). Global Atmospheric Passive Sampling (GAPS)
for monitoring and modelling mercury, POPs
and other pollutant concentrations offer useful
indications of releases. These systems could
5.5 Chemical pollutant and provide models for tracking programmes
waste data: challenges and that cover releases of chemicals in pesticides,
opportunities fertilizers and other manufactured products at
the global level. There is a growing literature on
Global systems to track and quantify chemical the global mass flows of materials and releases
releases to the environment are lacking of some chemicals, such as perfluorinated and
brominated compounds that rely on analytical
There are substantial gaps in data on chemical models. These are also promising.
releases and on global pollution worldwide.
Available data concerning chemical releases In some countries PRTRs provide reliable
at the national or regional levels are often data on chemical releases. However, there is
inconsistent, incomparable and incomplete, while no common list of chemicals, thresholds for
118
Part I
reporting, or units by which the data can be reporting obligations, Basel Convention data
aggregated or made available to the public. There cover hazardous waste trade. Providing total
is a significant opportunity to create a global amounts for hazardous waste generation
PRTR, or an internationally harmonized network is optional. National reporting on hazardous
of national PRTRs. waste generation varies by country and is often
incomplete (see Part II, Ch. 2).
Opportunities exist to improve global waste
generation and treatment data More Information is needed on chemicals in
products
Solid and hazardous waste data are collected
by various national governments, and some Product labelling and safety data sheets have
shipments are reported under international increased the amount of information available
agreements. However, these data are limited on the chemical ingredients of formulated
due to variations in terms, classification products. However, UN Environment’s Chemicals
categories and data collection methods. The in Products Programme has revealed that this
Global Waste Management Outlook (UNEP and information is often incomplete, particularly
ISWA 2015b) and the World Bank’s What a for low-volume chemicals and unintended
Waste and What a Waste 2.0 reports (Hoornweg contaminants (UNEP 2015). Information is
and Bhada-Tata 2012; Kaza et al. 2018) chart seldom available on the chemical make-up
comprehensive directions for assessing global of articles. While there are new models for
solid waste generation, but also admit to the predicting releases from products, there is no
data collection limits raised by inconsistencies public information on chemical releases, and little
in waste definitions, metrics for measurement, global information on the number and volume
and reporting procedures. Collecting data on of products on regional or global markets. More
hazardous wastes is even more difficult. There national or international product registries could
are no international surveys. Under national provide repositories for such information.

6/ Concentrations of chemicals in the

environment and humans
Chapter Highlights
A broad range of chemical pollutants are widely found in air, soils, sediments,
oceans, freshwater bodies, biota and humans throughout the world.
Concentrations vary widely according to substance, region and environmental

media.
Available data indicate positive trends in reducing concentrations of chemicals

regulated or restricted by governments (e.g. lead) and multilateral treaties (e.g.
some POPs and mercury).
Concentrations of other hazardous chemicals have been identified in various

media and are in many cases increasing.
Several chemicals which have long been banned are present in the remotest
regions of the world.
Plastic particles are found in water bodies, soils, air and human faeces.
Chemicals of concern concentrate inside buildings and jeopardize indoor air

quality.
F
ollowing the discussion of chemical pollution, 6.1 The interface of releases,
this chapter seeks to compile existing exposures and concentrations
data and knowledge on concentrations
of chemicals in the environment and humans. Chemicals in the environment: fate and
It begins with a brief discussion exploring the exposures
interface between releases, exposure and
concentrations. The remainder of the chapter Once manufactured chemicals are released to
is structured according to the respective media, the environment, their fate is determined by
beginning with environmental media, then their molecular properties and the biochemical
proceeding with biota and concluding with and physicochemical properties of the receiving
humans. Releases of chemical pollutants from medium. “Fate” refers to the transformation
products, production processes and wastes processes, as chemicals transfer across different
have resulted in a global environment where indoor and outdoor environmental media and
an increasing number of hazardous chemicals build up in chemical concentrations in humans
– including lead, bisphenol A, bisphenol S, and the environment. Chemicals often transfer
brominated flame retardants and per and poly- from one environmental medium to others for
fluorinated compounds – are nearly ubiquitous which they have a greater affinity and travel long
(Wu et al. 2018). Frequently, however, limited distances through these media. The potential
data make it difficult to identify trends. for human exposure to these chemicals is
120
Part I
Figure 6.1 Value chain of the chemical industry, showing emissions and concentrations

Emissions/releases to the environment
Concentration of chemicals in the atmosphere, water, sediment, soil, biota and humans
determined by the proximity, frequency and Concentrations around point source releases
duration of contacts between the chemicals and vs. long-range transport of chemicals
susceptible populations. It may involve different
doses taken in through various exposure routes. Chemical pollutants may concentrate in air,
Exposures can occur throughout a chemical’s life surface and groundwater, soils and sediments,
cycle, from its original extraction or production, and living organisms (including people). These
through its processing and integration into a concentrations tend to be higher near the point
product, during product distribution and use, of release and to decrease with distance, owing to
and on to its ultimate disposal (Figure 6.1).
© Dan Lundberg, The fish market is along the shore of Galle (pronounced ‘gawl’ in English) Harbor outside the Fort CC BY-SA 2.0
Chapter 6. Concentrations of chemicals in the environment and humans 121

dilution, chemical transformations, and microbial The potential effects of bioaccumulation on

or chemical degradation. chemical intake
Persistence is a key determinant of fate, with People are exposed to manufactured chemicals
substantial variations in the environmental either directly from products or indirectly through
elimination half-lives of chemicals, which range releases to the environment. Exposure routes
from a few minutes to hundreds of years. Long- include ingestion, inhalation, dermal uptake
range transport of chemicals via atmospheric and injection (the latter usually in the case of
or surface water currents may distribute pharmaceutical products). Ingestion occurs
persistent chemicals far from the originating through multiple exposure pathways (e.g. directly
source. The transport of chemical-intensive though drinking water, eating food or sucking on
products internationally provides a new and objects) or indirectly through swallowing dust
relatively unstudied way in which manufactured (Figure 6.2).
chemicals are distributed throughout the global
environment. Manufactured chemicals may be Food intake is a major source of chemical
found in physical and ecological niches such as exposure. The magnitude of exposure from food
polar regions, where air, river and ocean currents, depends on the amount of the chemicals and
drifting sea ice and migrating wildlife transport their persistence and/or their bioaccumulative
these chemicals long distances and where their potential. Fat soluble, lipophilic chemicals tend
degradation is restricted (Beyer et al. 2000). to accumulate in fish, meat or dairy products and
Figure 6.2 Exposure pathways
Past operating Air Direct contact

practices with soil
Hazardous
substance Soil
Biota
People
Water
Box 6.1 Bioaccumulation and biomagnification (Naik 2018)
Bioaccumulation and biomagnification often Increase in concentration of

occur in conjunction with each other. Bioaccumulation a pollutant in an organism
›› Bioaccumulation is the process by which

chemical toxicants build up in individual
organisms.
›› Biomagnification is the process by which
chemical toxicants pass from one trophic
level to the next and, in doing so, increase Increase in
concentration
in concentration in higher-level trophic of a pollutant in
Biomagnification
organisms. a food chain
122
Part I
Figure 6.3 Links between the near-field environment and compartment of entry, the far-field
environment, and the human body (adapted from Huang et al. 2017, p. 185)
Near-field environment Human body
Skin surface (dry or wet) Epidermis
Article interior Indoor and near-person air Respiratory tract
Inner space of an appliance Object surface (dry or wet) Gastrointestinal tract
Food and beverages
Far-field environment
Ambient air Water Soil Other
to biomagnify throughout the food web; their A number of chemicals of concern are found in
concentrations can be up to a million times higher food products
in fish than in the fish’s water habitat (Arnot and
Gobas 2006). Lipophilic chemicals also tend to be Food is a particularly significant vehicle for
persistent and to have long half-lives and thus chemical exposure. Sampling data compiled by
contribute to high internal exposures in humans. the WHO (2018a) on food contaminants include
Non-bioaccumulating chemicals such as certain lead in wine at up to 584 micrograms/kilogram
phthalates (Ferguson et al. 2017), parabens (μg/kg), dioxins in cooked crabs at 740 picograms/
(Fisher et al. 2017) and triclosan (Weiss et al. 2015) kilogram (pg/kg), and the neonicotinoid
can be identified in biomarker sampling studies imidacloprid in lettuce at 10,790 μg/kg. A study
where exposures may be continuous (Box 6.1). of common foods in the United States (Liao
and Kannan 2013) found several bisphenols
Exposures to consumer products can increase contaminants in 75 per cent of analyzed food
chemical concentrations in people samples. Plastic particles have been found in
salt, beer and honey (Hartmann 2018; Kosuth,
For many people in higher-income countries (and Mason and Wattenberg 2018), soft drinks (Qunitili
some in middle- and lower-income countries) 2018), and bottled and tap water (Kosuth, Mason
the most significant exposures to hazardous and Wattenberg 2018; Mason, Welch and Nertko
chemicals may come from consumer products. 2018) as well as in human faeces (Eurekalert 2018;
Since the frequency of consumer contact with Parker 2018; Schwab et al. 2018). Contaminants
products and the exposure duration are often have also been found in baby and infant food. For
high (Wambaugh et al. 2013), these exposures example, a 2017 study found methylmercury and
can result in significant chemical concentrations inorganic arsenic in rice baby foods (Rothenberg
in human bodies, especially during pregnancy et al. 2017).
(Lang et al. 2016). Exposure depends not only
on chemical properties, but also on how the Pesticides may be present in food in various
product is used and the manner in which the concentrations. A recent study of honey collected
body is exposed (Huang et al. 2017) (Figure 6.3). across the world found evidence of neonicotinoids
in most samples. (Mitchell et al. 2017). A 2019

compilation of United States Department of limited management, surveillance and regulatory

Agriculture and United States Food and Drug capacity is likely to cause more concerns. For
Administration data (Environmental Working example, a study sampling foods purchased at
Group [EWG] 2019) found that almost 70 per cent a local market in Bolivia found pesticide residues
of produce sold in the that country contained in 20 per cent of lettuce samples to be above the
pesticide residues and that there were “225 maximum residue limits. The study also observed
different pesticides and pesticide breakdown that “no samples contained concentrations of
products on popular fruits and vegetables”. pesticides which alone or together would lead
However, most of these were at “very low levels” to exposures that exceeded the acceptable daily
(Bernhardt et al. 2019). The data set includes, intake or the acute reference dose” (Skovgaard
for example, kale contaminated with Dacthal, et al. 2017).
classified by the US EPA as a possible human
carcinogen (US EPA 2018). Compiling data on the Highly exposed and susceptible populations
analysis of 85,000 samples for 791 pesticides,
the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Depending on the dominant exposure pathways,
concluded that more than 96 per cent of the different subpopulations are exposed to
tested samples fell within the legal limits, a slight hazardous chemicals in different ways (Hunt et al.
decrease compared to the previous reporting 2016; UNEP 2016a; Secretariat of the Strategic
year (EFSA 2018). This 2016 report further Approach to Chemicals Management [SAICM
notes that more than 50 per cent of the tested Secretariat] 2018; Undeman et al. 2018). In
samples were free of quantifiable residues. the case of exposure to PCBs contained in
While 2.4 per cent of the samples from EU and fish, subsistence fishermen and high-end fish
European Economic Area (EEA) countries were consumers are among those most highly exposed
above legal limits, 7.2 per cent of the samples (United States Agency for Toxic Substances
from non-EU countries exceeded legal limits. Data and Disease Registry [US ATSDR] 2014). In the
availability for developing countries is limited, but case of dermal uptake of parabens, frequent
124
Part I
© United Nations Photo, Primary School Classroom, Ethiopia CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
consumers of personal care products will have approaches have become available to evaluate
higher exposure levels. Children can be exposed exposure to a wide range of chemical-product
through direct contact with chemicals in various combinations, accounting for both environmental
articles (e.g. phthalate plasticizers via mouthing, and indoor exposures (Isaacs et al. 2014;
swallowing dust or direct contact) (Dewalque et al. Fantke et al. 2016). However, further research
2014; Guo, Wang and Kannan 2014). Workers can is needed to better understand and quantify
be highly exposed to chemicals in their work product-specific exposure pathways such as dust,
environments and to chemicals used in product gaseous dermal uptake, and direct contact with
manufacturing (Kijko et al. 2015), especially where textiles and other articles.
protective measures are limited (Arastoo et al.
2015). The burden of direct workplace exposure
to hazardous chemicals is often unevenly
distributed between women and men, who have 6.2 Concentrations in environmental
different sensibilities to these chemicals, play media
different gender roles and may be exposed in
different ways (UNEP 2016a; Women in Europe Concentrations of manufactured chemicals in
for a Common Future [WECF] 2016). the environment are found around the world.
Much of these concentrations come directly from
Generic and multi-media models are available to industrial facility releases, or municipal landfill
predict chemical fate and exposure. Results from leakage, air deposition, contaminated water run-
these models help predict the distribution of off, land applications of pesticides and fertilizers,
environmental concentrations for a wide range of and commercial products. However some also
substances (and the proportion of human intake come from complex chemical transformations
via multiple pathways) (MacLeod et al. 2011; in environmental media. Global, regional and
Webster et al. 2016; Wannaz, Fantke and Jolliet local monitoring studies reveal both increasing
2018; Wannaz et al. 2018). More recently, new and decreasing trends.

6.2.1 Air However, concentrations of the same air

pollutants are increasing in lower-income
Concentrations of priority air pollutants are countries
decreasing in some regions
The WHO estimates that around 90 per cent
Air concentrations of most priority air pollutants of people worldwide breathe polluted air with
arising from combustion sources in higher- an annual mean value of particulate pollution
income countries are on a long-term decline. higher than the WHO air quality guideline levels
In the past two decades sulphur dioxide (WHO 2018b). The highest ambient air pollution
concentrations in North America and Europe levels are in the Eastern Mediterranean region
have fallen by more than two-thirds because and Southeast Asia. Particulate pollution levels
of improved energy efficiencies, shifts in fuel in low- and middle-income cities in Africa and
mixes, and widespread application of end-of-pipe the Western Pacific are also high. In a WHO
desulphurization in the power sector (EEA 2015; survey of 795 cities in 67 countries, 98 per cent
US EPA n.d.). Average air concentrations of lead in of cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in
air have decreased in regions where government lower- and middle-income countries did not meet
regulations have restricted lead additives in fuel. WHO air quality guidelines. The main sources
In the United States, for example, airborne lead of particulate matter (PM) air pollution include
concentrations declined 92 per cent between cooking (the principal source of household air
1980 and 2013, largely due to reduced lead pollution), industry, agriculture, transport and
content in gasoline (US EPA 2014; US EPA coal-fired power plants (WHO 2018c).
2017a). Furthermore, Canada implemented
the Air Quality Management System, which is a Some studies show concentrations of
comprehensive and collaborative approach by all certain persistent organic pollutants in the
levels of government to reduce the emissions and atmosphere are declining in some regions
ambient concentrations of various pollutants of
concern (air pollutants that case smog and acid The second Global Monitoring Report of the Global
rain). These reductions have contributed to the Monitoring Plan for Persistent Organic Pollutants
reduction of the air pollutants that Canadians (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention
breathe every day (Canadian Council of Ministers concludes that concentrations of listed POPs in air
and of the Environment 2014). have largely decreased, and that concentrations
© UNEP/Victor Estellano, passive air sampling
126
Part I
Figure 6.4 Trends in DDT concentrations in air, and ratios between DDT and total DDTs, in Hedo,
Japan, 2009-2013 (adapted from Nagai et al. 2015, p. 41)
POPs concentrations in Hedo, Okinawa
10 0.8
0.7
8
0.6
DDT/total DDTs (pg/m3)

Total DDTs (pg/m3)
6 0.5
0.4
4 0.3
0.2
2
0.1
0 0
Apr
Jun
Aug
Oct
Dec
Feb
Apr
Jun
Aug
Oct
Dec
Feb
Apr
Jun
Aug
Oct
Dec
Feb
Apr
Jun
Aug
Oct
Dec
Feb
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Total DDTs DDT/total DDTS
Air monitoring undertaken at a site in Japan between 2009 and 2012 showed deceasing
concentrations for total DDT (sum of six isomers, including the major breakdown products of
DDT) as well as for the ratios of DDT (sum of p,p’- and o,p’-DDT, the major components of
commercial DDT) and total DDT, which suggests a reduction in DDT input during the sampling
period.
of so-called “legacy POPs” (organochlorine and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs)

pesticides, PCBs and PCDD/PCDF) have decreased concentrations at two sites: Košetice in the Czech
strongest since the 1980s (Šebková et al. 2014). Republic and Hedo in Japan. Concentrations of
Figure 6.4 and Figure 6.5 show trends in PCBs chemicals more recently listed in the Stockholm
Figure 6.5 Trends in concentrations of PCBs in Košetice, Czech Republic, 1996-2013 (adapted from
Šebková et al. 2014, p. 61)
∑PCB at Košetice
400
350
polychlorinated biphenyls
300
Concentration of
250
200
150
100
50
0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Percentile Median Trend
Over a period of 18 years, concentrations of sum PCBs gathered through active sampling showed
decreasing trends at a station in the Czech Republic, pointing towards the effectiveness of
national and international action taken on PCBs, including through the Stockholm Convention.

Convention as POPs (e.g. PBDEs, PFOS, HBCD uncertain trends for other flame-retardant
and PeCBz) increased through the 1990s, chemicals (Figure 6.6).
subsequently stabilized, and then started to
decrease in the early 2000s. In some studies elevated concentrations of
chlorinated flame retardants in the Arctic are now
Atmospheric concentrations of PCBs, DDT, being detected which are comparable to those
chlordanes, and polybrominated diphenyl ether found in urban air, while organophosphate-based
(PBDE) congeners (such as BDE-209) are slowly flame retardants (PFRs) are being detected at
declining in Arctic air. Atmospheric monitoring higher concentrations than PBDEs. Moreover, air
in other regions of the world has revealed concentrations of chlorinated PFRs are commonly
that, among all POPs, pesticides were found reported at concentrations higher than those of
at the highest concentrations in Africa and in other classes of flame retardants in the same
Latin America and the Caribbean. Specifically, samples, often 100 times higher (AMAP 2017).
concentrations of DDTs, hexachlorocyclohexane
(HCH) and endosulfan were dominant in Atmospheric concentrations of mercury are
Africa while lindane was detected at the still of concern
highest concentrations in Latin America and
the Caribbean. These concentrations were all It is estimated that over the past century
decreasing in the Asia-Pacific region, Central and anthropogenic activities cumulatively have
Eastern Europe and Western Europe (UNEP and increased atmospheric mercury concentrations
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention 2017). by 300-500 per cent. There is a clear gradient in
concentrations of mercury in air driven by local
Concentrations of some flame retardants are and regional sources, with higher concentrations
decreasing, but those of others are increasing in the northern hemisphere compared to the
southern hemisphere. Most monitoring sites
A recent study analyzing air monitoring data in the northern hemisphere show a downward
in the Great Lakes Basin in Canada found that trend in mercury concentrations between 2007
PBDE concentrations had declined between and 2014, while sites in South Africa show a
2005 and 2014 (Shunthirasingham et al. slight increase. In North America and Europe,
2018). While these PBDE concentrations show concentrations in air declined 10-40 per cent
declining trends, concentrations of other flame between 1990 and 2010 and have more recently
retardants present increasing concerns. Data plateaued. In the Arctic, concentrations have also
from the Global Atmospheric Passive Sampling been declining, although at a slower rate than
(GAPS) Network suggest that concentrations of elsewhere possibly due to mercury released
atmospheric PBDEs are similar across regions, during permafrost melt from climate change.
although lower concentrations are observed in (Schuster et al. 2018). Atmospheric mercury
Latin America and the Caribbean in comparison concentrations at remote sites in China are
to North America and the Asia-Pacific region. elevated compared to those at remote sites in
These differences may be due to the influence of Europe, North America and other locations in
local sources, as well as historically higher usage the northern hemisphere. It is assumed that
of PBDEs in North America (UNEP and Secretariat regional anthropogenic emissions and long-
of the Stockholm Convention 2017; Rauert et al. range transport of mercury are driving these
2018). Minimal differences in concentrations elevated mercury concentrations (UNEP and
were identified across urban, agricultural and AMAP 2018).
polar regions for PBDEs, and for their POPs-like
flame retardant replacements, organophosphate Chemicals concentrate inside buildings,
esters (OPEs) and other more recently introduced affecting indoor air quality
flame retardants (Rauert et al. 2018). Despite
positive declining trends for PBDEs across the Manufactured chemicals released from building
globe, monitoring in the Arctic has revealed materials, home and workplace furnishings, and
128
Part I
Figure 6.6 Global atmospheric concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and of
organophosphate esters (OPEs) and other novel flame retardants (FRs) at four location
types: polar, background, rural and urban (adapted from Rauert et al. 2018, p. 2778)
10,000.00
1,000.00
Concentration (pg/m3)
100.00
10.00
1.00
0.10
n=4 n=31 n=7 n=6
0.01 PO BG RU UR PO BG RU UR PO BG RU UR
∑18OPEs ∑14PBDEs ∑15Novel FRs
Analysis of passive air samples from the Global Atmospheric Passive Sampling Network
suggested that “global atmospheric concentrations of PBDEs have not declined since regulatory
measures were implemented” (Rauert et al. 2018). The study found organophosphate esters in
concentrations at least an order of magnitude above those detected for PBDEs.
household and personal care products can result probable carcinogens in more than 60 per cent
in higher concentrations inside residential and of samples (Dai et al. 2017).
workplace facilities than outside (EEA 2016). New
buildings or recently redecorated environments, Indoor dust is a reservoir for chemicals released
where the frequency of air exchanges has from commercial consumer products. Heavy
been reduced, have been associated with high metals such as lead and cadmium have been
concentrations of these chemicals in household identified in household dust. Lead is a common
and interior dusts (Mercier et al. 2011). constituent in dust from older homes in India
where lead paint may still be present (Kumar
A recent study of concentrations of and Scott 2009). The Canadian House Dust Study
chemicals – including phthalates, flame found elevated concentrations of lead in dust
retardants, chlorinated solvents and others – samples from Canadian homes in central urban
in new and recently renovated housing found areas (Rasmussen et al. 2011). Permethrin and
indoor air concentrations exceeding available cypermethrin were the most common pesticides
risk-based screening levels in all sampled identified in a review of 15 published studies of
homes for at least one of the targeted chemicals floor wipes and dusts in residential environments
(Dodson et al. 2017). This study not only identified in the United States (Morgan 2012). A recent study
chemicals from building materials (e.g. certain of indoor dust samples taken from residential
flame retardants), but also chemicals used in settings in the United States identified chemicals
personal care products such as dibutal phthalate of recognized health concern. Phthalates
(DBP). A recent review of semi-volatile organic occurred in the highest concentrations, followed
compounds (SVOCs) in indoor air found by phenols, chemicals used to replace regulated
significant concentrations in residences, schools flame retardants, fragrances and PFASs (Mitro
and office buildings at sites throughout the world et al. 2016)
(Lucattini et al. 2018). Another study analyzing
concentrations of volatile organic compounds 6.2.2 Freshwater and oceans
(VOCs) in newly renovated residences in Shanghai
found a dozen VOCs classified by the International Continuous discharges of hazardous chemicals
Agency for Research on Cancer as confirmed or into freshwater bodies and oceans, atmospheric

Canned Muffins
© shrimpo1967, CC BY
Mount 2.0 as seen from Drukair2, CC BY-SA 2.0
Everest
deposition, and the dynamic nature of water insecticide concentrations detected, over
cycles results in the presence of chemical 68 per cent were above regulatory thresholds,
contaminants in rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, sometimes by as much as 10,000 times (Stehle
groundwater and oceans. and Schulz 2015). A review (Lapworth et al.
2012) of the sources of emerging organic
Globally, clean drinking water is available to contaminants, such as pharmaceuticals,
most people but not all personal care products and selected industrial
compounds, in groundwater found microgram-
The WHO has reported that 91 per cent of the level concentrations of a large range of these
world population has access to clean drinking contaminants (Lapworth et al. 2012). Glaciers
water. However, some 660 million people remain also carry pollutants: a recent study (Ferrario
without safe water while chemical contamination et al. 2017) determined the occurrence of various
from pesticides, landfill leachate and industrial POPs (including DDTs and PCBs), pesticides and
discharges continues to be a local problem other contaminants in Alpine glaciers. Certain
in low- and middle-income countries (United organochlorine pesticides regulated under the
Nations International Children’s Emergency Stockholm Convention have also been found in
Fund and WHO 2015). Although over 200 the Himalayan glaciers (Li et al. 2017a).
chemicals in drinking water are regulated by
some governments, there is growing public European water monitoring studies have
concern about the presence of chemicals such as found that river basins in northern Europe
perfluorinated compounds, dioxane, siloxanes, pose higher chemical risks than in the south.
pharmaceuticals, perchlorate, musks, illicit drugs, Of the 223 chemicals included in monitoring
pesticide degradation products and sunscreens efforts, pesticides, tributyltin, PAHs and
(Villanueva et al. 2013). brominated flame retardants were the major
contributors to chemical risk (Malaj et al.
Chemical pollutants occur in freshwater bodies 2014). A recent survey of river water samples
throughout the world in 41 cities in 15 countries found detectable
concentrations of perfluorooctane sulfonate
A recent analysis of over 800 scientific studies (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in
on 28 common insecticide compounds in surface nearly every region studied (Kunacheva et al.
waters in 73 countries found that of the 8,186 2012). In addition to river contamination, many
130
Part I
Box 6.2 Concentrations of legacy chemicals in water bodies: the Mariana and Kermadec trenches and
Lake Geneva
Certain hazardous chemicals whose

production and use were banned years ago
may still be found at high concentrations in
the environment. A recent study (Jamieson
et al. 2017) analyzed small animals (called
amphipods) captured from some of the
deepest ocean trenches – the Mariana and
Kermadec trenches of the Pacific Ocean – at
a depth of more than 10 km. The PCB and
PBDE concentrations tested in the animals
were at “extraordinary levels”, higher than
those of animals living in in highly polluted
rivers in industrialized regions. This can
be explained by the high persistence and
accumulation of POPs in fat. In another
study (Filella and Turner 2018) several
thousand samples of diverse plastic litter
of various sizes, age and composition were
collected from shores around Lake Geneva
in Switzerland. The researchers found a
number of banned/restricted hazardous
chemicals, including cadmium, mercury,
lead and bromium (most likely from
brominated flame retardants). © Uwe Kils, Amphipodredkills CC BY-SA 3.0
studies in Western Europe and the Asia-Pacific after their production and use have been phased
region report concentrations of PFOS in lakes/ out (Wöhrnschimmel et al. 2013).
reservoirs, estuaries and coastal waters (UNEP
and Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention Pharmaceuticals are found in water across the
2017) (Box 6.2). A study reviewing available world
literature and databases on concentrations of
chemicals in rivers in the United Kingdom found Pharmaceuticals and their metabolites are
evidence for the presence of a large variety of released to the environment from a variety of
hazardous chemicals, including a range of heavy sources, including medicinal drugs and agricultural
metals, triclosan and lindane. The highest median feedlots. A study of 203 pharmaceuticals across
river water concentrations in order of magnitude 41 countries showed that pharmaceutical
were detected for iron, aluminium, zinc and residues are present at significant levels in
manganese (Donnachie et al. 2014). surface and tap water in many countries and
regions (Hughes et al. 2013). Another study, by
Climate change may significantly increase the German Environment Agency (UBA), found
concentrations of POPs in ocean water that in 71 countries in all regions there were more
than 600 active pharmaceutical substances or
It is anticipated that climate change will alter their metabolites and transformation products
concentrations of POPs. With the melting of in surface water, groundwater, tap water and/or
Arctic sea ice, previous reservoirs for POPs are drinking water and other environmental matrices
expected to release these chemicals back to (Figure 6.7). Seventeen pharmaceuticals were
the environment. Modelling of future POPs found in all five United Nations regions, including
concentrations suggests that ocean waters could the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac (which
be particularly impacted, with up to a four-fold was detected in 50 countries) (Weber et al. 2014;
increase in concentrations of some POPs even UBA n.d.).

© Canned Muffins CC BY 2.0
A wide range of chemical contaminants are Bohai Sea, with gradual increases documented
present in oceans between 2006 and 2012.
A recent review of studies of chemical Of the anthropogenic emissions of mercury that

contaminants in marine environments identified have accumulated over the centuries, 50 per cent
276 manufactured chemicals, including remains in the oceans, of which 36 per cent
nine metals/metalloids, 10 organometallic is in sea water (Zhang et al. 2014). One study
compounds, 24 inorganic compounds, 204 suggests that concentrations of mercury in the
organic compounds and 19 radionuclides. surface layer of the ocean have doubled over
The source of these chemicals ranged from oil the last 100 years, increasing by 25 per cent in
and gas operations, and shipping and marine intermediate waters and 10 per cent in deep
aquaculture, to accidental spills and on-shore waters. This variation is likely due to the time it
discharges (Tornero and Hanke 2016). An analysis takes surface waters to circulate to the depths
(Ho et al. 2016) of organotin contamination in the (UNEP 2013). Mercury concentrations appear to
marine environment of Hong Kong in the period have increased at depths between 200 and 1,000
1990-2015 found that, in some cases, there were metres in the North Pacific Ocean over the last
increasing concentrations of several organotins. few decades and to have decreased In the North
Another study (Liao and Kannan 2018) found Atlantic. The Mediterranean Sea, in contrast,
elevated concentrations of parabens in China’s showed a decrease in mercury concentrations
between 1990 and 2004 (UNEP 2013).
Figure 6.7 Number of pharmaceuticals detected in surface water, groundwater, tap water and/or
drinking water (adapted from Weber et al. 2014, p. 6)
1–3 4–10 11–30 31–100 101–200 No data
132
Part I
Ocean and freshwater body sediments store as polyester and polyvinyl chloride tend to sink
and concentrate chemicals into the sediment of the marine environment
and accumulate on the ocean floor, which means
Studies show that concentrations of currently that a significant amount of microplastics may
used brominated flame retardants are increasing eventually accumulate in the deep sea and
in freshwater sediments. Samples drawn from ultimately in marine and human food resources
the Great Lakes in North America found that the (Seltenrich 2015). It has been estimated that
sediment concentration of decabromodiphenyl some 94 per cent of the plastic that enters the
ethane (DBDPE) doubles every three to five oceans ends up on the sea floor and about
years in Lake Michigan, and approximately 1 per cent is found at or near the ocean surface
every seven years in Lake Ontario (Yang et al. (Lebreton et al. 2017).
2012). Sediments in the Adriatic Sea that were
deposited within the last two decades represent 6.2.3 Soils
a 40-80 per cent reduction in peak levels of PCBs,
corresponding to national production bans on Soils throughout the world are contaminated
PCBs in late 1970s (Combi et al. 2016). by a broad range of hazardous chemicals
An increasing amount of plastic particles is Based on the analysis of soil samples from
widely found in the world’s rivers, lakes and six countries (the United States, China, Japan,
oceans Norway, Greece, and Mexico), a global median
soil concentration for PFOA and PFOS was
Microplastics have been found in freshwater estimated to be 0.124 ng g-1 and 0.472 ng g-1
bodies, including rivers (Moore et al. 2011) and respectively (Strynar et al. 2012). Higher
lakes (Eriksen et al. 2013). Concentrations in concentrations of PFOA and PFOS for soils from
rivers vary significantly, depending on factors Shanghai, China and Kampala, Uganda have been
such as river basin population densities (Lebreton reported (Li et al. 2010; Dalahmeh et al. 2018).
et al. 2017). It has been estimated that some Perfluorinated compounds have been found in all
80 per cent of anthropogenic litter along the soil and water samples in a recent national survey
shorelines of the Laurentian Great Lakes is in the Republic of Korea of agricultural soils near
comprised of plastics (Driedger et al. 2015). wastewater treatment plants. Significant mean
concentrations of PFOA and PFOS were found
Floating plastic debris, including microplastics, in samples from all 81 cities where these were
has been reported in the gyres of the North drawn (Choi et al. 2017).
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans since the early 1970s
(Moore et al. 2001; Eriksen et al. 2013). Plastic Soil acidification is now a major problem in China,
debris and microplastics are transported by where soil has long used for intensive agriculture.
ocean currents across borders and are found Large amounts of metals (e.g. cadmium, arsenic
even in very remote areas such as the deep and chromium) have found their way to farmland
ocean (UNEP 2016b). While some microplastics through air deposition, synthetic fertilizers and
float, others sink. Plastic bags and containers that livestock manure application (Chen et al. 2018).
decompose make up a large share of floating A 2017 study reviewing 465 published papers
plastic wastes. Lighter weight polyethylene, found that almost 14 per cent of grain production
polypropylene and polystyrene are the most in China was affected by heavy metal pollution in
common types of plastic litter in surface waters. agricultural soil (Zhang et al. 2015). In the Republic
This debris tends to degrade under the stress of of Korea, monitoring data reveal an unexpected
sunlight, heat and agitation into tiny fragments increase in average soil concentrations of dioxins
that may be swept into gigantic gyres on the and furans over a 10- year period (1999-2009).
surface of several oceans. The amount of Soils from the country’s industrialized regions
microplastics floating in the oceans has been showed a 10- fold increase in the same period
estimated at 93,000-268,000 tonnes (Eriksen et al. (Kim and Yoon 2014). In a recent study in Mali,
2014; Sebille et al. 2015). Denser polymers such hazardous pesticides, including DDT, endosulfan

Figure 6.8 Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in surface soil by land use
category (ng/g) (adapted from McGrath et al. 2017)
1,000,000
100,000
10,000
1,000
∑PBDE concentration (ng/g)
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.001 Primary Secondary Municipal Electronic General Urban Non-industrial Remote

manufacturing manufacturing dumpsites and and electrical industrial background background
landfills waste

Range Mean including BDE-209 Mean excluding BDE-209 Mean BDE-209 only
and profenofos, were detected in 77 per cent (e-waste) had been dismantled and recycled
of soil samples collected from damaged cotton for a decade had high concentrations of PBDE
production sites (Dem et al. 2007). and PCDD/PCDFs, with open burning among the
major causes.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are
commonly detected at background locations Heavy metals are present in soils across
in surface soils, including in Antarctica and the regions
northern polar regions. As shown in Figure 6.8,
PBDEs emitted from numerous land use Various studies have identified heavy metals
categories are routinely detected in surface soils. in soils. For example, a study of the impacts
of industrial and agricultural activities on soil
POPs are present in soils near recycling sites concentrations of copper, cadmium, mercury
and lead in Zhangjiagang City, in a rapidly
In India, PCBs and PCDD/PCDFs have been developing region of China, revealed high metal
found in soils near informal e-waste recycling concentrations in local areas near industrial
sites and nearby open dumpsites of large cities locations (Shao et al. 2014). Another study
(Chakraborty et al. 2018). This is attributed to of soils along major roadsides in the Kwara
the burning of wire during the copper extraction State of Nigeria found high concentrations of
process, as well as combustion of plastic heavy metals including lead, copper and zinc
materials. In China, Leung et al. (2007) found (Ogundele et al. 2015). An Australian study tracked
that surface soils at a site where computer parts reductions in lead soil samples following the
134
Part I
government-required phase-out of lead additives food chains, where bioaccumulation results in

in fuels. There had been a significant decline the highest concentrations occurring in animals
over a decade, although legacy concentrations at the highest levels of the food web.
were found to be subject to remobilization
(Kristensen et al. 2017). Concentrations of POPs in some fish are
declining, but unevenly
Plastic particles are widely found in soils
Data from Canadian Arctic monitoring reveal
Plastic particles are widely found in soils (Bläsing that concentrations of poly- and perfluoalkyl
and Amelung 2018; Scheurer and Bigalke substances (PFASs) in landlocked freshwater fish
2018; Weithmann et al. 2018). The density are declining. However, some benthic species
of microplastics in soil has been found to be such as burbot (Lota lota) show increasing
significantly higher than in marine environments trends in some regions (AMAP 2017). Although
(up to 23 times, depending on the environment) concentrations of the sum of PCBS congeners
(de Souza Machado et al. 2018). Recently in China, (∑PCBs) in Great Lakes fish show continued
plastic particles were found in all sampled soils, declines (3-7 per cent per year since the
of which 95 per cent were in the microplastic 1970s), concentrations of penta- and hexa-
size range (Zhang and Liu 2018). According to bromodiphenyl ethers appear to have plateaued
Boucher and Friot (2017), “about 52 per cent of in fish from the Great Lakes, beginning in the
the microplastic loss is trapped in soils when early 2000s, and concentrations are declining
wastewater treatment sludge is used as fertilizer (Environment Canada and US EPA 2014;
and/or when particulates are washed from the Gandhi et al. 2017). The sum of these PBDEs
road pavement”. measured between 2008 and 2012 was highest
in Lake Ontario, followed by Lake Superior; the
lowest concentrations were observed in fish
from Lake Erie (McGoldrick and Murphy 2016).
6.3 Concentrations in biota The most abundant organochlorine pesticides
measured were DDT and its metabolites (DDE
Concentrations of many manufactured chemicals and DDD), the highest average concentration of
build up in wildlife and increase as they move up which was measured in fish from Lake Ontario.
© UNEP/Ludovic Bernaudat, artisanal and small-scale gold mining site

Halogenated chemicals are found in birds Mercury is a common contaminant in wildlife

worldwide
In recent surveys, marine fish species have
Global reviews of PBDE contaminations in generally had substantially lower mercury
birds have revealed that concentrations of concentrations than freshwater fish. Increasing
PBDE are generally higher in terrestrial birds trends in mercury concentrations have been
than in freshwater or marine birds, and that found in species in North America (Figure 6.9)
concentrations in terrestrial birds – particularly and west Greenland, while decreasing trends
of the chemical mixture deca-bromodiphenyl in methylmercury concentrations have been
ether(deca-BDE) – were highest in North America found in east Greenland and the European
and China (Chen and Hale 2010; Law et al. 2014). Arctic (UNEP and AMAP 2018) (Figure 6.10). Egg
In one study (Chen and Hale 2010) terrestrial birds mercury concentrations for marine birds from
had higher deca-BDE concentrations than aquatic the Canadian Arctic indicate that mean mercury
birds. In another study examining perfluorinated concentrations in ivory gulls are above threshold
compound concentrations in five different bird levels for adverse effects on reproduction.
species from the same geographic region in
Belgium, the highest mean liver perfluorooctane Mercury concentrations are decreasing in polar
sulfonate (PFOS) concentrations were found in bears in several regions, including Svalbard,
the grey heron with the lowest concentrations Norway and the southern Beaufort Sea. However,
in the Eurasian collared dove (Meyer et al. 2009). concentrations in the brain tissue of polar bears
and beluga whales are generally lower than the
levels associated with neurotoxicity in other
mammals, although they remain high enough to
cause neurochemical changes that can precede
overt neurotoxicity (Scheuhammer et al. 2015).
Harbour seals from the western Hudson Bay
had elevated mean liver mercury concentrations,
along with comparatively high muscle mercury
concentrations (Scheuhammer et al. 2015).
Long-term monitoring of mercury concentrations

in Sweden, Finland, Norway and the Kola Peninsula
of Russia show a consistent and significant
decreasing trend in a number of lake fish species,
paralleling a similar decline in atmospheric
concentrations in the region (Braaten et al.
2017). In North America studies often report
inconsistent, diverging or mixed trends in
concentrations, particularly among aquatic biotic
factors. Early declines are attributed to decreases
in atmospheric mercury concentrations and
deposition rates. Explanations for subsequent
reversals or plateaus in concentrations include
increasing local emissions, food web changes
and climate change (UNEP and AMAP 2018).
Overall, however, the updated Global Mercury
Assessment concludes that “mercury loads in
aquatic food webs are at levels of concern for
ecological and human health around the world”
(UNEP and AMAP 2018).
136
Part I
Figure 6.9 Mercury concentrations in large lake trout collected from the East Arm of Great Slave
Lake, Canada, 1992-2012 (adapted from Evans et al. 2013, p. 12794)
Lake trout (large, East Arm, Great Slave Lake)
0.40
0.35
0.30
Mercury (μg/g)
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Figure 6.10 Mercury concentrations in polar bears, Swalbard, Norway, 1960s-2000s (adapted from
Aubail et al. 2013, p. 60)
Polar bear, Svalbard
10
Dental Hg (ng/g dw)
8
6
4
2
0 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Republished with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
Plastic particles accumulate in fish 6.4 Concentrations in humans
Microplastic particles are found in a wide variety People throughout the world are exposed to
of marine organisms, including species consumed low-dose mixtures of broadly heterogeneous
as seafood (UNEP 2016b). One analysis of manufactured chemicals. Evidence of
seafoods from different countries found plastic concentrations of manufactured chemicals in
debris and fibres from textiles in most samples humans is largely dependent on biomonitoring,
(Rochman et al. 2015). Another study found which typically focuses on blood, breast milk,
plastic pellets in the stomachs of 22 per cent urine and hair. Biomonitoring studies show that
of marine fish (Miranda and de Carvalho-Souza some concentrations of manufactured chemicals
2016). It has been estimated that fish in the North in humans are decreasing, while others are
Pacific ingest 12,000 to 40,000 tonnes of plastic increasing.
waste per year (Rios et al. 2007). A 2016 study
(Rummel et al. 2016) found that 5.5 per cent of Continued, but mixed, progress is being made
all investigated fish in the North and Baltic Seas in reducing human blood lead concentrations.
had ingested plastic, the majority of which was Monitoring studies across the world, including
microplastics. in the United States, Canada, South Africa and

Figure 6.11 Blood concentrations (μg/kg plasma lipid) of p,p-DDE in pregnant Inuit women from
Nunavik, Canada (adapted from AMAP 2015b, Appendix p. 65)
1,200
1,000
800
p,p’-DDE
600
400
200
0 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018
China, show declines. In Canada over the last of some others such as HCB might still be
two decades, a reduction in the level of lead increasing (AMAP 2015a). Figure 6.11 shows
in bone, an indicator of chronic exposure, has temporal trends for blood concentrations
been observed (McNeill et al. 2017). Blood lead of dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE),
concentrations in children in some countries are one of the compounds formed as a result of
declining, but less so in lower-income countries. the breakdown of DDT in the environment.
Average blood lead concentrations (37.17 μg/ Concentrations of some POPs not regulated
litre), as measured in children aged 0-6 years under the Stockholm Convention could also be
from 11 cities throughout China in 2013, revealed increasing, for example perfluorodecanoic acid
continued high concentrations (Li et al. 2017b). (PFDA) and perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS)
A study of 2,861 children in the rural Philippines (Figure 6.12).
reported that 21 per cent had elevated blood lead
concentrations (above 100 μg/litre) (Riddell et al. There are significant variations in POPs
2007). Hotspot lead exposure remains a concern concentrations in human milk across POPs,
for children globally. Mass lead intoxication time, countries and regions
events in Senegal (2008) and Nigeria (since 2010)
illustrate the potential severity of such exposures The second Global Monitoring Report on POPs (UN
in children (Clune et al. 2011). Environment and Secretariat of the Stockholm
Convention 2017) found concentrations of PCDD/
Concentrations of some POPs in blood are PCDF at relatively similar levels across both
falling in some countries, but not in others higher- and lower-income countries. The highest
concentrations were found in the Africa and
The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Western European and Others Group (WEOG)
Programme’s 2015 Assessment found that regions. Significant differences were observed
concentrations of most POPS regulated under among African countries, with Kenya and Uganda
the Stockholm Convention, including PCB and having the lowest observed concentrations of
DDT in the blood of Arctic populations, had PCCDs and PCDFs in human milk while West and
declined in past decades, while concentrations Central African countries including Côte d’Ivoire,
the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana,
Mali, Nigeria, Sudan and Senegal had much
higher concentrations. As regards indicator PCB
in human milk, significant variations were found
across regions, with much higher concentrations
in the Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and
Western European and Other Groups (WEOG)
regions compared to the Africa, Asia-Pacific and
Group of Latin American and Caribbean Countries
© Kenishirotie/Shutterstock
138
Part I
Figure 6.12 Concentrations of PFHxS and PFDA in the blood of Swedish first-time mothers,
1996-2010 (adapted from AMAP 2015b, p. 49)
PFHxS μg/kg pooled serum 7 0.35
PFDA μg/kg pooled serum

6 0.30
5 0.25
4 0.20
3 0.15
2 0.10
1 0.05
0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 0
Perfluorohexanesulphonic acid (PFHxS) Perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA)
(GRULAC) regions. The highest concentrations of concentrations of PCDDs and PCDFs in human
ΣDDTs were found in less industrialized countries, milk have been measured at multiple time
including Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Hong Kong SAR, intervals over a decade (e.g. in Belgium, Ireland,
Uganda, Mali, Mauritius, Haiti, India, Solomon New Zealand and Hong Kong), concentrations
Islands, Sudan and Tajikistan. This distribution are steadily declining. Overall, data from the last
reflects DDT use in relation to the occurrence decade suggest that PCDD/PCDF concentrations
and prevention of malaria in these countries. in human milk have fallen steadily from their
Concentrations of PBDE in human milk also vary earlier high levels, indicating the effectiveness of
significantly across regions (UNEP and Secretariat measures implemented to reduce environmental
of the Stockholm Convention 2017). releases (Figure 6.13). In the case of PCBs
the picture is less clear for some countries,
Data presented in the second Global Monitoring although generally declining concentrations are
Report suggest positive trends over time for observed (UNEP and Secretariat of the Stockholm
various POPs, although not consistently. Where Convention 2017).
© United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur/Olivier Chassot

Figure 6.13 Levels of PCDD/PCDF (Sum 17 PCDD/PCDF) and indicator PCB (Sum 6 PCB) in human
milk: survey results in 2005-2010 and comparison with 1980s levels (adapted from UN
Environment and Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention 2017, p. 66)
Levels of PCDD/PCDF in human milk Levels of indicator PCBs in

Congo DR human milk
Côte d’Ivoire Czech Republic
Luxembourg Slovak Republic
Belgium Luxembourg
Chile Sweden
Moldova Belgium
Hong Kong SAR Switzerland
Senegal Moldova
Czech Republic Senegal
Uruguay Norway
Slovak Republic Côte d’Ivoire
Sudan Nigeria
Switzerland
Sudan
Sweden
Lithuania
Lithuania
Finland
Finland
Ghana
Norway
Congo DR
Australia
Antigua & Barbuda
Hungary
Georgia
Georgia
Uruguay
Tajikistan
Cyprus Cyprus
Fiji Mali
Antigua & Barbuda Hong Kong SAR
Mali Australia
Kiribati India
Rep. of Korea Chile
Ghana Fiji
Nigeria Syria
Syria Mauritius
Mauritius Kiribati
Tonga Tonga
Kenya Uganda
Uganda Kenya
10 20 30 200 400 600 800
WHO polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/ ng sum indicator
dibenzofurans-TEQ/g fat Polychlorinated biphenyls/g fat
1987–2002 2005–2010
A recent review of the WHO/UNEP global surveys Perfluorinated chemicals are ubiquitous, but
of PCDDs, PCDFs, PCBs and DDTs in human concentrations appear to be declining in some
milk found that while the highest absolute countries
concentrations were measured for DDT (more
than 20,000 ng/g lipid), only a small share of the Both PFOS and PFNA are being detected in
surveyed mothers had concentrations above more than 98 per cent of serum samples
the WHO safety levels. By contrast, virtually all from Alaskan Natives, and 92 per cent have
mothers had concentrations of PCDD/PCDF as shown concentrations of PFOA (Byrne et al.
well as PCB above the WHO safety levels (van 2017). However, studies examining serum
den Berg et al. 2017). concentrations of the long-chain PFASs chemicals
140
Part I
Figure 6.14 Concentrations of perfluorinated compounds in the blood serum of women in the United
States, 1999-2014 (median ng/ml) (adapted from US EPA 2017b)
25
Concentration of perfluorochemicals in serum (ng/ml)
20
15
10
0 Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid Perfluorooctanoic acid Perfluorohexanesulphonic acid Perfluorononanoic
1999–2000 2003–2004 2005–2006 2007–2008 2009–2010 2011–2012 2013–2014
Note: To reflect exposures to women who are pregnant or may have become pregnant, the
estimates are adjusted for the probability (by age and race/ethnicity) that a woman gives birth.
PFOA and PFOS over time have observed the United States, indicating one pathway, among
declines in countries where these chemicals others, for the transfer of legacy substances to
have been phased out (US EPA 2013; Nøst et al. new generations (EWG 2005; EWG 2009; Terry
2014; Stubleski et al. 2016; Eriksson et al. et al. 2017).
2017; Schoeters et al. 2017). Studies of PFOA
and PFHxS in human blood, archived by the Studies examining organophosphorus flame
German Environmental Specimen Bank, also retardants in some Asian countries show
documented mixed but gradual declines concentrations in the Philippines 1.5-2 times
between 2001 and 2012 (Schröter-Kermani et al. higher than those measured in Swedish
2013). Biomonitoring studies in Sweden and populations (Kim et al. 2014). However,
the United States of PFOA, PFOS and related concentrations in Japan and Viet Nam are 4-20
long-chain compounds document similar times lower, suggesting that differences are likely
declines in other cohorts, including pregnant attributable to differences in the use of flame-
women (Stubleski et al. 2016; Hurley et al. 2018) retarded products in each country (Kim et al.
(Figure 6.14). 2014). A recent study (Hoffman et al. 2017) that
analyzed urine samples in the United States found
Concentrations of flame retardants are highest that concentrations of the organophosphate
in higher-income countries and are falling flame retardant bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)
unevenly phosphate (BDCIPP) had increased strongly
since 2002, with concentrations measured in
Studies examining concentrations of flame 2014/2015 15 times higher than in 2002/2003.
retardant in mother’s milk in the United States
show high concentrations of polybrominated National biomonitoring surveillance programmes
diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) (van den Berg et al. in higher-income countries demonstrate recent
2017). However, PBDE concentrations may be declines in concentrations of brominated
decreasing since they were phased out, as shown flame retardants. These declines are also being
in analysis of concentrations in children between experienced in areas of China where these
1998 and 2013 (Cowell et al. 2018). Studies have chemicals are produced (Li et al. 2017c). However,
detected previously banned flame retardants in concentrations in some populations are notably
the umbilical cord blood of newborn children in elevated. For example, in California (United States)

biomonitoring studies have revealed that PBDE of mercury in most participants below 5 and
concentrations among a cohort of firefighters 3 μg/litre, respectively, with concentrations
(Park et al. 2015) were dramatically higher than significantly higher in adults than in children.
national averages. Studies suggest that some Where data were available, overall decreasing
PBDE concentrations in pregnant women in trends in both blood and urinary concentrations
Canada may be lower than those in pregnant could be observed. Birth cohort studies
women in the United States (Fisher et al. 2016). undertaken in a number of countries found
Areas of China where flame retardant chemical the highest concentrations of methylmercury
manufacturing is occurring continue to have among populations consuming large amounts
high concentrations of some PBDE congeners of fish and seafood or marine mammals (UNEP
(Li et al. 2017c). and AMAP 2018) (Figure 6.16). However, some
of these countries have experienced strong
Mercury concentrations in blood in some Arctic decreases in methylmercury concentrations.
regions are declining, but are still among the Mercury concentrations also tend to be high (in
world’s highest some cases extremely high) among artisanal and
small-scale gold miners (UNEP and AMAP 2018).
Although there has been a decline in the number
of people living in the Arctic with mercury blood Phthalate concentrations are decreasing in
concentrations exceeding Canadian and United some countries, but increasing in others
States guidelines, some (particularly those living
in Indigenous communities, or those consuming Biomonitoring data from the United States in
large quantities of specific species of freshwater 2013-2014 demonstrate that urinary metabolites
fish or marine mammals) have among the highest of diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) were detected in
concentrations of blood mercury in the world. A 62 per cent of women and 54 per cent of children,
significant proportion of women of child-bearing while dibutyl phthalate (DBP) metabolites
age from Indigenous communities living in the were detected in 94 per cent of women and
Eastern Canadian Arctic and Greenland still 98 per cent of children (US EPA 2013). Studies
exceed these guidelines (AMAP 2011). However, of trends in urinary metabolites of phthalates
declines are being observed: studies of pregnant are seeing a rise in frequency and concentrations
Inuit and Nunavik women show decreasing of the metabolite of Di-iso-nonylcyclohexane
concentrations, averaging a 4 per cent decrease 1,2-dicarboxylate (DiNCH), often being used to
per year since 1992 (AMAP 2015b) (Figure 6.15). replace DEHP and DiNP (Gyllenhammar et al.
2016).
A review of national data available from nine
countries found blood and urinary concentrations
Figure 6.15 Concentrations of mercury and selenium in women’s blood, Nunavik (Canada), 1990-
2014 (adapted from AMAP 2015b, p. 31)
35 1,000
Selenium, μg/L whole blood
Mercury, μg/L whole blood
30
800
25
20 600
15 400
10
200
5
0 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014 0
Mercury Selenium
142
Part I
Figure 6.16 Mercury concentrations in cord blood from birth cohort studies by country (adapted from
UNEP and AMAP 2018, p. 69)
Median or geometric mean cord blood 45

40
35
30
mercury (μg/L)
25
20
15
10
5
0
Seychelles
Faroe Islands
Faroe Islands
Nunavik, Canada
Nunavik, Canada
Nunavik, Canada
Nunavik, Canada
Faroe Islands
INMA (Asturias, Spain)
INMA (Valencia, Spain)
Hong Kong, SAR
INMA (Gipuzkoa, Spain)
PHIME (Lesvos, Greek Islands)
INMA (Sabadell, Spain)
PHIME (Triste, Italy)
China (Zhoushan City)
Rep. of Korea (Seoul, Cheonan, Ulsan)
Faroe Islands
New York City
Mexico City
Shanghai
Poland (Krakow)
Poland (Krakow)
MIREC (Canada, 10 cities)
Concentrations of bisphenol A are decreasing, 6.5 Data availability, collection and
while concentrations of bisphenol S could be analysis
increasing
Global monitoring is improving, but
A recent literature review (Huang et al. 2018) substantive data gaps in environmental
found bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations in human surveillance persist
urine in child and adult populations in Oceania,
Asia, Europe and North America. However, it also Data on chemical concentrations vary significantly
found that restrictions on BPA use resulted in across regions, media and chemicals. Far more
decreases in intake. In another study (Mendonca data are available from higher-income countries
et al. 2014), BPA concentrations were found in than from lower- and middle-income ones.
93 per cent of urine samples of infants without There are more data from the northern than
known exposure to it and in 75 per cent of the southern hemisphere, and more human
their mothers’ breast milk samples. Analyzing monitoring data from OECD than non-OECD
concentrations of four bisphenols in samples of countries. Nevertheless, substantial data gaps
adults in the United States taken over 14 years, a remain. Of the roughly 100,000 chemicals for
study (Ye et al. 2015) found BPA concentrations which there is at least limited toxicity information
to be declining and concentrations of bisphenol in the US EPA’s AcTOR database, there is
S to be increasing, which could reflect trends exposure information for less than one-fifth.
in the use of the two substances. Measurable Readily accessible data on concentrations in
concentrations of bisphenol S in human urine exposure-related media are only available for a
are frequently reported (Wu et al. 2018). much smaller fraction (Egeghy 2012).

There is ongoing, though limited, global monitoring and newborns, and/or perinatal experience
of various chemicals, including mercury, POPS among mothers (i.e. soon before or after giving
and lead. There is far less monitoring of other birth). The United States National Health and
chemicals. Efforts undertaken in the context of Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), the
the Stockholm Convention’s Global Monitoring Canadian Health Monitoring System (CHMS) and
Plan, as well as the Global Mercury Assessment, the Human Biomonitoring for Europe (HBM4EU)
are important contributions to continuously are important building blocks. The HBM4EU is a
improving global trends in concentrations of POPs new joint effort of 28 countries to coordinate and
and mercury, respectively. Most environmental advance human biomonitoring in Europe, and to
monitoring provides data on concentrations at provide better evidence of the actual exposure
specific moments in time, while longitudinal data of citizens to chemicals and the possible health
covering several points in time are much rarer. effects (HBM4EU 2018).
Insightful studies have been completed using
monitoring data before and after a government Standardization of data collection and testing
regulation has been put in place, attempting to protocols would aid the pooling of data and
demonstrate an effect. More and better focused identification of trends
research of this kind is needed.
While there are many studies of chemical
Biomonitoring has made more information concentrations in environmental media
available on human exposures, although still and human fluids, these studies are difficult
more is needed to aggregate in order to identify trends.
Comparability of studies is often limited because
There has been an increase in human samples are taken differently, chemical identities
biomonitoring programmes. However, most are not fixed, study methods vary, and data are
surveys are limited to a small set of POPs and reported in varied units of analysis. There are very
long-term trend data are primarily confined to few global assessments. Review studies that try to
monitoring studies conducted in developed assemble regional and global trend information,
countries. Global comparability of biomonitoring based on individual studies, are often limited
studies remains hampered by differences in by differing data measurement and analytical
data collection and reporting procedures. Both methods. Recent monitoring standardization
ongoing and newer programmes have expanded efforts, such as the Stockholm Global Monitoring
the list of chemical contaminants being measured Programme and the Consortium to Perform
beyond POPs to include other pesticides, Human Biomonitoring on a European Scale
bisphenol A, triclosan and phthalates, among (COPHES), are making global assessments
others. However, most national programmes more possible and reliable. Greater efforts to
focus on surveillance of adults. There is a need for coordinate and harmonize national and regional
more studies on the elderly, adolescents, children data to facilitate global assessments are needed.
144
Part I
7/ Environmental, health and social effects of

chemicals
Chapter Highlights
Chemical pollution is a major cause of human disease and premature deaths; the
burden of disease from selected chemicals was estimated at 1.6 million lives and
44.8 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) in 2016.
Potential adverse health effects of chemical exposures include acute poisonings,

cancers, reproductive and neurodevelopmental disorders, and disruption of the
endocrine system.
Workers are often subject to disproportionally high exposures to hazardous

chemicals. In 2015 it is estimated that almost 1 million workers died as a result of
exposure to hazardous substances.
Foetuses, infants, children, pregnant women, the elderly and the poor are among
the most vulnerable to the adverse effects of chemicals and waste.
Plastic litter has been linked to marine organism mortality and may also affect
terrestrial animals.
Chemical pollution threatens ecosystem functions by adversely affecting

pollinators, contributing to ocean dead zones, accelerating antimicrobial
resistance, and increasing pressure on coral reefs.
T
he previous chapters in Part I addressed 7.1 Environmental effects
the increasing production and use of
chemicals, releases to the environment, and Heavy metals and pesticides have left a legacy
concentrations. This chapter presents data and of contaminated soils
knowledge on the impacts of chemicals and waste
on both human health and the environment. It is Soils worldwide have been damaged by
structured according to environmental effects, mining, agriculture and industrial wastes that
effects on biota and biodiversity, and human contain heavy metals, including lead, cadmium,
health effects. Attention is also given to social chromium, mercury and copper. Heavy metals
effects, including on vulnerable populations, damage soil quality and reduce the number
men and women, and the poor. Prevailing data of the microorganisms that are critical to soil
gaps, and challenges and opportunities in regard fertility. The sources of some of this damage
to acquiring pertinent knowledge, are briefly dates back more than a century. For example,
discussed. soils have been contaminated by lead arsenate
(historically used as an insecticide in fruit orchards
in Europe, North America and elsewhere), arsenic
compounds (used extensively to control cattle
ticks and pests on bananas in Latin America and
Chapter 7. Environmental, health and social effects of chemicals 145

other parts of the world) and DDT (Schooley and electronic products (including televisions,
et al. 2008). computers and mobile phones) pollutes
surface and groundwaters and contaminates
There are ongoing activities across the world to soils, particularly at dumping or landfill sites
inventory and remediate contaminated waste in low-income countries (Wäger et al. 2012).
sites. The Toxic Sites Identification Program, The accidental collapse of mining dams and
a project of the Global Alliance on Health and landfills (e.g. in Spain in 1998, Romania in 2000
Pollution (GAHP), has reviewed more than 3,000 and Brazil in 2015) often leaves large areas
hazardous waste sites and estimated that as contaminated with heavy metals (Grimalt, Ferrer
many as 200 million people may be directly and Macpherson 1999; UNEP and United Nations
affected by such sites (GAHP 2013). The European Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Commission (EC) has estimated that there are over Affairs 2000; Hatje et al. 2017). If pesticides are
3 million sites in Europe where past activities have misused or overused, they can poison agricultural
polluted soils. Some 250,000 of these are in need soil, reduce its resilience, and interfere with
of urgent remediation (Science Communication natural nutrient cycles. Stockpiles of banned
Unit, University of the West of England 2013). The pesticides kept in poorly maintained facilities
United States Environmental Protection Agency across Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, have
lists 1,317 “Superfund” sites for clean-up. These left a legacy of polluted soils (Blankespoor et al.
sites present current or future threats to human 2009). Legacy soil pollution threatens local
health or the environment because hazardous communities and food supplies, biodiversity
wastes have been abandoned, accidentally and fragile ecosystems.
spilled, or illegally dumped there (US EPA 2018).
Dead zones are expanding in marine and
Even as these efforts are under way, new freshwater ecosystems worldwide
contaminated sites are being created as a
result of irresponsible waste management Many physical, chemical and biological factors
practices. Improper disposal of waste electrical combine to create “dead zones” (or hypoxia),
© UNEP/Usman Tariq, artisanal and small-scale gold mining site
146
Part I
where oxygen levels cannot support life, in the 7.2 Effects on biota and biodiversity
open ocean, coastal waters and large lakes.
Organic and nutrient enrichment related to Hazardous chemicals adversely affect wildlife
sewage/industrial discharges and land run-off in various ways
have led to increases in hypoxic zones in both
marine and freshwater ecosystems in the last In wildlife, high or prolonged exposure to certain
50 years. Increasing nutrient loads can stimulate chemicals leads to reproductive, immunological
overgrowth of surface algae, which sink and and neurological damage or even death. Many
decompose. The decomposition process depletes surfactants and heavy metals are toxic to
the supply of oxygen available to support aquatic organisms. Dioxins and PCBs adversely
organisms. While the largest marine dead zone affect reproduction in turtles and some birds,
appears to be in the northern Gulf of Mexico correlating with smaller and more fragile eggs.
(United States Geological Survey 2018), dead PCB exposure has been implicated in the
zones also exist in the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea, suppression of immune systems in seals and
and off the coast of Oregon, in Lake Eire and other marine mammals, contributing to mass
in Chesapeake Bay in North America (Díaz and die-offs in Europe in the late 1980s. Studies
Rosenberg 2011; Altieri et al. 2017; Breitburg of sea turtles have found high levels of other
et al. 2018; McCarty 2018). perfluorinated compounds, which weaken the
immune system and result in greater vulnerability
Significant damage to the atmospheric ozone to opportunistic infections (Swackhamer et al.
layer has been halted 2009; Israel 2013). A 2018 study indicates that
the drug diclofenac continues to adversely affect
According to the 2018 Scientific Assessment the health of the vulture population in India more
of Ozone Depletion (World Meteorological than a decade after it was banned (Nambirajan
Organization 2018), “as a result of the Montreal et al. 2018).
Protocol much more severe ozone depletion has
been avoided. […] Northern Hemisphere mid- Some endocrine-disrupting pharmaceuticals
latitude total column ozone is expected to return have been found to have adverse effects
to 1980 abundances in the 2030s, and Southern on wildlife (such as feminizing of male fish,
Hemisphere mid-latitude ozone to return around preventing reproduction, or triggering population
mid-century. The Antarctic ozone hole is expected collapse) at very low concentrations (Kidd et al.
to gradually close, with springtime total column 2007; Osachoff et al. 2014). A recent review of
ozone returning to 1980 values in the 2060s. […] studies of chemical contaminants in marine
The Kigali Amendment is projected to reduce ecosystems found that a wide range of chemicals
future global average warming in 2100 due had the general effect of reducing productivity
to hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) from a baseline and increasing respiration levels in wildlife
of 0.3-0.5°C to less than 0.1°C.” As a result of (Johnston et al. 2015).
ozone protection efforts, by 2030 up to 2 million
cases of skin cancer may be prevented globally A Europe-wide study provides strong evidence
each year (van Dijk et al. 2013). It is estimated that chemicals threaten the ecological integrity,
that at least 100 million cases of skin cancer and consequently the biodiversity, of almost
and many million cases of cataracts will be half the continent’s water bodies. This study,
avoided by the end of this century as a result of which tested for some 223 chemicals across
implementation of the Protocol (UNEP 2015). In 4,000 monitoring sites, found that organic
the United States, among people born between chemicals were likely to have acute lethal effects
1890 and 2100, there could be, according to the on sensitive fish, invertebrates or algae species at
US Environmental Protection Agency, 280 million 14 per cent of sites and chronic long-term effects
cases of skin cancer avoided; approximately at 42 per cent (Malaj et al. 2014). Some studies
1.6 million deaths from skin cancer prevented; have also suggested that chemical pollution adds
and more than 45 million cases of cataract also to existing pressures on the world’s coral reef
prevented (US EPA 2015). ecosystems (Box 7.1).

Box 7.1 Coral reefs are under threat from chemical pollution
Oxybenzone, a chemical widely used in

sunscreens, has been found to have damaging
effects on coral planulae. According to a study
undertaken in the United States, in Hawaii and
in the US Virgin Islands (Downs et al. 2016),
oxybenzone was shown to be a genotoxicant
to corals and a skeletal endocrine disruptor.
In Hawaii in 2018, the state legislature moved
to prohibit lotions containing oxybenzone and
octinoxate (State of Hawaii 2018). Danovaro et al.
(2008) found that several chemicals in sunscreens
– even at very low concentrations – cause
rapid and complete coral bleaching, adversely
affecting the biodiversity and functioning of reef
ecosystems. Herbicides have also been reported
to reduce the reproductive output of reef-
© Claire Ross, Coral bleaching, Rottnest island CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
building corals (Cantin, Negri and Willis 2007).
By affecting insects and pollinators, pesticides areas in Germany had declined by more than
may be jeopardizing ecosystem services 75 per cent during the previous 27 years. Loss
of insect diversity and abundance could have
The continuous application of pesticides can cascading effects on food webs and jeopardize
deplete insect and microorganism populations, ecosystem services. A review by Chagnon et al.
generating pesticide-resistant pests and (2015) found that insecticides have significant
adversely affecting predator-prey relationships. adverse effects on ecosystem services such as
A recent study (Hallmann et al. 2017) found that decomposition, nutrient cycling, soil respiration
the population of flying insects in protected and invertebrate populations. Adverse effects
were noted among earthworms, which fulfil
functions that are imporant for soil fertility, and
pollinators.
Neonicotinoids, which are among the world’s

most widely used insecticides, can affect the
sperm count of male honey bees and reduce
the number of queen bees; they may also play
a role in recent declines in bumblebee colonies.
Adverse effects on pollinators, in turn, have direct
effects on agricultural yields and food supplies
(Moffat et al. 2015; Straub et al. 2016).
Plastic litter has been linked to marine

organism mortality and may also affect
terrestrial animals
In the past decade, increasing public concern has

arisen over the potential effects of marine litter on
marine ecosystems. A report by UBA (Essel et al.
2015) notes that plastic litter in the oceans has
adverse effects on 663 species, with more than
© UNEP/Victor Estellano
148
Part I
half of them ingesting or becoming entangled in Releases of antimicrobials, heavy metals

plastic debris. Fish and seabirds easily mistake and disinfectants contribute to antimicrobial
microplastics floating at or below the ocean resistance
surface for food. Laboratory studies have
confirmed that a variety of marine organisms, The WHO has identified the spread of
including zooplankton, have the capacity to antimicrobial resistance (AMR) as one of the 10
ingest microplastics (Setälä, Fleming-Lehtinen most important threats to global health in 2019
and Lehtiniemi 2012; Cole et al. 2013). Moreover, (WHO 2019). A review of the scientific literature
plastic debris in seawater tends to adsorb POPs concluded that the large majority of scientific
such as PCBs, DDT and PAHs which, if ingested, publications found evidence of a link between
exhibit a wide range of adverse chronic effects antibiotic use in animals and AMR in humans
in marine organism (Rios et al. 2010). (Review on AMR 2016). The environmental
dimension of AMR was identified as an issue
Microplastics also affect the health of terrestrial of emerging concern in a 2017 report by UNEP.
animals. Among other reasons, this may be Strong evidence indicates that releases of
due to the leaching out of hazardous chemicals antimicrobial compounds to the environment,
(e.g. phthalates and bisphenol A) from plastic combined with direct contact between natural
particles, which can harm vertebrates as well bacterial communities and discharged resistant
as invertebrates (de Souza et al. 2018). There bacteria, are driving bacterial evolution and the
is also evidence suggesting that microplastics emergence of more resistant strains (Singer
adversely affect, for example, earthworms, which et al. 2016; UNEP 2017a). Moreover, evidence is
in turn may affect the soil condition (de Souza emerging that biocides (such as triclosan) and
et al. 2018). Given a relative lack of scientific heavy metals (including cadmium, copper, zinc
studies on this topic, calls have been made to and mercury) contribute to the spread of AMR
further investigate the effects of microplastics because they increase the selection for antibiotic
on soil organisms (Norwegian Institute for Water resistance genes among bacteria (Wales and
Research 2018; Rillig and Bonkowski 2018). Davies 2015; Singer et al. 2016; UNEP 2017a). The
generation of microplastic wastes may be fuelling
© Rich Carey/Shutterstock

Figure 7.1 Deaths (total: 1.6 million) attributed to selected chemicals, 2016 (adapted from WHO
2018a, p. 2)
Chronic kidney disease

1.9%
Congenital anomalies
1.9%
Poisonings
5.0%
Self-harm
10.7% Cancers
19.8%
Chronic
obstructive
Cardiovascular pulmonary
disease disease
32.7% 26.7%
Pneumoconiosis
1.4%
the spread of AMR, as plastic pollution facilitates The Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health
increased gene exchange among bacteria (Arias- (Landrigan et al. 2017) identified chemical
Andres et al. 2018; Imran, Das and Naik 2019). pollution as a significant “and almost certainly
underestimated” contributor to the global burden
of disease, highlighting the gaps in data and
knowledge on many chemicals in use. According
7.3 Human health effects to the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study (GBD
Risk Factors Collaborators 2016), casualties from
The burden of disease from chemicals is high occupational exposure to carcinogens amount to
0.5 million, and those from soils contaminated
In 2018, the WHO estimated the disease burden by heavy metals and other chemicals to another
preventable through sound management and 0.5 million.
reduction of chemicals in the environment at
around 1.6 million lives and around 45 million Lead is a priority pollutant for human health
disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) in 2016
(Figure 7.1). This corresponds to 2.7 per cent According to data compiled by the Institute for
of total global deaths and 1.7 per cent of the Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) at the
total burden of disease worldwide for that year University of Washington (IHME 2019) in the
(WHO 2018a). These figures are likely to be Context of the Global Burden of Disease Study,
underestimates, given that they are based only on in 2017 lead exposure accounted for more
exposures to chemicals for which reliable global than 1 million deaths and the loss of around
data exist (including lead causing intellectual 24.4 million DALYs, with the highest burden in
disability, occupational carcinogens such as low- and middle-income countries. According
asbestos and benzene, and pesticides involved to the WHO (2016), addressing lead exposure
in self-inflicted injuries). As shown in Figure 7.1, alone would prevent 9.8 per cent of intellectual
cardiovascular disease caused the largest share disability, 4 per cent of ischaemic heart disease
of deaths attributed to these chemicals, followed and 4.6 per cent of stroke.
by chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and
cancers.
150
Part I
The preventable burden of disease from unintentional poisonings has steadily declined
chemicals involved in unintentional acute since 2000, mortality rates continue to be
poisonings was estimated at 78,000 deaths in relatively high in low-income countries”.
2016
Exposure to known chemical carcinogens
For chemicals in acute poisonings, the disease increases the likelihood of cancer
burden preventable through sound management
and reduction of chemicals in the environment Cancer is the second leading cause of death
was estimated at approximately 269,000 deaths globally. It was responsible for 8.8 million deaths
and 15.4 million DALYs in 2016 (WHO 2018a). in 2015. The most common causes of cancer
This includes the following sub-categories: death are cancers of the lung (1.69 million
pesticides involved in self-inflicted injuries deaths), liver (788,000 deaths) and colon (774,000
were estimated to account for around 156,000 deaths). Approximately 70 per cent of deaths
deaths and 7.4 million DALYs; chemicals involved from cancer occur in low- and middle-income
in unintentional acute poisonings (methanol, countries (WHO 2018c). In 2012, 57 per cent of
diethylene glycol, kerosene, pesticides, etc.) were new cancer cases, 65 per cent of cancer deaths
estimated at around 78,000 deaths and around and 48 per cent of five-year prevalent cancer
4.6 million DALYs; and chemicals involved in cases were in developing countries (IARC 2012).
congenital anomalies were estimated to account The WHO has estimated that around 19 per cent
for approximately 30,000 deaths and 3.2 million of all cancers are attributable to environmental
DALYs. These figures are based only on exposures factors. This estimate includes indoor and
to chemicals for which reliable global data exist. outdoor ambient air pollution, second-hand
The World Health Statistics 2018 (WHO 2018b) smoke, asbestos, dioxins and other pollutants
found that “although the number of deaths from found in industrial emissions, constituents found

Table 7.1 Total number of agents and POPs classified by the IARC Monographs per group (Volumes
1-123) (IARC 2018)
Group Description/ Number of POPs

classification agents
Group 1 Carcinogenic to humans 120 polychlorinated biphenyls; 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin;

2,3,4,7,8-pentachlorodibenzofuran; lindane; pentachlorophenol
Group 2A Probably carcinogenic 81 DDT; polybrominated biphenyls
to humans
Group 2B Possibly carcinogenic 299 chlordane; chlordecone; heptachlor; hexachlorobenzene;α- and
to humans β-hexachlorocyclohexanes; toxaphene (polychlorinated camphenes);
mirex; polychlorinated paraffins (of average carbon chain length C12
and average degree of chlorination approximately 60 per cent)
Group 3 Not classifiable as to 502 Aldrin; dieldrin; endrin; hexachlorobutadiene; polychlorinated
its carcinogenicity to dibenzofurans (other than 2,3,5,7,8-PnCDF); polychlorinated
humans dibenzodioxins (other than 2,3,7,8-TCDD)
Group 4 Probably not carcinogenic 1 none
to humans
in food and drinking water such as pesticide well-recognized (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016). Roughly
residues, arsenic or aflatoxins, and ionizing and 14 per cent of lung cancers are attributable
non-ionizing radiation (WHO 2011; Prüss-Ustün to ambient air pollution and 17 per cent to
et al. 2016). household air pollution (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016).
Pesticide exposure of pregnant women has been
The International Agency for Research on found to increase the risk of childhood leukaemia
Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency under the in their children. Additional evidence supports a
WHO, provides evidence on the carcinogenicity link between naturally occurring arsenic above a
of agents (including chemicals, mixtures, certain threshold in drinking water and the risk
occupational exposures) to humans or animals. of bladder cancer (Turner, Wigle and Krewski
Agents classified by the IARC Monographs are 2010; IARC 2018).
divided into four groups. Table 7.1 provides
an overview of the more than 1,000 chemicals Laboratory studies show chemicals can cause
and other agents classified by the IARC to date, disruption of endocrine systems and hormonal
including classification of POPs regulated under disorders
the Stockholm Convention (not all have been
evaluated to date, e.g. PFOS, HBCD). Five POPs An increasing number of epidemiological
are classified in Group 1. Of the proposed POPs studies show that environmental exposures
(Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention 2017; to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention 2018), (Box 7.2) are associated with human diseases
PFOA is classified as Group 2B and dicofol as and disabilities (Vandenberg et al. 2012; Di Renzo
Group 3. et al. 2015). Studies show that chemically induced
hormonal effects can appear at exposures at
A 2011 WHO report provided global statistics extremely low dosages, although the science on
for two chemicals, asbestos and lead, which this is not settled. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals
were classified as a carcinogen and a probable include some pesticides, flame retardants, and
carcinogen, respectively. It estimated that components of fuels, plastics and plasticizers.
asbestos exposures resulted in 107,000 deaths A recent report by UNEP (2017b) lists several
worldwide per year (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2011). phenols, certain phthalates, bisphenol F and S,
Although social and genetic factors play critical and four parabens, among others, as EDCs or
roles in breast cancer causation, the role of some potential EDCs. Recent studies address whether
chemicals such as PCBs and ethylene oxide is EDCs may be contributing to the increase in the
152
Part I
incidence of metabolic diseases such as type 2 for the increased incidence of such diseases,
diabetes and obesity (Heindel et al. 2015) a variety of factors can be involved, including
(but not limited to) exposure to chemicals. While
A 2012 review (Bergman et al. 2013) of the state hundreds of chemicals are known or suspected
of the science on endocrine-disrupting chemicals EDCs, only a small share have been sufficiently
noted that many endocrine-related diseases and investigated to identify overt endocrine effects
disorders are on the rise (e.g. low semen quality in intact organisms. Significant uncertainties and
among many young men, genital malformations, knowledge gaps remain in the understanding
adverse pregnancy outcomes, neurobehavioural of EDCs and their effects. However, this review
disorders, cancers, obesity and type 2 diabetes). noted that exposure of humans and wildlife to
While genetic factors alone cannot account EDCs is widespread and that some associations
Box 7.2 Endocrine-disrupting chemicals
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are chemicals that can alter functions of the endocrine
system and consequently cause adverse health effects. The endocrine system consists of many
interacting tissues that communicate with one another and the rest of the body by means of
hormones. This system is responsible for controlling many processes in the body, from gamete
formation to conception and early developmental processes such as organ formation, and most
tissue and organ functions throughout adulthood. EDCs interfere in some way with hormone
action and, in doing so, alter endocrine function and lead to adverse effects on the health of
humans and wildlife. Some observed health effects associated with EDCs include, but are not
limited to, cancer as well as reproductive, developmental, immunological and neurological
disorders (UNEP 2017b).

with adverse effects have become apparent. prompted regulatory action in many countries
Examples include high exposure to dioxins and at the global level. Phthalates such as
and PCBs as risk factors in breast cancer, and dibutyl phthalate and DEHP are associated with
risks of prostate cancer related to occupational reduced sperm count and motility (Wang et al.
exposure to pesticides. The review also found 2015). A recent cohort study conducted as a
that wildlife populations have been affected by part of the Canadian Maternal-Infant Research
EDCs, particularly due to some POPs, banning on Environmental Chemicals found exposure
which has allowed some populations to recover. to PFOA and PFHxS may reduce fecundability
(Vélez, Arbuckle and Fraser 2015a). Exposure to
Exposure to some hazardous chemicals can triclosan has been associated with low fertility in
harm reproductive capacities epidemiologic studies (Vélez, Arbuckle and Fraser
2015b). Some research suggests that exposure
Exposure to certain hazardous chemicals has to some nanomaterials may adversely affect
been shown to effect sexual functioning and reproductive systems (Vasyukova, Gusev and
fertility in both women and men, as well as Tkachev 2015).
developmental disorders in the foetus and
offspring. Preconception and prenatal exposure Neurological health is affected by exposure to
to toxic chemicals is a critical issue for both women hazardous chemicals
and men of childbearing age. While adverse
effects on reproductive outcomes can arise The most common neurodegenerative ailments
from a range of sources, some pharmaceuticals among the elderly include Alzheimer’s,
(e.g. thalidomide and diethylstilbestrol [DES], Huntington’s and Parkinson’s diseases and
both now phrased out) are well-recognized various neurodevelopmental disorders
hazards to reproduction. including learning disabilities, sensory deficits,
developmental delays and cerebral palsy. While
Lead has long been known to be harmful to genetics and other factors play important
pregnancy. Maternal lead exposure, even at roles in determining these outcomes, some
low levels, may be associated with reduced common industrial chemicals (including lead,
foetal growth, lower birth weight, pre-term methylmercury, PCBs, arsenic and toluene)
birth and spontaneous abortion (US NTP 2012; have been identified as potential causes of
Health Canada 2013). Other substances, such neurodevelopmental disorders and subclinical
as alkyl phenols, alkyl phenol ethoxylates, brain dysfunction. Exposure to these chemicals
polyethoxylates, bisphenols and various during early foetal development causes brain
pesticides, have been associated in laboratory injury at doses much lower than those affecting
studies with a range of adverse reproductive adult brain functions (Grandjean and Landrigan
health effects including sperm count decline, 2006).
hypospadias and cryptorchidism in offspring,
and cancer of the breast and testes (Rim 2017). A Lead exerts toxic effects in all parts of the nervous
study of sperm count and sperm quality among system. There is no known safe blood lead
a general sample of men in the United States concentration. Even blood lead concentrations
found a significant association between adverse as low as 5 µg/decilitre, once thought to be a
outcomes and the heightened urinary presence “safe level”, may be associated with decreased
of several metabolites of phthalate esters, intelligence, behavioural difficulties, and learning
recognized as potential endocrine disruptors problems in children (WHO 2018d). Lead
(Bloom et al. 2015). poisoning causes life-threatening encephalopathy
(disruption of brain function), particularly in
Pesticides such as dibromochloropropane young children. There is a large literature on
(DBCP) are associated with sterility (Thrupp 1991) the neurodevelopmental toxicity of lead in
and DDT exposures have been linked to pre- children (Lidsky and Schneider 2003; Bellinger
term birth (Longnecker et al. 2001), which has 2004; Needleman 2004; US NTP 2012; Lanphear
154
Part I
2015). The effects include reduced cognition and study (Arbuckle et al. 2016) found concentrations
behaviour scores, changes in attention (including of lead, and to a lesser extent bisphenol A and
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]), phthalates, in children’s urine to be significantly
impaired visual-motor and reasoning skills, and associated with adverse behavioural indicators.
impaired social behaviour and reading ability. Continued research has revealed an increasing
The brain is particularly vulnerable to lead number of chemicals with potentially adverse
exposure during early childhood. It interferes neurological effects (Grandjean and Landrigan
with synaptogenesis, the trimming of synaptic 2014) (Table 7.2), including some phthalates
connections, and myelination during the early (Arbuckle et al. 2016) and bisphenol A (Braun
years of childhood growth (Lanphear 2015). et al. 2017).
Neurobehavioural problems such as autism, Fragranced products and some chemicals

ADHD and dyslexia affect about 10-15 per cent contribute to multiple chemical sensitivity
of children born in industrialized countries. The
United States Centers for Disease Control and Multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) refers to a
Prevention (US CDC) reported that one in 68 chronic disease in which low levels of chemicals
children in the United States had an autism invoke a multiplicity of unrelated symptoms.
spectrum disorder. Scientific evidence indicates This disease has increasingly been recognized
that the incidence of both autism and ADHD in in several countries since the 2000s (Carman
industrialized countries is increasing (US CDC 2017). Chemicals associated with MCS include
2014). While there is some evidence that chemical those found in cleaning products, pesticides, air
exposure is a contributing cause, the science fresheners and cosmetics. Steinemann (2016;
is not conclusive. More conclusive is the effect 2018a; 2018b) reported strong evidence that
of mercury and PCBs with respect to cognitive some fragranced consumer products (as an
deficits. Research shows that there are critical important source of indoor air pollution) are
windows of vulnerability during embryonic and also an important contributor to MCS and can
foetal and infant development; during these cause adverse health effects such as respiratory
periods exposures to chemicals such as some problems, headaches and skin problems. A
persistent organic pollutants (POPs), pesticides literature review found that sufficiently strong
and lead are likely to cause learning disabilities, evidence in MCS diagnosis was currently lacking
hyperactivity and other cognitive deficiencies and called for further longitudinal epidemiological
(Rice and Barone 2000; Lanphear 2015). A 2016 studies (Rossi and Pitidis 2018).
Table 7.2 Chemicals identified by Grandjean and Ladrigan (2014, p. 333) as being toxic to the human
nervous system, 2006 and 2013
Groups of chemicals Number identified in Number identified in Number identified since 2006
2006 2013
Metals and inorganic 25 2 hydrogen phosphide

compounds
Organic solvents 39 (including ethanol) 40 ethyl chloride
Pesticides 92 101 Acetamiprid, amitraz, avermectin, emamectin,
fipronil (Termidor), glyphosate, hexaconazole,
imidacloprid, tetramethylenedisolfotetramine
Other organic 46 47 1-3-butadiene
compounds
Total 202 214 12 new substances
Some of the substances listed above continue to be the subject of scientific debate regarding
their toxicity to the human nervous system.

7.4 Social effects impairments, and have less access to health

services (Santana and Rubeiro 2011; SAICM
The benefits and risks of manufactured chemicals Secretariat 2016).
and chemical production are not equally shared
across the world (Landrigan et al. 2017). Workers Where hazardous chemicals are used in industrial
in developing economies are often exposed to workplaces, the air can be contaminated with
heavy risks from hazardous workplace chemicals dusts and volatile chemicals released from
used in product manufacture, while consumers in materials, products and processes. Workers, who
high-consumption economies enjoy the benefits may spend eight or more hours there, may come
of inexpensive products. The suffering of the into contact with significant amounts of these
poor from polluted air and water often outweighs chemicals. There is no reliable way to determine
the benefits they gain from cheap products the number of chemicals in workplaces around
and foods. Women and children, particularly the world, or how many workers are exposed to
among the poor, are frequently exposed to these chemicals. Virtually every type of workplace
disproportionate risks and lack the social or in every sector uses chemicals, which means a
political means to protect themselves. wide range of workers are potentially exposed
(ILO 2013a).
Workers are exposed to hazardous chemicals

7.4.1 Vulnerable populations throughout the supply chain, from extraction,
to manufacturing, to recycling and disposal. Of
Workers typically have higher exposures to particular concern is the exposure of workers in
hazardous chemicals than do other community chemical-intensive industries where the use of
members manufactured chemicals is rapidly expanding
(including electronics, textiles, construction
Specific conditions of work put workers at and agriculture), as well as services such as
high levels of risk from chemical exposures, cleaning, maintenance, hairdressing, manicure
particularly those working in SMEs in developing and pedicure. Moreover, workers in lower-
countries and economies in transition, working income countries are particularly at risk from
in the informal economy, subject to shift work exposure during informal recycling activities
or working as migrant labourers. These workers (Landrigan et al. 2017). For example, a study in
are often subject to less regulated working Zimbabwe found significant adverse effects on
conditions, have a higher risk of suffering health workers from the management of hazardous
© UNITAR/Andrea Cararo, worker at a wastewater treatment plant in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
156
Part I
Figure 7.2 Deaths and DALYs from occupational exposure to cadmium, 1990-2017 (adapted from
IHME 2019)
700 20k
DALYS (disability-adjusted life years, number)

650
18k
600
16k
Deaths, number
550
500 14k
450 12k
400
10k
350
8k
300
0 0
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2017
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2017
Global, both sexes, all ages, all causes, risk: occupational exposure to cadmium
waste (including paint, cleaning products and to be attributable to occupational exposures

pesticides) in informal enterprises (Jerie 2016). while asbestos exposure accounted for 4,216
(Rushton et al. 2012). More specifically, the
In 2015 almost 1 million workers died from WHO estimated that 6 per cent of deaths from
exposure to hazardous substances, including cancers of the lung, bronchus and trachea were
dusts, vapours and fumes (an increase of more attributable to chemicals found in the workplace.
than 90,000 workers compared to 2011), based Occupational exposures to arsenic, asbestos,
on estimates released by the ILO (Hämäläinen, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, diesel exhaust,
Takala and Kiat 2017). Statistics from the Global nickel and silica were estimated to cause 111,000
Burden of Disease Database quantify the global deaths (and 1,011,000 DALYs) from lung cancer
effects of occupational exposure to cadmium in 2004 (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2011).
in 2017 at more than 18,000 DALYs and around
659 deaths in 2017 and show a steady increase A series of studies from the United States
in both metrics (IHME 2019) (Figure 7.2). Among and Asia published in the 1990s and 2000s
other diseases, cadmium has been associated reported increased risks of adverse reproductive
with cardiovascular disease and cancer (Adams, outcomes among microelectronics workers,
Passarelli and Newcomb 2012; Tellez-Plaza et al. including spontaneous abortions, menstrual
2013). aberrations, infertility, birth defects and cancer
in offspring. Despite increased corporate and
Endocrine-disrupting and carcinogenic government attention to the hazards of lead,
chemicals put workers at risk nickel, arsenic and chlorinated solvents used in
the industry, recent studies suggest that higher
Worldwide, the highest exposures to carcinogens rates of spontaneous abortions and menstrual
in terms of concentrations take place in aberrations continue among electronics workers
workplaces. A 2016 WHO report estimated in the Republic of Korea (Kim, Kim and Lim 2015).
that 2-8 per cent of all cancers arose from
occupational chemical exposures (WHO 2016). Many chemical-related facility injuries and
An extensive study of cancer in Great Britain fatalities occur each year
found that 8,010 (5.3 per cent of all cancers) total
cancer deaths in that country were attributable While the chemical industry has implemented
to occupation in 2004; out of the 339,156 cancer several programmes to prevent accidents at
registrations in 2004, 13,598 were estimated chemical manufacturing facilities, accidents at

refineries, downstream manufacturing plants Protective clothing, training and regulatory

and other locations are reported to injure or enforcement are often lacking in both developed
kill hundreds of workers each year (Mihailidou, and developing countries.
Antoniadis and Assael 2012; International
Association of Oil and Gas Producers 2017; Zhao Miners are also highly exposed to hazardous
et al. 2018; OECD 2019). The best known example chemicals, particularly in developing countries. In
of a major chemical accident is the exposure many parts of the world minerals are extracted
of more than half a million people, including by artisanal and small-scale mining (ASGM).
thousands fatally, to around 42,000 kg of methyl The large majority of the miners are very poor,
isocyanate and other gases released from a exploiting marginal deposits in harsh and often
Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, India dangerous conditions – and with considerable
in 1984 (Broughton 2005). The EU tracks chemical impact on the environment. Small-scale mining is
accidents through its Major Accident Reporting thought to involve 13 million people directly and
(eMARS) System (EC 2018). A review of chemical affect the livelihoods of a further 80-100 million
accidents reported in the news media between (International Institute for Environment and
October 2016 and September 2017 (Wood 2017) Development 2002). Research in Ghana among
indicates that chemical accidents and near misses ASGM communities found that more than
continue to occur frequently in OECD countries, 50 per cent of miners and 25 per cent of non-
but that fatality rates are lower than those in miners surveyed exhibited serious mercury
non-OECD countries. According to this study, toxicity and up to 7 per cent had neurological
OECD countries accounted for nearly two-thirds problems (Amankwah and Ofori-Sarpong 2014).
of events (421 out of 668), but barely one-third
of deaths (201 out of 579). Foetuses, infants and children are more
susceptible to the risks of chemical exposure
Occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals than adults
results in a wide range of chronic diseases
Children’s health and development are
Diseases associated with exposures to hazardous compromised by exposures to a wide array of
substances are estimated to kill about 438,000 hazardous chemicals. Children are particularly
workers annually (ILO 2005). Common diseases sensitive to these exposures because of their
associated with hazardous chemical exposures higher body surface to weight ratio, differences
include asthma, asbestosis, byssinosis, silicosis, in metabolism, ongoing organ growth and
mesothelioma, bauxite fibrosis, contact development, and lack of understanding and
dermatitis, berylliosis and chronic obstructive caution. Learning disorders, hyperactivity and
pulmonary disease. For example, working in attention deficits in children are associated with
building cleaning services that use commercial exposures of foetuses or infants to hazardous
cleaners has been associated with new-onset chemicals, including lead, mercury, manganese,
asthma (Zock, Vizcaya and Le Moual 2010). dioxin and PCBs. During foetal development the
Workers exposed to high levels of carcinogens brain is particularly vulnerable to some toxins,
are particularly vulnerable. Asbestos exposure such as methylmercury and PCBs. Methylmercury
alone claims over 100,000 lives every year, and affects the proliferation and migration of
this figure is rising (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016). neurons; methylmercury and PCBs both affect
synaptogenesis. Even small amounts of mercury
Agricultural workers may be exposed to high in the diets of pregnant women have been
levels of pesticides while working in fields, or associated with language, attention and memory
in local communities or camps where they live. impairment in their offspring (Bose-O’Reilly et al.
Exposures in fields occur as a result of direct 2010). The health of children and young adults is
pesticide applications, pesticide drift from areal particularly affected by unintentional poisonings
applications, and residues on plants or in soils. (Figure 7.3).
158
Part I
Figure 7.3 Percentage of deaths attributed to unintentional poisonings by selected chemicals by

age (adapted from WHO 2018a, p. 2)
0.9
0.8
0.7
Percentage of deaths
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Age (years)
Children in developing countries are at to 780,000 children to be at risk of diminished

particularly high risk intelligence from exposure to lead (Chatham-
Stephens et al. 2014).
Significant reductions in childhood blood lead
levels have been documented in industrialized The ILO has estimated the number of working
countries that have phased out leaded gasoline children aged five to 14 to be 168 million
and lead in paints – although the WHO has worldwide, of which 60 per cent are engaged in
estimated that 99 per cent of children with high agriculture. Some 85 million child labourers have
blood lead levels live in developing countries been reported to be in hazardous work such as
where lead in gasoline and paint is still prevalent farming, construction, textiles, mining, tanning,
(WHO 2009). Children living in the vicinity of waste ship breaking and fishing, including many who
sites are particularly at risk. A study assessing 200 are exposed to toxic chemicals. Although in
hazardous waste sites in 31 countries found close absolute terms middle-income countries are
© United Nations Photo/Logan Abassi, Children Scavenge for Valuables in Garbage Dump in Haiti CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

host to the largest numbers of child labourers, as the halogenated hydrocarbons (UNDP 2011;
the highest incidence of children working in SAICM Secretariat 2016; (WECF 2016). Men
hazardous occupations is in Sub-Saharan Africa may be particularly at risk, for example, due to
(ILO 2011; ILO 2013b). potential adverse effects on sperm quality (Rim
2017; Bloom et al. 2015).
The elderly are uniquely susceptible to the
risks of hazardous chemicals Gender differences in workplace exposure
Chemical exposures can aggravate compromised Often men are more likely than women to be
organs and increase vulnerability to opportunistic engaged in physically dangerous occupations
disease in the elderly. The ability of the body to with high chemical exposures. In occupations
respond to the physiological challenge presented such as fishing, mining, tanning, stone cutting,
by hazardous chemicals is dependent in part construction, boat disassembly and equipment
upon the health of the organ systems that handling, for example, men are more likely to
eliminate those substances from the body (Risher be exposed to acids, solvents, heavy metals,
et al. 2010). Older people are susceptible to the asbestos, fuels and explosives; they are also more
effects of mercury because of declining organ likely to be exposed at greater concentrations
functions, and to air and water pollution because than women. Women make up most of the
of impaired DNA repair mechanisms. Low-level assembly line workers among supply chain
exposure to lead may increase their risk of high vendors in emerging economies, particularly in
blood pressure and the incidence of cognitive electronics, toys and textiles, where they may be
impairments and psychiatric symptoms (anxiety exposed to solvents, mastics, metals in paints and
and depression) (Payton et al. 1998). Exposures coatings, dyes, and textile finishing chemicals. In
to lead and PCBs have been linked to dementia, agricultural work women make up 43 per cent
while Parkinson’s disease has been linked to of the workforce (FAO 2011). While men are
exposures to the manufactured heroin 1-methyl- more likely to be directly exposed to pesticides
4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), the during application, women and children are more
pesticide rotenone and the metal manganese likely to be indirectly exposed during planting,
(Stein et al. 2008). Links between Parkinson’s and maintenance work and harvesting (Arbuckle and
Alzheimer’s diseases and various solvents and Ritter 2005; UNDP 2007; Pesticide Action Network
pesticides are suspected, although the evidence Asia and the Pacific 2017). Pesticide exposure
is not conclusive (Allen and Levy 2013). can affect women’s fertility, reproductive health,
menstruation patterns and risk of endometriosis
7.4.2 Gender (García 2003). In men occupational pesticide
exposure can be associated with adverse effects
Different factors determine chemical exposure on sperm quality (Martenies and Perry 2013;
for men and women Miranda-Contreras et al. 2015; Cremonese et al.
2017).
Social and cultural norms, family traditions
and, in some countries, laws and regulations Gender differences in domestic exposure
differentiate how men and women are exposed
to hazardous chemicals. The differences include Use of certain product types varies significantly
the kinds of chemicals encountered, as well as by gender. This difference is often associated with
the concentrations and frequency of exposures. conventional family roles and occupations. Where
In addition, men and women differ in their women work in homemaking, teaching, health
physiological susceptibility to the effects of care, elder care and child care, they are more
exposure to hazardous chemicals. Women are likely to be exposed to soaps, detergents, food
especially vulnerable to some chemicals during preservatives, cooking oils, solvents, insecticides,
pregnancy and lactation, while the higher volume and pesticides used in vector control. Because
of fatty tissue in women’s bodies makes them women and girls usually assume responsibility
more vulnerable to fat soluble chemicals such for cleaning and household management, they
160
Part I
are more likely than men to be exposed to 7.4.3 Poverty, social stratification
toxic chemicals found in cleaning agents and and cultural aspects
sanitizers (UNDP 2011). According to the WHO
(2018a), the disease burden preventable through Chemical pollution disproportionally affects
sound management and reduction of chemicals the poor
in the environment is significantly higher for
men (Figure 7.4), mainly due to their higher The poor in both higher- and lower-income
occupational exposure in certain sectors. economies are at a higher risk of disease and
deaths caused by chemical pollution (GAHP 2013).
Women are significantly greater users of Nearly 92 per cent of pollution-related deaths
cosmetics and personal care products, many occur in low- and middle-income countries.
of which are directly applied on the skin (UNEP Disease caused by pollution is most prevalent
2016; WECF 2016). They include skin lightening among minorities and marginalized populations
products, which often contain hazardous (Landrigan et al. 2017). Such disadvantaged
substances such as mercury. In some cultures groups, which are disproportionally affected
women are likely to use large amounts of by the cumulative impacts of pollution and
cosmetics, particularly perfumes, skin creams, nail poverty, often lack the financial, social and
varnishes, deodorants and hair treatments. One political capacities to avoid such exposure,
report has suggested that British women may put particularly in lower-income countries. In cities
an average of 515 chemicals on their bodies every minority and disadvantaged people often
day (Rice 2009). Cosmetics and personal care reside in neighbourhoods near industrial areas,
products are among the most chemical-intensive production facilities, waste dumpsites, waste
products on the commercial market. Some 5,000 treatment facilities, or polluted water or land;
chemical ingredients are used in the personal in rural areas the poor often reside near mining
care industry. Many products contain parabens, operations, agricultural fields sprayed with
phthalates, propylene glycol, 1,4-dioxane, pesticides, livestock feeding lots, abandoned
triclosan, diethanolamine, benzaldehyde and chemical stockpiles, waste disposal sites or
various other biocides, some of which are linked polluted water sources (Goldman and Tran
to allergies, asthma, endocrine disruption, 2002; GAHP 2013; Collins, Munoz and JaJa 2016;
reproductive damage and cancer (Ostojić 2016; Starbuck and White 2016).
SAICM Secretariat 2016). Women of colour have
been shown to be particularly at risk (Zota and A number of studies have found low-income
Shamasunder 2017). individuals to have significantly higher exposures
to diabetogenic EDCs (Ruiz et al. 2018). A study
of the health effects of toxic waste sites in India,
Figure 7.4 Deaths attributed to selected Indonesia and the Philippines concluded that the
chemicals, by gender (adapted burden of disease from living near hazardous
from WHO 2018a, p. 2)
waste sites (measured in DALYs) is comparable
to that from outdoor air pollution or malaria
0.3 0.04
(Chatham-Stephens et al. 2013). In the United
Deaths per 1,000 population
0.26
States living near industrial facilities has been
0.2
associated with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (de
0.02 Roos et al. 2010). Poor and disadvantaged
0.1 0.10
people also often experience significant adverse
chemical exposures at work. Where poor people
0 Male Female find work either in industry, agriculture or the
informal sector, they are more likely than higher-
Injuries Non-communicable diseases
wage workers to work in dangerous, unregulated
settings where exposures to hazardous chemicals
are high (Rockefeller Foundation 2013).

The housing of poorer people puts them at marine mammals may be among the most
greater risk from hazardous chemicals highly exposed to persistent, bioacumulative
and toxic chemicals (PBTs) (Undeman et al.
Low-income housing in industrialized countries 2018). For example, studies in Canada showed
may contain asbestos, lead and formaldehyde that First Nations people consuming large
and be heavily sprayed with pesticides. Building amounts of fish (Marushka et al. 2017) and Inuit
materials in developing countries may be cheaply consuming marine mammals (Hu, Laird and Chan
made or recycled, with little concern for possible 2017) could have an elevated intake of PCBs,
chemical risks. Studies have shown that indoor dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, and methyl
air quality in low-income housing is often more mercury. In the United States a study of the Yupik
hazardous than that in middle-income housing, people of St. Lawrence Island (Alaska) found
as it has higher levels of contaminants such PCBs in their blood at levels six to nine times
as lead, PAHs, allergens and pesticides (Rauh, higher than in that of the general population in
Landrigan and Claudio 2008). the lower 48 contiguous states (Carpenter and
Miller 2011).
Food contamination can be higher as a result
of poverty or traditional diets
In high-consumption countries where high- 7.5 Challenges and opportunities

quality and organic foods are available to high related to information about
wage earners, the food available to low-income chemicals’ effects
people with limited means is high in preservatives
and stabilizers and marketed in single-use Examining trends in the environmental, health
plastic packaging that may contain phthalates, and social effects of manufactured chemicals
heavy metals and other additives (Rather et al. worldwide is limited by the availability and
2017). In developing countries the traditional quality of information; the capacity of science
meats, fish and vegetables available to the poor to characterize chemical mixtures and synergistic
may be contaminated with pesticides and the effects; and the research still needed to link
residues of industrial pollution. Indigenous chemical exposure with environmental, health
people reliant on traditional diets of fish and and social outcomes.
162
Part I
Effects information is still lacking for exposures and complex interactions of mixtures
thousands of chemicals, although work is is advancing, methodological challenges remain
progressing in understanding cumulative exposure to
various chemicals and related potential health
In the past 50 years corporations, governments and environmental effects and research in
and university research labs have documented this area is continuing to help ensure a high
the health and environmental effects of hundreds level of protection (Kortenkamp, Backhaus and
of manufactured chemicals. The OECD High Faust 2009). Often humans and ecosystems are
Production Chemicals Programme and, in the exposed to a heterogeneous set of compounds or
EU, REACH registration dossiers have more products, some of which may have combinational
systematically expanded this information, and or synergistic effects. Complex interactions can
some high production chemicals and substances occur with mixtures of chemicals, such that the
such as lead, mercury, asbestos and PCBs toxicological effects experienced as a result of
are well-studied. However, a comprehensive such exposures may differ significantly from the
inventory of the health and environmental laboratory-studies on the effects of the individual
effects of thousands of other chemicals is still chemicals (EC 2011). For example, a study of the
lacking. There is a large volume of research effects of five common pesticides mixed together,
on chemical effects that result in cancer and as opposed to individually, demonstrated an
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. However, effect greater than a simple additive effect on
chemical effects on reproductive, endocrine, the brain enzymes of steelhead salmon (Laetz
immunological and neurological systems are less et al. 2009). Understanding the effects of long-
well-explored. There is substantial information term and low-dose exposures to mixtures of
on chemical effects on some plants and aquatic chemicals, particularly among young children, is
and terrestrial organisms that are conducive also limited. These topics are discussed in more
to laboratory study, but much less field-based detail in Part III.
research on chemical exposure effects.
Causal relationships between exposures and
There are many studies on occupational effects are often difficult to establish
exposures, and much research on chemical
effects on adult men. Only recently has more Diseases are multifactorial. They are often the
research appeared on the effects of chemical result of both genetic and environmental factors.
exposure on women and children. Little Establishing causal relationships is difficult due
research has been conducted on such effects to various intrinsic factors that can hinder clinical
on the elderly, the poor, communities, or larger and epidemiological studies, as well as a lack
marine and terrestrial animals. The social effects of consensus on appropriate study designs
of chemical exposures on communities, and and research methodologies. Epidemiological
the disparities of effects among subsets of the studies often require long time periods, large
population, are little recognized or studied. populations, or both. Clinical studies provide
results that may be difficult to extrapolate to
Despite progress, significant challenges existing conditions. Where controversies arise,
remain in understanding mixture effects and multiple studies may generate contradictory
long-term, low-dose exposures results and lead to long delays in taking risk
management decisions since the science has not
Important progress is being made in developing been settled. In some instances, the best that can
approaches and methods to assess mixture be achieved is plausible associations based on
toxicity, and several reviews and guidance mathematical modelling; statistical associations;
documents reflecting the state of science are combinations of laboratory, experimental and
available (OECD 2011; Meek et al. 2011; WHO field studies; or various forms of expert judgment
2017; US ATSDR 2018). Although the development (Adams 2003).
of research methods for studying the multiple

8/ The economic benefits of action and the

costs of inaction
Chapter Highlights
Various studies have estimated the economic benefits of action taken to reduce
or avoid exposure to dangerous chemicals, and the costs of inaction under the
current policy framework.
Robust economic analysis is challenging and is associated with uncertainties;

refinement of methodologies is ongoing and further studies are needed.
There is evidence that chemical exposure places an economic burden on health

care systems, and that it reduces the productivity and capability of the workforce
and the well-being (or utility) of wider populations through reduced disposable
incomes and increased suffering.
The costs associated with exposure to harmful chemicals are estimated to be in

the range of several per centage points of global GDP; likewise, the economic
benefits of action from preventing chemical exposure are significant.
A study of the economic and social effects of using harmful chemicals could help
to raise awareness of the global scale of chemicals and catalyse further action.
L
arge numbers of chemicals are manufactured, which is limited to a comparatively small number
distributed, and incorporated into mixtures, of substance-disease pairings and countries – is
articles and products globally. They provide reviewed.
a wide range of essential functions, generating
substantial economic value and social benefits.
These benefits arise at the point of sale (and along
various supply chains) from the functionality that 8.1 Externalities associated with
chemicals impart in products, the efficiency they chemicals across the value chain
support in manufacturing, and the process and
product innovations they enable. Throughout a In economic terminology, an externality may
product’s life cycle, however, exposure to harmful be referred to as a cost or benefit that affects a
chemicals can cause damage to human health party which has not chosen to incur that cost or
and well-being, biodiversity, and terrestrial and benefit. External costs may arise, for example,
aquatic wildlife. This chapter supplements the from the impaired functioning of ecosystem
analysis provided in the previous chapters. It services, biodiversity loss, or harm to wildlife.
discusses economic aspects of the valuation of Quantitatively relating the impact of chemical
costs and benefits associated with chemicals, pollution (or of human consumption patterns) to
and examines the differences between private ecosystems damage, biodiversity loss or harm to
benefits (or costs) and social benefits (or costs); particular species remains challenging (Marques
economists refer to social benefits/costs as et al. 2017; Wilting et al. 2017; Chaplin-Kramer
“externalities”. The available economic analysis – and Green n.d.). More economic analysis exists
164
Part I
of the external costs to human health that are exposure to these chemicals (the “costs of
attributable to chemical pollution. inaction”). Examples of the costs of inaction are
the direct costs of health care and the indirect
Concerning chemicals and waste management, costs arising from time off work or impaired
knowledge is emerging about the economic capability (Nordic Council of Ministers 2015).
benefits of reduced exposure to harmful For business the costs of inaction could include
chemicals (the “benefits of action”) along with provision of occupational health care, or litigation
analysis of the economic costs identified with and reputational damage.
Box 8.1 Externalities: the differences between market prices and social costs (Helbling 2017)
Consumption, production and investment decisions often have effects on people who are not
directly involved in these decisions: that is, they are external to specific transactions. These effects
can be positive or negative. So-called “technical externalities” – where external effects impact
the consumption and production opportunities of others, but the market price of the product in
question does not reflect these external costs – are the most common.
Environmental pollution, from harmful chemicals or any other source, is a classic example of
a negative externality. Polluters make decisions based on the marginal costs incurred by them
and marginal benefits accruing to them through production. However, they seldom consider the
external (or indirect) costs that society incurs as a result of the production of a good. The indirect
costs are not borne by the polluter or passed on to the consumer. They are not taken into account
in market prices or in economic transactions. The social costs of production are therefore greater
than the private costs.
Negative externalities may be accompanied by positive externalities. Positive externalities could

include investment in research and development (R&D), perhaps by the same polluter, resulting in
functional benefits facilitated by chemical use in new products. These new products may support
weight savings and longer product lifetimes – resulting in, for example, wider social benefits
beyond the private cost.
The main problem with externalities is that market outcomes may not be efficient, leading to
overproduction of goods with negative externalities and underproduction of those with positive
ones. Externalities present significant policy problems when indirect costs (or benefits) are not
internalized by individuals, households and companies in their economic transactions.
Chapter 8. The economic benefits of action and the costs of inaction 165
Environmental costs are distributed within The entire literature is not covered in this chapter.
and between countries. While significant Only published and/or peer-reviewed literature is
methodological challenges, data gaps and referred to. No new estimates of economic value
uncertainties continue to exist, it is clear that and effects have been generated for the purposes
the economic costs of exposure to harmful of this report. While any economic assessment
chemicals are not only globally significant but of specific policy action should consider overall
are currently underestimated (Landrigan et al. net effects, neither the wider economic effects
2018). Since the publication of UNEPs report related to innovation, nor the costs of regulatory
Costs of Inaction on the Sound Management of implementation and compliance, are considered
Chemicals (UNEP 2013), new economic analysis in detail. In addition, economic assessment is
has emerged that has further raised awareness ongoing in public agencies in various jurisdictions
and sparked debate. Known risks are evolving and around the world and in academia. In the case
new ones are emerging. Much of the economic of the former it would not be possible to cover
evidence available focuses on Europe and the the large technical literature, although specific
United States, while disproportionate health and examples are noted. Much published academic
environmental burdens are being experienced in work focuses on a relatively small number of
low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) (Attina substance-effect parings and is confined to
and Trasande 2013; UNEP 2013; Trasande et al. studies in Europe and North America.
2016a; Landrigan et al. 2018).
Any understanding of the economic burden of
Scope of the review and analysis disease attributed to chemicals is limited by
the scientific data. The strength or otherwise
The review and analysis in this chapter explore of evidence on causality between individual
the current state of knowledge along two substances and health effects is an ongoing
dimensions: debate that continues to evolve as new
associations are discovered (Harremoes et al.
›› The economic benefits of action (BoA) or reduced 2001). The focus of this chapter is on economic
or avoided damage to human health and/or the methods, and the results obtained in trying to
environment from reduced/avoided exposure to chart these complex relationships, rather than
dangerous chemicals. These economic benefits on reviewing the epidemiological evidence.
include estimated benefits arising from, for
example, the number of lives saved or cases
of cancer avoided. Estimates are typically ex-
post (they “look back”), using information on 8.2 How have economists identified
effects from regulatory (or voluntary) actions costs and benefits?
already taken. However, they seek to guide,
refine and improve future actions. Economic assessments of the BoA and CoI seek to
reflect complex relationships. Robust economic
›› The economic costs of inaction (CoI) or damage analysis requires several earlier analytical stages,
to human health and/or the environment that which are themselves subject to uncertainty
are estimated to be occurring at present – or can and limited by the extent of epidemiological
reasonably be expected to occur in the future and biomonitoring data. Although significant
– under the current policy framework. These effects on ecosystem services, biodiversity and
costs point to the need for new or amended wildlife have been identified, most economic
actions, either regulatory or voluntary or a analysis currently relates to the effects of
combination of the two. chemical exposure on human health. Here the
key methodological steps include: establishing
166
Part I
Figure 8.1 Identifying the economic costs of involves estimating the value of lost earnings
inaction and the benefits of action from reduced/lost economic productivity due to
disease, suffering or impaired capability. This is
Human referred to as the human capital approach. Again,
Stated capital Revealed
preference preference it relates to market-traded goods (i.e. labour and
(e.g. lost
(e.g. willingness productivity) (e.g. hedonic wages) but involves important assumptions about
to pay) wage/price)
labour market participation, future earnings and
Cost-
based discounting.
(e.g. cost of
illness)
Directly or indirectly available market information
may also reveal individual preferences. Examples
are observing the wage differentials between
Available estimates of the negative risky and non-risky jobs, or differences in housing
externalities of chemical pollution costs in different environments. Sometimes, to
reduce the risk of death or suffering, individuals
or firms incur voluntary expenditures (“avertive”
expenditures) such as those on safety equipment
an epidemiological relationship (dose-response or occupational health testing and analysis. Again,
function) between chemical exposure and a this reflects the purchase and use of market-
specific health outcome; evaluating the role of traded goods (i.e. equipment and expertise).
chemical exposure in this outcome, alongside The stated preference technique relies on asking
other factors; and considering the latency of people questions through carefully designed
the disease and incorporating data on exposure surveys to elicit their willingness to pay for certain
within and across populations. While the CoI interventions that would improve their health.
may be determined using data on current Examples include the contingent valuation
exposure, BoA analysis requires longitudinal method (which involves asking questions on their
(before and after) exposure data to identify willingness to pay) and conjoint analysis (which
attributable effects of an intervention. Only then elicits preferences from particular combinations
can judgements be made concerning the number of attributes and alternatives). This technique
of attributable cases and their monetary and does not involve the purchase of market-traded
economic effects. goods, but reflects individual valuation.
Common approaches to identify the economic Commonly used output indicators for health
costs of inaction and the benefits of action are are based on mortality (premature death),
summarized below. One of these approaches morbidity (disease) and health life years. These
is typically used when assessing the costs of are expressed as disability adjusted life years
inaction and benefits of action for any single (DALYs) and quality adjusted life years (QALYs),
chemical (Figure 8.1). One approach involves while further indicators such as value of a life
estimating the costs of ongoing exposure (or year (VOLY) or years of life lost (YOLL) are used in
the avoided costs from avoided exposure). Both identifying health-related costs (World Bank 1993;
involve directly observing the costs of specific Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016; GBD 2016 DALYs and
health treatments. This is referred to as the HALE Collaborators 2017). The value of statistical
cost of illness or avoided cost approach. It is a life (VSL) is estimated using either the revealed
cost-based approach reflecting market-traded preference or the stated preference estimates.
goods (i.e. labour, wages and drugs/treatments). (OECD [2010] presents a meta-analysis of value of
However, this approach excludes effects on those statistical life [VSL] estimates obtained in various
not in the labour force, especially the young countries, using stated preference methods.)
and the old, and does not capture suffering However, methodological developments are far
experienced by the individual. Another approach from static (Box 8.2).
Box 8.2 Current methodological developments: SACAME
Coordinated by the OECD and funded by the European Commission, the Socio-economic Analysis
of Chemicals by Allowing a better quantification and monetization of Morbidity and Environmental
impacts (SACAME) project aims to support improved socio-economic analysis through better
quantification and monetization of effects. In the longer term, the project’s objective is to develop
harmonized OECD methodologies for estimating the economic costs and benefits of managing
chemicals, in support of implementation of the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
Management (SAICM) (OECD 2018).
To date, several project papers have been published exploring economic analysis in the context of
several different chemicals/chemical groups, including phthalates (Holland 2018), formaldehyde
(Hunt and Dale 2018a) and the solvent methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) (Hunt and Dale 2018b). The
papers also explore thematic methodological issues, such as the challenges of using benefit
transfer methods (Navrud 2017), approaches for the assessment of perfluoroctanoic acid (PFOA)
and persistent bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) substances more generally (Gabbert 2018), and
how chemical risk assessments can better support economic analysis in decision making (Chiu
2017). Several studies note variations in existing valuation studies, extensive data gaps, and the
need for multidisciplinary expertise. Some also call for new primary evidence, particularly from
Asia.
8.3 What the data tell us: (1992), Montreal (1997) and Beijing (1999)
interpreting the findings amendments. As at 30 October 2018, 58 Parties
had ratified the Kigali amendment (2016) which
Monetary valuation is an important aspect of will enter into force on 1 January 2019. As the
this chapter, and of the field of policy analysis loss of stratospheric ozone is avoided and the
more generally. The section above noted ozone layer recovers, several studies have
whether methods are market-based or non- sought to quantify the long-term effects of this
market-based approaches. In interpreting the multilateral environmental agreement (MEA).
studies that follow, while a comparison of the Much of the analysis concerns the United States,
aggregate values identified with gross domestic where the cumulative benefits of avoided cancers
product (GDP) is useful in dealing with market- and cataracts have been estimated at up to
based approaches, the same comparison may US dollars 4 trillion (1990-2065). In Europe the
be insufficient and potentially misleading when associated benefits have been estimated at some
economic analysis uses approaches that are not euros 7 trillion (1990-2100), or around euros
market-based (Box 8.3). 300 billion per year (Amec Foster Wheeler et al.
2017; US EPA 2015).
The Minamata Convention on Mercury came

8.4 The benefits of action taken in into force much more recently, in August 2017,
the last 50 years are globally although national and international activities
significant to monitor and reduce mercury exposure have
existed for a number of years (UNEP 2016; US EPA
Global treaties have “locked in” major 2018; UNEP n.d.). Implementation of this MEA,
economic benefits, to accrue over this century which addresses specific human activities that
contribute to widespread mercury pollution,
All countries are Parties to the Montreal Protocol will help reduce global mercury pollution in
on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, the coming decades. Bellanger et al. (2013)
which entered into force in 1989 (with several estimated the monetary value of neurotoxicity
later amendments). Moreover, all countries are prevention through methylmercury (MeHg)
also Parties to the London (1990), Copenhagen control in Europe: prenatal exposure was
168
Part I
Box 8.3 Utility, economic value and economic cost
Utility is a measure of satisfaction/dissatisfaction that individuals obtain by consuming a certain

good or service. For example, each individual draws satisfaction from the enjoyment of good
health, leisure or another consumer good. Conversely, dissatisfaction arises from poor heath,
excessive work or exposure to pollution. The additional satisfaction/dissatisfaction resulting from
the consumption of additional units of each good is referred to as the marginal utility or marginal
disutility.
Economic value is the amount of money each individual spends, or is willing to spend, to obtain
the utility from a certain good. Again, if the good results in disutility, the individual may pay to
avoid that good or accept some compensation to continue suffering from this disutility. This
economic value is a measure of the maximum amount of money the individual is willing to pay/
able to pay to derive utility from the good.
Economic value and market price, however, need not be the same. The value of the good is the
opportunity cost of obtaining that good, i.e. the amount the individual gives up to obtain it. The
value of leisure, for example, is the potential wage income sacrificed to obtain it. Economic value
can be provided by market price where markets are competitive and markets exist for the good.
Certain goods may not only have use values, but also non-use, existence or intrinsic values. In
such cases the value and price cannot be the same. Human life, for example, has intrinsic value
beyond any market price or effect; the lives of the older people and others not in the labour
market are clearly not less valuable. In these cases, economists rely on various non-market
valuation techniques to estimate the value of life. Therefore, costs refer to the economic costs or
the opportunity costs of consuming a good (or bad). The cost of pollution is the opportunity cost
of healthy life, or what the individual sacrifices to pay for his or her ill health.
associated with the loss of 600,000 IQ points of cancer, neurodevelopmental effects and
per year, corresponding to a total economic reproductive health), based on a series of case
benefit from removing methylmercury of around studies where sufficient data existed. As methods
euros 9 billion per year, while the global benefits to aggregate monetary values improve and
of neurotoxicity prevention were estimated at more data become available, the known value
upwards of around US dollars 20 billion per year. of such benefits of action is likely to increase,
The authors pointed out, however, that “the perhaps significantly (Amec Foster Wheeler et al.
validity of such calculations is limited by the lack 2017). However, analyses have not yet captured
of exposure assessments” (Bellanger et al. 2013). the possible effects of new/increased and/or
multiple exposures, or of so-called “regrettable
The benefits of action based on chemical substitutions”. Similarly, the economic costs and
legislation are valued at least in “the high tens benefits of a selection of restrictions under the
of billions” per year EU’s REACH Regulation have been evaluated
(ECHA 2016; ECHA 2017).The economic costs of
Future policy actions can be informed by and restrictions under REACH (data are not available
benefit from evaluation of policy actions taken for all cases reviewed) have amounted to euros
in the past. Since the 1960s, regulatory and 290 million per year. The monetary benefits,
voluntary actions combined have substantially although these could only be identified in a
reduced the aggregate costs associated with relatively small number of cases, have been in
exposure to a range of harmful chemicals. It the order of some euros 700 million per year.
has been conservatively estimated that the
benefits of these actions are in the “high tens In the United States a retrospective evaluation
of billions” of euros per year in the EU alone. of the benefits and costs of emission controls,
These estimates were derived largely from imposed by the Clean Air Act and associated
effects on human health (including in the areas regulations between 1970 and 1990, assessed
the effects of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, in terms of chemical substance and location.
particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, There is a risk that environmental effects will
lead, ground level and stratospheric ozone, be overlooked in policy analysis and that early
and ambient air quality (US EPA 1997). Only warnings will be missed.
some of these emissions are included in
typical assessments of “chemical” pollution.
Health conditions and effects assessed in the
evaluation included premature mortality, lost 8.5 Despite progress, the global costs
IQ points, hypertension and coronary heart of inaction are substantial
diseases; hospital admissions; and respiratory
related ailments, asthma attacks and restricted The market and non-market costs of inaction
activity days. Total monetized benefits, realized could be as high as 10 per cent of global GDP
between 1970 and 1990, were estimated at just
over US dollars 20 trillion (central estimate). A global assessment of the disease health burden
This compared to direct costs of approximately from environmental exposure to chemicals was
US dollars 0.5 trillion (US EPA 1997). published in Grandjean and Bellanger (2017).
This study attempts to reflect a broader set of
In January 2018 the Canadian Government known chemical effect relationships (including
published proposals for further controls to subclinical effects) than those included in
eliminate asbestos. Using break-even analysis, previous global burden of disease studies.
the impact assessment explored the number of The study indicates that calculations based on
avoided cases of lung cancer or mesothelioma disability adjusted life year (DALY) are likely to
required to meet the expected costs (Government understate effects, which may actually contribute
of Canada 2018). costs exceeding 10 per cent of global GDP. Costs
associated with neurotoxicants, air pollution
Environmental improvements are clear, but it and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) were
is more difficult to attribute monetary values examined. It is important to note that the effects
reported were based on both market effects
In Europe the environmental benefits of action (productivity effects or health costs) and non-
on chemicals, both regulatory and voluntary, market effects (willingness to pay valuation).
since the 1960s have also been assessed. This should be borne in mind when comparing
Among the benefits identified are reductions results with respect to GDP. Future refinement of
in chemicals found in water used for domestic, the estimates might usefully involve separating
agricultural and industrial purposes; evidence these effects.
of recoveries in some fish populations and in
their reproductive capacity; avoided damage to The costs of inaction are disproportionate in
biodiversity and ecosystem services; increased low- and middle-income countries
protection of recreational activities/aesthetic
value; and avoided damage to bird and insect Although sparse, research has increasingly
life as well as contamination of land and soil, sought to establish the costs of inaction in LMICs
consistent with regulatory action (Amec Foster (Landrigan et al. 2018). In the context of the
Wheeler et al. 2017). Attributing environmental Minamata Convention, Trasande et al. (2016a)
benefits (e.g. for biodiversity conservation, or evaluated the impact of mercury exposure
protection of ecosystem services and wildlife) to as being between US dollars 77 million and
specific actions, or identifying and aggregating 130 million at 15 sites in LMICs, using data on
quantitative and monetary effects and the extent mercury levels in hair and effects on IQ, lost
of data gaps, are challenging. Economic estimates productivity and DALYs. This study built on earlier
are possible in fewer cases, and those available ones that looked at the economic effects of
are more uncertain. As in the case of analyses childhood lead exposure on lifetime productivity
of health effects, available studies are limited and earnings in LMICs more generally. These
170
Part I
Figure 8.2 Lost lifetime earning potential for each cohort of children under five from childhood lead
exposure in 2011 (US dollars billion) (adapted from Attina and Trasande 2013)
350
300
US dollars billion
250
200
150
100
50
0
Southern
Asia
Eastern
Asia
South
America
Southeastern
Asia
Northern
Africa
Western Asia
Central
America
Western
Africa
Eastern
Africa
Southern
Africa
Middle
Africa
Central
Asia
Caribbean
studies suggest the greatest burdens may The public health costs from endocrine-
now be borne in these countries, with total disrupting chemicals are globally significant
losses of up to around US dollars 1 trillion
(some 1 per cent of global GDP), comprising Several recent studies have focused on costs
US dollars 135 billion in Africa (4 per cent of GDP), from EDCs. They assess costs only from European
US dollars 700 billion in Asia (some 2 per cent of exposure and from EDCs on which the authors
GDP) and US dollars 140 billion in Latin America consider that sufficient epidemiological studies
and the Caribbean (2 per cent of GDP) (Attina exist. Several studies have used a weight of
and Trasande 2013) (Figure 8.2). evidence characterization approach, adapted
from that used by the Intergovernmental Panel
© United Nations Photo/Logan Abassi, Women and Children Search for Cans to Sell CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
on Climate Change (IPCC). While the strength Low-level exposure, even to well-studied
of evidence and probability of causation have and well-regulated chemicals, is an ongoing
differed and caused some debate, the effects problem
assessed include IQ loss, autism, attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), endometriosis, Exposure to some chemicals has decreased
fibroids, childhood obesity, adult obesity, adult substantially. Of these chemicals, the most
diabetes, cryptorchidism, male infertility, and extensively studied are heavy metals, particularly
mortality associated with reduced testosterone lead. However, exposure to lead in ceramics,
(Trasande et al. 2016b). batteries, paints, water pipes and waste
continues to occur (Attina and Trasande 2013;
Although the key conclusions are not without Amec Foster Wheeler et al. 2017; Amec Foster
uncertainties and data gaps, and have stimulated Wheeler, Trinomics and Technopolis 2017). Low-
debate, they illustrate significant economic costs. level lead exposure in the United States has
They suggest that the costs of inaction are in been associated with some 435,000 deaths per
the order of hundreds of billions of euros per year from cardiovascular and ischemic heart
year in Europe alone. Neurobehavioral deficits disease. That figure is about 10 times higher than
(IQ loss, ADHD and autism) represent around previously estimated, reflecting new evidence
euros 150 billion per year (Bellanger et al. 2015), that associates cardiovascular disease with
male reproductive disorders and diseases euros concentrations of lead once considered safe
15 billion per year (Hauser et al. 2015), female (Lanphear et al. 2018). Costs from IQ deficits
reproductive disorders euros 1.5 billion per year and hospitalization associated with low birth
(Hunt et al. 2016) and obesity and diabetes in the weight babies, attributed to perfluorooctanoic
order of euros 18 billion per year (Legler et al. acid (PFOA) levels in mothers, was estimated at
2015). Few studies have evaluated the cost burden some US dollars 350 million in 2013-2014, down
of all the effects above. The suggested costs, after from around US dollars 3 billion in 2003-2004
accounting for probability of causation, are in the (Malits et al. 2018).
hundreds of billions of euros: euros 157 billion
(Trasande et al. 2015), which was later updated Evidence on liabilities, compensation and
to euros 163 billion per year, over 1 per cent of reputational damage is limited, but the costs
the EU’s GDP (Trasande et al. 2016b), or higher are significant
still (Rijk et al. 2016).
Limited evidence exists on the costs incurred
Additional studies have aimed to estimate by specific companies. A small number of high-
costs for the United States and China. A 2016 profile incidents/accidents have involved fines
study estimated the disease costs from EDCs of several million to several hundred million
in the United States at US dollars 340 billion US dollars. Analysis of decision-making in these
(Attina et al. 2016). For China, a 2019 study (Cao cases suggests that greater public disclosure of
et al.2019) estimated the total disease cost from information might have reduced risks (Makino
exposure to EDCs at approximately Chinese Yuan 2016; Shapira and Zingales 2017).
429 billion, equivalent to more than 1 per cent
of national GDP. This overall estimate for EDCs Historical liabilities can be responsible for
was based on an estimate on the disease cost ongoing financial costs. A good example is the
for male infertility, adult obesity and diabetes compensation payable to individuals exposed
from exposure of the Chinese population to to asbestos. In this case compensation pay-
phthalates, which was estimated at more than outs (as well as damage to human health) have
Chinese Yuan 57 billion in health care costs in continued long after extensive regulatory actions.
one year. This may reflect several factors, including:
continued exposure to “historical” asbestos
172
Part I
which is “locked” in older buildings; the long Progress has been made, but challenges
latency period between exposure and the onset remain with respect to attribution and
of disease; and people living longer through aggregation
treatment, hence requiring prolonged care. The
Institute and Faculty of Actuaries has estimated Despite several new studies, quantifying
total costs arising from all past, present and physical impacts on human health so as to
future asbestos claims in the United States at assign monetary values remains a challenge.
up to US dollars 275 billion, with costs of several The monetary values of impacts provide useful
billion US dollars each in France, Germany, Italy, reference values for cost-benefit analysis, green
the Netherlands and the United Kingdom (The accounting, and the assessment of the impact of
Actuary 2002). regulations. However, there is a lack of data for
quantifying (and assigning monetary values to)
the physical impacts of chemical releases. This
applies, in particular, to impacts on ecosystems
8.6 How effective are the methods and biodiversity, which is a major gap, recognizing
used, and what are remaining initiatives such as TEEB (The Economics of
challenges and data gaps? Ecosystems and Biodiversity) to lay foundations
and look at further methods (TEEB n.d.). Better
Challenges reflect multiple causal factors, the information is required on the full spectrum
geographic scale and the latency of disease of potentially problematic chemicals beyond
a relatively small, well-studied group, many of
Existing techniques have limitations. They which are already the subject of regulation. (See
cannot fully capture the costs incurred in terms Sørensen et al. 2017 for a review of the valuation
of reduced quality of life, pain and suffering. literature.) Further research is also needed in
Assessing the costs of illness requires accurate order to distinguish and attribute disease end
information on medical costs, but data are often points to specific chemicals, or groups thereof,
missing on length of suffering, absence from from more general lifestyle or non-chemical
work and hospital admission days, particularly in environmental factors. As methods improve,
LMICs. Estimates are sensitive to the technology however, the known benefits of action and
used and its efficiency and efficacy, which can costs of inaction are likely to increase, perhaps
vary between and within countries along with significantly.
health care systems. Estimating the economic
value of lost productivity requires making
assumptions about labour force participation,
future productivity growth and wages, and the 8.7 Lessons learned and potential
marginal relationship between IQ and earnings. actions
This approach also excludes effects on those
not in the labour force, as well as wider effects Economic analysis helps to set out the underlying
on households. Better models are needed to trade-offs inherent in the use of harmful
establish linkages between cause and effect chemicals. Much progress has been made: there is
with greater certainty, and to incorporate mounting, improving and more detailed analysis
effects from multiple exposures. This problem showing that ongoing chemical exposure places
is compounded by extensive data gaps. (See substantial economic burdens on health care
Amec Foster Wheeler et al. [2017] on the extent systems, as well as undermining the productivity
and quality of existing data required for economic and capability of the workforce. These burdens
assessment.) are considerable at national and global levels,
amounting to several per centage points of GDP.
“Pollution is very costly; it is responsible for productivity losses, health care

costs and costs resulting from damages to ecosystems. But despite the great
magnitude of these costs, they are largely invisible and often are not recognized
as caused by pollution. The productivity losses of pollution-related diseases are
buried in labour statistics. The health-related costs of pollution are hidden in
hospital budgets. The result is that the full costs of pollution are not appreciated
[and] are often not counted […]”.
- Landrigan et al. 2018
There is better analysis of economic damage, possible to report. Overestimation may occur
the spatial extent of such damage from local when extrapolating from uncertain cost data,
chemical use, the decision-making processes and more work is needed on the verification of
of business when addressing environmental some effects. However, the economic costs of
externalities, and the distribution of burdens inaction (and the benefits of action) are likely to
within populations and across countries be understated for three reasons:
(Landrigan et al. 2018).
›› While progress has been made, the economic
Robust economic analysis is technically analysis is drawn largely from a group
challenging. It requires several analytical inputs of comparatively well-studied chemicals,
which are associated with uncertainties and several of which are regulated. A larger group
debate (Bond and Dietrich 2017). These inputs consists of known or suspected pollutants
include information on substance-disease whose effects are not quantified or to which
pairings, specific dose-response relationship a monetary value has not been attributed. A
data, and information on exposure (across still larger group has not yet been studied.
populations and over time) that are needed
before judgements can be made about economic ›› Even for the well-studied group of chemicals,
effects. While all economic analysis is subject current economic approaches do not
to uncertainty and revision, significant data currently permit the quantification of all
gaps and methodological challenges remain. known economic effects.
Further analysis is required in order to verify
effects and refine analytical methods. Drawing ›› Very little quantified/monetary analysis
thematic conclusions from existing analysis exists regarding effects on the environment
becomes difficult due to differences in method, (e.g. ecosystems, biodiversity, plant and
scoping and the time periods assessed, as well animal life).
as differences in unit cost, valuation assumptions
and approaches used. There is a need for more Substantial damage to human health and the
retrospective economic assessment, and for environment has been reduced or avoided
improved assessment of causal relationships, through extensive regulatory action. Global
unintended consequences, and the effects of treaties have ensured that significant benefits
interactions among multiple chemicals and are likely in the mid to long term. At a societal
mixtures and among multiple regulations (Dudley level, however, several health outcomes
2017). (e.g. incidence rates for several cancers) that
are partly associated with chemical exposure
These considerations are offset by the relatively (along with many other factors) appear to be
limited range of economic costs that it is currently worsening (Amec Foster Wheeler et al. 2017).
174
Part I
The available economic analysis is overly biased data on costs are required, building on the work
towards a small number of high-income countries. of the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA n.d.),
There is a disproportionate health burden the OECD (2018) and other organizations and
in LMICs due to environmental exposure to individuals.
chemicals, along with ongoing low-level exposure
even to well-studied and well-regulated chemicals The scale of the challenges posed by chemicals
(Landrigan et al. 2018). Analysis also lacks and waste are not matched by the attention paid
national, subnational and social disaggregation. to it by policymakers and the general public (Das
There is a pressing need for new research on a and Horton 2018; Landrigan et al. 2018). A global
wider range of chemicals/groups, as well as on a study of the economic and social effects of using
wider range of end points and exposure routes. harmful chemicals, comparable to the Stern
The need for new research and new exposure Review on the Economics of Climate Change (Stern
data, including concentrations of chemicals in 2007), does not exist. Such a study could raise
humans (biomarker and biomonitoring data), is awareness of the global scale of these effects
particularly urgent in LMICs. Consistent methods, and catalyse further action.
consensus on unit values, and new empirical
References
Chapter 1 Cayuela, R. And Hagan, A. (2019). The Chemical Industry

Under the 4th Industrial Revolution: The Sustainable,
American Chemistry Council (2013). Shale Gas, Digital and Citizens One. Not yet published. Hoboken,
Competitiveness, and New US Chemical Industry NJ: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH.
Investment: An Analysis Based on Announced Projects.
https://www.americanchemistry.com/First-Shale- Center for International Environmental Law (n.d.).
Study/. Fueling Plastics: How Fracked Gas, Cheap Oil, and
Unburnable Coal are Driving the Plastics Boom. https://
American Chemistry Council (2017). 2017 Year-End www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Fueling-
Chemical Industry Situation and Outlook. https://store. Plastics-How-Fracked-Gas-Cheap-Oil-and-Unburnable-
americanchemistry.com/Business-of-Chemistry- Coal-are-Driving-the-Plastics-Boom.pdf.
Situation-and-Outlook.
Darkow, I.-L. and von der Gracht, H.A. (2013). Scenarios
Baltus, W. (2017). Asian Markets for Bio-Based Chemical for the future of the european process industry - the
Building Blocks and Polymers. Hürth: nova-Institut case of the chemical industry. European Journal of
GmbH. http://bio-based.eu/media/edd/2017/01/17-01- Futures Research 1(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.1007/
SHORT-VERSION-Asian-bio-based-polymer-markets. s40309-013-0010-9.
pdf.
de Wit, M. de, Hoogzaad, J., Ramkumar, S., Friedl, H. and
Bamber, P., Frederick, S. and Gereffi, G. (2016). Douma, A. (2018). The Circularity Gap Report: An Analysis
Philippines in Manufacturing Global Value Chains: of the Circular State of the Global Economy. Amsterdam:
Opportunities for Upgrading. Durham, NC: Duke Circle Economy. https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/ad6e
University. http://industry.gov.ph/wp-content/ 59_733a71635ad946bc9902dbdc52217018.pdf.
uploads/2017/08/The-Philippines-in-the-Chemical-
Global-Value-Chain.pdf. de Wit, M., Verstraeten-Jochemsen, J., Hoogzaad, J.
and Kubbinga, B. (2019). The Circularity Gap Report
Bellon, T. (2018). U.S. judge affirms Monsanto weed- 2019. Amsterdam: Circle Economy. https://www.
killer verdict, slashes damages, 23 October. Reuters. circularnorway.no/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bayer-glyphosate- ad6e59_ce56b655bcdc4f67ad7b5ceb5d59f45c.pdf.
lawsuit/u-s-judge-affirms-monsanto-weed-killer-
verdict-slashes-damages-idUSKCN1MX011. Accessed Deloitte (2016). On the Board’s Agenda – M&A: The
30 January 2019. Intersection of Due Diligence and Governance. https://
www2.deloitte.com/us/en/pages/center-for-board-
Bomtempo, J.-V., Chaves Alves, F. and de Almeida effectiveness/articles/the-intersection-of-due-
Oroski, F. (2017). Developing new platform chemicals: diligence-and-governance.html.
what is required for a new bio-based molecule to
become a platform chemical in the bioeconomy? Deloitte (2018). 2018 Global Chemical Industry Mergers
Faraday Discussions 202(0), 213-225. https://doi. and Acquisitions Outlook: In Search of Growth. https://
org/10.1039/C7FD00052A. www2.deloitte.com/global/en/pages/manufacturing/
articles/global-chemical-industry-m-and-a-outlook.
Boulamanti, A. and Moya, J.A. (2017). Energy Efficiency html.
and GHG Emissions: Prospective Scenarios for the
Chemical and Petrochemical Industry. Luxembourg: European Chemical Industry Council (2018). 2018 Facts
Publications Office of the European Union. https:// & Figures of the European Chemical Industry. https://
doi.org/10.2760/20486. cefic.org/app/uploads/2018/12/Cefic_FactsAnd_
Figures_2018_Industrial_BROCHURE_TRADE.pdf.
British Broadcasting Corporation (2017). S Korean exec
jailed over toxic humidifier disinfectant, 6 January. Exxon Mobil (2018). 2018 Outlook for Energy: A View to
https://www.bbc.com/news/business-38526697. 2040. https://cdn.exxonmobil.com/~/media/global/
Accessed 5 September 2018. files/outlook-for-energy/2018/2018-outlook-for-
energy.pdf.
Budde, F., Ezekoye, O., Hundertmark, T., Prieto, M. and
Simons, T.J. (2017). Chemicals 2025: will the industry be Fantke, P. and Ernstoff, A. (2018). LCA of chemicals and
dancing to a very different tune? McKinsey&Company. chemical products. In Life Cycle Assessment. Hauschild,
https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/chemicals/our- M.Z., Rosenbaum, R.K. and Olsen, S.I. (eds.). Cham:
insights/chemicals-2025-will-the-industry-be-dancing- Springer International Publishing. Chapter 31. 783–
to-a-very-different-tune. Accessed 3 September 2018. 815. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_31.
176
Part I
Gagnon, M.-A. and Volesky, K.D. (2017). Merger mania: Nicita, A., Ognivtsev, V. and Shirotori, M. (2013). Global
mergers and acquisitions in the generic drug sector Supply Chains: Trade and Economic Policies for Developing
from 1995 to 2016. Globalization and Health 13(1), 62. Countries. Policy Issues in International Trade and
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-017-0285-x. Commodities. Ognivtsev, V. (ed.). Geneva: United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development. http://
Gryzwa, G., Hirschbichler, E., Lorbeer, C. and Weihe, U. unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/itcdtab56_en.pdf.
(2018). Managing M&A in chemicals: meeting the new
challenges, January. McKinsey&Company. https://www. Niemiec, C. (2016). Reckitt Benckiser apologises for
mckinsey.com/industries/chemicals/our-insights/ product linked to Korea deaths, 10 May. Chemical
managing-m-and-a-in-chemicals-meeting-the-new- Watch. https://chemicalwatch.com/asiahub/47110/
challenges Accessed 3 September 2018. reckitt-benckiser-apologises-for-product-linked-to-
korea-deaths. Accessed 5 September 2018.
International Chemical Trade Association (2018a).
Global Chemical Consumption Distributed by Third-Party Oberle, B., Bringezu, S., Hatfield-Dodds, S., Hellweg, S.,
Distributor. [Figure]. Unpublished. Obtained upon Schandl, H., Clement, J., Cabernard, L., Che, N., Chen, D.,
request from ICTA. https://www.icta-chem.org/. Droz-Georget, H., Ekins, P., Fischer-Kowalski, M., Flörke,
M., Frank, S., Froemelt, A., Geschke, A., Haupt, M.,
International Chemical Trade Association (2018b). Havlik, P., Hüfner, R., Lenzen, M., Lieber, M., Liu, B., Lu,
Chemical distribution industry. https://www.icta-chem. Y., Lutter, S., Mehr, J., Miatto, A., Newth, D., Oberschelp
org/explore-topics/chemical-distribution-industry. , C., Obersteiner, M., Pfister, S., Piccoli, E., Schaldach,
Accessed 3 September 2018. R., Schüngel, J., Sonderegger, T., Sudheshwar, A.,
Tanikawa, H., van der Voet, E., Walker, C., West, J., Wang,
International Council of Chemical Associations (2015). Z. and Zhu, B. (2019). Global Resources Outlook 2019:
International Council of Chemical Associations (ICCA) is Natural Resources for the Future We Want. A report of the
the worldwide voice of the chemical industry. https:// International Resource Panel. Nairobi: United Nations
www.icca-chem.org/. Accessed 5 June 2018. Environment Programme. http://www.resourcepanel.
org/file/1172/download?token=muaePxOQ.
International Energy Agency, International Council
of Chemical Associations and Society for Chemical Sarathy, V., Morawietz, M., Gotpagar, J. and Bebiak, J.
Engineering and Biotechnology (2013). Technology (2017). 2017 Chemicals Industry Trends. New York City:
Roadmap Energy and GHG Reductions in the Chemical Strategy&. https://www.strategyand.pwc.com/media/
Industry via Catalytic Processes. Paris: International file/2017-Chemicals-Industry-Trends.pdf.
Energy Agency Publications. https://www.iea.
org/publications/freepublications/publication/ Tullo, A.H. (2017a). C&EN’s global top 50. Chemical &
TechnologyRoadmapEnergyandGHGReductions Engineering News 95(30), 30-35. https://cen.acs.org/
intheChemicalIndustryviaCatalyticProcesses.pdf. articles/95/i30/CENs-Global-Top-50.html.
International Labour Organization (2018). Decent Work Tullo, A.H. (2017b). Women in the chemical industry
and Digitalization in the Chemical and Pharmaceutical 2017. Chemical & Engineering News 95(36). https://
Industries Sectoral Policies Department. https://www.ilo. cen.acs.org/articles/95/i36/Women-chemical-
org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_dialogue/---sector/ industry-2017.html.
documents/meetingdocument/wcms_649238.pdf.
United Nations Comtrade (2018). UN Comtrade
Kawaguchi, H., Hasunuma, T., Ogino, C. and Kondo, A. database: international trade statistics. https://
(2016). Bioprocessing of bio-based chemicals produced comtrade.un.org/data. Accessed 7 June 2018.
from lignocellulosic feedstocks. Current Opinion in
Biotechnology 42, 30-39. https://www.sciencedirect. United States Department of Agriculture (2008).
com/science/article/pii/S0958166916300532. Biobased Products: Market Potential and Projections
through 2025. https://www.usda.gov/oce/reports/
KPMG (2010). The Future of the European energy/BiobasedReport2008.pdf.
Chemical Industry. https://en.calameo.com/
read/000046992f8e9d866d03c. Valencia, R.C. (2013). Market outlook: speedy
growth for chemicals by 2050, 11 October. ICIS
LaVito, A. (2018). J&J shares plunge 10% after report Chemical Business. https://www.icis.com/resources/
that the company knew for decades about asbestos news/2013/10/13/9714353/market-outlook-speedy-
in baby powder, 14 December. CNBC. https://www. growth-for-chemicals-by-2050/. Accessed 8 May 2018.
cnbc.com/2018/12/14/johnson--johnson-shares-
drop-on-reuters-report-that-the-company-knew- Wernet, G., Mutel, C., Hellweg, S. and Hungerbühler, K.
for-decades-of-asbestos-in-its-baby-powder.html. (2011). The environmental importance of energy use
Accessed 30 January 2019. in chemical production. Journal of Industrial Ecology.
15(1), 96-107. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
Levi, P.G. and Cullen, J.M. (2018). Mapping global flows full/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00294.x.
of chemicals: from fossil fuel feedstocks to chemical
products. Environmental Science & Technology. 52(4), World Intellectual Property Organization (2018).
1725-1734. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b04573. Patentscope. https://patentscope.wipo.int/search/
en/search.jsf. Accessed 5 June 2018.
177
World Trade Organization (2018). World Trade CropLife International (2015). One Voice: 2014 Annual
Statistical Review 2018. https://www.wto.org/english/ Report. Brussels. https://croplife.org/wp-content/
res_e/statis_e/wts2018_e/wts2018_e.pdf. uploads/pdf_files/Annual-report-2014-FINAL-ONLINE.
pdf.
Dutta, T., Kim, K.-H., Uchimiya, M., Kwon, E.E., Jeon,

Chapter 2 B.-H., Deep, A. and Yun, S.-T. (2016). Global demand
for rare earth resources and strategies for green
American Chemistry Council (2017a). 2017 mining. Environmental Research 150, 182-190. https://
Elements of the Business of Chemistry. https://www. doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.05.052.
americanchemistry.com/2017-Elements-of-the-
Business-of-Chemistry.pdf. Elsevier (2017). R&D Solutions for Chemicals White
Paper: Increasing Pressures in Agricultural Chemical R&D
American Chemistry Council (2017b). 2017 Year-End Demand New Workflow Solutions. https://www.elsevier.
Chemical Industry Situation and Outlook. https://store. com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/278124/CHEM-RD-
americanchemistry.com/Business-of-Chemistry- WP-Agricultural-Workflow-WEB.pdf.
Situation-and-Outlook.
Essel, R., Engel, L., Carus, M. and Heinrich Ahrens,
American Chemistry Council (2018). 2018 Guide to the R. (2015). Sources of Microplastics Relevant to Marine
Business of Chemistry. https://store.americanchemistry. Protection in Germany. Werner, S. (ed.). Dessau-
com/2018GBCPDF. Roßlau: German Environment Agency. https://
www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/
BCC Research (2017). Nanotechnology sees big growth medien/378/publikationen/texte_64_2015_sources_
in products and applications, reports BCC Research, of_microplastics_relevant_to_marine_protection_1.pdf.
17 January. https://globenewswire.com/news-
release/2017/01/17/906164/0/en/Nanotechnology- European Bioplastics and nova-Institute (2018).
Sees-Big-Growth-in-Products-and-Applications- Global Production Capacities of Bioplastics 2018-2023.
Reports-BCC-Research.html. Accessed 12 April 2018. https://www.european-bioplastics.org/wp-content/
uploads/2016/02/Report_Bioplastics-Market-
BCC Research (2018). Inorganic chemicals Data_2018.pdf.
manufacturing: global markets to 2022. https://
www.bccresearch.com/market-research/chemicals/ European Chemicals Agency (2018). ECHA welcomes
inorganic-chemicals-manufacturing-global-markets- improved clarity on nanomaterials in the EU – member
to-2022-chm106a.html. Accessed 4 September 2018. states vote to amend REACH annexes, 26 April. https://
echa.europa.eu/de/-/echa-welcomes-improved-clarity-
Boucher, J. and Friot, D. (2017). Primary Microplastics in on-nanomaterials-in-the-eu-member-states-vote-to-
the Oceans: Global Evaluation of Sources. Lundin, C. G. amend-reach-annexes. Accessed 4 September 2018.
and Sousa, J. M. de (eds). Gland: International Union
for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries
https://doi.org0/10.2305/iucn.ch.2017.01.en. and Associations (2018). The Pharmaceutical Industry in
Europe. Key Data: 2018. https://efpia.eu/media/361960/
Brande-Lavridsen, N. (n.d.). Microplastics in the efpia-pharmafigures2018_v07-hq.pdf.
Freshwater Environment. Knoxville, TN: University of
Tennessee. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/ EvaluatePharma (2018). World Preview 2018, Outlook to
files/2017-01/documents/microplastics-in-freshwater- 2024. http://www.evaluate.com/thought-leadership/
environment.pdf. pharma/evaluatepharma-world-preview-2018-
outlook-2024.
Brendel, S., Fetter, É., Staude, C., Vierke, L. and Biegel-
Engler, A. (2018). Short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
environmental concerns and a regulatory strategy Nations (2017). World Fertilizer Trends and Outlook to
under REACH. Environmental Sciences Europe. 30(1), 9. 2020. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6895e.pdf.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-018-0134-4.
France, Ministry of Environment Energy and the Sea
Cayuela, R. And Hagan, A. (2019). The Chemical Industry (2017). Décret n° 2017-291 du 6 mars 2017 relatif
Under the 4th Industrial Revolution: The Sustainable, aux conditions de mise en œuvre de l’interdiction de
Digital and Citizens One. Not yet published. Hoboken mise sur le marché des produits cosmétiques rincés
NJ: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH à usage d’exfoliation ou de nettoyage comportant des
particules plastiques solides et des bâtonnets ouatés
Cision (2017). Global petrochemicals market analysis à usage domestique dont la tige est en plastique.
& trends – industry forecast to 2025, 1 February. https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTe
PRNewswire. https://www.prnewswire.com/news- xte=JORFTEXT000034154540&dateTexte&categorie
releases/global-petrochemicals-market-analysis-- Lien=id. Accessed 8 September 2018.
trends---industry-forecast-to-2025-300400745.html.
Accessed 5 May 2018.
178
Part I
Fthenakis, V. (n.d.). Could CdTe PV Modules Pollute International Fertilizer Association (2018). Fertilizer
the Environment? Upton, NY:Brookhaven National Outlook 2018-2022. https://www.fertilizer.org/images/
Laboratory. https://www.bnl.gov/pv/files/pdf/art_164. Library_Downloads/2018_IFA_Annual_Conference_
pdf. Berlin_PIT_AG_Fertilizer_Outlook.pdf.
Galloway, T.S. (2015). Micro- and nano-plastics and International Lead and Zinc Study Group (2018). Lead
human health. In Marine Anthropogenic Litter. Cham: and zinc statistics. http://www.ilzsg.org/static/statistics.
Springer International Publishing. 343-366. https:// aspx. Accessed 22 May 2018.
doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_13.
International Lead and Zinc Study Group (2019). Lead
Gautam, A. and Pan, X. (2016). The changing model Factbook. Forthcoming report. http://www.ilzsg.org/
of big pharma: impact of key trends. Drug Discovery static/home.aspx.
Today 21(3), 379-384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
drudis.2015.10.002. International Lead Association (2018). Lead recycling.
https://www.ila-lead.org/lead-facts/lead-recycling.
Geyer, R., Jambeck, J.R. and Law, K.L. (2017). Production, Accessed 4 September 2018.
use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Science Advances
3(7), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782. Janshekar, H., Rizvi, S.Q.A., Inoguchi, Y. and Ma,
X. (2015). Specialty Chemicals Update Program:
Gibb, R., Bunce, M., Mee, L.D. and Ro, L.D. (2017). Surfactants. London: IHS Markit. https://chemstore.
Sources, fate and effects of microplastics in the ihsmarkit.com/products/scup-surfactants?utm_
marine environment: a global assessment. Global source=ihsmarkit&utm_medium=referral&utm_
Change Biology 9, 10. https://doi.org/10.13140/ campaign=PC10539.
RG.2.1.3803.7925.
Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine
Government of Canada (2019a). Regulations adding Environmental Protection (n.d.). Microplastics in the
perfluorooctane sulfonate and its salts to the virtual Ocean: Sources, Fate and Effects. http://www.gesamp.
elimination list (SOR/2009-15), 26 March. https:// org/site/assets/files/1720/24472_gesamp_leaflet_
pollution-waste.canada.ca/environmental-protection- pq.pdf.
registry/regulations/view?Id=97. Accessed 28 March
2019. Kazan-Allen, L. (2017). Brazil bans asbestos!
1 December. International Ban Asbestos Secretariat.
Government of Canada (2019b). Regulations amending http://www.ibasecretariat.org/lka-brazil-bans-
the prohibition of certain toxic substances regulations, asbestos.php. Accessed 2 February 2018.
2012 (for the addition of 5 substances) (SOR/2016-
252), 26 March. https://pollution-waste.canada. Kazan-Allen, L. (2018). Current asbestos bans, 23
ca/environmental-protection-registry/regulations/ October. International Ban Asbestos Secretariat. http://
view?Id=131. Accessed 28 March 2019. ibasecretariat.org/alpha_ban_list.php. Accessed 29
November 2018.
Guberman, D.E. (2017). 2015 Minerals Yearbook: Lead
[Advance Release]. Reston, VA: United States Geological Mateo-Sagasta, J., Zadeh, S.M. and Turral, H. (2017).
Survey. https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/ Water Pollution from Agriculture: A Global Review. Rome:
commodity/lead/myb1-2015-lead.pdf. Food and Agriculture Organization. http://www.fao.
org/3/a-i7754e.pdf.
IHS Markit (2017). Flame retardants - specialty
chemicals update program. https://ihsmarkit.com/ McGovern, B. (2018). Pharmaceutical industry overview:
products/chemical-flame-retardants-scup.html. top international regions for drug companies, 12 March.
Accessed 2 May 2018. Pharmaceutical Investing News. https://investingnews.
com/daily/life-science-investing/pharmaceutical-
Informa (2017). Global Agribusiness Annual 2017: investing/top-pharmaceutical-regions/. Accessed 22
Towards a Sustainable Future. Horseman, C. and May 2018.
McCary, K. (eds). London: Philip Solomon. https://
agribusinessintelligence.informa.com/global- Oliver, E. (2018). Growing importance of China and
agribusiness-annual-2017/. India in the global crop protection market. Agribusiness
Intelligence, Informa. https://agribusinessintelligence.
Inshakova, E. and Inshakov, O. (2017). World market informa.com/resources/product-content/growing-
for nanomaterials: structure and trends. MATEC Web of importance-of-china-and-india-in-the-global-crop-
Conferences 129(02013), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1051/ protection-market. Accessed 15 November 2018.
matecconf/201712902013.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
International Federation of Pharmaceutical Development (2013). OECD/UNEP Global PFC
Manufacturers and Associations (2017). The Group, Synthesis Paper on Per- and Polyfluorinated
Pharmaceutical Industry and Global Health: Facts and Chemicals (PFCs). https://www.oecd.org/env/ehs/risk-
Figures 2017. https://www.ifpma.org/wp-content/ management/PFC_FINAL-Web.pdf.
uploads/2017/02/IFPMA-Facts-And-Figures-2017.pdf.
179
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Transparency Market Research (2016). Africa lead acid
Development (2018a). Toward a Comprehensive Global batteries market to exhibit 5.3% CAGR 2015-2021,
Database of Per-and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs). driven by rising demand for automobiles, June. https://
Summary Report on Updating the OECD 2007 List of www.transparencymarketresearch.com/pressrelease/
Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs). http://www. africa-lead-acid-battery-industry.htm. Accessed 4
oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocument September 2018.
pdf/?cote=ENV-JM-MONO(2018)7&doclanguage=en.
Transparency Market Research (n.d.). Pesticides
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and market revenue, size, share, growth, trends
Development (2018b). Safety of manufactured and industry forecast 2017-2025. https://www.
nanomaterials. http://www.oecd.org/science/ transparencymarketresearch.com/global-pesticides-
nanosafety/. Accessed 1 January 2019. market.html. Accessed 5 May 2018.
Pavel, C.C., Lacal-Arántegui, R., Marmier, A., Schüler, United Nations Environment Programme (2015).
D., Tzimas, E., Buchert, M., Jenseit, W. and Blagoeva, D. Report by the United Nations Environment Programme on
(2017). Substitution strategies for reducing the use of Progress in the Implementation of the Global Alliance for
rare earths in wind turbines. Resources Policy 52, 349- the Development and Deployment of Products, Methods
357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2017.04.010. and Strategies as Alternatives to DDT for Disease Vector
Control (Global Alliance on DDT). Geneva: Secretariat
Phillips McDougal (2018). Evolution of the Crop of the Stockholm Convention. http://chm.pops.int/
Protection Industry Since 1960. Midlothian: Informa. TheConvention/ConferenceoftheParties/Meetings/
https://agribusinessintelligence.informa.com/~/media/ COP7/tabid/4251/mctl/ViewDetails/EventModID/870/
informa-shop-window/agri/images/sample-content/ EventID/543/xmid/13075/Default.aspx.
reports/pmd_evolution_of_the_crop_protection_
industry.pdf. United Nations Environment Programme (2016a).
Consolidated Assessment of Efforts Made Toward the
Plastics Europe (2018). Plastics – the Facts 2018: An Elimination of Polychlorinated Biphenyls. https://wedocs.
Analysis of European Production, Demand and Waste unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/13664/
Data. https://www.plasticseurope.org/application/ Consolidated%20PCB%20Assessment_2016.pdf.
files/6315/4510/9658/Plastics_the_facts_2018_AF_web.
pdf. United Nations Environment Programme (2016b).
Marine Plastic Debris and Microplastics – Global Lessons
Plotkin, J.S. (2015). The propylene gap: how can it and Research to Inspire Action and Guide Policy Change.
be filled? 14 September. American Chemical Society. http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/7720.
https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/pressroom/
cutting-edge-chemistry/the-propylene-gap-how-can- United Nations Environment Programme (2017). Global
it-be-filled.html. Accessed 2 July 2018. Mercury Supply, Trade and Demand. http://wedocs.
unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/21725/
Pravettoni, R. (2018). Global plastic production and global_mercury.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
future trends. [Graph]. GRID-Arendal. http://www.grida.
no/resources/6923. Accessed 10 October 2018. United Nations Environmental Program (2018). Update
on the Global Status of Legal Limits on Lead in Paint:
Rothfeder, J. (2017). The big next technology could September 2018. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/
be nanomaterials, 26 July. Strategy+business. https:// handle/20.500.11822/26481/Lead_Status_201809.
www.strategy-business.com/article/The-Next-Big- pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Technology-Could-Be-Nanomaterials. Accessed 3
September 2018. United States Environmental Protection Agency
(2017a). Fact sheet: assessing risks from flame
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2008). retardants. https://www.epa.gov/assessing-and-
Chemicals proposed for listing under the Convention. managing-chemicals-under-tsca/fact-sheet-assessing-
http://chm.pops.int/TheConvention/ThePOPs/ risks-flame-retardants. Accessed 4 September 2018.
ChemicalsProposedforListing/tabid/2510/Default.
aspx. Accessed 22 May 2018. United States Environmental Protection Agency
(2017b). Control of nanoscale materials under the
Smith, K., Glauser, J. and Eramo, M. (2017). toxic substances control act. https://www.epa.gov/
Chemical Economics Handbook: Petrochemical reviewing-new-chemicals-under-toxic-substances-
Industry Overview. Report and Market Outlook. IHS control-act-tsca/control-nanoscale-materials-under.
Markit. https://chemstore.ihsmarkit.com/products/ Accessed 14 August 2018.
ceh-petrochemical-industry-overview?utm_
source=ihsmarkit&utm_medium=referral&utm_ United States Food and Drug Administration
campaign=PC10539. (2018). What are ‘biologics’ questions and answers,
2 June. Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research.
Tolcin, A.C. (2018). 2016 Minerals Yearbook: Cadmium https://www.fda.gov/aboutfda/centersoffices/
[Advance Release]. Reston, VA: United States Geological officeofmedicalproductsandtobacco/cber/ucm133077.
Survey. https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/ htm. Accessed 4 September 2018.
commodity/cadmium/myb1-2016-cadmi.pdf.
180
Part I
United States Geological Survey (2016). Asbestos. In Agarwal, R., Chandrasekaran, S. and Sridhar, M. (2016).
Mineral Commodity Summaries 2016. 28-29. https:// Imagining construction’s digital future, June. McKinsey
minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/ & Company. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/
asbestos/mcs-2016-asbes.pdf. capital-projects-and-infrastructure/our-insights/
imagining-constructions-digital-future. Accessed 18
United States Geological Survey (2018a). Mineral July 2018.
Commodity Summaries 2018. https://minerals.usgs.
gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2018/mcs2018.pdf. Alshahri, F. (2017). Heavy metal contamination in sand
and sediments near to disposal site of reject brine
United States Geological Survey (2018b). Minerals from desalination plant, Arabian Gulf: Assessment
information: asbestos - statistics and information, of environmental pollution. Environmental Science
15 May. https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/ and Pollution Research 24(2), 1821-1831. https://doi.
commodity/asbestos/. Accessed 4 February 2019. org/10.1007/s11356-016-7961-x.
United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Aman, M.M., Solangi, K.H., Hossain, M.S., Badarudin, A.,
Administration (2018). What are microplastics? 25 June. Jasmon, G.B., Mokhlis, H., Bakar, A.H.A. and Kazi, S.N.
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/microplastics. (2015). A review of safety, health and environmental
html. Accessed 6 September 2018. (SHE) issues of solar energy system. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews. 41, 1190-1204. https://doi.
Wietlisbach, S. and Gao, A. (2016). Chemical Economics org/10.1016/J.RSER.2014.08.086.
Handbook: Rare Earth Minerals & Products. London:
IHS Markit. https://chemstore.ihsmarkit.com/ American Chemical Society (2015). How Industrial
products/ceh-rare-earth-minerals-and-products?utm_ Applications in Green Chemistry are Changing our
source=ihsmarkit&utm_medium=referral&utm_ World. https://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/
campaign=PC10539. membership/acs/benefits/extra-insights/green-
chemistry-applications.pdf.
Zhang, E., Greiner, E., Janshekar, H. and Kumamoto, T.
(2016). Chemical Economics Handbook: Fluoropolymers. Arbesman, S. (2016). Overcomplicated: Technology
London: IHS Markit. https://ihsmarkit.com/products/ at the Limits of Comprehension. New York, NY:
fluoropolymers-chemical-economics-handbook.html. Penguin. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.
com/books/317781/overcomplicated-by-samuel-
Zion Research (2016). Global plastic packaging market arbesman/9780143131304/.
– industry analysis, size, share, trends, segment and
forecast 2014-2020. http://www.marketresearchstore. Baldé, C.P., Forti V., Gray, V., Kuehr, R. and Stegmann,
com/report/plastic-packaging-market-z47941. P. (2017). The Global E-Waste Monitor 2017. United
Accessed 3 May 2018. Nations University. Bonn, Geneva and Vienna: United
Nations University, International Telecommunication
Union and the International Solid Waste Association .
https://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:6341/Global-E-
Chapter 3 waste_Monitor_2017__electronic_single_pages_.pdf.
Accenture (2017). Taking the European Chemical Industry Bamber, P., Frederick, S. and Gereffi, G. (2016).
into the Circular Economy: Executive Summary. https:// Philippines in Manufacturing Global Value Chains:
www.accenture.com/t20170314T154717Z__w__/us- Opportunities for Upgrading. Durham, NC: Duke
en/_acnmedia/PDF-45/Accenture-CEFIC-Report-Exec- University. http://industry.gov.ph/wp-content/
Summary.pdf#zoom=50. uploads/2017/08/The-Philippines-in-the-Chemical-
Global-Value-Chain.pdf.
Access to Medicine Foundation (2018). Antimicrobial
Resistance Benchmark 2018: First Independent Bárcena, A., Prado, A., Alatorre, E., Ferrer, J., Javier
Assessment of Pharmaceutical Company Action on AMR. Gómez, J., Lennox, J., Reyes, O., Sánchez, L., de Miguel,
https://www.amrbenchmark.org/media/uploads/ C., Gomes, C., Jordán, R., Kissoon, E., Martínez, K.,
downloads/5bc5edd8367eb_Antimicrobial-Resistance- Montero, L., Olivares, J., Peralta, L., Pereira, M. and
Benchmark-2018.pdf. Thorne, E. (2015). The Economics of Climate Change
in Latin America and the Caribbean: Paradoxes and
African Development Bank,Organisation for Economic Challenges of Sustainable Development. Santiago: United
Co-operation and Development and United Nations Nations. https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/
Development Programme (2017). African Economic handle/11362/37311/S1420655_en.pdf.
Outlook 2017: Entrepreneurship and Industrialisation.
Paris: OECD publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/ Barra. R. and Leonard, S.A. (2018). Plastics and the
aeo-2017-en. Circular Economy. Scientific and Technical Advisory
Panel to the Global Environment Facility https://
www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/publications/
PLASTICS%20for%20posting.pdf.
181
BASF (2013). The new operating division performance Daniell, W.E., Van Tung, L., Wallace, R.M., Havens,
polymers, 25 June. https://www.basf.com/en/company/ D.J., Karr, C.J., Bich Diep, N., Croteau, G.A., Beaudet,
news-and-media/news-releases/2013/06/p-13-292. N.J. and Duy Bao, N. (2015). Childhood lead
html. Accessed 5 September 2018. exposure from battery recycling in Vietnam. BioMed
Research International. 2015, 1-10. https://doi.
Berg, A., Hedrich, S. and Russo, B. (2015). East Africa: org/10.1155/2015/193715.
the next hub for apparel sourcing? August. McKinsey
& Company. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/ DeGusta, M. (2012). Are smart phones spreading faster
retail/our-insights/east-africa-the-next-hub-for- than any technology in human history, 9 May. MIT
apparel-sourcing. Accessed 2 September 2018. Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.
com/s/427787/are-smart-phones-spreading-faster-
Berger, R., Henzelmann, T., Büchele, R., Andrae, P. and than-any-technology-in-human-history/. Accessed 9
Wiedemann, A. (2018). GreenTech Made in Germany May 2018.
2018: Environmental Technology Atlas for Germany.
Parker, N. and Veth, S. (eds.). Berlin: German Ministry Delcour, I., Spanoghe, P. and Uyttendaele, M. (2015).
of the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Literature review: Impact of climate change on
Safety. https://www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/ pesticide use. Food Research International 68, 7-15.
Pools/Broschueren/greentech_2018_en_bf.pdf. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2014.09.030.
Burkhardt, M., Zuleeg, S., Vonbank, R., Schmid, P., Hean, Deloitte and German Chemical Industry Association
S., Lamani, X., Bester, K. and Boller, M. (2011). Leaching (2017). Chemistry 4.0: Growth Through Innovation in
of additives from construction materials to urban a Transforming World. https://www2.deloitte.com/
storm water runoff. Water Science & Technology 63(9), content/dam/Deloitte/global/Documents/consumer-
1974-1982. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.128. industrial-products/gx-chemistry%204.0-full-report.
pdf.
Business Wire (2016). Global biological crop protection
(bio-pesticide) market (2016-2021): by type, application, DHL (2016). The 21st Century Spice Trade: A Guide
end user, region & country - research and markets, to the Cross-border E-commerce Opportunity. http://
15 December. Research and Markets. https://www. www.dhl.com/content/dam/downloads/g0/
businesswire.com/news/home/20161215005498/ press/publication/g0_dhl_express_cross_border_
en/Global-Biological-Crop-Protection-Bio-Pesticide- ecommerce_21st_century_spice_trade.pdf
Market-2016-2021.
Dugarova, E. and Gülasan, N. (2017): Global Trends:
Cadena, A., Remes, J., Grosman, N. and de Oliveira, Challenges and Opportunities in the Implementation of
A. (2017). Where Will Latin America’s Growth Come the Sustainable Development Goals. New York, NY and
From? McKinsey & Company. https://www.mckinsey. Geneva: United Nations Development Programme;
com/~/media/mckinsey/featured%20insights/ United Nations Research Institute for Social
employment%20and%20growth/how%20to%20 Development. http://www.undp.org/content/undp/
counter%20three%20threats%20to%20growth%20 en/home/librarypage/sustainable-development-goals/
in%20latin%20america/mgi-discussion-paper-where- global-trends--challenges-and-opportunities-in-the-
will-latin-americas-growth-come-from-april-2017.ashx. implementatio.html.
Carvalho, F.P. (2017). Pesticides, environment, and Eder-Hansen, J., Chalmer, C., Tärneberg, S.,
food safety. Food and Energy Security. 6(2), 48-60. Tochtermann, T., Seara, J., Boger, S., Theelen, G.,
https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.108. Schwarz, S., Kristensen, L. and Jäger, K. (2017). Pulse
of the Fashion Industry. Copenhagen and Boston, MA:
Cayuela, R. and Hagan, A. (2019). The Chemical Industry Global Fashion Agenda & Boston Consulting Group.
Under the 4th Industrial Revolution: The Sustainable, https://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/
Digital and Citizens One. Not yet published. Hoboken, uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.
NJ: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH. pdf.
Changing Markets Foundation and Ecostorm Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2017). A New Textiles
(2016). Superbugs in the Supply Chain: How Pollution Economy: Redesigning Fashion’s Future. Conker house
from Antibiotics Factories in India and China is publishing. https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.
Fuelling the Global Rise of Drug-Resistant Infections. org/assets/downloads/publications/A-New-Textiles-
https://epha.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/ Economy_Full-Report_Updated_1-12-17.pdf.
Superbugsinthesupplychain_CMreport.pdf.
Ericson, B., Landrigan, P., Taylor, M.P., Frostad, J.,
Changing Markets Foundation and Nordea (2018). Caravanos, J., Keith, J. and Fuller, R. (2016). The global
Hyderabad’s Pharmaceutical Pollution Crisis: Heavy Metal burden of lead toxicity attributable to informal used
and Solvent Contamination at Factories in a Major Indian lead-acid battery sites. Annals of Global Health. 82(5),
Drug Manufacturing Hub. https://changingmarkets. 686-699. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AOGH.2016.10.015.
org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/CM-HYDERABAD-
s-PHARMACEUTICAL-POLLUTION-CRISIS-FINAL-WEB-
SPREAD.pdf.
182
Part I
Ernst & Young (2016). The Upside of Disruption: Geisler, S. (2018). Digitisation in agriculture - from
Megatrends Shaping 2016 and Beyond. https://www. precision farming to farming 4.0, 9 April. Bioeconomy
ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/EY-the-upside-of- BW. https://www.biooekonomie-bw.de/en/articles/
disruption/%24FILE/EY-the-upside-of-disruption.pdf. dossiers/digitisation-in-agriculture-from-precision-
farming-to-farming-40/. Accessed 8 February 2019.
European Chemical Industry Council (2018). 2018 Facts
& Figures of the European Chemical Industry. https:// Global Construction Perspectives and Oxford
cefic.org/app/uploads/2018/12/Cefic_FactsAnd_ Economics (2015). Global Construction 2030: A Global
Figures_2018_Industrial_BROCHURE_TRADE.pdf. Forecast for the Construction Industry to 2030. https://
gcp.global/uk/products/global-construction-2030.
European Chemicals Agency (2018). Strategy to Promote
Substitution to Safer Chemicals Through Innovation. Global Manufacturing Industry Group (2010). The
https://doi.org/10.2823/99862. Chemical Multiverse - Preparing for Quantum Changes in
the Global Chemical Industry. London: Deloitte. https://
European Environment Agency (2015). The European www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/global/
Environment — State and Outlook 2015: Assessment of Documents/Manufacturing/gx_The%20chemical%20
Global Megatrends. https://doi.org/10.2800/126936. multiverse_12_2_2010.pdf.
European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Global Manufacturing Industry Group (2011). End
Associations (2016). ECO-Pharmaco-Stewardship (EPS): Market Alchemy: Expanding Perspectives to Drive
A Holistic Environmental Risk Management Program. Growth in the Global Chemical Industry. London:
https://www.efpia.eu/media/25628/eps-a-holistic- Deloitte. https://www2.deloitte.com/be/en/pages/
environmental-risk-management-program.pdf manufacturing/articles/end-market-alchemy-drive-
chemical-industry-growth.html.
European Innovation Partnership for Agricultural
Productivity and Sustainability (2017). EIP-AGRI Global Market Insights (2017). Construction chemicals
Seminar: Digital Innovation Hubs for Agriculture. market size - industry share report 2024, February.
https://ec.europa.eu/eip/agriculture/sites/agri-eip/ https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/
files/eip-agri_seminar_digital_innovation_hubs_final_ construction-chemicals-market. Accessed 6 May 2018.
report_2017_en.pdf.
Grand View Research (2017). Agrochemicals market
Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations worth $308.92 billion by 2025 | CAGR: 4.1%, June.
(2017). World Fertilizer Trends and Outlook to 2020. https://www.grandviewresearch.com/press-release/
http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6895e.pdf. global-agrochemicals-market. Accessed 7 June 2018.
Food and Agriculture Organization for the United Grannas, A.M., Bogdal, C., Hageman, K.J., Halsall, C.,
Nations (2018). FAOSTAT: pesticides. http://www. Harner, T., Hung, H., Kallenborn, R., Klán, P., Klánová,
fao.org/faostat/en/#data/EP/visualize. Accessed 28 J., Macdonald, R.W., Meyer, T. and Wania, F. (2013).
November 2018. The role of the global cryosphere in the fate of organic
contaminants. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 13,
Frost & Sullivan (2014). World’s Top Global Mega 3271-3305. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-3271-2013.
Trends To 2025 and Implications to Business, Society
and Cultures. https://www.smeportal.sg/content/dam/ Green, D. (2016). The world’s top 100 economies: 31
smeportal/resources/Business-Intelligence/Trends/ countries; 69 corporations, 20 September. World Bank.
Global%20Mega%20Trends_Executive%20Summary_ https://blogs.worldbank.org/publicsphere/world-s-
FROST%20%26%20SULLIVAN.pdf. top-100-economies-31-countries-69-corporations.
Gaines, L. (2014). The future of automotive lithium-
ion battery recycling: charting a sustainable course. Haefliger, P., Mathieu-Nolf, M., Lociciro, S., Ndiaye, C.,
Sustainable Materials and Technologies 1-2, 2-7. https:// Coly, M., Diouf, A., Faye, A.L., Sow, A., Tempowski, J.,
doi.org/10.1016/J.SUSMAT.2014.10.001. Pronczuk, J., Junior, A.P.F., Bertollini, R. and Neira, M.
(2009). Mass lead intoxication from informal used lead-
García, D. and Marín, D. (2016). Dirty business: Africa’s acid battery recycling in Dakar, Senegal. Environmental
unregulated lead battery smelting, 3 March. Ecologist. Health Perspectives. 117(10), 1535-1540. https://doi.
https://theecologist.org/2016/mar/03/dirty-business- org/10.1289/ehp.0900696.
africas-unregulated-lead-battery-smelting. Accessed
5 September 2018. Hahladakis, J., Costas, V., Roland, W., Iacovidou, I. and
Purnell, P. (2018). An overview of chemical additives
Gathuru, I.M., Buchanich, J.M., Marsh, G.M. and Dolan, present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and
D.G. (2015). Health hazards in the pharmaceutical environmental impact during their use, disposal and
industry. Pharmaceutical Regulatory Affairs. 04(03), recycling. Journal of Hazardous Materials 344, 179-199.
1-15. https://doi.org/10.4172/2167-7689.1000145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.10.014.
183
Hallmann, C.A., Sorg, M., Jongejans, E., Siepel, H., Kanchongkittiphon, W., Mendell, M.J., Gaffin, J.M., Wang,
Hofland, N., Schwan, H., Stenmans, W., Müller, A., G. and Phipatanakul, W. (2015). Indoor environmental
Sumser, H., Hörren, T., Goulson, D. and de Kroon, H. exposures and exacerbation of asthma: an update
(2017). More than 75 per cent decline over 27 years to the 2000 review by the institute of medicine.
in total flying insect biomass in protected areas. Environmental Health Perspectives. 123(1), 6-20. http://
Public Library of Science ONE. 12(10), 1-21. https://doi. dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307922.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185809.
Kant, R. (2012). Textile dyeing industry an environmental
Hannon, E., McKerracher, C., Orlandi, I. and Ramkumar, hazard. Natural Science. 4(1), 22-26. http://dx.doi.
S. (2016). An integrated perspective on the future org/10.4236/ns.2012.41004.
of mobility, October. McKinsey & Company. https://
www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability- Kharas, H. (2017). The Unprecedented Expansion of
and-resource-productivity/our-insights/an-integrated- the Global Middle Class: An Update. Washington, DC:
perspective-on-the-future-of-mobility. Accessed 5 Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/
September 2018. wp-content/uploads/2017/02/global_20170228_global-
middle-class.pdf.
Health Care Without Harm Europe (2018). The
Environmental Impact of Pharmaceuticals Manufacturing: Kharas, H. and Hamel, K. (2018). A global tipping point:
How Does Industry Address its Own Waste? http:// half the world is now middle class or wealthier, 27
saferpharma.org/wp-content/uploads/2018_ September. The Brookings Institution. https://www.
PharmaceuticalIndustryReport_WEB.pdf. brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2018/09/27/
a-global-tipping-point-half-the-world-is-now-middle-
Hoeppe, P. (2016). Trends in weather related disasters: class-or-wealthier/?utm_campaign=Brookings%20
Consequences for insurers and society. Weather and Global%20Connection&utm_source=hs_email&utm_
Climate Extremes 11, 70-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. medium=email&utm_content=66338119. Accessed
WACE.2015.10.002. 8 February 2019.
Huang, B., Jin, M., Yuhong, W., Mohammad, L.N. and Khokhar, T. (2017). Chart: Globally, 70% of freshwater is
Liu, X. (eds) (2017). Sustainable road paving: materials, used for agriculture, 22 March. The Data Blog, The World
design, construction, and maintenance. Journal of Bank. https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/chart-
Cleaner Production. https://www.sciencedirect.com/ globally-70-freshwater-used-agriculture. Accessed
journal/journal-of-cleaner-production/special- 8 February 2019.
issue/10Q9D5Q33JP.
Kim, J., Ko, Y. and Lee, W. (2013). Depressive symptoms
International Council of Chemical Associations (2017). and severity of acute occupational pesticide poisoning
Avoiding Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The Essential Role among male farmers. Occupational and Environmental
of Chemicals - Quantifying the Global Potential. www. Medicine 70(5), 303-309. https://doi.org/10.1136/
icca-chem.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Ecofys- oemed-2012-101005.
tryptique_PP.pdf.
Klei, A., Moder, M., Stockdale, O., Weihe, U. and Winkler,
International Energy Agency (2017). World energy G. (2017). Digital in chemicals: from technology to
outlook 2017. https://www.iea.org/weo2017/. Accessed impact, July. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/
5 September 2018. chemicals/our-insights/digital-in-chemicals-from-
technology-to-impact. Accessed 20 September 2018.
International Lead and Zinc Study Group (2019). Lead
Factbook. Forthcoming report. http://www.ilzsg.org/ KPMG (2014): Future State 2030: The Global Megatrends
static/home.aspx. Shaping Governments. https://assets.kpmg.com/
content/dam/kpmg/pdf/2014/02/future-state-2030-v3.
Jaakkola, J.J.K. and Knight, T.L. (2008). The role of pdf.
exposure to phthalates from polyvinyl chloride
products in the development of asthma and allergies: KPMG (2017). Global Transport: Transport Tracker –
a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental Market Trends and Views. https://assets.kpmg.com/
Health Perspectives. 116(7), 845-853. https://doi. content/dam/kpmg/xx/pdf/2017/12/transport-tracker.
org/10.1289/ehp.10846. PDF.
Julander, A., Lundgren, L., Skare, L., Grandér, M., Palm, Kumpf, R.J., Eliaz, S. and Aldred, T. (2018). Making the
B., Vahter, M. and Lidén, C. (2014). Formal recycling of Future of Mobility: Chemicals and Specialty Materials in
e-waste leads to increased exposure to toxic metals: Electric, Autonomous, and Shared Vehicles. Budman, M.
an occupational exposure study from Sweden. and Khan, A. (eds). Deloitte. https://www2.deloitte.
Environment International. 73, 243-251. https://doi. com/content/dam/insights/us/articles/4190_FoM-
org/10.1016/J.ENVINT.2014.07.006. chemicals/DI_Making-FoM.pdf.
Kadajji, V.G. and Betageri, G. V. (2011). Water Larcher, D. and Tarascon, J.-M. (2015). Towards greener
soluble polymers for pharmaceutical applications. and more sustainable batteries for electrical energy
Polymers 3(4), 1972-2009. https://doi.org/10.3390/ storage. Nature Chemistry. 7(1), 19-29. https://doi.
polym3041972 org/10.1038/nchem.2085.
184
Part I
Larsson, D.G.K. (2014). Pollution from drug Nimpuno, N. and Scruggs, C. (2011). Information on
manufacturing: review and perspectives. Philosophical Chemicals in Electronic Products: A Study of Needs, Gaps,
Transactions of the Royal Society B. Biological Sciences Obstacles and Solutions to Provide and Access Information
369(1656), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0571. on Chemicals in Electronic Products Information on
Chemicals in Electronic Products. Copenhagen: Nordic
Liu, C.-W., Sung, Y., Chen, B.-C. and Lai, H.-Y. (2014). Council of Ministers. http://chemsec.org/app/
Effects of nitrogen fertilizers on the growth and nitrate uploads/2016/04/110629_Information_on_Chemicals_
content of lettuce (Lactuca Sativa L.). International in_Electronic_Products.pdf.
Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health. 11(4), 4427-4440. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Nordea (2016). Impacts of Pharmaceutical
ijerph110404427. Pollution on Communities and Environment in
India. http://changingmarkets.org/wp-content/
Liu, P. and Barlow, C.Y. (2017). Wind turbine blade uploads/2017/07/2016-04_pharma-pollution-in-India_
waste in 2050. Waste Management. 62, 229-240. https:// small_web_spread.pdf.
doi.org/10.1016/J.WASMAN.2017.02.007.
Lundgren, K. (2012). The Global Impact of E-Waste: Development (2016). OECD Science, Technology and
Addressing the Challenge. Geneva: International Innovation Outlook 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/
Labour Organization. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/ sti_in_outlook-2016-en.
groups/public/---ed_dialogue/---sector/documents/
publication/wcms_196105.pdf. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (2018). Global Forum on Agriculture: How
Lv, W., Wang, Z., Cao, H., Sun, Y., Zhang, Y. and Sun, Z. Digital Technologies are Impacting the Way We Grow and
(2018). A critical review and analysis on the recycling of Distribute Food. www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/
spent lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustainable Chemistry publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=TAD/CA/
& Engineering. 6(2), 1504-1521. https://doi.org/10.1021/ GF(2018)1&docLanguage=En.
acssuschemeng.7b03811.
McNair, C. (2017). Worldwide Retail and Ecommerce Development and International Transport Forum
Sales: eMarketer’s Estimates for 2016–2021. New York, (2017). ITF Transport Outlook 2017. http://dx.doi.
NY: eMarketer. https://www.emarketer.com/Report/ org/10.1787/9789282108000-en.
Worldwide-Retail-Ecommerce-Sales-eMarketers-
Estimates-20162021/2002090. Owens, B. (2015). Pharmaceuticals in the environment:
a growing problem. The Pharmaceutical Journal.
McWilliams, A. (2016). Electronic chemicals and 294(7850). https://doi.org/10.1211/PJ.2015.20067898.
materials: the global market. BCC Research.
https://www.bccresearch.com/market-research/ Perkins, D.N., Brune Drisse, M.-N., Nxele, T. and Sly,
semiconductor-manufacturing/electronic-chemicals- P.D. (2014). E-waste: a global hazard. Annals of Global
materials-markets-report-smc043d.html. Accessed 5 Health. 80(4), 286-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
September 2018. aogh.2014.10.001.
Mordor Intelligence (2018). Construction chemicals Plastics Europe (2012). Plastics. Architects of Modern and
market - segmented by product type (concrete Sustainable Buildings. https://www.plasticseurope.org/
admixture, surface treatments, repair and application/files/6515/1714/0577/bc_flyer111212.pdf.
rehabilitation, protective coatings, industrial flooring,
water proofing, adhesives, sealants, grouts and Prasad, E. and Sinha, B. (2016). Green building materials
anchors, cement grinding aids), end-user industry, market by product type (exterior products, interior
and geography - growth, trends and forecasts (2019 products, building systems, solar products and others),
- 2024), October. https://www.mordorintelligence. application (residential buildings and non-residential
com/industry-reports/global-construction-chemicals- buildings) - global opportunity analysis and industry
market-industry. Accessed 18 February 2019. forecast, 2014-2022. Allied Market Research. https://
www.alliedmarketresearch.com/green-buildings-
Munich Re (2017). The year in figures, 27 March. https:// materials-market. Accessed 5 September 2018.
www.munichre.com/topics-online/en/2017/topics-
geo/overview-natural-catastrophe-2016. Accessed 9 PricewaterhouseCoopers (2017). The Long View: How
September 2018. Will the Global Economic Order Change by 2050? https://
www.pwc.com/gx/en/world-2050/assets/pwc-world-
National Intelligence Council (2017): Global Trends: in-2050-summary-report-feb-2017.pdf.
Paradox of Progress. https://www.dni.gov/files/
documents/nic/GT-Full-Report.pdf. PricewaterhouseCoopers (2018). Five Trends
Transforming the Automotive Industry. https://
www.pwc.at/de/publikationen/branchen-und-
wirtschaftsstudien/eascy-five-trends-transforming-
the-automotive-industry_2018.pdf.
185
Produce Marketing Association Research (2017). Some of Us (2015). Bad Medicine: How the
What’s driving continued growth in organic produce? Pharmaceuticals Industry is Contributing to the Rise of
5 December. https://www.pma.com/content/ Antibiotic-Resistant Superbugs. http://changingmarket.
articles/2017/10/whats-driving-continued-growth- wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/BAD-
in-organic-produce. Accessed 5 September 2018. MEDICINE-Report-FINAL.pdf.
Pucher, J. and Buehler, R. (2017). Cycling towards a Stanislaus, M. (2017). Electronics: the next frontier in
more sustainable transport future. Transport Reviews. sustainability, 6 January. The EPA Blog. https://blog.
37(6), 689-694. https://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.20 epa.gov/blog/2017/01/electronics-the-next-frontier-
17.1340234. in-sustainability/. Accessed 23 July 2018.
Pure Earth and Green Cross Switzerland (2016). World’s Stanway, D. (2017). China’s recyclers eye looming
Worst Pollution Problems 2016: The Toxics Beneath Our electric vehicle battery mountain, 23 October. Reuters.
Feet. New York and Zurich. https://www.worstpolluted. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-batteries-
org/docs/WorldsWorst2016.pdf. recycling-insight/chinas-recyclers-eye-looming-electric-
vehicle-battery-mountain-idUSKBN1CR0Y8.
QuintilesIMS Institute (2016). Outlook for Global
Medicines through 2021: Balancing Cost and Value. https:// Sustainable Business (2013). Nike moves to water-
morningconsult.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/ free, chemical-free dyeing, 17 December. GreenBiz.
QuintilesIMS-Institute-Global-Outlook-FINAL.pdf. https://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2013/12/17/nike-
moves-water-free-chemical-free-dyeing. Accessed 5
Ramirez-Tejeda, K., Turcotte, D.A. and Pike, S. (2016). September 2018.
Unsustainable wind turbine blade disposal practices
in the United States: a case for policy intervention and Swilling, M., Hajer, M., Baynes, T., Bergesen, J., Labbé,
technological innovation. New Solutions: A Journal of F., Musango, J.K., Ramaswami, A., Robinson, B., Salat,
Environmental and Occupational Health Policy. 26(4), S. and Suh, S. (2018). The Weight of Cities: Resource
581-598. https://doi.org/10.1177/1048291116676098. Requirements of Future Urbanization. Nairobi: United
Nations Environment Programme. http://www.
Reuters (2018). Agrochemical market share 2018-2023: resourcepanel.org/reports/weight-cities.
key findings, regional analysis, top key players updates,
future prospects and industry research report, 18 April. Technavio (2018). Global eco fibre market 2018 - 2022.
https://www.reuters.com/brandfeatures/venture- https://www.technavio.com/report/global-eco-fibre-
capital/article?id=33773. Accessed 15 August 2018. market-analysis-share-2018?utm_source=t6&utm_
medium=bw&utm_campaign=businesswire. Accessed
Rim, K.-T. (2017). Reproductive toxic chemicals at work 19 July 2018.
and efforts to protect workers’ health: a literature
review. Safety and Health at Work. 8(2), 143-150. https:// Transparency Market Research (2018). Textile
doi.org/10.1016/J.SHAW.2017.04.003. chemicals market - global industry analysis, size, share,
growth, trends, and forecast 2018 - 2026. https://www.
Schulz, O., Rings, T. and Forrest, R. (2012). Chemical transparencymarketresearch.com/textile-chemicals-
Industry Vision 2030: A European Perspective. market.html. Accessed 5 September 2018.
Chicago: A.T.Kearney. https://www.atkearney.ch/
chemicals/ideas-insights/article/-/asset_publisher/ Tür, M., Manhart, A. and Schleicher, T. (2016).
LCcgOeS4t85g/content/chemical-industry-vision- Generation of Used Lead-Acid Batteries in Africa –
2030-a-european-perspective/10192?inheritRedirec Estimating the Volumes. Berlin: Oko-Institut e.V. http://
t=false&redirect=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atkearney. www.econet.international/fileadmin/user_upload/
ch%2Fchemicals%2Fideas-insights%2Farticl. ULAB_Generation_African_Countries_final_20160411.
pdf.
Scott, A. (2017). Pushing wind turbine blades toward
200 meters: Covestro pushes polyurethane, not epoxy, United Nations Department of Economic and Social
as the polymer needed to make blades bigger and Affairs (2014a). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014
lighter, 24 July. Chemical & Engineering News. 20-21. Revision, Highlights. https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/
https://cen.acs.org/articles/95/i30/Pushing-wind- publications/files/wup2014-highlights.pdf.
turbine-blades-toward.html. Accessed 5 September
2018. United Nations Department of Economic and Social
Affairs (2014b). Cities for a sustainable future, 22
Sharma, V. (2015). Applicability of Green Chemistry in May. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/
Pharmaceutical Processes. Pharma Bio World. http:// ecosoc/cities-for-a-sustainable-future.html. Accessed
piramalpharmasolutions.com/wp-content/uploads/ 2 September 2018.
Applicability-of-Green-Chemistry-in-Pharmaceutical-
Processes.pdf. United Nations Department of Economic and Social
Affairs (2015). World Population Ageing. http://
Singhsachakul, N. (2014). The growing promise of www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/
ASEAN, 9 June. Bangkok Post. https://www.bangkokpost. publications/pdf/ageing/WPA2015_Report.pdf.
com/business/news/414384/the-growing-promise-of-
asean. Accessed 2 September 2018.
186
Part I
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Zimmann, R., O’Brien, H., Hargrave, J. and Morrell,
Affairs (2017). World Population Prospects: Key Findings M. (2016). Circular Economy in the Built Environment.
and Advance Tables, the 2017 Revision. https://esa. Blackbourn, M. (ed.). London: Arup. https://www.arup.
un.org/unpd/wpp/publications/files/wpp2017_ com/perspectives/publications/research/section/
keyfindings.pdf. circular-economy-in-the-built-environment.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social ZVEI (2017). The Global Electrical & Electronic Industry
Affairs (2018). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 – Facts & Figures. Frankfurt: Zvei Die Elektroindustrie.
Revision - Key Facts. https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/ https://www.zvei.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Presse_
publications/Files/WUP2018-KeyFacts.pdf. und_Medien/Publikationen/2017/Juli/Die_globale_
Elektroindustrie_Daten_Zahlen_Fakten/Fact-Sheet-
United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural International-2017.pdf.
Organization Institute for Statistics (n.d.). How much
does your country invest in R&D? http://uis.unesco.
org/apps/visualisations/research-and-development-
spending/. Accessed 31 August 2018. Chapter 4
United Nations Environment Programme (2017). CCAC Accenture (2017). Taking the European Chemical Industry
high level assembly endorses global strategy on low- into the Circular Economy. https://www.accenture.com/
sulfur fuels and cleaner diesel vehicles, 24 January. t20170314T154717Z__w__/us-en/_acnmedia/PDF-45/
https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/ Accenture-CEFIC-Report-Exec-Summary.pdf#zoom=50.
blog-post/ccac-high-level-assembly-endorses-global-
strategy-low-sulfur-fuels-and. Accessed 5 September Apparel and Footwear International RSL Management
2018. Group (2018). Chemical Toolkit Version 0.3. https://
www.afirm-group.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/
United Nations General Assembly (2017). Fulfilling FINAL-2018-AFIRM-Toolkit-2018-English.pdf.
the Promise of Globalization: Advancing Sustainable
Development in an Interconnected World. https://undocs. Atlas (2018). Where does china export toys nes
org/A/72/301. to? (2017). The Observatory of Economic Complexity.
https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/visualize/tree_map/
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2011). hs92/export/chn/show/950390/2017/. Accessed 6
Steps to Lead Safe Renovation, Repair and Painting. September 2018.
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2013-11/
documents/steps_0.pdf. Baker, J.I. and Hites, R.A. (2000). Is combustion the
major source of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and
Valencia, R.C. (2013). The Future of the Chemical Industry dibenzofurans to the environment? a mass balance
by 2050. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. investigation. Environmental Science & Technology.
KGaA. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9783527656998. 34(14), 2879-2886. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES9912325.
van der Kuijp, T.J., Huang, L. and Cherry, C.R. (2013). Bey, N. (2018). Life cycle management. In Life Cycle
Health hazards of China’s lead-acid battery industry: a Assessment: Theory and Practice. Hauschild, M. Z.,
review of its market drivers, production processes, and Rosenbaum, R. K., and Olsen, S. I. (eds). Cham:
health impacts. Environmental Health: A Global Access Springer. 519-544. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-
Science Source 12, 61. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476- 319-56475-3_22.
069X-12-61.
Bitran, G.R., Gurumurthi, S. and Sam, S.L. (2006).
Whitesides, G.M. (2015). Reinventing chemistry. Emerging trends in supply chain governance. SSRN
Angewandte Chemie 54(11), 3196-3209. https://doi. Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.882086.
org/10.1002/anie.201410884.
Bodar, C., Spijker, J., Lijzen, J., Waaijers-van der Loop,
World Bank (2018). Transport overview, 19 September. S., Luit, R., Heugens, E., Janssen, M., Wassenaar, P.
http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/transport/ and Traas, T. (2018). Risk management of hazardous
overview. Accessed 1 January 2019. substances in a circular economy. Journal of
Environmental Management 212, 108-114. https://doi.
World Health Organization (2014). Chrysotile Asbestos. org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.02.014.
http://www.who.int/ipcs/assessment/public_health/
chrysotile_asbestos_summary.pdf. Chua, C.P. (2017). Chemical trade flows: a growth
story. Chemical Market Analysis 13(4), 8-9. http://www.
World Intellectual Property Organization (2017). World shipsfocus.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/2_
Intellectual Property Indicators 2017. https://www.wipo. Chemical_Market_Outlook-GLOBAL-CHEMICAL-
int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_941_2017.pdf. SHIPPING.pdf.
Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (2018). About

ZDHC. https://www.roadmaptozero.com/about/.
Accessed 1 January 2019.
187
Clark, J.H., Farmer, T.J., Herrero-Davila, L. and Sherwood, Goldsmith, M.-R., Grulke, C.M., Brooks, R.D., Transue,
J. (2016). Circular economy design considerations for T.R., Tan, Y.M., Frame, A., Egeghy, P.P., Edwards, R.,
research and process development in the chemical Chang, D.T., Tornero-Velez, R., Isaacs, K., Wang, A.,
sciences. Green Chemistry 18(14), 3914-3934. https:// Johnson, J., Holm, K., Reich, M., Mitchell, J., Vallero,
doi.org/10.1039/C6GC00501B. D.A., Phillips, L., Phillips, M., Wambaugh, J.F., Judson,
R.S., Buckley, T.J. and Dary, C.C. (2014). Development
Compliance and Risks (2018). Global growth of a consumer product ingredient database for
of regulations by subject. https://www. chemical exposure screening and prioritization.
complianceandrisks.com/global-growth-regulations- Food and Chemical Toxicology. 65, 269-279. https://
subject/. Accessed 8 September 2018. doi.org/10.1016/J.FCT.2013.12.029.
European Chemicals Agency (2018a). Inspectors Grundmann, V., Bilitewski, B., Zehm, A., Darbra, R.
find phthalates in toys and asbestos in second-hand and Barceló, D. (2013). Risk-based management of
products, 13 February. https://echa.europa.eu/-/ chemicals and products in a circular economy at
inspectors-find-phthalates-in-toys-and-asbestos-in- a global scale- impacts of the FP7 funded project
second-hand-products. Accessed 18 February 2019 riskcycle. Environmental Sciences Europe. 25(1), 14.
https://doi.org/10.1186/2190-4715-25-14.
European Chemicals Agency (2018b). 82% of inspected
internet advertisements for hazardous chemicals Gutowski, T.G. (2018). A critique of life cycle assessment;
lack required warning. 18 April. https://echa.europa. where are the people? Procedia CIRP 69,11-15. https://
eu/-/82-of-inspected-internet-advertisements-for- doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2018.01.002.
hazardous-chemicals-lack-required-warning. Accessed
8 June 2018 Hansen, E., Nilsson, N. and Ravnholt Vium, K.S. (2014).
Hazardous Substances in Plastics. Copenhagen: Danish
European Commission (2018). Communication from the Environmental Protection Agency. https://www2.mst.
Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, dk/Udgiv/publications/2014/12/978-87-93283-31-2.
The European Economic and Social Committee and pdf.
the Committee of the Regions - On the Implementation
of the Circular Economy Package: Options to Address Hellweg, S. and Milà i Canals, L. (2014). Emerging
the Interface between Chemical, Product and Waste approaches, challenges and opportunities in life cycle
Legislation. Strasbourg:. http://ec.europa.eu/ assessment. Science. 344(6188), 1109-1113. https://
information_society/newsroom/cf/dae/document. doi.org/10.1126/science.1248361.
cfm?doc_id=2733.
Holt, E., Weber, R., Stevenson, G. and Gaus, C. (2010).
Fantke, P., Ernstoff, A.S., Huang, L., Csiszar, S.A. and Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans
Jolliet, O. (2016). Coupled near-field and far-field (PCDD/Fs) impurities in pesticides: a neglected source
exposure assessment framework for chemicals in of contemporary relevance. Environmental Science &
consumer products. Environment International 94, Technology. 44(14), 5409-5415. https://doi.org/10.1021/
508-518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.06.010. es903915k.
Fantke, P., Friedrich, R. and Jolliet, O. (2012). Health Homrich, A.S., Galvão, G., Abadia, L.G. and Carvalho,
impact and damage cost assessment of pesticides in M.M. (2018). The circular economy umbrella: trends
Europe. Environment International 49, 9-17. https:// and gaps on integrating pathways. Journal of Cleaner
doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVINT.2012.08.001. Production. 175, 525-543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2017.11.064.
Fantke, P., Huang, L., Overcash, M., Griffing, E. and
Jolliet, O. (2019). Towards a life cycle based chemical Ionas, A.C., Dirtu, A.C., Anthonissen, T., Neels, H.
alternative assessment (LCAA). Green Chemistry and Covaci, A. (2014). Downsides of the recycling
(Submitted). process: harmful organic chemicals in children’s
toys. Environment International. 65, 54-62. https://
Fantke, P. and Illner, N. (2019). Goods that are good doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVINT.2013.12.019.
enough: introducing an absolute sustainability
perspective for managing chemicals in consumer Isaacs, K.K., Goldsmith, M.-R., Egeghy, P., Phillips,
products. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable K., Brooks, R., Hong, T. and Wambaugh, J.F. (2016).
Chemistry 15, 91-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Characterization and prediction of chemical functions
cogsc.2018.12.001. and weight fractions in consumer products. Toxicology
Reports. 3, 723-732. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
Global inter-sector standard for Substances in Articles TOXREP.2016.08.011.
(SiA) communication (2018). Technical Coordination
Meeting: Protocol. https://sofia-darmstadt.de/fileadmin/ Isaacs, K.K., Phillips, K.A., Biryol, D., Dionisio, K.L. and
Dokumente/Sonstige/LIFEAskREACH/Proactive_ Price, P.S. (2018). Consumer product chemical weight
Alliance_Meeting_Protocol_2018-06-07_sofia.pdf. fractions from ingredient lists. Journal of Exposure
Science and Environmental Epidemiology. 28(3), 216-222.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2017.29.
188
Part I
Jennings, A. (2007). Thomas the tank engine toys Pieke, E.N., Smedsgaard, J. and Granby, K. (2018).
recalled because of lead paint. https://www.nytimes. Exploring the chemistry of complex samples by
com/2007/06/15/business/15recall.html. Accessed 2 tentative identification and semiquantification: a food
July 2018. contact material case. Journal of Mass Spectrometry.
53(4), 323-335. https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.4052.
Karami, A., Golieskardi, A., Keong Choo, C., Larat, V.,
Galloway, T.S. and Salamatinia, B. (2017). The presence Pivnenko, K., Olsson, M.E., Götze, R., Eriksson, E.
of microplastics in commercial salts from different and Astrup, T.F. (2016). Quantification of chemical
countries. Scientific Reports. 7(1), 46173. https://doi. contaminants in the paper and board fractions of
org/10.1038/srep46173. municipal solid waste. Waste Management. 51, 43-54.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WASMAN.2016.03.008.
Kay, J. (2013). Chemicals of high concern found in
thousands of children’s products. Environmental Health Samsonek, J. and Puype, F. (2013). Occurrence of
News. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ brominated flame retardants in black thermo cups and
chemicals-of-high-concern-found-in-thousands-of- selected kitchen utensils purchased on the European
childrens-products/. Accessed 28 October 2016. market. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A. 30(11),
1976-1986. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2013
Kijko, G., Jolliet, O. and Margni, M. (2016). Occupational .829246.
health impacts due to exposure to organic chemicals
over an entire product life cycle. Environmental Schecter, A., Colacino, J., Haffner, D., Patel, K., Opel,
Science & Technology. 50(23), 13105-13114. https:// M., Päpke, O. and Birnbaum, L. (2010). Perfluorinated
doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04434. compounds, polychlorinated biphenyls, and
organochlorine pesticide contamination in composite
Liao, C. and Kannan, K. (2013). Concentrations food samples from Dallas, Texas, USA. Environmental
and profiles of bisphenol A and other bisphenol Health Perspectives. 118(6), 796-802. https://doi.
analogues in foodstuffs from the United States and org/10.1289/ehp.0901347.
their implications for human exposure. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 61(19), 4655-4662. Schecter, A., Malik-Bass, N., Calafat, A.M., Kato, K.,
https://doi.org/10.1021/jf400445n. Colacino, J.A., Gent, T.L., Hynan, L.S., Harris, T.R., Malla,
S. and Birnbaum, L. (2011). Polyfluoroalkyl compounds
Llompart, M., Sanchez-Prado, L., Pablo Lamas, J., Garcia- in Texas children from birth through 12 years of age.
Jares, C., Roca, E. and Dagnac, T. (2013). Hazardous Environmental Health Perspectives. 120(4), 590-594.
organic chemicals in rubber recycled tire playgrounds https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104325.
and pavers. Chemosphere. 90(2), 423-431. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.07.053. Sourcemap (2012). IPhone 5. [Map]. https://open.
sourcemap.com/maps/57d28966df2ac24b524c8ffb.
Martin, M. (2013). Creating Sustainable Apparel Value Accessed 19 January 2019.
Chains: A Primer on Industry Transformation. 1st edn.
Geneva: Impact Economy. www.impacteconomy.com/ Skovgaard, M., Encinas, S.R., Jensen, O.C., Andersen,
papers/IE_PRIMER_DECEMBER2013_EN.pdf. J.H., Condarco, G. and Jørs, E. (2017). Pesticide
residues in commercial lettuce, onion, and potato
Mitchell, E.A.D., Mulhauser, B., Mulot, M., Mutabazi, A., samples from Bolivia – a threat to public health?
Glauser, G. and Aebi, A. (2017). A worldwide survey of Environmental Health Insights, 11. https://doi.
neonicotinoids in honey. Science. 358(6359), 109-111. org/10.1177/1178630217704194.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan3684.
Stringer, L. (2018). Cross-sector group considers
Normile, D. (2017). International trade shifts the blockchain technology for SiA standard, 6 September.
burden of pollution-related deaths, 29 March. Science. Chemical Watch. https://chemicalwatch.com/70122/
http://doi.org/10.1126/science.aal0979. Accessed cross-sector-group-considers-blockchain-technology-
17 February 2019. for-sia-standard?q=martin+führ. Accessed 18 February
2019
O’Rourke, D. (2014). The science of sustainable supply
chains. Science 344(6188), 1124-1127. https://doi. Swedish Chemicals Agency (2014). Analyses by the
org/10.1126/science.1248526. Swedish Chemicals Agency in Connection with Enforcement
2008-2013. https://www.kemi.se/global/tillsyns-
Overcash, M. (2016). Environmental genome of pm/2014/enforcement-6-14-analyses-2008-2013.pdf.
industrial products (EGIP): the missing link for human
health. Green Chemistry. 18(12), 3600-3606. https://doi. Swedish Chemicals Agency (2016a). Chemicals in
org/10.1039/C6GC00182C. Products: Challenges and Approaches. https://www.
kemi.se/global/broschyrer/chemicals-in-products.pdf.
Phillips, K.A., Wambaugh, J.F., Grulke, C.M., Dionisio,
K.L. and Isaacs, K.K. (2017). High-throughput screening Swedish Chemicals Agency (2016b). Restricted
of chemicals as functional substitutes using structure- Chemicals Found in Home Electronics. https://www.kemi.
based classification models. Green Chemistry. 19(4), se/en/global/tillsyns-pm/2016/tillsyn-11-16-tillsyn-av-
1063-1074. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6GC02744J. elektriska-lagprisprodukter.pdf.
189
Turner, A. (2018). Black plastics: linear and circular Baldé, C.P., Forti V., Gray, V., Kuehr, R. and Stegmann, P.
economies, hazardous additives and marine pollution. (2017). The Global E-Waste Monitor 2017. Bonn, Geneva
Environment International 117, 308-318. https://doi. and Vienna: United Nations University, International
org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.04.036. Telecommunication Union and the International Solid
Waste Association. https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/
Uding, N. and Schreder, E. (2013). Chemicals Revealed: Climate-Change/Pages/Global-E-waste-Monitor-2017.
Over 5,000 Kids’ Products Contain Toxic Chemicals. Seattle: aspx.
Washington Toxics Coalition. http://toxicfreefuture.org/
wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Chemicals_Revealed_ Beek, T. aus der, Weber, F.-A., Bergmann, A.,
Report.pdf. Hickmann, S., Ebert, I., Hein, A. and Küster, A.
(2016). Pharmaceuticals in the environment – global
United States Government Accountability Office (2017). occurrences and perspectives. Environmental Toxicology
Imported Seafood Safety: FDA And USDA Could Strengthen and Chemistry. 35(4), 823-835. https://doi.org/10.1002/
Efforts to Prevent Unsafe Drug Residues. www.gao.gov/ etc.3339.
assets/690/687183.pdf.
Benbrook, C.M. (2016). Trends in glyphosate herbicide
Villanueva, A. and Eder, P. (2014). End-of-Waste Criteria use in the United States and globally. Environmental
for Waste Plastic for Conversion. Joint Research Centre Sciences Europe 28(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/
Technical Reports EUR 26843 EN. Luxembourg: s12302-016-0070-0.
European Commission. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
SCITOTENV.2016.06.118. Boucher, J. and Friot, D. (2017). Primary Microplastics in
the Oceans: Global Evaluation of Sources. Lundin, C. G.
Wiedmann, T. and Lenzen, M. (2018). Environmental and Sousa, J. M. de (eds). Gland: International Union
and social footprints of international trade. Nature for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
Geoscience. 11(5), 314-321. https://doi.org/10.1038/ https://doi.org/10.2305/iucn.ch.2017.01.en.
s41561-018-0113-9.
Bouma, K. and Schakel, D.J. (2002). Migration of
World Health Organization (2018). GEMS/food - home. phthalates from PVC toys into saliva simulant by dynamic
https://extranet.who.int/gemsfood/. Accessed 5 June extraction. Food Additives and Contaminants 19(6), 602-
2018. 610. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030210125137.
Boxall, A.B.A. (2012). New and Emerging Water Pollutants

Arising from Agriculture. Paris: Organisation for
Economic C ooperation and Development. https://
Chapter 5 www.oecd.org/tad/sustainable-agriculture/49848768.
pdf.
Annamalai, J. (2015). Occupational health hazards
related to informal recycling of E-waste in India: Broughton, E. (2005). The Bhopal disaster and its
an overview. Indian Journal of Occupational aftermath: a review. Environmental Health. 4(6), 1-6.
and Environmental Medicine 19(1), http://doi. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-4-6.
org/10.4103/0019-5278.157013.
China Labour Bulletin (2018). China work
Apte, K. and Salvi, S. (2016). Household air pollution accident map. http://maps.clb.org.hk/accidents/
and its effects on health. F1000 Research. 5. https:// en#201801/201807/1821. Accessed 7 September 2018.
doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.7552.1.
China State Administration of Work Safety (2016).
Arefin, M.A. and Mallik, A. (2018). Sources and causes Accident Investigation Report on the Extremely Serious Fire
of water pollution in Bangladesh: a technical overview. and Explosion at Ruihai International Logistics Hazardous
BIBECHANA 15(2018), 97-112. https://doi.org/10.3126/ Goods Warehouse at Tianjin Port on 12 August 2015.
bibechana.v15i0.18688.
Cogut, A. (2016). Open Burning of Waste: A Global
Awashthi, A.K., Zeng, X. and Li, J. (2016). Environmental Health Disaster. https://regions20.org/wp-content/
pollution of electronic waste recycling in India: a critical uploads/2016/08/OPEN-BURNING-OF-WASTE-A-
review. Environmental Pollution 211, 259-270. https:// GLOBAL-HEALTH-DISASTER_R20-Research-Paper_
doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.11.027. Final_29.05.2017.pdf.
Babich, M.A., Chen, S.-B., Greene, M.A., Kiss, C.T., Commission for Environmental Cooperation (2016).
Porter, W.K., Smith, T.P., Wind, M.L. and Zamula, W.W. Summary charts: North America 2013 - top 25
(2004). Risk assessment of oral exposure to diisononyl pollutants by total releases and transfers. http://
phthalate from children’s products. Regulatory takingstock.cec.org/Charts?ChartType=1&IndustryL
Toxicology and Pharmacology. 40(2), 151-167. https:// evel=3&Measure=3&MediaTypes=29&QueryType=2&
doi.org/10.1016/J.YRTPH.2004.06.005. ReportType=16&ResultType=1&SummaryType=1&Wa
tershedLevel=2&Years=2013. Accessed 23 May 2018.
190
Part I
Cousins, A.P., Brorström-Lundén, E., Lexén, J. European Environment Agency (2017a). Air Pollution
and Rydberg, T. (2018). Emissions from Articles: from Agriculture: Ammonia Exceeds Emission Limits
Synthesis Report of the ChEmiTecs Research Program. in 2015. https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/air-
Stockholm: Swedish Environmental Protection pollution-from-agriculture-ammonia.
Agency. https://www.naturvardsverket.se/Documents/
publikationer6400/978-91-620-6802-8.pdf?pid=21851. European Environment Agency (2017b). Air Quality
in Europe — 2017 Report. Copenhagen: European
Csiszar, S.A., Diamond, M.L. and Daggupaty, S.M. Environment Agency. https://doi.org/10.2800/850018.
(2014). The magnitude and spatial range of current-
use urban PCB and PBDE emissions estimated using European Environment Agency (2018). Persistent
a coupled multimedia and air transport model. organic pollutants, 16 October. https://www.eea.
Environmental Science & Technology 48(2), 1075-1083. europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/eea32-
https://doi.org/10.1021/es403080t. persistent-organic-pollutant-pop-emissions-1/
assessment-9. Accessed 6 February 2019.
Daniell, W.E., Van Tung, L., Wallace, R.M., Havens,
D.J., Karr, C.J., Bich Diep, N., Croteau, G.A., Beaudet, European Environment Agency (n.d.). European
N.J. and Duy Bao, N. (2015). Childhood lead pollutant release and transfer register. http://prtr.
exposure from battery recycling in Vietnam. BioMed ec.europa.eu/#/areaoverview. Accessed 28 October
Research International 2015, 1-10. https://doi. 2016.
org/10.1155/2015/193715.
Fernandes, G.W., Goulart, F.F., Ranieri, B.D., Coelho,
de Freytas-Tamura, K. (2018). Plastics pile up as China M.S., Dales, K., Boesche, N., Bustamante, M., Carvalho,
refuses to take the west’s recycling, 11 January. New F.A., Carvalho, D.C., Dirzo, R., Fernandes, S., Galetti,
York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/11/ P.M., Millan, V.E.G., Mielke, C., Ramirez, J.L., Neves, A.,
world/china-recyclables-ban.html. Rogass, C., Ribeiro, S.P., Scariot, A. and Soares-Filho,
B. (2016). Deep into the mud: ecological and socio-
de Souza Machado, A.A., Kloas, W., Zarfl, C., Hempel, economic impacts of the dam breach in Mariana,
S. and Rillig, M.C. (2018). Microplastics as an emerging Brazil. Natureza & Conservação. 14(2), 35-45. https://
threat to terrestrial ecosystems. Global Change Biology doi.org/10.1016/J.NCON.2016.10.003.
24(4), 1405-1416. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14020.
Fernandez-Cornejo, J., Nehring, R., Osteen, C.,
de Wit, M. de, Hoogzaad, J., Ramkumar, S., Friedl, H. and Wechsler, S., Martin, A. and Vialou, A. (2014). Pesticide
Douma, A. (2018). The Circularity Gap Report: An Analysis Use in U.S. Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008.
of the Circular State of the Global Economy. Amsterdam: Washington, D.C.: United States Department of
Circle Economy. https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/ad6e Agriculture. https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/
59_733a71635ad946bc9902dbdc52217018.pdf. publications/43854/46734_eib124.pdf.
Esdaile, L.J. and Chalker, J.M. (2018). The mercury Fiedler, H. (2007). National PCDD/PCDF release
problem in artisanal and small-scale gold mining. inventories under the Stockholm Convention
Chemistry - A European Journal. 24(27), 6905-6916. on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Chemosphere
https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201704840. 67(9), S96-S108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
chemosphere.2006.05.093.
Essel, R., Engel, L., Carus, M. and Heinrich Ahrens,
R. (2015). Sources of Microplastics Relevant to Marine Geyer, R., Jameck, J.R. and Law, K.L (2017). Production,
Protection in Germany. Werner, S. (ed.). Dessau- use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Science Advances
Roßlau: German Environment Agency. https:// 3(7), e1700782. http://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782.
medien/378/publikationen/texte_64_2015_sources_ Gibb, H. and O’Leary, K.G. (2014). Mercury exposure and
of_microplastics_relevant_to_marine_protection_1.pdf. health impacts among individuals in the artisanal and
small-scale gold mining community: a comprehensive
European Commission (2006). Science for Environment review. Environmental Health Perspectives 122(7), 667-
Policy. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/ 672. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307864.
research/newsalert/pdf/41na1_en.pdf.
Greenwalt, J., Raasakka, N. and Alverson, K. (2018).
European Commission (2014). Rapex Facts and Building urban resilience to address urbanization and
Figures 2013. https://ec.europa.eu/consumers/ climate change. In Resilience: The Science of Adaptation
consumers_safety/safety_products/rapex/alerts/ to Climate Change. Zommers, Z. and Alverson, K. D.
repository/content/pages/rapex/reports/docs/rapex_ (eds.). Elsevier Inc. Chapter 12. 151-164. https://doi.
activity_2013_en.pdf. org/10.1016/b978-0-12-811891-7.00012-8.
European Environment Agency (2015). The European Griggs, T., Lehren, A.W., Popovich, N., Singhvi, A.
Environment — State and Outlook 2015: Synthesis Report. and Tabuchi, H. (2017). More than 40 sites released
https://doi.org/10.2800/944899. hazardous pollutants because of Hurricane Harvey,
9 August. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/
interactive/2017/09/08/us/houston-hurricane-harvey-
harzardous-chemicals.html. Accessed 8 June 2018.
191
Guerreiro, C., Leeuw, F. de, Foltescu, V. and Ortiz, A.G. Huang, L., Fantke, P., Ernstoff, A. and Jolliet, O. (2017).
(2015). Air Quality in Europe – 2015 Report. Copenhagen: A quantitative property-property relationship for the
European Environment Agency. https://www.eea. internal diffusion coefficients of organic compounds
europa.eu/publications/air-quality-in-europe-2015. in solid materials. Indoor Air 27(6), 1128-1140. https://
doi.org/10.1111/ina.12395.
Gyenes, Z. and Wood, M.H. (2014). Lessons
learned from major accidents having significant Hung, H., Katsoyiannis, A.A., Brorström-Lunden, E.,
impact on the environment. In Symposium Series Ollafsdottir, K., Aas, W., Breivik, K., Bohlin-Nizzetto,
No 159 Hazards 24. Edinburgh. 1-9. https://doi. P., Sigurdsson, A., Hakola, H., Bossi, R., Skov, H.,
org/10.13140/2.1.2897.6005. Sverko, E., Barresi, E., Fellin, P. and Wilson, S. (2016).
Temporal trends of persistent organic pollutants
He, K., Sun, Z., Hu, Y., Zeng, X., Yu, Z. and Cheng, H. (POPs) in arctic air: 20 years of monitoring under
(2017). Comparison of soil heavy metal pollution the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme
caused by e-waste recycling activities and traditional (AMAP). Environmental Pollution 217, 52-61. https://
industrial operations. Environmental Science and doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.01.079.
Pollution Research 24(10), 9387-9398. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11356-017-8548-x. Hudson-Edwards, K.A., Jamieson, H.E. and Lottermoser,
B.G. (2011). Mine wastes: past, present, future.
Heacock, M., Kelly, C.B., Asante, K.A., Birnbaum, L.S., Elements 7(6), 375-380. https://doi.org/10.2113/
Bergman, Å.L., Bruné, M.-N., Buka, I., Carpenter, D.O., gselements.7.6.375.
Chen, A., Huo, X., Kamel, M., Landrigan, P.J., Magalini,
F., Diaz-Barriga, F., Neira, M., Omar, M., Pascale, A., International Energy Agency, International
Ruchirawat, M., Sly, L., Sly, P.D., Van den Berg, M. and Council of Chemical Associations and Society for
Suk, W.A. (2016). E-waste and harm to vulnerable Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology (2013).
populations: a growing global problem. Environmental Technology Roadmap Energy and GHG Reductions
Health Perspectives 124, 550-555. http://dx.doi. in the Chemical Industry via Catalytic Processes.
org/10.1289/ehp.1509699. https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/
publication/TechnologyRoadmapEnergy
Hemmatian, B., Abdolhamidzadeh, B., Darbra, R.M. andGHGReductionsintheChemicalIndustryvia
and Casal, J. (2014). The significance of domino effect CatalyticProcesses.pdf.
in chemical accidents. Journal of Loss Prevention in the
Process Industries. 29, 30-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. International Solid Waste Association (2015). Wasted
JLP.2014.01.003. Health: The Tragic Case of Dumpsites. https://www.
iswa.org/fileadmin/galleries/Task_Forces/THE_TRAGIC_
Hodges, J.E.N., Vamshi, R., Holmes, C., Rowson, M., CASE_OF_DUMPSITES.pdf.
Miah, T. and Price, O.R. (2014). Combining high-
resolution gross domestic product data with home International Solid Waste Association (2016). A Roadmap
and personal care product market research data to for Closing Waste Dumpsites the World’s Most Polluted
generate a subnational emission inventory for Asia. Places. Vienna: International Solid Waste Association.
Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management https://www.iswa.org/fileadmin/galleries/About%20
10(2), 237-246. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.1476. ISWA/ISWA_Roadmap_Report.pdf.
Hoornweg, D. and Bhada-Tata, P. (2012). What a Jambeck, J.R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T.R.,
Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management. Perryman, M., Andrady, A., Narayan, R. and Law, K.L.
Urban Development Series. Washington, D.C.: (2015). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.
World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank. Science 347(6223), 768-771. https://doi.org/10.1126/
org/bitstream/handle/10986/17388/68135. science.1260352.
pdf?sequence=8&isAllowed=y.
Jeon, S., Kim, K.-T. and Choi, K. (2016). Migration of
Horney, J.A., Casillas, G.A., Baker, E., Stone, K.W., DEHP and DINP into dust from PVC flooring products
Kirsch, K.R., Camargo, K., Wade, T.L. and McDonald, at different surface temperature. Science of The Total
T.J. (2018). Comparing residential contamination in a Environment 547, 441-446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Houston environmental justice neighborhood before scitotenv.2015.12.135.
and after Hurricane Harvey. PLOS ONE. Lau, A. T. Y.
(ed.) 13(2), e0192660. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. Kaza, Sipa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van
pone.0192660. Woerden (2018). What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot
of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Washington, D.C.:
Huang, L. and Jolliet, O. (2016). A parsimonious International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
model for the release of volatile organic compounds and World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.
(VOCs) encapsulated in products. Atmospheric org/bitstream/handle/10986/30317/9781464813290.
Environment 127, 223-235. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. pdf.
ATMOSENV.2015.12.001.
192
Part I
Kratz, S., Schick, J, and Schnug, E. (2016). Trace elements Liu, Z., Lu, Y., Wang, P., Wang, T., Liu, S., Johnson,
in rock phosphates and P containing mineral and A.C., Sweetman, A.J. and Baninla, Y. (2017). Pollution
organo-mineral fertilizers sold in Germany. Science pathways and release estimation of perfluorooctane
of the Total Environment, 542B, 1013-1019. https://doi. sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.046. in central and eastern China. Science of The Total
Environment 580, 1247-1256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Krausmann, F., Wiedenhofer, D., Lauk, C., Haas, scitotenv.2016.12.085.
W., Tanikawa, H., Fishman, T., Miatto, A., Schandl, H.
and Haberl, H. (2017a). Global socioeconomic material Luek, J.L. and Gonsior, M. (2017). Organic compounds in
stocks rise 23-fold over the 20th century and require hydraulic fracturing fluids and wastewaters: a review.
half of annual resource use. Proceedings of the National Water Research 123, 536-548. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
Academy of Sciences of the United States 114(8), 1880- WATRES.2017.07.012.
1885. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1613773114.
Martin, T.E. and Davies, M.P. (2000). Trends in the
Krausmann, E., Cruz, A.M. and Salzano, E. and Necci Stewardship of Tailings Dams. Burnaby: AGRA Earth &
(2017b). Natech Risk Assessment and Management: Environmental Limited. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.
Reducing the Risk of Natural-Hazard Impact on Hazardous org/4a79/1df0b20f9bfdf1b96037b3eb1c2455fb8379.
Installations. 1st edn. Amsterdam: Elsevier Inc. https:// pdf.
www.elsevier.com/books/natech-risk-assessment-
and-management/krausmann/978-0-12-803807-9. Mateo-Sagasta, J., Zadeh, S.M. and Turral, H. (2017).
Water Pollution from Agriculture: A Global Review. Rome
Kumari, K., Kumar, S., Rajagopal, V., Khare, A. and and Colombo: Food and Agriculture Organization of the
Kumar, R. (2017). Emission from open burning of United Nations and International Water Management
municipal solid waste in India. Environmental Technology Institute on behalf of the Water Land and Ecosystems
1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2017.1351489. research program. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7754e.pdf.
Larsson, D.G.J. (2014). Pollution from drug McCarthy, N. (2016). The countries winning the recycling
manufacturing: review and perspectives. Philosophical race, 4 March. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences niallmccarthy/2016/03/04/the-countries-winning-the-
369(1656), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0571. recycling-race-infographic/#74c5690e2b3d. Accessed
10 July 2018.
Larsson, D.G.J., Andremont, A., Bengtsson-Palme, J.,
Brandt, K.K., de Roda Husman, A.M., Fagerstedt, P., McDonald, B.C., de Gouw, J.A., Gilman, J.B., Jathar,
Fick, J., Flach, C.-F., Gaze, W.H., Kuroda, M., Kvint, K., S.H., Akherati, A., Cappa, C.D., Jimenez, J.L., Lee-
Laxminarayan, R., Manaia, C.M., Nielsen, K.M., Plant, Taylor, J., Hayes, P.L., McKeen, S.A., Cui, Y.Y., Kim, S.-
L., Ploy, M.-C., Segovia, C., Simonet, P., Smalla, K., W., Gentner, D.R., Isaacman-VanWertz, G., Goldstein,
Snape, J., Topp, E., van Hengel, A.J., Verner-Jeffreys, A.H., Harley, R.A., Frost, G.J., Roberts, J.M., Ryerson,
D.W., Virta, M.P.J., Wellington, E.M. and Wernersson, T.B. and Trainer, M. (2018). Volatile chemical products
A.-S. (2018). Critical knowledge gaps and research emerging as largest petrochemical source of urban
needs related to the environmental dimensions of organic emissions. Science 359(6377), 760-764. https://
antibiotic resistance. Environment International 117, doi.org/10.1126/science.aaq0524.
132-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.04.041.
Melymuk, L., Robson, M., Csiszar, S.A., Helm, P.A.,
Lebreton, L.C.M., van der Zwet, J., Damsteeg, J.-W., Kaltenecker, G., Backus, S., Bradley, L., Gilbert, B.,
Slat, B., Andrady, A. and Reisser, J. (2017). River plastic Blanchard, P., Jantunen, L. and Diamond, M.L. (2014).
emissions to the world’s oceans. Nature Communications From the city to the lake: loadings of PCBs, PBDEs, PAHs
8(15611),-1-10. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15611. and PCMs from Toronto to lake Ontario. Environmental
Science & Technology 48(7), 3732-3741. https://doi.
Li, L., Zhai, Z., Liu, J. and Hu, J. (2015). Estimating org/10.1021/es403209z.
industrial and domestic environmental releases of
perfluorooctanoic acid and its salts in China from Meng, J., Lu, Y., Wang, T., Wang, P., Giesy, J.P.,
2004 to 2012. Chemosphere 129, 100-109. https://doi. Sweetman, A.J. and Li, Q. (2017). Life cycle analysis of
org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.11.049. perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and its salts in China.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research 24(12),
Li, Y., Ping, H., Ma, Z.-H. and Pan, L.-G. (2014). Statistical 11254-11264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-
analysis of sudden chemical leakage accidents reported 8678-1.
in China between 2006 and 2011. Environmental Science
and Pollution Research 21(8), 5547-5553. https://doi. Michalski, R. and Ficek, A. (2016). Environmental
org/10.1007/s11356-013-2279-4. pollution by chemical substances used in the shale gas
extraction – a review. Desalination and Water Treatment.
57(3), 1336-1343. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.
2015.1017331.
193
Molina, M., Zaelke, D., Sarma, K.M., Andersen, S.O., Phillips McDougal (2018). Evolution of the Crop
Ramanathan, V. and Kaniaru, D. (2009). Reducing Protection Industry since 1960. Midlothian: Informa.
abrupt climate change risk using the montreal protocol https://agribusinessintelligence.informa.com/~/media/
and other regulatory actions to complement cuts in informa-shop-window/agri/images/sample-content/
CO2 emissions. Proceedings of the National Academy of reports/pmd_evolution_of_the_crop_protection_
Sciences of the United States of America 106(49), 20616- industry.pdf.
20621. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0902568106.
Review on Antimicrobial Resistance (2016). Tackling
Montzka, S.A., Dutton, G.S., Yu, P., Ray, E., Portmann, Drug-Resistant Infections Globally: Final Report and
R.W., Daniel, J.S., Kuijpers, L., Hall, B.D., Mondeel, Recommendations. https://amr-review.org/sites/
D., Siso, C., Nance, J.D., Rigby, M., Manning, A.J., Hu, default/files/160518_Final%20paper_with%20cover.
L., Moore, F., Miller, B.R. and Elkins, J.W. (2018). An pdf.
unexpected and persistent increase in global emissions
of ozone-depleting CFC-11. Nature 557(7705), 413-417. Rodríguez Eugenio, N., McLaughlin, M. and Pennock,
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0106-2. P. (2018). Soil Pollution: A Hidden Reality. Rome: Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Morrison, G.C., Weschler, C.J. and Bekö, G. (2016). http://www.fao.org/3/I9183EN/i9183en.pdf.
Dermal uptake directly from air under transient
conditions: advances in modeling and comparisons Rucevska, I., Nellemann, C., Isarin, N., Yang, W., Liu,
with experimental results for human subjects. Indoor N., Yu, K., Sandnæs, S., Olley, K., McCann, H., Devia, L.,
Air 26(6), 913-924. https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12277. Bisschop, L., Soesilo, D., Schoolmeester, T., Henriksen,
R. and Nilsen, R. (2015). Waste Crime – Waste Risks Gaps
Najam, S., NaWaz, R. and Ahmad, S. (2015). Heavy in Meeting the Global Waste Challenge. Rapid Response
metals contamination of soils and vegetables Assessment. Nairobi: United Nations Environment
irrigated with municipal wastewater: a case study Programme. http://web.unep.org/ourplanet/
of Faisalabad, Pakistan. Journal of Environmental and september-2015/unep-publications/waste-crime-
Agricultural Sciences 4, 6-10 . http://www.academia. waste-risks-gaps-meeting-global-waste-challenge-
edu/23376669/Heavy_Metals_Contamination_of_Soils_ rapid.
and_Vegetables_Irrigated_with_.
Rydberg, T., Westerdahl, J., Hallberg, E., Öman, A.,
National Bureau of Statistics of China (2015). China Andersson, P.L., Haglund, P., Holmgren, T., Fuhrman,
Statistical Yearbook 2015. http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ F., Molander, S. and Tivander, J. (2011). Emissions of
ndsj/2015/indexeh.htm. additives from plastics in the societal material stock: a
case study for Sweden. In Global Risk-Based Management
National Bureau of Statistics of China (2017). China of Chemical Additives I: Production, Usage and
Statistical Yearbook 2017. http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ Environmetal Occurence. Berlin: Springer. Chapter 14.
ndsj/2017/indexeh.htm. 253-264. https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2011_107.
Needhidasan, S., Samuel, M. and Chidambaram, R. Schreinemachers, P. and Tipraqsa, P. (2012). Agricultural
(2014). Electronic waste – an emerging threat to the pesticides and land use intensification in high, middle
environment of urban India. Journal of Environmental and low-income countries. Food Policy 37(6), 616-626.
Health Science & Engineering 12(36), 1-9. https://doi. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODPOL.2012.06.003.
org/10.1186/2052-336X-12-36.
Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam, Sockholm
Norwegian Institute for Water Research (2018). Secretariat (2016). 2014 Hazardous Waste Generation
Microplastics in agricultural soils: a reason to worry? 1 in Selected Countries. Data provided by e-mail. http://
February. https://www.niva.no/en/news/microplastics- www.brsmeas.org/.
in-agricultural-soils-a-reason-to-worry. Accessed 9
September 2018. Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2017).
Outcomes of the effectiveness evaluation of
Obradović, M., Kalambura, S., Smolec, D. and the Stockholm Convention. http://chm.pops.int/
Jovicić, N. (2014). Dumping and illegal transport of Implementation/EffectivenessEvaluation/Outcomes/
hazardous waste, danger of modern society. Collegium tabid/5559/Default.aspx. Accessed 11 September
Antropologicum 38(2), 793-803. https://www.ncbi.nlm. 2018.
nih.gov/pubmed/25145025.
Secretariat of the Vienna Convention and its Montreal
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Protocol (2018). Ozone Secretariat: country data.
Development (2018). Introduction to Pollutant Release https://ozone.unep.org/countries/data. Accessed 11
and Transfer Registers (PRTRs). https://www.oecd. September 2018.
org/env/ehs/pollutant-release-transfer-register/
introductionto-pollutant-release-and-transfer- Sheldon, R.A. (2017). The e factor 25 years on: the rise
registers.htm. Accessed 7 September 2018. of green chemistry and sustainability. Green Chemistry
19(1), 18-43. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6gc02157c.
Owens, B. (2015). Pharmaceuticals in the environment:
a growing problem. The Pharmaceutical Journal.
294(7850). https://doi.org/10.1211/PJ.2015.20067898.
194
Part I
Shukla, S. and Saxena, A. (2018). Global status of nitrate United Nations Economic and Social Commission
contamination in groundwater: its occurrence, health for Western Africa (2015). Review of Innovative and
impacts, and mitigation measures. In Handbook of Appropriate Technologies for Waste Management in
Environmental Materials Management. Cham: Springer. Morocco and the Arab Region.. Unpublished data.
1-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58538-3_20-1. https://www.unescwa.org/sites/www.unescwa.org/
files/events/files/report_innovative-appropriate-
Singer, A.C., Shaw, H., Rhodes, V. and Hart, A. (2016). technologies-waste-management_arab-region_
Review of antimicrobial resistance in the environment escwa_2015.pdf.
and Its relevance to environmental regulators. Frontiers
in Microbiology 7, 1728. https://doi.org/10.3389/ United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural
fmicb.2016.01728. Organization (2009). Water in a Changing World. The
United Nations World Water Development Report 3.
Soldán, P., Pavonič, M. Bouček, J. and Kokeš, J. (2001). http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/1051-
Baia Mare accident – brief ecotoxicological report 0761(2001)011[1027:WIACW]2.0.CO;2.
of Czech experts. Ecotoxicology and Environmental
Safety 49(3), 255-261. https://doi.org/10.1006/ United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural
eesa.2001.2070. Organization (2015). The United Nations World
Water Development Report 2015: Water for a
Steinemann, A. (2015). Volatile emissions from Sustainable World. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
common consumer products. Air Quality, Atmosphere & images/0023/002318/231823E.pdf.
Health 8(3), 273-281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-
015-0327-6. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural
Organization (2017). The United Nations World Water
Streets, D.G., Horowitz, H.M., Jacob, D.J., Lu, Z., Levin, Development Report 2017 Facts and Figures: Wastewater
L., ter Schure, A.F.H. and Sunderland, E.M. (2017). the Untapped Resource. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
Total mercury released to the environment by human images/0024/002475/247553e.pdf.
activities. Environmental Science & Technology 51(11),
5969-5977. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b00451. United Nations Environment Programme (2009). Task
Force Decision XX/7 – Phase 2 Report ‘Environmentally
Sutherland, V.A., Ehrlich, M., Engler, R. and Kulinowski, Sound Management of Banks Of Ozone-Depleting
K. (2018). Organic Peroxide Decomposition, Release, Substances’. Technology and Economic Assessment
and Fire at Arkema Crosby Following Hurricane Harvey Panel. https://unep.ch/ozone/Assessment_Panels/
Flooding Exposures to Emergency Responders, Community TEAP/Reports/TEAP_Reports/teap-october-2009-
Evacuation, and Property Damage Investigation Report. decisionXX-7-task-force-phase2-report.doc.
Washington, D.C.: United States Chemical Safety and
Hazard Investigation Board. https://www.csb.gov/ United Nations Environment Programme (2015).
assets/1/20/final_arkema_draft_report_2018-05-23. The Chemicals in Products Programme: Guidance for
pdf?16272. Stakeholders on Exchanging Chemicals in Products
Information. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/
Tabuchi, H. and Kaplan, S. (2017). A sea of health and Documents/EPI/Guidance%20for%20Stakeholder%20
environmental hazards in Houston’s floodwaters, in%20Exchanging%20CiP%20Information_
31 August. New York Times. https://www.nytimes. October2015.pdf.
com/2017/08/31/us/houston-contaminated-
floodwaters.html?mcubz=3. Accessed 8 June 2018. United Nations Environment Programme (2016a).
The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol:
Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (2017). another global commitment to stop climate change,
Reports of air emission events. https://www.tceq. 8 December. https://www.unenvironment.org/
texas.gov/airquality/emission-events/eventreporting. news-and-stories/news/kigali-amendment-montreal-
Accessed 7 September 2018. protocol-another-global-commitment-stop-climate.
Topp, E., Larsson, D.G.J., Miller, D.N., Van den Eede, C.
and Virta, M.P.J. (2018). Antimicrobial resistance and United Nations Environment Programme (2016b).
the environment: assessment of advances, gaps and Marine Plastic Debris and Microplastics: Guidelines and
recommendations for agriculture, aquaculture and Research to Inspire Action and Guide Policy Changes.
pharmaceutical manufacturing. FEMS Microbiology http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/7720.
Ecology 94(3). https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fix185.
United Nations Environment Programme and Arctic
Tornero, V. and Hanke, G. (2016). Chemical Monitoring and Assessment Program (2017). Global
contaminants entering the marine environment from Mercury Assessment 2018 – Draft Technical Background
sea-based sources: a review with a focus on European Document. http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/
seas. Marine Pollution Bulletin 112(1-2), 17-38. https:// handle/20.500.11822/21553/GMACombined.
doi.org/10.1016/J.MARPOLBUL.2016.06.091. pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
195
United Nations Environment Programme and Council United States Environmental Protection Agency (n.d.
for Scientific and Industrial Research (n.d.). Africa b). Our nation’s air 2017. https://gispub.epa.gov/air/tr
Waste Management Outlook: Summary for Decision- endsreport/2017/#introduction. Accessed 14 February
Makers. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/ 2018.
handle/20.500.11822/25515/Africa_WMO_Summary.
pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. United States Environmental Protection Agency (n.d.
c). EPA’s response to Hurricane Harvey. https://epa.
United Nations Environment Programme and GRID maps.arcgis.com/apps/MapJournal/index.html?appi
Arendal. (2016). Marine Litter Vital Graphics. Fabres, J., d=fadbae6b2832436fb65ca497bd75b9a6. Accessed
Savelli, H., Schoolmeester, T., Rucevska, I. and Baker, 7 September 2018.
E. (eds.). United Nations Environment Programme and
GRID-Arendal. Nairobi and Arendal. https://wedocs. United States Geological Survey (2016). Contaminants
unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/9798/- found in groundwater, 2 December. https://water.usgs.
Marine_litter_Vital_graphics-2016MarineLitterVG.pdf. gov/edu/groundwater-contaminants.html. Accessed
pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=3. 24 July 2016.
United Nations Environment Programme and United States House of Representatives (2011).
International Solid Waste Association (2015a). Global Chemicals Used in Hydraulic Fracturing. https://web.
Waste Management Outlook. Cannon, T. (ed.). Nairobi. archive.org/web/20131004213846/http:/democrats.
https://doi.org/10.18356/765baec0-en. energycommerce.house.gov/sites/default/files/
documents/Hydraulic-Fracturing-Chemicals-2011-4-18.
United Nations Environment Programme and pdf.
International Solid Waste Association (2015b). Global
Waste Management Outlook: Summary for Decision- United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Makers. https://www.iswa.org/fileadmin/galleries/ Administration (2018). What is the biggest source of
Publications/ISWA_Reports/GWMO_summary_web. pollution in the ocean? https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/
pdf. facts/pollution.html. Accessed 12 September 2016.
United Nations Environment Programme and van der Wal, M., van der Meulen, M., Tweehuijsen,
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2017). G., Peterlin, M., Palatinus, A., Kovač Viršek, M., Coscia,
Report on the Effectiveness Evaluation of the Stockholm L. and Kržan, A. (2015). Identification and Assessment
Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Geneva: of Riverine Input of (Marine) Litter. Final Report for the
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention. http://chm. European Commission DG Environment under Framework
pops.int/TheConvention/ConferenceoftheParties/ Contract No ENV.D.2/FRA/2012/0025. Bristol: Eunomia
Meetings/COP8/tabid/5309/Default.aspx. Research & Consulting. http://mcc.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
document.py?code=201606244356.
United Nations Statistics Division (2011). Environmental
indicators: hazardous waste generation. https:// Varshavsky, J.R., Morello-Frosch, R., Woodruff, T.J.
unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/hazardous.htm. and Zota, A.R. (2018). Dietary sources of cumulative
Accessed 8 June 2018. phthalates exposure among the U.S. general population
in NHANES 2005–2014. Environment International. 115,
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2016). 417-429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.02.029.
The hydraulic fracturing water cycle, 16 December.
https://www.epa.gov/hfstudy/hydraulic-fracturing- Wall, B.A., Mateus, A., Marshall, L., Pfeiffer, D.U.,
water-cycle. Accessed 7 September 2018. Lubroth, J., Ormel, H.J., Otto, P. and Patriarchi, A. (2016).
Drivers, Dynamics and Epidemiology of Antimicrobial
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2018). Resistance in Animal Production. Rome: Food and
Report on the environment. https://cfpub.epa.gov/ Agriculture Organization of United Nations. http://
roe/. Accessed 11 March 2018. www.fao.org/3/a-i6209e.pdf.
United States Environmental Protection Agency Wang, B., Fiedler, H., Huang, J., Deng, S., Wang, Y. and Yu,
(2019). 2017 Toxics Release Inventory National G. (2016). A primary estimate of global PCDD/F release
Analysis. Washington, D.C. https://www.epa.gov/ based on the quantity and quality of national economic
sites/production/files/2019-02/documents/2017_tri_ and social activities. Chemosphere 151, 303-309.
national_analysis_complete_report.pdf. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.02.085.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (n.d. Wang, Y., Cheng, K., Wu, W., Tian, H., Yi, P., Zhi, G., Fan,
a). Enhancing PRTR Comparability to Address Global J. and Liu, S. (2017). Atmospheric emissions of typical
Sustainability Needs. Washington, D.C.: George toxic heavy metals from open burning of municipal
Washington University. https://www.epa.gov/sites/ solid waste in China. Atmospheric Environment.152, 6-15.
production/files/documents/gwu_global_awareness_ https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ATMOSENV.2016.12.017.
report_on_tri.pdf.
196
Part I
Wannaz, C., Franco, A., Kilgallon, J., Hodges, J. and World Health Organization (2018). Chemical Releases
Jolliet, O. (2018). A global framework to model spatial Caused by Natural Hazard Events and Disasters:
ecosystems exposure to home and personal care Information for Public Health Authorities. https://
chemicals in Asia. Science of The Total Environment 622- reliefweb.int/report/world/chemical-releases-caused-
623, 410-420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. natural-hazard-events-and-disasters-information-
scitotenv.2017.11.315. public-health.
Weber, F.-A., Aus Der Beek, T., Carius, A., Grüttner, G., Zalasiewicz, J., Williams, M., Waters, C.N., Barnosky,
Hickmann, S., Ebert, I, Hein, A., Küster, A., Rose, J., Koch- A.D., Palmesino, J., Rönnskog, A.-S., Edgeworth, M.,
Jugl, J. and Stolzenberg, H.-C. (2014). Pharmaceuticals Neal, C., Cearreta, A., Ellis, E.C., Grinevald, J., Haff, P.,
in the Environment – the Global Perspective: Occurrence, Ivar do Sul, J.A., Jeandel, C., Leinfelder, R., McNeill, J.R.,
Effects, and Potential Cooperative Action Under SAICM. Odada, E., Oreskes, N., Price, S.J., Revkin, A., Steffen, W.,
Dessau-Roßlau: German Environment Agency. https:// Summerhayes, C., Vidas, D., Wing, S. and Wolfe, A.P.
www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/publikationen/ (2016). Scale and diversity of the physical technosphere:
pharmaceuticals-in-the-environment-the-global. a geological perspective. The Anthropocene Review 4(1),
9-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053019616677743.
Wei, G.-L., Li, D.-Q., Zhuo, M.-N., Liao, Y.-S., Xie, Z.-Y.,
Guo, T.-L., Li, J.-J., Zhang, S.-Y. and Liang, Z.-Q. (2015). Zhang, G.S. and Liu, Y. F. (2018). The distribution of
Organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers: microplastics in soil aggregate fractions in southwestern
sources, occurrence, toxicity and human exposure. China. Science of the Total Environment 642, 12-20.
Environmental Pollution 196, 29-46. https://doi. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.004.
org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2014.09.012.
Zhang, M., Buekens, A. and Li, X. (2017). Open burning
Weschler, C.J. and Nazaroff, W.W. (2014). Dermal as a source of dioxins. Critical Reviews in Environmental
uptake of organic vapors commonly found in indoor Science and Technology 47(8), 543-620. https://doi.org
air. Environmental Science & Technology 48(2), 1230- /10.1080/10643389.2017.1320154.
1237. https://doi.org/10.1021/es405490a.
Zhang, Y., Jacob, D.J., Horowitz, H.M., Chen, L., Amos,
Wiedinmyer, C., Yokelson, R.J. and Gullett, B.K. (2014). H.M., Krabbenhoft, D.P., Slemr, F., St Louis, V.L.
Global emissions of trace gases, particulate matter, and Sunderland, E.M. (2016). Observed decrease in
and hazardous air pollutants from open burning of atmospheric mercury explained by global decline
domestic waste. Environmental Science & Technology in anthropogenic emissions. Proceedings of the
48(16), 9523-9530. https://doi.org/10.1021/es502250z. National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America 113(3), 526-531. https://doi.org/10.1073/
Wood, M. (2017). Newsletter-xi - JRC study of chemical pnas.1516312113.
accidents in the media during 2016-2017, for OECD, 5
December. European Commission. http://drmkc.jrc.
ec.europa.eu/overview/news#news/432/details/8756/
newsletter-xi-jrc-study-of-chemical-accidents-in-the- Chapter 6
media-during-2016-2017-for-oecd. Accessed 5 June
2018. Arastoo, H., Hakimovich, A.P. and Esfandiarpour, S.
(2015). Assessment of barriers to establish OSH: a
World Health Organization (2010). WHO Guidelines country report. Industrial Health 53(4), 378-384. https://
for Indoor Air Quality: Selected Pollutants. http://www. doi.org/10.2486/indhealth.2013-0234.
euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/128169/
e94535.pdf. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (2011).
Arctic Pollution 2011. https://oaarchive.arctic-council.
World Health Organization (2011). Mercury in Skin org/handle/11374/634.
Lightening Products. http://www.who.int/ipcs/
assessment/public_health/mercury_flyer.pdf. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (2015a).
Summary for Policymakers: Arctic Pollution Issues 2015.
World Health Organization (2014). WHO Guidelines for https://www.amap.no/documents/doc/summary-for-
Indoor Air Quality: Household Fuel Combustion. http:// policymakers-arctic-pollution-issues-2015/1195.
www.who.int/airpollution/publications/household-
fuel-combustion/en/. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme
(2015b). AMAP Assessment 2015: Human Health in the
World Health Organization (2017). Recycling Used Lead- Arctic. https://www.amap.no/documents/doc/amap-
Acid Batteries: Health Considerations. http://apps.who.int/ assessment-2015-human-health-in-the-arctic/1346.
iris/bitstream/handle/10665/259447/9789241512855-
eng.pdf;jsessionid=AD4085391546E7C6FB30CF0DC6 Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (2017).
401429?sequence=1. AMAP Assessment 2016: Chemicals of Emerging Arctic
Concern. https://www.amap.no/documents/doc/
AMAP-Assessment-2016-Chemicals-of-Emerging-
Arctic-Concern/1624.
197
Arnot, J.A. and Gobas, F.A. (2006). A review of Chakraborty, P., Selvaraj, S., Nakamura, M.,
bioconcentration factor (BCF) and bioaccumulation Balasubramanian, P., Cincinelli, A. and Bang, J. (2018).
factor (BAF) assessments for organic chemicals in PCBs and PCDD/Fs in soil from informal e-waste
aquatic organisms. Environmental Reviews 14(4), 257- recycling sites and open dumpsites in India: levels,
297. https://doi.org/10.1139/a06-005. congener profiles and health risk assessment. Science
of the Total Environment 621, 930-938. https://www.
Aubail, A., Dietz, R., Rigét, F., Sonne, C., Wiig, Ø. and researchgate.net/publication/321729212_PCBs_and_
Caurant, F. (2012). Temporal trend of mercury in polar PCDDFs_in_soil_from_informal_e-waste_recycling_
bears (Ursus Maritimus) from Svalbard using teeth sites_and_open_dumpsites_in_India_Levels_congener_
as a biomonitoring tissue. Journal of Environmental profiles_and_health_risk_assessment.
Monitoring 14(1), 56-63. https://doi.org/10.1039/
c1em10681c Chen, D. and Hale, R.C. (2010). A global review of
polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardant
Bernhardt, A., Caravanos, J., Fuller, R., Leahy, S. contamination in birds. Environment International
and Pradhan, A. (2019). Pollution Knows No Borders: 36(7), 800-811. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
How the Pollution Crisis in Low- and Middle-Income ENVINT.2010.05.013.
Countries Affects Everyone’s Health, and What We Can
Do to Address It. New York, NY: Pure Earth. https:// Chen, N., Widjajanto, D.W. and Zheng, Y. (2018).
www.pureearth.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ Soil problems in China and its lessons for other
pe_pollutionknowsnobordersonline.pdf. developing countries. IOP Conference Series: Earth
and Environmental Science 102(2018), 012001. https://
Beyer, A., Mackay, D., Matthies, M., Wania, F. and doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/102/1/012001.
Webster, E. (2000). Assessing long-range transport
potential of persistent organic pollutants. Environmental Choi, G.-H., Lee, D.-Y., Jeong, D.-K., Kuppusamy, S., Lee,
Science and Technology 34(4), 699-703. https://doi. Y.B., Park, B.-J. and Kim, J.-H. (2017). Perfluorooctanoic
org/10.1021/ES990207W. acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS)
concentrations in the South Korean agricultural
Bläsing, M. and Amelung, W. (2018). Plastics in soil: environment: a national survey. Journal of Integrative
Analytical methods and possible sources. Science Agriculture. 16(8), 1841-1851. https://doi.org/10.1016/
of The Total Environment 612, 422-435. https://doi. S2095-3119(16)61585-X.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.086
Clune, A.L., Falk, H. and Riederer, A.M. (2011). Mapping
Boucher, J. and Friot, D. (2017). Primary Microplastics in global environmental lead poisoning in children.
the Oceans: Global Evaluation of Sources. Lundin, C. G. Journal of Health and Pollution 1(2), 14-23. https://doi.
and Sousa, J. M. de (eds.). Gland: International Union org/10.5696/2156-9614.1.2.14.
for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/ Combi, T., Miserocchi, S., Langone, L. and Guerra,
documents/2017-002.pdf. R. (2016). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in
sediments from the western Adriatic Sea: sources,
Braaten, H.F.V., Åkerblom, S., de Wit, H., Skotte, G., historical trends and inventories. Science of The Total
Rask, M., Vuorenmaa, J., Kahilainen, K.K., Malinen, T., Environment 562, 580-587. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
Rognerud, S., Lydersen, E., Amundsen, P.-A., Kashulin, SCITOTENV.2016.04.086.
N., Kashulina, T., Terentyev, P., Christensen, G., Jackson-
Blake, L.A., Lund, E. and Rosseland, B.O. (2017). Spatial Cowell, W.J., Sjödin, A., Jones, R., Wang, Y., Wang, S.
and Temporal Trends of Mercury in Freshwater Fish and Herbstman, J.B. (2018). Temporal trends and
in Fennoscandia (1965-2015). Oslo: Norsk institutt developmental patterns of plasma polybrominated
for vannforskning. https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/ diphenyl ether concentrations over a 15-year period
handle/11250/2467116. between 1998 and 2013. Journal of Exposure Science &
Environmental Epidemiology 29(1), 49-60. https://doi.
Byrne, S., Seguinot-Medina, S., Miller, P., Waghiyi, V., org/10.1038/s41370-018-0031-3.
Hippel, F.A. von, Buck, C.L. and Carpenter, D.O. (2017).
Exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers and Dai, H., Jing, S., Wang, H., Ma, Y., Li, L., Song, W. and Kan,
perfluoroalkyl substances in a remote population of H. (2017). VOC characteristics and inhalation health
Alaska natives. Environmental Pollution 231, 387-395. risks in newly renovated residences in Shanghai, China.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2017.08.020. Science of The Total Environment 577, 73-83. https://doi.
org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2016.10.071.
Canadian Council of Ministers and of the Environment
(2014). AQMS. https://www.ccme.ca/en/resources/air/ Dalahmeh, S., Tirgani, S., Komakech, A.J., Niwagaba,
aqms.html. Accessed 29 March 2019. C.B. and Ahrens, L. (2018). Per- and polyfluoroalkyl
substances (PFASs) in water, soil and plants in wetlands
and agricultural areas in Kampala, Uganda. Science of
the Total Environment 631-632, 660-667. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.024.
198
Part I
Dem, S.B., Cobb, J.M. and Mullins, D.E. (2007). Pesticide Eriksen, M., Mason, S., Wilson, S., Box, C., Zellers,
residues in soil and water from four cotton growing A., Edwards, W., Farley, H. and Amato, S. (2013).
areas of Mali, West Africa. Journal of Agriculture, Microplastic pollution in the surface waters of the
Food and Environmental Science 1, 1-12. https://www. Laurentian Great Lakes. Marine Pollution Bulletin 77, 177-
researchgate.net/publication/284687294_Pesticide_ 182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.10.007.
residues_in_soil_and_water_from_four_cotton_
growing_areas_of_Mali_West_Africa. Eriksen, M., Lebreton, L.C.M., Carson, H.S., Thiel,
M., Moore, C.J., Borerro, J.C., Galgani, F., Ryan, P.G.,
de Souza Machado, A.A., Kloas, W., Zarfl, C., Hempel, and Reisser, J. (2014). Plastic pollution in the world’s
S. and Rillig, M.C. (2018). Microplastics as an emerging oceans: more than 5 trillion plastic pieces weighing
threat to terrestrial ecosystems. Global Change Biology over 250,000 tons afloat at sea. PloS One 9, e111913.
24(4), 1405-1416. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14020. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111913.
Dewalque, L., Pirard, C. and Charlier, C. (2014). Eriksson, U., Mueller, J.F., Toms, L.-M.L., Hobson, P.
Measurement of urinary biomarkers of parabens, and Kärrman, A. (2017). Temporal trends of PFSAs,
benzophenone-3, and phthalates in a Belgian PFCAs and selected precursors in Australian serum
population. BioMed Research International 2014(649314), from 2002 to 2013. Environmental Pollution 220, 168-
1-14. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/649314. 177. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2016.09.036.
Dodson, R.E., Udesky, J.O., Colton, M.D., McCauley, M., Eurekalert (2018). Microplastics discovered in
Camann, D.E., Yau, A.Y., Adamkiewicz, G. and Rudel, R.A. human stools across the globe in ‘first study of its
(2017). Chemical exposures in recently renovated low- kind’, 22 October. https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_
income housing: influence of building materials and releases/2018-10/sh-mdi101518.php.
occupant activities. Environment International 109, 114-
127. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVINT.2017.07.007. European Environment Agency (2015). Air pollution,
18 February. https://www.eea.europa.eu/soer-2015/
Donnachie, R.L., Johnson, A.C., Moeckel, C., Pereira, europe/air. Accessed 4 June 2018.
M.G. and Sumpter, J.P. (2014). Using risk-ranking of
metals to identify which poses the greatest threat European Environment Agency (2016). Indoor air
to freshwater organisms in the UK. Environmental quality, 3 June. https://www.eea.europa.eu/signals/
Pollution 194, 17-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. signals-2013/articles/indoor-air-quality.
envpol.2014.07.008
European Food Safety Authority (2018). The 2016
Driedger, Alexander G.J., Hans H. Dürr, Kristen Mitchell, European Union report on pesticide residues in food.
Philippe Van Cappellen (2015). Plastic debris in the EFSA Journal 16(7), 5348. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.
Laurentian Great Lakes: a review. Journal of Great Lakes efsa.2018.5348.
Research.41(1), 9-19. https://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/S0380133015000064?via%3Dihub. Evans, M., Muir, D., Brua, R.B., Keating, J. and Wang, X.
(2013). Mercury trends in predatory fish in Great Slave
Egeghy, P.P., Judson, R., Gangwal, S., Mosher, S., Smith, Lake: the influence of temperature and other climate
D., Vail, J. and Cohen Hubal, E.A. (2012). The exposure drivers. Environmental Science & Technology 47(22),
data landscape for manufactured chemicals. Science 12793-12801. https://doi.org/10.1021/es402645x.
of The Total Environment. 414, 159-166. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.10.046. Fantke, P., Ernstoff, A.S., Huang, L., Csiszar, S.A. and
Jolliet, O. (2016). Coupled near-field and far-field
Environment Canada and United States Environmental exposure assessment framework for chemicals in
Protection Agency (2014). State of the Great Lakes 2011. consumer products. Environment International 94,
https://binational.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/ 508-518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.06.010.
sogl-2011-technical-report-en.pdf.
Ferguson, K.K., Colacino, J.A., Lewis, R.C. and Meeker,
Environmental Working Group (2005). Body burden: J.D. (2017). Personal care product use among adults
the pollution in newborns: detailed findings, 14 July. in NHANES: associations between urinary phthalate
https://www.ewg.org/research/body-burden-pollution- metabolites and phenols and use of mouthwash and
newborns/detailed-findings. Accessed 15 February sunscreen. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental
2019. Epidemiology 27(3), 326-332. https://doi.org/10.1038/
jes.2016.27.
Environmental Working Group (2009). Pollution in
minority newborns, 23 November. https://www.ewg. Ferrario, C., Finizio, A., Villa, S. (2017). Legacy and
org/research/minority-cord-blood-report. Accessed emerging contaminants in meltwater of three Alpine
15 February 2019. glaciers. Science of the Total Environemnt. 574, 350-357.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.067.
Environmental Working Group (2019). EWG’s 2019
shopper’s guide to pesticides in produceTM: over half
of samples of kale tainted with possible cancer-causing
chemical, 20 March. https://www.ewg.org/foodnews/
summary.php. Accessed 28 March 2019.
199
Filella, M. and Turner, A. (2018). Observational Study Hoffman, K., Butt, C.M., Webster, T.F., Preston, E.
Unveils the Extensive Presence of Hazardous Elements V., Hammel, S.C., Makey, C., Lorenzo, A.M., Cooper,
in Beached Plastics from Lake Geneva. Frontiers in E.M., Carignan, C., Meeker, J.D., Hauser, R., Soubry,
Environmental Science, 6, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.3389/ A., Murphy, S.K., Price, T.M., Hoyo, C., Mendelsohn, E.,
fenvs.2018.00001. Congleton, J., Daniels, J.L. and Stapleton, H.M. (2017).
Temporal trends in exposure to organophosphate
Fisher, M., Arbuckle, T.E., Liang, C.L., LeBlanc, A., flame retardants in the United States. Environmental
Gaudreau, E., Foster, W.G., Haines, D., Davis, K. and Science & Technology Letters. 4(3), 112-118. https://doi.
Fraser, W.D. (2016). Concentrations of persistent org/10.1021/acs.estlett.6b00475.
organic pollutants in maternal and cord blood from the
maternal-infant research on environmental chemicals Huang, L., Ernstoff, A., Fantke, P., Csiszar, S.A. and Jolliet,
(MIREC) cohort study. Environmental Health 15(59), O. (2017). A review of models for near-field exposure
1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-016-0143-y. pathways of chemicals in consumer products. Science
of The Total Environment. 574, 1182-1208. https://doi.
Fisher, M., MacPherson, S., Braun, J.M., Hauser, R., org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2016.06.118.
Walker, M., Feeley, M., Mallick, R., Bérubé, R. and
Arbuckle, T.E. (2017). Paraben concentrations in Huang, R., Liu, Z., Yin, H., Dang, Z., Wu, P., Zhu, N. and
maternal urine and breast milk and its association Lin, Z. (2018). Bisphenol A concentrations in human
with personal care product use. Environmental Science urine, human intakes across six continents, and
& Technology 51(7), 4009-4017. https://doi.org/10.1021/ annual trends of average intakes in adult and child
acs.est.6b04302. populations worldwide: a thorough literature review.
Science of The Total Environment. 626, 971-981. https://
Gandhi, N., Gewurtz, S.B., Drouillard, K.G., Kolic, T., doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2018.01.144.
MacPherson, K., Reiner, E.J. and Bhavsar, S.P. (2017).
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in Great Lakes Hughes, S.R., Kay, P. and Brown, L.E. (2013). Global
fish: levels, patterns, trends and implications for human synthesis and critical evaluation of pharmaceutical
exposure. Science of The Total Environment 576, 907- data sets collected from river systems. Environmental
916. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2016.10.043. Science & Technology 47(2), 661-677. https://doi.
org/10.1021/es3030148.
German Environment Agency (n.d.). Database -
pharmaceuticals in the environment. https://www. Human Biomonitoring for Europe (2018). The HBM4EU.
umweltbundesamt.de/en/database-pharmaceuticals- https://www.hbm4eu.eu/about-hbm4eu/. Accessed
in-the-environment-0. Accessed 29 March 2019. 30 December 2018.
Guo, Y., Wang, L. and Kannan, K. (2014). Phthalates Hunt, P.A., Sathyanarayana, S., Fowler, P.A. and
and parabens in personal care products from China: Trasande, L. (2016). Female reproductive disorders,
concentrations and human exposure. Archives of diseases, and costs of exposure to endocrine disrupting
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 66(1), chemicals in the European Union. Journal of Clinical
113-119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-013-9937-x. Endocrinology & Metabolism 101(4), 1562-1570. https://
doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-2873.
Gyllenhammar, I., Glynn, A., Jönsson, B.A.G., Lindh,
C.H., Darnerud, O., Svensson, K. and Lignell, S. (2016). Hurley, S., Goldberg, D., Wang, M., Park, J.-S., Petreas,
Diverging temporal trends of human exposure to M., Bernstein, L., Anton-Culver, H., Nelson, D.O.
bisphenols and plastizisers, such as phthalates, and Reynolds, P. (2018). Time trends in per- and
caused by substitution of legacy EDCs?. Environmental polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in California women:
Research 153, 48-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. declining serum levels, 2011–2015. Environmental
envres.2016.11.012. Science & Technology 52(1), 277-287. https://doi.
org/10.1021/acs.est.7b04650.
Hartmann N.B. (2018). Focusing on microplastic in
honey or beer masks a bigger problem, 12 May. Isaacs, K.K., Glen, W.G., Egeghy, P., Goldsmith, M.-
ScienceNordic. http://sciencenordic.com/focusing- R., Smith, L., Vallero, D., Brooks, R., Grulke, C.M.
microplastic-honey-or-beer-masks-much-bigger- and Özkaynak, H. (2014). SHEDS-HT: an integrated
problem. Accessed 15 February 2019. probabilistic exposure model for prioritizing exposures
to chemicals with near-field and dietary sources.
Ho, K.K.Y., Zhou, G.-J., Xu, E.G.B., Wang, X. and Leung, Environmental Science & Technology 48(21), 12750-
K.M.Y. (2016). Long-term spatio-temporal trends of 12759. https://doi.org/10.1021/es502513w.
organotin contaminations in the marine environment
of Hong Kong. PLoS ONE. Khim, J.S. (ed.) 11(5), 1-17. Jamieson, A.J., Malkocs, T., Piertney, S.B., Fujii, T. and
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155632. Zhang, Z. (2017). Bioaccumulation of persistent organic
pollutants in the deepest ocean fauna. Nature Ecology &
Evolution 1(0051), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-
016-0051.
200
Part I
Kijko, G., Margni, M., Partovi-Nia, V., Doudrich, G. and Lebreton, L.C.M., van der Zwet, J., Damsteeg, J.-W.,
Jolliet, O. (2015). Impact of occupational exposure Slat, B., Andrady, A. and Reisser, J. (2017). River plastic
to organic chemicals in life cycle assessment: a new emissions to the world’s oceans. Nature Communications
framework based on measured concentrations and 8(15611), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15611.
labor hours. Environmental Science & Technology 49(14),
8741-8750. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00078. Leung, A.O.W., Luksemburg, W.J., Wong, A.S. and Wong,
M.H. (2007). Spatial distribution of polybrominated
Kim, J.-W., Isobe, T., Muto, M., Tue, N.M., Katsura, diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins
K., Malarvannan, G., Sudaryanto, A., Chang, K.-H., and dibenzofurans in soil and combusted residue at
Prudente, M., Viet, P.H., Takahashi, S. and Tanabe, S. Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling site in Southeast
(2014). Organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) China. Environmental Science and Technology 41(8),
in human breast milk from several asian countries. 2730-2737. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/
Chemosphere 116, 91-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. es0625935.
CHEMOSPHERE.2014.02.033.
Li, F., Zhang, C., Qu, Y., Chen, J., Chen, L., Liu, Y. and
Kim, S.-K. and Yoon, J. (2014). Chronological trends of Zhou, Q. (2010). Quantitative characterization of
emission, environmental level and human exposure short- and long-chain perfluorinated acids in solid
of POPs over the last 10 years (1999-2010) in Korea: matrices in Shanghai, China. Science of the Total
implication to science and policy. Science of The Environment 408, 617-623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Total Environment 470-471, 1346-1361. https://doi. scitotenv.2009.10.032.
org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2013.07.031.
Li, J., Yuan, G.L., Wu, M.Z., Sun, Y., Han, P. and Wang,
Kosuth, M., Mason, S.A. and Wattenberg, E.V. (2018). G.H. (2017a). Evidence for persistent organic pollutants
Anthropogenic contamination of tap water, beer, and released from melting glacier in the central Tibetan
sea salt. PLoS ONE 3(4) 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1371/ Plateau, China. Environmental Pollution 220, Part A,
journal.pone.0194970. 178-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.09.037.
Kristensen, L.J., Taylor, M.P. and Flegal, A.R. (2017). An Li, T., Zhang, S., Tan, Z. and Dai, Y. (2017b). Trend of
odyssey of environmental pollution: the rise, fall and childhood blood lead levels in cities of China in recent
remobilisation of industrial lead in Australia. Applied 10 years. Environmental Science and Pollution Research.
Geochemistry 83, 3-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 24, 5824-5830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-
apgeochem.2017.02.007. 8335-0.
Kumar, A. and Scott Clark, C. (2009). Lead loadings in Li, P., Jin, J., Wang, Y., Hu, J., Xu, M., Sun, Y. and Ma,
household dust in Delhi, India. Indoor Air 19(5), 414-420. Y. (2017c). Concentrations of organophosphorus,
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2009.00605.x. polybromobenzene, and polybrominated diphenyl
ether flame retardants in human serum, and
Kunacheva, C., Fujii, S., Tanaka, S., Seneviratne, S.T., Lien, relationships between concentrations and donor ages.
N.P.H., Nozoe, M., Kimura, K., Shivakoti, B.R. and Harada, Chemosphere 171, 654-660. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
H. (2012). Worldwide surveys of perfluorooctane CHEMOSPHERE.2016.12.126.
sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)
in water environment in recent years. Water Science & Liao, C. and Kannan, K. (2013). Concentrations
Technology 66(12), 2764-2771. https://doi.org/10.2166/ and profiles of bisphenol A and other bisphenol
wst.2012.518. analogues in foodstuffs from the United States and
their implications for human exposure. Journal of
Lang, C., Fisher, M., Neisa, A., MacKinnon, L., Kuchta, Agricultural and Food Chemistry 61(19), 4655-4662.
S., MacPherson, S., Probert, A. and Arbuckle, T.E. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf400445n.
(2016). Personal care product use in pregnancy and
the postpartum period: implications for exposure Liao, C. and Kannan, K. (2018). Temporal trends of
assessment. International Journal of Environmental parabens and their metabolites in mollusks from the
Research and Public Health 13(106), 1-20. https://doi. Chinese Bohai Sea during 2006-2015: species-specific
org/10.3390/ijerph13010105. accumulation and implications for human exposure.
Environmental Science & Technology 52(16), 9045-9055.
Lapworth, D. J., Baran, N., Stuart, M. E., Ward, R. S. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b02750.
(2012). Emerging contaminants in groundwater: A
review of souirces, fate and occurrence. Environmental Lucattini, L., Poma, G., Covaci, A., de Boer, J., Lamoree,
Pollution 163, 287-303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. M.H. and Leonards, P.E.G. (2018). A review of semi-
envpol.2011.12.034. volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in the indoor
environment: occurrence in consumer products,
Law, R.J., Covaci, A., Harrad, S., Herzke, D., Abdallah, indoor air and dust. Chemosphere 201, 466-482. https://
M.A.-E., Fernie, K., Toms, L.-M.L. and Takigami, H. doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.02.161.
(2014). Levels and trends of PBDEs and HBCDs in
the global environment: status at the end of 2012.
Environment International 65, 147-158. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.envint.2014.01.006.
201
MacLeod, M., von Waldow, H., Tay, P., Armitage, J.M., Mitchell, E.A.D., Mulhauser, B., Mulot, M., Mutabazi, A.,
Wöhrnschimmel, H., Riley, W.J., McKone, T.E. and Glauser, G. and Aebi, A. (2017). A worldwide survey of
Hungerbuhler, K. (2011). BETR global – a geographically- neonicotinoids in honey. Science 358(6359), 109-111.
explicit global-scale multimedia contaminant fate https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan3684.
model. Environmental Pollution 159(5), 1442-1445.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2011.01.038. Mitro, S.D., Dodson, R.E., Singla, V., Adamkiewicz, G.,
Elmi, A.F., Tilly, M.K. and Zota, A.R. (2016). Consumer
Malaj, E., von der Ohe, P.C., Grote, M., Kühne, R., product chemicals in indoor dust: a quantitative
Mondy, C.P., Usseglio-Polatera, P., Brack, W. and meta-analysis of U.S. studies. Environmental Science
Schäfer, R.B. (2014). Organic chemicals jeopardize the & Technology 50(19), 10661-10672. https://doi.
health of freshwater ecosystems on the continental org/10.1021/acs.est.6b02023.
scale. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 111(26), 9549-9554. Moore, C.J., Moore, S.L., Leecaster, M.K. and Weisberg,
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1321082111. S.B., (2001). A comparison of plastic and plankton in
the North Pacific Central Gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin
Mason, S.A., Welch, V. and Nertko, J. (2018). Synthetic 42, 1297-1300. ftp://ftp.sccwrp.org/pub/download/
Polymer Contamination in Bottled Water. State University DOCUMENTS/AnnualReports/1999AnnualReport/10_
of New York at Fredonia, Department of Geology and ar11.pdf.
Environmental Sciences. https://orbmedia.org/sites/
default/files/FinalBottledWaterReport.pdf. Moore, C., Lattin, G. and Zellers, A. (2011). Quantity and
type of plastic debris flowing from two urban rivers
McGoldrick, D.J. and Murphy, E.W. (2016). Concentration to coastal waters and beaches of Southern California.
and distribution of contaminants in lake trout and Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 11, 65-
walleye from the Laurentian Great Lakes (2008- 73. http://doi.org/10.5894/rgci194.
2012). Environmental Pollution 217, 85-96. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.12.019. Morgan, Marsha K. (2012). Children’s exposures to
Pyrethroid insecticides at home: a review of data
McGrath, T.J., Ball, A.S. and Clarke, B.O. (2017). Critical collected in published exposure measurement studies
review of soil contamination by polybrominated conducted in the United States. International Journal
diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and novel brominated flame of Environmental Research and Public Health 9(8), 2964-
retardants (NBFRs); concentrations, sources and 2985. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9082964.
congener profiles. Environmental Pollution 230, 741-
757. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2017.07.009. Nagai, N., Arataki, H., Aoyama, T., Raj, S. and Cai, Z.
(2015). The 2nd POPs Monitoring Report, Asia-Pacific
McNeill, F.E., Fisher, M., Chettle, D.R., Inskip, M., Healey, Region: Global Monitoring Plan Under the Stockholm
N., Bray, R., Webber, C.E., Manton, W.I., Marro, L. Convention. Geneva: Secretariat of the Stockholm
and Arbuckle, T.E. (2017). The decrease in population Convention. http://chm.pops.int/Implementation/
bone lead levels in Canada between 1993 and 2010 GlobalMonitoringPlan/MonitoringReports/tabid/525/
as assessed by in vivo XRF. Physiological Measurement Default.aspx.
39(015005), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6579/
aa904f. Naik, A. (2018). Difference between bioaccumulation
and biomagnification. [Illustration]. Buzzle.
Mendonca, K., Hauser, R., Calafat, A.M., Arbuckle, T.E. https://sciencestruck.com/difference-between-
and Duty, S.M. (2014). Bisphenol A concentrations in bioaccumulation-biomagnification. Accessed 16
maternal breast milk and infant urine. International October 2018.
Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 87(1),
13-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-012-0834-9. Nøst, T.H., Vestergren, R., Berg, V., Nieboer, E.,
Odland, J.Ø. and Sandanger, T.M. (2014). Repeated
Mercier, F., Glorennec, P., Thomas, O. and Bot, B. measurements of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances
Le (2011). Organic contamination of settled house (PFASs) from 1979 to 2007 in males from northern
dust, a review for exposure assessment purposes. Norway: assessing time trends, compound correlations
Environmental Science & Technology 45(16), 6716-6727. and relations to age/birth cohort. Environment
https://doi.org/10.1021/es200925h. International 67, 43-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
ENVINT.2014.02.011.
Meyer, J., Jaspers, V.L.B., Eens, M. and Coen, W. de
(2009). The relationship between perfluorinated Ogundele, D.T., Adio, A.A. and Oludele, O.E. (2015).
chemical levels in the feathers and livers of birds Heavy metal concentrations in plants and soil along
from different trophic levels. Science of the Total heavy traffic roads in North Central Nigeria. Journal of
Environment 407, 5894-5900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Environmental & Analytical Toxicology 5(06), 1-5. https://
scitotenv.2009.07.032. doi.org/10.4172/2161-0525.1000334.
Miranda, D. and Carvalho-Souza, G.F. (2016). Are Park, J.-S., Voss, R.W., McNeel, S., Wu, N., Guo, T.,
we eating plastic-ingesting fish? Marine Pollution Wang, Y., Israel, L., Das, R. and Petreas, M. (2015). High
Bulletin 103(1-2), 109-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. exposure of California firefighters to polybrominated
marpolbul.2015.12.035. diphenyl ethers. Environmental Science & Technology
49(5), 2948-2958. https://doi.org/10.1021/es5055918.
202
Part I
Parker, L. (2018). In a first, microplastics found in Scheurer, M. and Bigalke, M. (2018). Microplastics
human poop, 22 October. National Geographic. https:// in Swiss floodplain soils. Environmental Science and
www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2018/10/ Technology 52(6), 3591-3598. http://doi.org/10.1021/
news-plastics-microplastics-human-feces/. Accessed acs.est.7b06003.
15 February 2019.
Schoeters, G., Govarts, E., Bruckers, L., Hond, E.
Quintili, R. (2018). In Italy the first analysis carried out Den, Nelen, V., Henauw, S. de, Sioen, I., Nawrot, T.S.,
by Il Salvagente find microplastics in industrial soft Plusquin, M., Vriens, A., Covaci, A., Loots, I., Morrens, B.,
drink, 26 September. Il Salvagente. https://ilsalvagente. Coertjens, D., Larebeke, N. Van, Craemer, S. de, Croes,
it/2018/09/26/in-italy-the-first-analysis-carried-out- K., Lambrechts, N., Colles, A. and Baeyens, W. (2017).
by-il-salvagente-find-microplastics-in-industrial-soft- Three cycles of human biomonitoring in flanders −
drink/. Accessed 15 February 2019. time trends observed in the flemish environment
and health study. International Journal of Hygiene
Rasmussen, P.E., Beauchemin, S., Chénier, M., and Environmental Health 220(2), 36-45. https://doi.
Levesque, C., MacLean, L.C.W., Marro, L., Jones-Otazo, org/10.1016/J.IJHEH.2016.11.006.
H., Petrovic, S., McDonald, L.T. and Gardner, H.D. (2011)
Canadian House Dust Study: Lead Bioaccessibility and Schröter-Kermani, C., Müller, J., Jürling, H., Conrad,
Speciation. Environmental Science & Technology 45(11), A. and Schulte, C. (2013). Retrospective monitoring
4959-4965. https://doi.org/10.1021/es104056m. of perfluorocarboxylates and perfluorosulfonates in
human plasma archived by the German Environmental
Rauert, C., Schuster, J.K., Eng, A. and Harner, T. (2018). Specimen Bank. International Journal of Hygiene and
Global atmospheric concentrations of brominated and Environmental Heath 216(6), 633-640. https://doi.
chlorinated flame retardants and organophosphate org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2012.08.004.
esters. Environmental Science & Technology 52(5), 2777-
2789. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b06239. Schuster, P.F., Schaefer, K.M., Aiken, G.R., Antweiler,
R.C., Dewild, J.F., Gryziec, J.D, Gusmeroli, A., Hugelius,
Riddell, T.J., Solon, O., Quimbo, S.A., Tan, C.M.C., Butrick, G., Jafarov, E., Krabbenhoft, D.P., Liu, L., Herman-
E. and Peabody, J.W. (2007). Elevated blood-lead levels Mercer, N., Mu, C., Roth, D.A., Schaefer, T., Striegl,
among children living in the rural Philippines. Bulletin R.G., Wickland, K.P. and Zhang, T. (2018). Permafrost
of the World Health Organization 85(9), 674-680. https:// stores a globally significant amount of mercury.
doi.org/10.2471/BLT.06.036137. Geophysical Research Letters 45, 1463-1471. https://
doi.org/10.1002/2017GL075571.
Rios, L.M., Moore, C. and Jones, P.R. (2007).
Persistent organic pollutants carried by synthetic Schwab, P., Liebmann, B., Köppel, S. and Reiberger,
polymers in the ocean environment. Marine Pollution T. (2018). Assessment of Microplastic Concentrations in
Bulletin 54(8), 1230-1237. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. Human Stool - Preliminary Results of a Prospective Study.
MARPOLBUL.2007.03.022. Presented at United European Gastroenterology (UEG)
Week 2018, Vienna, Austria, 24 October 2018. http://
Rochman, C. M., Tahir, A., Williams, S. L. Baxa, D. V. Lam, www.umweltbundesamt.at/fileadmin/site/presse/
R. Miler, J. T., The, F. C., Weroliangi, S., The, S.J. (2015). news_2018/UEG_Week_2018_-_Philipp_Schwabl_
Anthropogenic debris in seafood: Plastic debris and Microplastics_Web.pdf.
fibres from textiles in fish and bivalves sold for human
consumption. Nature Scientific Reports. 5(14340), 1-10. Šebková, K., Borůvková, J., Přibylová, P., Vrana, B.,
https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14340. Hůlek, R., Holoubek, I. and Klánová, J. (2014). Global
Monitoring Plan for Persistent Organic Pollutants Under
Rothenberg, E., Jackson, B.P., McCalla, G.C., the Stockholm Convention Article 16 on Effectiveness
Donohue, A. and Emmons, A.M. (2017). Co-exposure Evaluation: Second Regional Monitoring Report of the
to methylmercury and inorganic arsenic in baby Central, Eastern European and Central Asian Region.
rice cereals and rice-containing teething biscuits. Brno: Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in
Environmental Research 159, 639-647. https://doi. the Environment, Masaryk University. http://chm.
org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.046. pops.int/Implementation/GlobalMonitoringPlan/
MonitoringReports/tabid/525/Default.aspx.
Rummel, C. D., Löder, M. G J., Fricke, N., Lang, T.
Griebeler, E. M., Janke, M., Gerdts, G. (2016). Plastic Sebille, E. van, Wilcox, C., Lebreton, L., Maximenko, N.,
ingestion by pelagic and demersal fish from the North Hardesty, B.D., Franeker, J.A. van, Eriksen, M., Siegel,
Sea and Baltic Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin 102(1), 134- D., Galgani, F. and Law, K.L. (2015). A global inventory
141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.11.043 of small floating plastic debris. Environmental Research
Letters 10(12), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-
Scheuhammer, A., Braune, B., Chan, H.M., Frouin, H., 9326/10/12/124006.
Krey, A., Letcher, R., Loseto, L., Noël, M., Ostertag, S.,
Ross, P. and Wayland, M. (2015). Recent progress on
our understanding of the biological effects of mercury
in fish and wildlife in the Canadian Arctic. Science of
the Total Environment 509-510, 91-103. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.05.142.
203
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International Undeman, E., Brown, T.N., McLachlan, M.S. and
Chemicals Management (2018). Gender and the Sound Wania, F. (2018). Who in the world is most exposed
Management of Chemicals and Waste: Prepared for the to polychlorinated biphenyls? Using models to identify
Intersessional Process Considering the Strategic Approach highly exposed populations. Environmental Research
and the Sound Management of Chemicals and Waste Letters. 13(064036), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-
beyond 2020. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/ 9326/aac5fe.
conceptsandefinitions.htm.
Seltenrich, N. (2015). New link in the food chain? Global Mercury Assessment 2013: Sources, Emissions,
Marine plastic pollution and seafood safety. Releases and Environmental Transport. http://unep.
Environmental Health Perspectives 123(2), 34-41. https:// org/hazardoussubstances/.
doi.org/10.1289/ehp.123-A34.
United Nations Environment Programme (2016a).
Shao, X., Huang, B., Zhao, Y., Sun, W., Gu, Z. and Qian, Global Gender and Environment Outlook. http://wedocs.
W. (2014). Impacts of human activities and sampling unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/14764/
strategies on soil heavy metal distribution in a GLOBAL%20GENDER%20AND%20ENVIRONMENT%20
rapidly developing region of China. Ecotoxicology and OUTLOOK.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Environmental Safety 104, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecoenv.2014.02.007. United Nations Environment Programme (2016b).
Marine Plastic Debris and Microplastics. Guidelines
Shunthirasingham, C., Alexandrou, N., Brice, K.A., and Research to Inspire Action and Guid Policy
Dryfhout-Clark, H., Su, K., Shin, C., Park, R., Pajda, A., Changes. http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/
Noronha, R. and Hung, H. (2018). Temporal trends handle/20.500.11822/7720/-Marine_plasctic_
of halogenated flame retardants in the atmosphere debris_and_microplastics_Global_lessons_and_
of the Canadian Great Lakes Basin (2005–2014). research_to_inspire_action_and_guide_policy_
Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 20(3), 469- change-2016Marine_Plastic_Debris_and_Micropla.
479. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EM00549K. pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y.
Skovgaard, M., Encinas, S.R., Jensen, O.C., Andersen, United Nations Environment Programme and
J.H., Condarco, G. and Jørs, E. (2017). Pesticide Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program
residues in commercial lettuce, onion, and potato (2018). Global Mercury Assessment 2018:
samples from Bolivia – a threat to public health? Review Draft 220518. https://wedocs.unep.
Environmental Health Insights, 11. https://doi. org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25462/
org/10.1177/1178630217704194. GMA%202018-ReviewDraft_250518_CLEAN_SEC.
Stehle, S. and Schulz, R. (2015). Agricultural insecticides
threaten surface waters at the global scale. Proceedings United Nations Environment Programme and
of the National Academy of Sciences 112(18), 5750-5755. Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1500232112. Second Global Monitoring Report: Global Monitoring Plan
for Persistent Organic Pollutants. Geneva: Secretariat
Strynar, M.J., Lindstrom, A.B., Nakayama, S.F., Egeghy, of the Stockholm Convention. http://chm.pops.int/
P.P. and Helfant, L.J. (2012). Pilot scale application of a TheConvention/ConferenceoftheParties/Meetings/
method for the analysis of perfluorinated compounds COP8/tabid/5309/Default.aspx.
in surface soils. Chemosphere 86(3), 252-257. https://
doi.org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2011.09.036. United Nations International Children’s Emergency
Fund and World Health Organization (2015). Progress
Stubleski, J., Salihovic, S., Lind, L., Lind, P.M., Bavel, B. on Sanitation and Drinking Water - 2015 Update and
van and Kärrman, A. (2016). Changes in serum levels of MDG Assessment. Geneva: World Health Organization.
perfluoroalkyl substances during a 10-year follow-up https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/
period in a large population-based cohort. Environment publications/jmp-2015-update/en/.
International 95, 86-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
ENVINT.2016.08.002. United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry (2014). ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental
Terry, P., Towers, C.V., Liu, L.-Y., Peverly, A.A., Chen, Medicine Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Toxicity.
J. and Salamova, A. (2017). Polybrominated diphenyl https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/pcb/docs/pcb.pdf.
ethers (flame retardants) in mother-infant pairs in the
southeastern U.S. International Journal of Environmental United States Environmental Protection Agency (2013).
Health Research 27(3), 205-214. https://doi.org/10.108 America’s Children and the Environment. 3rd edn.
0/09603123.2017.1332344. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-06/
documents/ace3_2013.pdf.
Tornero, V. and Hanke, G. (2016). Chemical
contaminants entering the marine environment from United States Environmental Protection Agency (2014).
sea-based sources: a review with a focus on European Integrated Science Assessment for Lead. https://cfpub.epa.
seas. Marine Pollution Bulletin 112(1–2), 17-38. https:// gov/ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=255721#tab-3.
doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.091.
204
Part I
United States Environmental Protection Agency Webster, E.M., Qian, H., Mackay, D., Christensen, R.D.,
(2017a). Lead (PB) air pollution. https://www.epa. Tietjen, B. and Zaleski, R. (2016). Modeling human
gov/lead-air-pollution. Accessed 4 June 2018. exposure to indoor contaminants: external source to
body tissues. Environmental Science & Technology 50(16),
United States Environmental Protection Agency 8697-8704. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00895.
(2017b). America’s children and the environment
(ACE): biomonitoring – perfluorochemicals (PFCs). Weiss, L., Arbuckle, T.E., Fisher, M., Ramsay, T., Mallick,
https://www.epa.gov/ace/ace-biomonitoring- R., Hauser, R., LeBlanc, A., Walker, M., Dumas, P. and
perfluorochemicals-pfcs. Accessed 5 June 2018. Lang, C. (2015). Temporal variability and sources of
triclosan exposure in pregnancy. International Journal
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2018). of Hygiene and Environmental Health 218(6), 507-513.
Chemicals Evaluated for Carcinogenic Potential Annual https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHEH.2015.04.003.
Cancer Report 2018. http://npic.orst.edu/chemicals_
evaluated.pdf. Weithmann, N., Möller, J.N., Löder, M.G.J., Piehl, S.,
Laforsch, C. and Freitag, R. (2018). Organic fertilizer
United States Environmental Protection Agency (n.d.). as a vehicle for the entry of microplastic into the
Our nation’s air 2017. https://gispub.epa.gov/air/tren environment. Science Advances 4(4), 1-7. http://doi.
dsreport/2017/#introduction. Accessed 14 February org/10.1126/sciadv.aap8060.
2018.
Wöhrnschimmel, H., MacLeod, M. and Hungerbuhler,
van den Berg, M., Kypke K, Kotz A, Tritscher A, Lee K. (2013). Emissions, fate and transport of persistent
SY, Magulova K, Fiedler H, Malisch R. (2017). WHO/ organic pollutants to the Arctic in a changing global
UNEP global surveys of PCDDs, PCDFs, PCBs and climate. Environmental Science & Technology 47(5),
DDTs in human milk and benefit-risk evaluation of 2323-2330. https://doi.org/10.1021/es304646n.
breastfeeding. Archives of Toxicology 91, 83-96. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1802-z. Women in Europe for a Common Future (2016). Women
and Chemicals: The Impact of Hazardous Chemicals
Villanueva, C.M., Kogevinas, M., Cordier, S., Templeton, on Women. A Thought Starter Based on an Experts’
M.R., Vermeulen, R., Nuckols, J.R., Nieuwenhuijsen, Workshop. http://www.wecf.eu/download/2016/March/
M.J. and Levallois, P. (2013). Assessing exposure and WomenAndChemicals_PublicationIWD2016.pdf.
health consequences of chemicals in drinking water:
current state of knowledge and research needs. World Health Organization (2018a). GEMS/Food – home.
Environmental Health Perspectives 122(3), 213-221. https://extranet.who.int/gemsfood/. Accessed 5 June
https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1206229. 2018.
Wambaugh, J.F., Setzer, R.W., Reif, D.M., Gangwal, S., World Health Organization (2018b). 9 out of 10 people
Mitchell-Blackwood, J., Arnot, J.A., Joliet, O., Frame, worldwide breathe polluted air, but more countries are
A., Rabinowitz, J., Knudsen, T.B., Judson, R.S., Egeghy, taking action, 2 May. http://www.who.int/news-room/
P., Vallero, D. and Cohen Hubal, E.A. (2013). High- detail/02-05-2018-9-out-of-10-people-worldwide-
throughput models for exposure-based chemical breathe-polluted-air-but-more-countries-are-taking-
prioritization in the expocast project. Environmental action. Accessed 20 May 2018.
org/10.1021/es400482g. World Health Organization (2018c). WHO global urban
ambient air pollution database (update 2016). http://
Wannaz, C., Fantke, P. and Jolliet, O. (2018). Multiscale www.who.int/airpollution/data/cities-2016/en/.
spatial modeling of human exposure from local Accessed 4 June 2018.
sources to global intake. Environmental Science &
Technology 52(2), 701-711. https://doi.org/10.1021/ Wu, L.-H., Zhang, X.-M., Wang, F., Gao, C.-J., Chen, D.,
acs.est.7b05099. Palumbo, J.R., Guo, Y. and Zeng, E.Y. (2018). Occurrence
of bisphenol S in the environment and implications
Wannaz, C., Franco, A., Kilgallon, J., Hodges, J. and for human exposure: a short review. Science of The
Jolliet, O. (2018). A global framework to model spatial Total Environment 615, 87-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecosystems exposure to home and personal care scitotenv.2017.09.194.
chemicals in Asia. Science of The Total Environment.
622-623, 410-420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Yang, R., Wei, H., Guo, J. and Li, A. (2012). Emerging
scitotenv.2017.11.315. brominated flame retardants in the sediment of the
Great Lakes. Environmental Science & Technology 46(6),
Weber, F.-A., Aus Der Beek, T., Carius, A., Grüttner, G., 3119-3126. https://doi.org/10.1021/es204141p.
Hickmann, S., Ebert, I., Hein, A., Küster, A., Rose, J., Koch-
Jugl, J. and Stolzenberg, H.-C. (2014). Pharmaceuticals Ye, X., Wong, L.-Y., Kramer, J., Zhou, X., Jia, T. and
in the Environment – the Global Perspective: Occurrence, Calafat, A.M. (2015). Urinary concentrations of
Effects, and Potential Cooperative Action under SAICM. bisphenol a and three other bisphenols in convenience
https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/publikationen/ samples of U.S. adults during 2000-2014. Environmental
pharmaceuticals-in-the-environment-the-global. Science & Technology 49(19), 11834-11839. https://doi.
org/10.1021/acs.est.5b02135.
205
Zhang, G.S. and Liu, Y.F. (2018). The distribution of Bellinger, D.C. (2004). Lead. Pediatrics 113, 1016-1022.
microplastics in soil aggregate fractions in southwestern http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/113/
China. Science of the Total Environment 642: 12-20. Supplement_3/1016.
Bergman, Å., Heindel, J., Jobling, S., Kidd, K. and Zoeller,
Zhang, X., Zhong, T., Liu L. and Ouyang, X. (2015). R.T. (eds) (2013). State of the Science on Endocrine
Impact of soil heavy metal pollution on food safety Disrupting Chemicals-2012: An Assessment of the State
in China. PlosOne, 7 August. https://doi.org/10.1371/ of the Science of Endocrine Disruptors Prepared by a
journal.pone.0135182. Group of Experts for the United Nations Environment
Programme. Geneva: United Nations Environment
Zhang, Y., Jaeglé, L., Thompson, L. and Streets, D.G. Programme and World Health Organization. http://
(2014). Six centuries of changing oceanic mercury. www.who.int/ceh/publications/endocrine/en/.
Global Biogeochemical Cycles 28(11), 1251-1261. https://
doi.org/10.1002/2014GB004939. Blankespoor, B., Dasgupta, S., Dhouibi, W., Lagnaoui,
A., Meisner, C. and Salah, H. Ben (2009). Stockpiles
of Obsolete Pesticides: Threats to Ecosystems and
Biodiversity. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Research
Chapter 7 Group. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAER/
Resources/5991606-1251488981857/Das_Gupta_
ObsoletePesticides_BiodiversityEcosystems.Tunisia_
Adams, S.M. (2003). Establishing causality between
Note_Aug09.pdf.
environmental stressors and effects on aquatic
ecosystems. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment:
Bloom, M.S., Whitcomb, B.W., Chen, Z., Ye, A.,
An International Journal 9(1), 17-35. https://doi.
Kannan, K. and Buck Louis, G.M. (2015). Associations
org/10.1080/713609850.
between urinary phthalate concentrations and
semen quality parameters in a general population.
Adams, S.V., Passarelli, M. N. and Newcomb, P. A.
Human Reproduction 30(11), 2645-2657. https://doi.
(2012). Cadmium exposure and cancer mortality in
org/10.1093/humrep/dev219.
the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey cohort. Occupational and Environmental Medicine
Bose-O’Reilly, S., McCarty, K.M., Steckling, N., and
69(2). http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2011-100111.
Lettmeier, B. (2010). Mercury exposure and children’s
health. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent
Allen, M.T. and Levy, L.S. (2013). Parkinson’s disease
Health Care 40(8), 186-215. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.
and pesticide exposure – a new assessment. Critical
cppeds.2010.07.002.
Reviews in Toxicology 43(6), 515-534. https://doi.org/1
0.3109/10408444.2013.798719.
Braun, J.M., Muckle, G., Arbuckle, T., Bouchard, M.F.,
Fraser, W.D., Ouellet, E., Séguin, J.R., Oulhote, Y.,
Altieri, A.H., Harrison, S.B., Seemann, J., Collin, R., Diaz,
Webster, G.M. and Lanphear, B.P. (2017). Associations
R.J. and Knowlton, N. (2017). Tropical dead zones and
of prenatal urinary bisphenol a concentrations with
mass mortalities on coral reefs. Proceedings of the
child behaviors and cognitive abilities. Environmental
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
Health Perspectives 125(06). https://doi.org/10.1289/
America 114(14), 3660-3665. https://doi.org/10.1073/
EHP984.
pnas.1621517114.
Breitburg, D., Levin, L.A. Oschilies, A., Grégoire, M.,
Amankwah, R.K. and Ofori-Sarpong, G. (2014). A lantern
Chavez, F.P., Conley, D.J., Garçon, V., Séguin, J.R.,
retort for small-scale gold extraction. International
Oulhote, Y., Webster, G.M. and Lanphear, B.P. (2018).
Journal of Environmental Protection and Policy 2(5),
Declining oxygen in the global ocean and coastal
161-167. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijepp.20140205.13.
waters. Science 359(6371), 1-11. http://doi.org/10.1126/
science.aam7240.
Arbuckle, T.E., Davis, K., Boylan, K., Fisher, M. and Fu, J.
(2016). Bisphenol A, phthalates and lead and learning
Broughton, E. (2005). The Bhopal disaster and its
and behavioral problems in Canadian children 6-11
aftermath: a review. Environmental Health 4(6), 1-6.
years of age: CHMS 2007-2009. NeuroToxicology 54,
https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-4-6.
89-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEURO.2016.03.014.
Cantin, N., Negri, A. and Willis, B. (2007). Photoinhibition
Arbuckle, T.E. and Ritter, L. (2005). Phenoxyacetic
from chronic herbicide exposure reduces reproductive
acid herbicide exposure for women on Ontario
output of reef-building corals. Marine Ecology Progress
farms. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental
Series 344, 81-93. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07059.
Health, Part A 68(15), 1359-1370. https://doi.
org/10.1080/15287390590953635.
Carman, H.A. (2017). Multiple chemical sensitivity
– two illustrative case reports. Current Allergy &
Arias-Andres, M., Klümper, U., Rojas-Jimenez, K. and
Clinical Immunology 30(1), 1-4. https://journals.co.za/
Grossart, H.-P. (2018). Microplastic pollution increases
docserver/fulltext/caci_v30_n1_a7.pdf?expires=1535
gene exchange in aquatic ecosystems. Environmental
291261&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=E62AB9
Pollution 237, 253-261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
AF1336DEF5807FE87D3F133F40.
envpol.2018.02.058.
206
Part I
Carpenter, D.O. and Miller, P.K. (2011). Environmental Di Renzo, G.C., Conry, J.A., Blake, J., DeFrancesco, M.S.,
contamination of the Yupik people of St. Lawrence DeNicola, N., Martin, J.N., McCue, K.A., Richmond, D.,
Island, Alaska. Journal of Indigenous Research Full Circle Shah, A., Sutton, P., Woodruff, T.J., van der Poel, S.Z.
Lawrence Island Alaska Journal of Indigenous Research and Giudice, L.C. (2015). International Federation of
1(1), 1-4. http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/kicjir. Gynecology and Obstetrics opinion on reproductive
health impacts of exposure to toxic environmental
Chagnon, M., Kreutzweiser, D., Mitchell, E.A.D., chemicals. International Journal Gynecology and
Morrissey, C.A., Dominique, A.N. and van der Sluijs, J.P. Obstetrrics 131(3), 219-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
(2015). Risks of large-scale use of systemic insecticides ijgo.2015.09.002.
to ecosystem fucntioning and services. Environmental
Science and Pollution Research 22(1), 119-134. https:// Díaz, R.J. and Rosenberg, R. (2011). Introduction
link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-014-3277-x. to environmental and economic consequences of
hypoxia. International Journal of Water Resources
Chatham-Stephens, K., Caravanos, J., Ericson, B., Development 27(1), 71-82. https://doi.org/10.1080/0
Sunga-Amparo, J., Susilorini, B., Sharma, P., Landrigan, 7900627.2010.531379.
P.J. and Fuller, R. (2013). Burden of disease from toxic
waste sites in India, Indonesia, and the Philippines in Downs, C.A., Kramarsky-Winter, E., Segal, R., Fauth,
2010. Environmental Health Perspectives 121(7), 791- J., Knutson, S., Bronstein, O., Ciner, F.R., Jeger, R.,
796. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1206127. Lichtenfeld, Y., Woodley, C.M., Pennington, P., Cadenas,
K., Kushmaro, A. and Loya, Y. (2016). Toxicopathological
Chatham-Stephens, K., Caravanos, J., Ericson, B., effects of the sunscreen UV filter, oxybenzone
Landrigan, P. and Fuller, R. (2014). The pediatric burden (benzophenone-3), on coral planulae and cultured
of disease from lead exposure at toxic waste sites primary cells and its environmental contamination
in low and middle income countries. Environmental in hawaii and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Archives of
Research 132, 379-383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 70(2),
envres.2014.04.018. 265-288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-015-0227-7.
Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Fileman, E., Halsband, C., Essel, R., Engel, L., Carus, M. and Heinrich Ahrens,
Goodhead, R., Moger, J. and Galloway, T.S. (2013). R. (2015). Sources of Microplastics Relevant to Marine
Microplastic ingestion by zooplankton. Environmental Protection in Germany. Werner, S. (ed.). Dessau-
Science & Technology 47, 6646-6655. https://doi. Roßlau: German Environment Agency. https://
org/10.1021/es400663f. www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/
medien/378/publikationen/texte_64_2015_sources_
Collins, M.B., Munoz, I. and JaJa, J. (2016). Linking of_microplastics_relevant_to_marine_protection_1.pdf.
‘toxic outliers’ to environmental justice communities.
Environmental Research Letters 11, 1-9. https://doi. European Commission (2011). Toxicity and Assessment of
org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/1/015004. Chemical Mixtures. Scientific Committee on Health and
Environmental Risks. https://doi.org/10.2772/21444.
Cremonese, C., Piccoli, C., Pasqualotto, F., Clapauch,
R., Koifman, R.J., Koifman, S. and Freire, C. (2017). European Commission (2018). Major Accident
Occupational exposure to pesticides, reproductive Reporting System (eMARS). https://ec.europa.eu/
hormone levels and sperm quality in young brazilian knowledge4policy/projects-activities/major-accident-
men. Reproductive Toxicology 67, 174-185. https://doi. reporting-system-emars_en. Accessed 16 February
org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2017.01.001. 2019.
Danovaro, R., Bongiorni, L., Corinaldesi, C., Giovannelli, Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations
D., Damiani, E., Astolfi, P., Greci, L. and Pusceddu, A. (2011). 2010-11 The State of Food and Agriculture: Women
(2008). Sunscreens cause coral bleaching by promoting in Agriculture - Closing the Gender Gap for Development.
viral infections. Environmental Health Perspectives http://www.fao.org/3/a-i2050e.pdf.
116(4), 441-447. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.10966.
García, A.M. (2003). Pesticide exposure and women’s
de Roos, A.J., Davis, S., Colt, J.S., Blair, A., Airola, M., health. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 44(6),
Severson, R.K., Cozen, W., Cerhan, J.R., Hartge, P., 584-594. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.10256.
Nuckols, J.R. and Ward, M.H. (2010). Residential
proximity to industrial facilities and risk of non-hodgkin GBD Risk Factors Collaborators (2016). Global,
lymphoma. Environmental Research. 110(1), 70-78. regional, and national comparative risk assessment
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVRES.2009.09.011. of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational,
and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990-2015: a
de Souza Machado, A.A., Kloas, W., Zarfl, C., Hempel, systematic analysis for the global burden of disease
S. and Rillig, M.C. (2018). Microplastics as an emerging study 2015. The Lancet 388(10053), 1659-1724. https://
threat to terrestrial ecosystems. Global Change Biology doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31679-8.
24(4), 1405-1416. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14020.
207
Global Alliance on Health and Pollution (2013). The Hu, X.F, Laird, B.D. and Chan, H.M. (2017). Mercury
Poisoned Poor: Toxic Chemicals Exposures in Low-and diminishes the cardiovascular protective effect of
Middle-Income Countries. http://gahp.net/wp-content/ omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the modern
uploads/2017/02/GAHPPoisonedPoor_Report- diet of Inuit in Canada. Environmental Research 152,
Sept-2013.pdf. 470-477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.06.001.
Goldman, L. and Tran, N. (2002). Toxics and Imran, M., Das, K.R., Naik, M.M. (2019). Co-selection
Poverty: The Impact of Toxic Substances on the Poor of multi-antibiotic resistance in bacterial pathogens in
in Developing Countries. Washington, D.C.: World metal and microplastic contaminated environments:
Bank. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPOPS/ an emerging health threat. Chemosphere 215, 846-857.
Publications/20486400/TOXICStext917w.pdf. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.10.114.
Grandjean, P. and Landrigan, P. (2006). Developmental Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (2019).
neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals. The Lancet 368, Global health data exchange: GBD results tool. http://
1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69665-7. ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-results-tool. Accessed 14
February 2019.
Grandjean, P. and Landrigan, P.J. (2014).
Neurobehavioural effects of developmental toxicity. International Agency for Research on Cancer (2012).
The Lancet. Neurology 13(3), 330-338. https://doi. GLOBOCAN 2012: estimated cancer incidence,
org/10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70278-3. mortality and prevalence worldwide. http://globocan.
iarc.fr/Pages/fact_sheets_cancer.aspx. Accessed 7
Grimalt, J.O., Ferrer, M. and Macpherson, E. (1999). The August 2016.
mine tailing accident in Aznalcollar. Science of The Total
Environment 242 (1-3), 3-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/ International Agency for Research on Cancer (2018).
S0048-9697(99)00372-1. Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs: Volumes 1-123.
https://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/
Hallmann, C.A., Sorg, M., Jongejans, E., Siepel, H., ClassificationsAlphaOrder.pdf.
Hofland, N., Schwan, H., Stenmans, W., Müller, A.,
Sumser, H., Hörren, T., Goulson, D. and de Kroon, H. International Association of Oil and Gas Producers
(2017). More than 75 per cent decline over 27 years (2017). Safety performance in 2017: fewer fatalities
in total flying insect biomass in protected areas. PLOS than ever – but still not good enough, 4 July. https://
One 12(10), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. www.iogp.org/blog/oil-and-gas-safety/fewer-fatalities-
pone.0185809. in-2017/. Accessed 16 February 2019.
Hämäläinen, J., Takala, J. and Kiat, T.B. (2017). International Institute for Environment and
Global Estimates of Occupational Accidents and Work- Development (2002). Breaking New Ground: Mining,
related Illnesses 2017. Singapore: Workplace Safety Minerals and Sustainable Development. https://www.
and Health Institute. http://www.icohweb.org/site/ iied.org/mmsd-final-report.
images/news/pdf/Report%20Global%20Estimates%20
of%20Occupational%20Accidents%20and%20Work- International Labor Organization (2005) Facts on
related%20Illnesses%202017%20rev1.pdf. Safety at Work. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/
public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/
Hatje, V., Pedreira, R.M.A., de Rezende, C.E., Schettini, wcms_067574.pdf.
C.A.F., de Souza, G.C., Marin, D.C. and Hackspacher,
P.C. (2017). The environmental impacts of one of the International Labour Organization (2011). Children
largest tailing dam failures worldwide. Scientific Reports in Hazardous Work: What We Know, What We Need
7, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-11143-x. to Do. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@
dgreports/@dcomm/@publ/documents/publication/
Health Canada (2013). Final Human Health State of the wcms_155428.pdf.
Science Report on Lead. https://www.canada.ca/en/
health-canada/services/environmental-workplace- International Labour Organization (2013a). Safety and
health/reports-publications/environmental- Health in the Use of Chemicals at Work: World Day for
contaminants/final-human-health-state-science- Safety and Health at Work 28 April 2014. https://www.ilo.
report-lead.html. org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/--
-safework/documents/publication/wcms_235085.pdf.
Heindel, J.J., vom Saal, F.S., Blumberg, B., Bovolin, P.,
Calamandrei, G., Ceresini, G., Cohn, B.A., Fabbri, E., International Labour Organization (2013b). Marking
Gioiosa, L., Kassotis, C., Legler, J., La Merrill, M., Rizzir, L., Progress Against Child Labour: Global Estimates and
Machtinger, R., Mantovani, A., Mendez, M.A., Montanini, Trends 2000-2012. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/
L., Molteni, L., Nagel, S.C., Parmigiani, S., Panzica, G., groups/public/@ed_norm/@ipec/documents/
Paterlini, S., Pomatto, V., Ruzzin, J., Sartor, G., Schug, publication/wcms_221513.pdf.
T.T., Street, M.E., Suvorov, A., Volpi, R., Zoeller, R.T.
and Palanza, P. (2015). Parma consensus statement Israel, B. (2013). Long-lasting chemicals may harm sea
on metabolic disorders. Environmental Health 14(1),54. turtles, 14 March. Scientific American, . https://www.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-015-0042-7. scientificamerican.com/article/long-lasting-chemicals-
may-harm-sea-turtles/. Accessed 16 February 2019.
208
Part I
Jerie, S. (2016). Occupational risks associated with solid Longnecker, M.P., Klebanoff, M.A., Zhou, H. and Brock,
waste management in the informal sector of Gweru, J.W. (2001). Association between maternal serum
Zimbabwe. Journal of Environmental and Public Health concentration of the DDT metabolite DDE and preterm
2016, 1-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/9024160. and small-for-gestational-age babies at birth. The
Lancet 358(9276), 110-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Johnston, E.L., Mayer-Pinto, M. and Crowe, T.P. S0140-6736(01)05329-6.
(2015). Review: chemical contaminant effects on
marine ecosystem functioning. Journal of Applied McCarty, J.F. (2018). Lake Erie dead zone threatens
Ecology 52(1), 140-149. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365- Cleveland drinking water, 25 July. The Plain Dealer.
2664.12355. https://www.cleveland.com/metro/index.ssf/2018/07/
lake_erie_dead_zone_poses_annu.html. Accessed
Kidd, K.A., Blanchfield, P.J., Mills, K.H., Palace, V.P., 17 February 2019.
Evans, R.E., Lazorchak, J.M. and Flick, R.W. (2007).
Collapse of a fish population after exposure to a Malaj, E., von der Ohe, P.C., Grote, M., Kühne, R.,
synthetic estrogen. Proceedings of the National Academy Mondy, C.P., Usseglio-Polatera, P., Brack, W. and
of Sciences of the United States of America 104(21), Schäfer, R.B. (2014). Organic chemicals jeopardize the
8897-8901. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0609568104. health of freshwater ecosystems on the continental
scale. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Kim, I., Kim, M.-H. and Lim, S. (2015). Reproductive of the United States of America 111(26), 9549-9554.
hazards still persist in the microelectronics industry: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1321082111.
increased risk of spontaneous abortion and
menstrual aberration among female workers in Martenies, S.E. and Perry, M.J. (2013). Environmental
the microelectronics industry in South Korea. PLOS and occupational pesticide exposure and human
One 10(5), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. sperm parameters: a systematic review. Toxicology
pone.0123679. 307, 66–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2013.02.005.
Kortenkamp, A., Backhaus, T. and Faust, M. (2009). State Marushka, L., Batal, M., David, W., Schwartz, H., Ing, A.,
of the Art Report on Mixture Toxicity. http://ec.europa.eu/ Fediuk, K., Sharp, D., Black, A., Tikhonov, C. and Chan,
environment/chemicals/effects/pdf/report_mixture_ H.M. (2017). Association between fish consumption,
toxicity.pdf. dietary omega-3 fatty acids and persistent organic
pollutants intake, and type 2 diabetes in 18 first nations
Laetz, C.A., Baldwin, D.H., Collier, T.K., Hebert, V., Stark, in Ontario, Canada. Environmental Research 156, 725-
J.D. and Scholz, N.L. (2009). The synergistic toxicity of 737. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.04.034.
pesticide mixtures: implications for risk assessment
and the conservation of endangered Pacific salmon. Meek, B., Boobis, A.R., Crofton, K.M., Heinemeyer, G.,
Environmental Health Perspectives 117(3), 348-353. Raaij, M. Van and Vickers, C. (2011). Risk assessment
https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0800096. of combined exposure to multiple chemicals: a
WHO/IPCS framework. Regulatory Toxicology and
Landrigan, P.J., Fuller, R., Acosta, N.J.R., Adeyi, O., Pharmacology 60(2), S1-S14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Arnold, R., Basu, N.N., Baldé, A.B., Bertollini, R., yrtph.2011.03.010.
Bose-O’Reilly, S., Boufford, J.I., Breysse, P.N., Chiles,
T., Mahidol, C., Coll-Seck, A.M., Cropper, M.L., Fobil, Mihailidou, E.K., Antoniadis, K.D. and Assael, M.J.
J., Fuster, V., Greenstone, M., Haines, A., Hanrahan, (2012). The 319 major industrial accidents since
D., Hunter, D., Khare, M., Krupnick, A., Lanphear, 1917. International Review of Chemical Engineering
B., Lohani, B., Martin, K., Mathiasen, K. V, McTeer, 4(6), 529-540. http://www.hristov.com/jordan/pdfs/
M.A., Murray, C.J.L., Ndahimananjara, J.D., Perera, The%20319%20Major%20Industrial%20Accidents%20
F., Potočnik, J., Preker, A.S., Ramesh, J., Rockström, Since%201917-IRECHE_VOL_4_N_6.pdf.
J., Salinas, C., Samson, L.D., Sandilya, K., Sly, P.D.,
Smith, K.R., Steiner, A., Stewart, R.B., Suk, W.A., van Miranda-Contreras, L., Cruz, I., Osuna, J.A., Gómez-
Schayck, O.C.P., Yadama, G.N., Yumkella, K. and Zhong, Pérez, R., Berrueta, L., Salmen, S., Colmenares, M.,
M. (2017). The Lancet commission on pollution and Barreto, S., Balza, A., Morales, Y., Zavala, L., Labarca, E.,
health. The Lancet. 391(10119), 462-512. https://doi. García, N., Sanchez, B., Contreras, C.A. and Andrade, H.
org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32345-0. (2015). [Effects of occupational exposure to pesticides
on semen quality of workers in an agricultural
Lanphear, B.P. (2015). The impact of toxins on the community of Merida state, Venezuela]. Investigacion
developing brain. Annual Review of Public Health Clinica 56(2), 123-36. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
36(1), 211-230. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev- pubmed/26299054.
publhealth-031912-114413.
Moffat, C., Pacheco, J.G., Sharp, S., Samson, A.J., Bollan,
Lidsky, T.I. and Schneider, J.S. (2003). Lead neurotoxicity K.A., Huang, J., Buckland, S.T. and Connolly, C.N.
in children: basic mechanisms and clinical correlates. (2015). Chronic exposure to neonicotinoids increases
Brain 126(1), 5-19. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/ neuronal vulnerability to mitochondrial dysfunction
awg014. in the bumblebee (Bombus terrestris). Federation of
American Societies for Experimental Biology Journal 29,
2112-2119. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.14-267179.
209
Nambirajan, K., Muralidharan, S., Roy, A.A. and Prüss-Ustün, A., Wolf, J., Corvalán, C., Bos, R. and
Manomani, S. (2018). Residues of diclofenac in tissues Neira, M. (2016). Preventing Disease through Healthy
of vultures in India: a post-ban scenario. Archives of Environments: A Global Assessment of the Burden of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 74(2), Disease from Environmental Risks. Geneva: World Health
292-297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-017-0480-z. Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/
handle/10665/204585/9789241565196_eng.pdf;jse
Needleman, H. (2004). Lead poisoning. Annual Review ssionid=DB60589B14DCAD17C29FCC253F00B795?s
of Medicine 55(1), 209-222. https://doi.org/10.1146/ equence=1.
annurev.med.55.091902.103653.
Rather, I.A., Koh, W.Y., Paek, W.K. and Lim, J. (2017).
Norwegian Institute for Water Research (2018). The sources of chemical contaminants in food and
Microplastics in agricultural soils: a reason to worry? 1 their health implications. Frontiers in Pharmacology
February. https://www.niva.no/en/news/microplastics- 8(830), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2017.00830.
in-agricultural-soils-a-reason-to-worry. Accessed 9
September 2018. Rauh, V.A., Landrigan, P.J. and Claudio, L. (2008).
Housing and health: intersection of poverty and
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and environmental exposures. Annals of the New York
Development (2011). WHO OECD ILSI/HESI International Academy of Sciences 1136(1), 276-288. https://doi.
Workshop on Risk Assessment of Combined Exposures org/10.1196/annals.1425.032.
to Multiple Chemicals. Workshop report. http://www.
oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocument Review on Antimicrobial Resistance (2016). Tackling
pdf/?cote=env/jm/mono(2011)10&doclanguage=en. Drug-Resistant Infections Globally: Final Report and
Recommendations. https://amr-review.org/sites/
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and default/files/160518_Final%20paper_with%20cover.
Development (2019). The chemical accidents pdf.
programme. http://www.oecd.org/env/ehs/chemical-
accidents/thechemicalaccidentsprogramme.htm. Rice, D. and Barone, S. (2000). Critical periods of
Accessed 16 February 2019. vulnerability for the developing nervous system:
evidence from humans and animal models.
Osachoff, H.L., Mohammadali, M., Skirrow, R.C., Hall, Environmental Health Perspectives 108(3), 511-33.
E.R., Brown, L.L.Y., van Aggelen, G.C., Kennedy, C.J. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.00108s3511.
and Helbing, C.C. (2014). Evaluating the treatment of a
synthetic wastewater containing a pharmaceutical and Rice, M. (2009). Revealed... the 515 chemicals women
personal care product chemical cocktail: compound put on their bodies every day, 21 November. http://
removal efficiency and effects on juvenile rainbow www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/beauty/article-1229275/
trout. Water Research 62, 271-280. https://doi. Revealed--515-chemicals-women-bodies-day.html.
org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.05.057. Accessed 12 August 2016.
Ostojić, N. (2016). Health Risks and Impacts of Hazardous Rillig, M.C. and Bonkowski, M. (2018). Microplastic
Chemicals in Products on Women and Children. Belgrade: and soil protists: a call for research. Environmental
United Nations Development Programme Country Pollution 341, 1128-1131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Office in Serbia. http://www.alhem.rs/wp-content/ envpol.2018.04.147.
uploads/2015/12/gender-srpski.pdf.
Rim, K.-T. (2017). Reproductive toxic chemicals at work
Payton, M., Riggs, K.M., Spiro Iii, A., Weiss, S.T., Mayer, J., and efforts to protect workers’ health: a literature
Riggs, K.M., Spiro Iii, A. and Weiss, S.T. (1998). Relations review. Safety and Health at Work 8(2), 143-150. https://
of bone and blood lead to cognitive function: the VA doi.org/10.1016/J.SHAW.2017.04.003.
normative aging study. Neurotoxicology and Teratology
20(1), 19-27. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/689b/ Rios, L.M., Jones, P.R., Moore, C. and Narayan, U.V
e10901f4e7eb7b406bb406b5886f70c5fec9.pdf. (2010). Quantitation of persistent organic pollutants
adsorbed on plastic debris from the Northern Pacific
Pesticide Action Network Asia and the Pacific (2017). Gyre’s ‘eastern garbage patch’. Journal of Environmental
The Price of Indonesia’s Palm Oil: Vulnerable and Exploited Monitoring 12(12), 2226-2236. https://doi.org/10.1039/
Women Workers. http://files.panap.net/resources/The- C0EM00239A.
Price-of-Indonesias-Palm-Oil.pdf.
Risher J.F., Todd, G.D., Meyer, D. and Zunker, C. (2010).
Prüss-Ustün, A., Vickers, C., Haefliger, P. and Bertollini, The elderly as a sensitive population in environmental
R. (2011). Knowns and unknowns on burden of disease exposures: making the case. In Reviews of Environmetal
due to chemicals: a systematic review. Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Volume 207. Whitacre,
Health 10(9), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476- D.M. (ed.). New York, NY: Springer. 95-157. http://doi.
069X-10-9. org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6406-9_2.
210
Part I
Rockefeller Foundation (2013). Health Vulnerabilities Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2018). Report
of Informal Workers Problem Statement and Key of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee
Messages. https://assets.rockefellerfoundation.org/ on the Work of its Fourteenth Meeting - Addendum to
app/uploads/20130528214745/Health-Vulnerabilities- the Risk Management Evaluation on Perfluorooctanoic
of-Informal-Workers.pdf. Acid (PFOA) its Salts and PFOA-related Compounds.
UNEP/POPS/POPRC.14/6/Add.2. http://chm.pops.int/
Rossi, S. and Pitidis, A. (2018). Multiple chemical TheConvention/POPsReviewCommittee/Meetings/
sensitivity: review of the state of the art in epidemiology, POPRC14/Overview/tabid/7398/Default.aspx.
diagnosis, and future perspectives. Journal of
Occupational and Environmental Medicine 60(2), 138- Setälä, O., Fleming-Lehtinen, V. and Lehtiniemi, M.
146. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000001215. (2012). Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the
planktonic food web. Environmental Pollution 185,
Ruiz, D., Becerra, M., Jagai, J.S., Ard, K. and Sargis, R.M. 77-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.013.
(2018). Disparities in environmental exposures to
endocrine-disrupting chemicals and diabetes risk in Singer, A.C., Shaw, H., Rhodes, V. and Hart, A. (2016).
vulnerable populations. Diabetes Care 41(1), 193-205. Review of antimicrobial resistance in the environment
https://doi.org/10.2337/dc16-2765. and Its relevance to environmental regulators. Frontiers
in Microbiology 7(1728), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.3389/
Rushton, L., Hutchings S.J., Fortunato, L., Young, C., fmicb.2016.01728.
Evans, G.S., Brown, T., Bevan, R., Slack, R., Holmes,
P., Bagga, S., Cherrie, J.W. and Van Tongeren, M. Starbuck, A. and White, R. (2016). Living in the Shadow
(2012). Occupational cancer burden in Great Britain. of Danger: Poverty, Race, and Unequal Chemical
British Journal of Cancer, Suppl 1, S3-7. https://doi. Facility Hazards. Washington D.C.: Center for Effective
org/10.1038/bjc.2012.112. Government. https://www.foreffectivegov.org/sites/
default/files/shadow-of-danger-highrespdf.pdf.
Santana, V. and Rubeiro, F. (2011). Occupational cancer
burden in developing countries and the problem of State of Hawaii (2018). Senate bill no. 2571 related
informal workers. Environmental Health 10, Suppl 10. to water pollution. https://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/
https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-10-S1-S10. session2018/bills/SB2571_.HTM. 18 February 2019
Schooley, T., Weaver, M.J., Mullins, D. and Eick, M. Stein, J., Schettler, T., Rohrer, B. and Valenti, M. (2008).
(2008). The history of lead arsenate use in apple Environmental Threats to Healthy Aging: With a Closer
production: comparison of its impact in Virginia with Look at Alzheimer’s & Parkinson’s Diseases. Myers, N.
other states. Journal of Pesticide Safety Education (ed.). Boston: Greater Boston Physicians for Social
10, 22-53. https://aapse.wildapricot.org/resources/ Responsibility and Science and Environmental Health
Documents/AAPSE%20Publications/JPSE/ARTICLES/1/ Network. http://www.agehealthy.org/pdf/GBPSRSEHN_
public/1-195-1-PB.pdf. HealthyAging1017.pdf.
Science Communication Unit, University of the West of Steinemann, A. (2016). Fragranced consumer products:
England (2013). Soil Contamination: Impacts on Human exposures and effects from emissions. Air Quality,
Health Science for Environment Policy. Bristol: European Atmosphere & Health 9(8), 861-866. https://doi.
Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ org/10.1007/s11869-016-0442-z.
integration/research/newsalert/pdf/IR5_en.pdf.
Steinemann, A. (2018a). National prevalence and effects
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International of multiple chemical sensitivities. Journal of Occupational
Chemicals Management Secretariat (2016). Gender and Environmental Medicine 60(3), e152-e156. https://
and the Sound Management of Chemicals and Waste: doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000001272.
Prepared for the Intersessional Process Considering
the Strategic Approach and the Sound Management of Steinemann, A. (2018b). Prevalence and effects of
Chemicals and Waste beyond 2020. http://www.saicm. multiple chemical sensitivities in Australia. Preventive
org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/IP2/IP_2_6_ Medicine Reports 10, 191-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
gender_document.pdf. PMEDR.2018.03.007.
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2017). Report Straub, L., Villamar-Bouza, L., Bruckner, S.,
of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee Chantawannakul, P., Gauthier, L., Khongphinitbunjong,
on the Work of its Thirteenth Meeting - Addendum: K., Retschnig, G., Troxler, A., Vidondo, B., Neumann, P.
Risk Management Evaluation on Dicofol. UNEP/POPS/ and Williams, G.R. (2016). Neonicotinoid insecticides
POPRC.13/7/Add.1. http://www.pops.int/Default. can serve as inadvertent insect contraceptives.
aspx?tabid=5965. Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences
283, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.0506.
211
Swackhamer, D.L., Needham, L.L., Powell, D.E. and United Nations Environment Programme (2017a).
Muir, D.C.G. (2009). Use of measurement data Antimicrobial Resistance: Investigating the Environmental
in evaluating exposure of humans and wildlife to Dimension. http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/
POPs/PBTs. Integrated Environmental Assessment handle/20.500.11822/22263/Frontiers_2017_CH1_
and Management 5(4), 638. https://doi.org/10.1897/ EN.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
IEAM_2008-094.1.
Tellez-Plaza, M., Guallar, E., Howard, B. V., Umans, Overview Report II: An Overview of Current Scientific
J.G. Francesconi, K.A., Goessler, W., Silbergeld, E.K., Knowledge on the Life Cycles, Environmental Exposures,
Devereux, R.B. and Navas-acien, A. (2013). Cadmium and Environmental Effects of Select Endocrine Disrupting
exposure and incident cardiovascular disease. Chemicals (EDCs) and Potential EDCs. https://wedocs.
Epidemiology 24(3), 421. http://doi.org/10.1097/ unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25634/
EDE.0b013e31828b0631. edc_report2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Thrupp, L.A. (1991). Sterilization of workers from United Nations Environment Programme and United
pesticide exposure: the causes and consequences Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
of DBCP-induced damage in Costa Rica and beyond. Affairs (2000). Spill of Liquid and Suspended Waste
International Journal of Health Services 21(4), 731-757. at the Aurul S.A. Retreatment Plant in Baia Mare.
https://doi.org/10.2190/25B9-QFMV-Y28P-L736. Assessment Mission: Romania, Hungary, Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.
Turner, M.C., Wigle, D.T. and Krewski, D. (2010). int/files/resources/43CD1D010F030359C12568
Residential pesticides and childhood leukemia: a CD00635880-baiamare.pdf.
systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental
Health Perspectives 118(1), 33-41. https://doi. United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
org/10.1289/ehp.0900966. registry (2018). Framework for Assessing Health Impacts
of Multiple Chemicals and Other Stressors (Update).
Undeman, E., Brown, T.N., McLachlan, M.S. and https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/interactionprofiles/ip-ga/
Wania, F. (2018). Who in the world is most exposed ipga-p.pdf.
to polychlorinated biphenyls? Using models to identify
highly exposed populations. Environmental Research United States Centers for Disease Control and
Letters 13(6), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ Prevention (2014). Prevalence of Autism Spectrum
aac5fe. Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years — Autism and
Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites,
United Nations Development Programme (2007). United States, 2010. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly
Gender Mainstreaming: The Why and How of Report. Atlanta, GA: United States Department of
Mainstreaming Gender in Chemicals Management. http:// Health and Human Services Centers for Disease
www.undp.org/content/dam/aplaws/publication/en/ Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/
publications/environment-energy/www-ee-library/ pdf/ss/ss6302.pdf.
chemicals-management/chemicals-management-the-
why-and-how-of-mainstreaming-gender/Chemicals United States Environmental Protection Agency
Management and Gender Mainstreaming.pdf. (2015). Updating ozone calculations and emissions
profiles for use in the atmospheric and health effects
United Nations Development Programme (2011). framework model. https://www.epa.gov/sites/
Chemicals and Gender. http://www.undp.org/ production/files/2015-07/documents/updating_ozone_
content/dam/aplaws/publication/en/publications/ calculations_and_emissions_profiles_for_use_in_the_
environment-energy/www-ee-library/chemicals- atmospheric_and_health_effects_framework_model.
management/chemicals-and-gender/2011 pdf.
Chemical&Gender.pdf.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2018).
United Nations Environment Programme (2015). The Superfund. https://www.epa.gov/superfund. Accessed
Montreal Protocol and Human Health: How Global Action 8 September 2018.
Protects Us from the Ravages of Ultraviolet Radiation.
http://www.unep.fr/ozonaction/information/ United States Geological Survey (2018). Nutrient
mmcfiles/7738-e-TheMontrealProtocolandHumanH loading for the Mississippi River and subbasins.
ealth.pdf. https://nrtwq.usgs.gov/mississippi_loads/#/. Accessed
17 February 2019.
Global Gender and Environment Outlook. http://wedocs. United States National Toxicology Program (2012).
unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/14764/ NTP Monograph on Health Effects of Low-Level Lead.
GLOBAL%20GENDER%20AND%20ENVIRONMENT%20 https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/ohat/lead/final/
OUTLOOK.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. monographhealtheffectslowlevellead_newissn_508.
pdf.
212
Part I
van Dijk, A., Slaper, H., den Outer, P.N., Morgenstern, Wood, M. (2017). JRC study of chemical accidents in
O., Braesicke, P., Pyle, J.A., Garny, H., Stenke, A., the media during 2016-2017, for OECD. In Disaster
Dameris, M., Kazantzidis, A., Tourpali, K. and Bais, Risk Management Knowledge Center: Pooling Knowledge
A.F. (2013). Skin cancer risks avoided by the Montreal and Networks in Disaster Risk Management: Newsletter
Protocol – worldwide modeling integrating coupled #11. Wakehnhut, F. (ed.). European Commission. 10.
climate-chemistry models with a risk model for UV. https://drmkc.jrc.ec.europa.eu/DesktopModules/
Photochemisty and Photobiololy 89(1), 234-246. https:// CritechDocumentItems/API/CritechDocumentItems/
doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-1097.2012.01223.x. Download?contentItemId=8778&forceDownload=true
Vandenberg, L.N., Colborn, T., Hayes, T.B., Heindel, World Health Organization (2009). Global Health Risks:
J.J., Jacobs, D.R., Lee, D.-H., Shioda, T., Soto, A.M., vom Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected
Saal, F.S., Welshons, W. V., Zoeller, R.T. and Myers, Major Risks. http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_
J.P. (2012). Hormones and endocrine-disrupting burden_disease/GlobalHealthRisks_report_Front.pdf.
chemicals: low-dose effects and nonmonotonic dose
responses. Endocrine Reviews 33(3), 378-455. https:// World Heatlth Organization (2011). An Overview
doi.org/10.1210/er.2011-1050. of the Evidence on Environmental and Occupational
Determinants of Cancer. http://www.who.int/phe/news/
Vasyukova, I., Gusev, A. and Tkachev, A. (2015). events/international_conference/Background_science.
Reproductive toxicity of carbon nanomaterials: a pdf.
review. IOP Conference Series 98, 1-7. http://iopscience.
iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/98/1/012001/pdf. World Health Organization (2016). The Public Health
Impact of Chemicals: Knowns and Unknowns. http://
Vélez, M.P., Arbuckle, T.E. and Fraser, W.D. (2015a). apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/206553/
Maternal exposure to perfluorinated chemicals WHO_FWC_PHE_EPE_16.01_eng.pdf?sequence=1.
and reduced fecundity: the MIREC study. Human
Reproduction 30(3), 701-709. https://doi.org/10.1093/ World Health Organization (2017). Chemical Mixtures in
humrep/deu350. Source Water and Drinking-Water. http://apps.who.int/
Vélez, M.P., Arbuckle, T.E. and Fraser, W.D. (2015b). eng.pdf;jsessionid=945450215FE5D872A33483300F7
Female exposure to phenols and phthalates and FD600?sequence=1.
time to pregnancy: the maternal-infant research on
environmental chemicals (MIREC) study. Fertility and World Health Organization (2018a). The Public
Sterility 103(4), 1011-1020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Health Impact of Chemicals: Knowns and Unknowns -
fertnstert.2015.01.005. Data Addendum for 2016. http://www.who.int/ipcs/
publications/chemicals-public-health-impact/en/.
Wäger, P.A., Schluep, M., Müller, E. and Gloor, R.
(2012). RoHS regulated substances in mixed plastics World Health Organization (2018b). World Health
from waste electrical and electronic equipment. Statistics 2018: Monitoring Health for the SDGs,
Environmental Science & Technology 46(2), 628-635. Sustainable Development Goals. http://apps.who.int/
https://doi.org/10.1021/es202518n. iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272596/9789241565585-
eng.pdf?ua=1.
Wales, A.D. and Davies, R.H. (2015). Co-Selection
of resistance to antibiotics, biocides and heavy World Health Organization (2018c). Cancer: key facts,
metals, and its relevance to foodborne pathogens. 12 September. http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-
Antibiotics 4(4) 567-604. https://doi.org/10.3390/ sheets/detail/cancer. Accessed 16 February 2019.
antibiotics4040567.
World Health Organization (2018d). Lead poisoning
Wang, Y.-X., You, L., Zeng, Q., Sun, Y., Huang, Y.-H., and health, 28 August. http://www.who.int/news-
Wang, C., Wang, P., Cao, W.-C., Yang, P., Li, Y.-F. and room/fact-sheets/detail/lead-poisoning-and-health.
Lu, W.-Q. (2015). Phthalate exposure and human Accessed 16 February 2019.
semen quality: results from an infertility clinic in
China. Environmental Research 142, 1-9. https://doi. World Health Organization (2019). Ten threats to global
org/10.1016/J.ENVRES.2015.06.010. health in 2019. https://www.who.int/emergencies/ten-
threats-to-global-health-in-2019. Accessed 16 February
Women in Europe for a Common Future (2016). Women 2019.
and Chemicals: The Impact of Hazardous Chemicals
on Women. A Thought Starter Based on an Experts’ World Meteorological Organization (2018). Scientific
Workshop. http://www.wecf.eu/download/2016/March/ Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2018. Global Ozone
WomenAndChemicals_PublicationIWD2016.pdf. Research and Monitoring Project–Report No. 58. https://
ozone.unep.org/sites/default/files/Assessment_Panel/
SAP-2018-Assessment-report.pdf.
Zhao, L., Quian, Y., Hu, A.-M., Jian, R, Li, M. and Wang,
X. (2018). An analysis of hazardous chemical accidents
in China between 2006 and 2017. Sustainability 10(8),
2935. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10082935.
213
Zock, J.-P., Vizcaya, D. and Le Moual, N. (2010). Update Cao, Y., Li, L., Shen, K. and Liu, J. (2019). Disease
on asthma and cleaners. Current Opinion in Allergy burden attributable to endocrine-disrupting chemicals
and Clinical Immunology 10(2), 114-120. https://doi. exposure in china: a case study of phthalates. Science
org/10.1097/ACI.0b013e32833733fe. of The Total Environment 662, 615-621. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.255.
Zota, A.R. and Shamasunder, B. (2017). The
environmental injustice of beauty: framing chemical Chaplin-Kramer, B. and Green, J. (n.d.). Biodiversity
exposures from beauty products as a health disparities and Ecosystem Services in Environmental Profit & Loss
concern. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Accounts. Working Paper. Cambridge: University of
217(4), 418.e1-418.e6. http://doi.org/10.1016/j. Cambridge Institute for Sustainable Leadership.
ajog.2017.07.020. https://www.cisl.cam.ac.uk/resources/publication-
pdfs/BESinEPLWorkingPaper.pdf.
Chiu, W.A. (2017). Chemical Risk Assessment and

Translation to Socio-Economic Assessments. Paris:
Chapter 8 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/a930054b-en.
Amec Foster Wheeler [now the Wood Group],
Brunel University, Economics for the Environment Das, P. and Horton, R. (2018). Pollution, health,
Consultancy and Peter Fisk Associates (2017). Study and the planet: time for decisive action. The Lancet.
on the Cumulative Health and Environmental Benefits of 391(10119), 407-408. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-
Chemical Legislation. https://publications.europa.eu/ 6736(17)32588-6.
en/publication-detail/-/publication/b43d720c-9db0-
11e7-b92d-01aa75ed71a1/language-en. . Dudley, S.E. (2017). Retrospective Evaluation of Chemical
Regulations. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-
Amec Foster Wheeler [now the Wood Group], Trinomics operation and Development. https://www.oecd.org/
and Technopolis (2017). Study Supporting the Fitness officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=
Check on the Most Relevant Chemicals Legislation (“Fitness ENV/WKP(2017)5&docLanguage=En.
Check+”). Brussels: European Commission. https://doi.
org/10.2779/540096. European Chemicals Agency (2016). Cost and Benefit
Assessments in the REACH Restriction Dossiers. https://
Attina, T.M. and Trasande, L. (2013). Economic costs of echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13630/cost_
childhood lead exposure in low- and middle-income benefit_assessment_en.pdf.
countries. Environmental Health Perspectives. 121(9),
1097-1102. https://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1206424. European Chemicals Agency (2017). Socio-Economic
Impacts of REACH Authorisations – A Meta-Analysis of
Attina, T.M., Hauser, R., Sathyanarayana, S., Hunt, the First 100 Applications for Authorisation. https://doi.
P.A., Bourguignon, J.-P., Myers, J.P., DiGangi, J., Zoeller, org/10.2823/794664.
R.T. and Trasande, L. (2016). Exposure to endocrine-
disrupting chemicals in the USA: a population-based European Chemicals Agency (n.d.). Willingness to
disease burden and cost analysis. The Lancet Diabetes & pay to avoid certain health impacts. https://echa.
Endocrinology 4(12), 996-1003. https://doi.org/10.1016/ europa.eu/support/socio-economic-analysis-in-reach/
s2213-8587(16)30275-3. willingness-to-pay-to-avoid-certain-health-impacts.
Accessed 16 August 2018.
Bellanger, M., Pichery, C., Aerts, D., Berglund, M.,
Castaño, A., Čejchanová, M., Crettaz, P., Davidson, Gabbert, S. (2018). Economic Assessment and
F., Esteban, M., Fischer, M.E., Gurzau, A.E., Halzlova, Valuations of Environmental and Health Impacts
K., Katsonouri, A., Knudsen, L.E., Kolossa-Gehring, Caused by Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Its Salts.
M., Koppen, G., Ligocka, D., Miklavčič, A., Reis, M.F., Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Rudnai, P., Tratnik, J.S., Weihe, P., Budtz-Jørgensen, Development. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/
E. and Grandjean, P. (2013). Economic benefits of paper/f5250745-en.
methylmercury exposure control in Europe: monetary
value of neurotoxicity prevention. Environmental Health. GBD 2016 DALYs and HALE Collaborators (2017).
12(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-12-3. Global, regional, and national disability-adjusted life-
years (DALYs) for 333 diseases and injuries and healthy
Bellanger, M., Demeneix, B., Grandjean, P., Zoeller, life expectancy (HALE) for 195 countries and territories,
R.T. and Trasande, L. (2015). Neurobehavioral 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden
deficits, diseases, and associated costs of exposure to of Disease Study 2016. The Lancet. 390(10100), 1260-
endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the European Union. 1344. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32130-X.
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 100(4),
1256-1266. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2014-4323. Government of Canada (2018). Prohibition of asbestos
and products containing asbestos regulations:
Bond, G.G. and Dietrich, D.R. (2017). Human cost SOR/2018-196. Canada Gazette, Part II 152(21), 3371-
burden of exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals. 3532. http://gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p2/2018/2018-10-17/
a critical review. Archives of Toxicology. 91(8), 2745-2762. html/sor-dors196-eng.html.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-017-1985-y.
214
Part I
Grandjean, P. and Bellanger, M. (2017). Calculation of Lanphear, B.P., Rauch, S., Auinger, P., Allen, R.W. and
the disease burden associated with environmental Hornung, R.W. (2018). Low-level lead exposure and
chemical exposures: application of toxicological mortality in US adults: a population-based cohort
information in health economic estimation. study. The Lancet Public Health. 3(4), e177-e184. https://
Environmental Health 16(123), 1-13. https://doi. doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30025-2.
org/10.1186/s12940-017-0340-3.
Legler, J., Fletcher, T., Govarts, E., Porta, M., Blumberg,
Harremoes, P., Gee, D., MacGavin, M., Stirling, A., B., Heindel, J.J. and Trasande, L. (2015). Obesity,
Keys, J., Wynne, B. and Vaz, S.G. (eds.) (2001) Late diabetes, and associated costs of exposure to
Lessons from Early Warnings: The Precautionary Principle endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the European Union.
1896-2000. Copenhagen: European Environment The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism.
Agency. https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ 100(4), 1278-1288. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2014-
environmental_issue_report_2001_22. 4326.
Hauser, R., Skakkebaek, N.E., Hass, U., Toppari, J., Juul, Makino, R. (2016). Stock market responses to chemical
A., Andersson, A.M., Kortenkamp, A., Heindel, J.J. and accidents in Japan: an event study. Journal of Loss
Trasande, L. (2015). Male reproductive disorders, Prevention in the Process Industries. 44, 453-458. https://
diseases, and costs of exposure to endocrine- doi.org/10.1016/j.jlp.2016.10.019.
disrupting chemicals in the European Union. The
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 100(4), Malits, J., Blustein, J., Trasande, L. and Attina, T.M.
1267-1277. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2014-4325. (2018). Perfluorooctanoic acid and low birth weight:
estimates of US attributable burden and economic
Helbling, T. (2017). Externalities: prices do not capture costs from 2003 through 2014. International Journal
all costs - back to basics, 29 July. International Monetary of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 221(2), 269-275.
Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.11.004.
basics/external.htm. Accessed 19 July 2018.
Marques, A., Verones, F., Kok, M.T., Huijbregts, M.A.
Holland, M. (2018). Socio-Economic Assessment of and Pereira, H.M. (2017). How to quantify biodiversity
Phthalates. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co- footprints of consumption? A review of multi-regional
operation and Development. https://www.oecd- input–output analysis and life cycle assessment.
ilibrary.org/content/paper/a38a0e34-en. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 29,
75-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COSUST.2018.01.005.
Hunt, A. and Dale, N. (2018a). Economic Valuation
in Formaldehyde Regulation. Paris: Organisation for Navrud, S. (2017). Possibilities and Challenges in
Economic Co-operation and Development. https:// Transfer and Generalization of Monetary Estimates
www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/paper/c0f8b8e5-en. for Environmental and Health Benefits of Regulating
Chemicals. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-
Hunt, A. and Dale, N. (2018b). Economic Valuation operation and Development. http://www.oecd.org/
in 1-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone (NMP) Regulation. Paris: officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and =ENV/WKP(2017)6&docLanguage=En.
Development. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/
paper/ef67fa08-en. Nordic Council of Ministers (2015). The Cost of Inaction:
A Socioeconomic Analysis of Costs Linked to Effects of
Hunt, P.A., Sathyanarayana, S., Fowler, P.A. and Endocrine Disrupting Substances on Male Reproductive
Trasande, L. (2016). Female reproductive disorders, Health. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.1107.9360.
diseases, and costs of exposure to endocrine disrupting
chemicals in the European Union. The Journal of Clinical Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Endocrinology & Metabolism. 101(4), 1562-1570. https:// Development (2010). The Value of Statistical Life: A
doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-2873. Meta-Analysis. http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/
publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=ENV/EPOC/
Landrigan, P.J., Fuller, R., Acosta, N.J.R., Adeyi, O., WPNEP(2010)9/FINAL&doclanguage=en.
Arnold, R., Basu, N.N., Baldé, A.B., Bertollini, R.,
Bose-O’Reilly, S., Boufford, J.I., Breysse, P.N., Chiles, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
T., Mahidol, C., Coll-Seck, A.M., Cropper, M.L., Fobil, Development (2018). The costs and benefits
J., Fuster, V., Greenstone, M., Haines, A., Hanrahan, of regulating chemicals. http://www.oecd.org/
D., Hunter, D., Khare, M., Krupnick, A., Lanphear, chemicalsafety/risk-management/sacame.htm.
B., Lohani, B., Martin, K., Mathiasen, K. V, McTeer, Accessed 1 January 2019.
M.A., Murray, C.J.L., Ndahimananjara, J.D., Perera,
F., Potočnik, J., Preker, A.S., Ramesh, J., Rockström, Prüss-Ustün, A., Wolf, J., Corvalán, C., Bos, R. and
J., Salinas, C., Samson, L.D., Sandilya, K., Sly, P.D., Neira, M. (2016). Preventing Disease through Healthy
Smith, K.R., Steiner, A., Stewart, R.B., Suk, W.A., van Environments: A Global Assessment of the Burden of
Schayck, O.C.P., Yadama, G.N., Yumkella, K. and Zhong, Disease from Environmental Risks. Geneva: World
M. (2018). The lancet commission on pollution and Health Organization. http://apps.who.int/iris/
health. The Lancet. 391(10119), 462-512. https://doi. bitstream/handle/10665/204585/9789241565196_eng.
org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32345-0. pdf?sequence=1.
215
Rijk, I., van Duursen, M. and van den Berg, M. (2016). Trasande, L., Zoeller, R.T., Hass, U., Kortenkamp, A.,
Health Costs That May Be Associated with Endocrine Grandjean, P., Myers, J.P., DiGangi, J., Hunt, P.M., Rudel,
Disrupting Chemicals: An Inventory, Evaluation and Way R., Sathyanarayana, S., Bellanger, M., Hauser, R., Legler,
Forward to Assess the Potential Socio-Economic Impact of J., Skakkebaek, N.E. and Heindel, J.J. (2016b). Burden of
EDC-Associated Health Effects in the EU. Utrecht: Institute disease and costs of exposure to endocrine disrupting
for Risk Assessment Sciences, Universiteit Utrecht. chemicals in the European Union: an updated analysis.
https://www.uu.nl/sites/default/files/rijk_et_al_2016_-_ Andrology. 4(4), 565-572. https://doi.org/10.1111/
report_iras_-_health_cost_associated_with_edcs_3.pdf. andr.12178.
Shapira, R. and Zingales, L. (2017). Is Pollution Value- United Nations Environment Programme (2013).
Maximizing? The DuPont Case. Chicago, IL: Stigler Center Costs of Inaction on the Sound Management of
for the Study of the Economy and State University of Chemicals.http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/
Chicago Booth School of Business. https://research. handle/20.500.11822/8412/-Costs of inaction on the
chicagobooth.edu/-/media/research/stigler/pdfs/wo sound management of chemicals-2013Report_Cost_
rkingpapers/13ispollutionvaluemaximizingsep2017. of_Inaction_Feb2013.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y.
pdf?la=en&hash=1D5A23E77971DDA8BE5223911D
E96AF2429D2C06. United Nations Environment Programme (2016). Global
Review of Mercury Monitoring Networks. http://www.
Sørensen, M.M., Feng, M.C., Von Bahr, J., Sletten, T.M., mercuryconvention.org/Portals/11/documents/2016
Kiiski, J. and Krarup, S. (2017). Valuation Literature on call for submissions/UNEP - Global Review of Mercury
Chemicals: A Description of an Inventory of Valuation Monitoring Networks_Final.pdf.
Literature on Chemicals. Copenhagen: Nordic Council
of Ministers. http://norden.diva-portal.org/smash/ United Nations Environment Programme (n.d.). Global
record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1067125&dswid=-4137. mercury partnership. http://web.unep.org/globalmer
curypartnership/#parentHorizontalTab2. Accessed 7
Stern, N. (2007). The Economics of Climate Change: September 2018.
Stern Review. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
http://mudancasclimaticas.cptec.inpe.br/~rmclima/ United States Environmental Protection Agency (1997).
pdfs/destaques/sternreview_report_complete.pdf. Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act, 1970-1990. https://
www.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview/benefits-and-
The Actuary (2002). Asbestos claims in Europe. http:// costs-clean-air-act-1970-1990-retrospective-study.
www.theactuary.com/archive/old-articles/part-3/
asbestos-claims-in-europe/. Accessed 10 July 2018. United States Environmental Protection Agency (2015).
Updating Ozone Calculations and Emission Profiles for
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (n.d.). Use in the Atmospheric and Health Effects Framework
The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity (TEEB). Model. https://www.epa.gov/ozone-layer-protection/
http://www.teebweb.org/. Accessed 16 August 2018. updating-ozone-calculations-and-emissions-profiles-
use-atmospheric-and-health.
Trasande, L., Zoeller, R.T., Hass, U., Kortenkamp, A.,
Grandjean, P., Myers, J.P., DiGangi, J., Bellanger, M., United States Environmental Protection Agency (2018).
Hauser, R., Legler, J., Skakkebaek, N.E. and Heindel, International actions for reducing mercury emissions
J.J. (2015). Estimating burden and disease costs of and use, 16 July. https://www.epa.gov/international-
exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the cooperation/international-actions-reducing-mercury-
European Union. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology emissions-and-use. Accessed 7 September 2018.
& Metabolism. 100(4), 1245-1255. https://doi.
org/10.1210/jc.2014-4324. Wilting, H.C., Schipper, A.M., Bakkenes, M., Meijer, J.R.
and Huijbregts, M.A.J. (2017). Quantifying biodiversity
Trasande, L., DiGangi, J., Evers, D.C., Petrlik, J., Buck, losses due to human consumption: a global-scale
D.G., Šamánek, J., Beeler, B., Turnquist, M.A. and footprint analysis. Environmental Science & Technology
Regan, K. (2016a). Economic implications of mercury 51(6), 3298-3306. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.
exposure in the context of the global mercury treaty: est.6b05296.
hair mercury levels and estimated lost economic
productivity in selected developing countries. Journal World Bank (1993). World Development Report 1993:
of Environmental Management. 183, 229-235. https:// Investing in Health. New York: Oxford University Press.
doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.08.058. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/
handle/10986/5976/9780195208900_fm.pdf.
216
Part I
217
II. Where do we stand in
achieving the 2020 goal
– assessing overall
progress and gaps
Part II of the Global Chemicals Outlook II
© International Institute for Sustainable Development

Closing plenary of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, 4 September 2002, Johannesburg, South Africa
Part II
Where do we stand in achieving the 2020 goal – assessing overall progress and gaps
About Part II
Part II provides insights into progress made towards the 2020 goal to “achieve, by
2020, that chemicals are used and produced in ways that lead to the minimization of
significant adverse effects on human health and the environment […]”. Chapter 1
introduces existing international agreements and frameworks on chemicals
and waste. It covers multilateral legally binding treaties, voluntary international
instruments, SAICM and relevant Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and targets
under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Chapter 2 features an overview
of reporting and indicator schemes under these agreements. Chapter 3 documents
progress in achieving the sound management of chemicals and waste, as well as
implementation gaps.
Responding to the mandate received from the United Nations Environment Assembly
(UNEA), Part II also addresses emerging policy issues identified by the International
Conference on Chemicals Management (ICCM) and issues where emerging evidence
indicates a risk to human health and the environment. The final chapter of Part II
concludes with a discussion of insights and lessons learned in making progress
towards achieving the 2020 goal.
Contents
1/ International agreements and frameworks on chemicals and waste 220
2/ Reporting schemes and indicators under international agreements

and frameworks 228
3/ Achieving the 2020 goal: what do we know? 241
4/ Emerging policy issues and other issues of concern 291
5/ Other issues where emerging evidence indicates a risk 320
6/ Overall progress towards the 2020 goal: what have we learned? 330
Annex: Other issues where emerging evidence indicates a risk 335
References347
219
1/ International agreements and frameworks

on chemicals and waste
Chapter Highlights
Governments have taken action on chemicals and waste at the national and
international level for decades, leading, among others, to adoption of a number of
multilateral legally binding treaties.
The multilateral treaties cover different chemicals and different stages of the life
cycle and have different goals. They also vary in the number of Parties.
The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) is a

global voluntary, multi-sectoral, multi-stakeholder policy framework taking a
comprehensive life cycle approach.
The International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management and the Globally

Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) are non-
binding global policy instruments addressing some core capacities for chemicals
management.
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development includes a number of Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs) and targets that are directly or indirectly relevant for
chemicals and waste.
T
he Introduction to the GCO-II gives an 1.1 Multilateral treaties on chemicals
overview of milestones in international and waste
chemicals and waste management, from
early action at the beginning of the 20th century Since 1987 a number of multilateral treaties
to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. have established goals and targets for different
This chapter describes international agreements aspects of the sound management of chemicals
and frameworks that are relevant to assessing and waste. Complementing soft law approaches
progress towards the 2020 goal in more detail, such as Agenda 21 (the non-binding action plan
namely multilateral treaties on chemicals and adopted at the United Nations Conference on
waste, voluntary international instruments Environment and Development in 1992), the
(including SAICM) and the 2030 Agenda. It provides Montreal Protocol and the Basel, Rotterdam,
the structure for Chapter 2, which discusses the Stockholm and Minamata Conventions (Table 1.1)
reporting mechanisms for chemicals and waste. have created an international chemicals and waste
control framework covering the management
and elimination of specific chemicals and
wastes across all stages of their life cycle. These
multilateral instruments have served to identify
and address chemicals of the highest concern
at the international level.
220
Part II
Table 1.1 gives an overview of the multilateral (not including isomers of listed substances).
legally binding agreements related to the sound Under several agreements (such as the Montreal,
management of chemicals and waste, including Rotterdam and Stockholm treaties) there is an
the number of chemical substances addressed opportunity to add further substances.
Table 1.1 Multilateral agreements related to the sound management of chemicals and waste
Agreement Adoption and entry into Goals Number of Number of

force chemical Parties as of
substances 14 January
addressed 2019
Montreal Protocol ›› Adopted at the ›› Protect human health and the 144 197
on Substances that Conference of environment against adverse effects
Deplete the Ozone Plenipotentiaries resulting, or likely to result, from
Layer on the Protocol on human activities which modify or are
Chlorofluorocarbons likely to modify the ozone layer;
to the Vienna ›› Protect the ozone layer by taking
Convention for precautionary measures to control
the Protection of equitably the total global production
the Ozone Layer in and consumption of substances that
Montreal in 1987 deplete it, with the ultimate objective
›› Entered into force of their elimination on the basis of
in 1989 scientific knowledge, technical and
economic considerations, and the
developmental needs of developing
countries.
(United Nations [UN] 2018)
Basel Convention ›› Adopted at the ›› Effective implementation of 124 groups 187
on the Control of Conference of Parties’ obligations with respect of wastes,
Transboundary Plenipotentiaries in to transboundary movements of according
Movements of Basel in 1989 hazardous and other wastes; to Annex I, II
Hazardous Wastes and ›› Entered into force ›› Strengthening the environmentally and VIII List
their Disposal in 1992 sound management of hazardous A, and wastes
and other wastes; falling under
›› Promoting the implementation of the criteria
environmentally sound management of the list of
of hazardous and other wastes as hazardous
an essential contribution to the characteristics
attainment of sustainable livelihood, in Annex III
the 2000 Millennium Development
Goals, and the protection of human
health and the environment.
(Secretariat of the Basel Convention
2011a; Secretariat of the Basel
Convention 2011b)
Chapter 1. International agreements and frameworks on chemicals and waste 221

addressed 2019
ILO Chemicals ›› Adopted at the ›› Reduce the incidence of chemically Not applicable 21
Convention 77th Session of the induced illnesses and injuries at work
C170 International Labour by ensuring that all chemicals are
Conference in evaluated to determine their hazards;
Geneva in 1990 ›› Provide employers with a mechanism
›› Entered into force to obtain information from suppliers
in 1993 about the chemicals used at work;
›› Provide workers with information
about the chemicals at their
workplaces, and about appropriate
preventive measures so that they can
effectively participate in protective
programmes;
›› Establish principles for such
programmes to ensure that
chemicals are used safely.
(ILO 2017a)
Convention on ›› Adopted at the 635th ›› Achieve effective progress towards 15 toxic 193
the Prohibition of plenary meeting general and complete disarmament chemicals and
the Development, of the Conference under strict and effective 28 precursors
Production, Stockpiling on Disarmament in international control, including
and Use of Chemical Geneva in 1992 the prohibition and elimination
Weapons and on their ›› Entered into force of all types of weapons of mass
Destruction in 1997 destruction;
›› Exclude completely the possibility
of the use of chemical weapons,
including prohibition of the use of
herbicides as a method of warfare;
›› Promote free trade in chemicals, as
well as international cooperation and
exchange of scientific and technical
information in the field of chemical
activities for purposes not prohibited
under the Convention;
›› Completely and effectively prohibit
the development, production,
acquisition, stockpiling, retention,
transfer and use of chemical
weapons, and their destruction
(Organisation for the Prohibition of
Chemical Weapons 2019)
ILO Convention ›› Adopted at the Having regard to the need to ensure that Not applicable 18
concerning the 80th Session of the all appropriate measures are taken to:
Prevention of Major International Labour ›› Prevent major accidents;
Industrial Accidents Conference in ›› Minimize the risks of major
C174 Geneva in 1993 accidents;
›› Entered into force ›› Minimize the effects of major
in 1997 accidents.
(ILO 2017b)
222
Part II

addressed 2019
Rotterdam Convention ›› Adopted at the ›› Promote shared responsibility and 50 substances 161
on the Prior Conference of cooperative efforts among Parties and mercury
Informed Consent Plenipotentiaries on in the international trade of certain compounds
Procedure for Certain the Convention in hazardous chemicals, in order
Hazardous Chemicals Rotterdam in 1998 to protect human health and the
and Pesticides in ›› Entered into force environment from potential harm and
International Trade in 2004 to contribute to their environmentally
sound use, by facilitating information
exchange about their characteristics,
by providing for a national decision-
making process on their import and
export and by disseminating these
decisions to Parties.
(Secretariat of the Rotterdam
Convention 2010)
Stockholm Convention ›› Adopted at the ›› Protect human health and the 28 POPs and 182
on Persistent Organic Conference of environment from Persistent Organic mentioned salts
Pollutants Plenipotentiaries Pollutants (POPs);
on the Stockholm ›› Eliminate or restrict the production,
Convention on use, import and export of listed
Persistent Organic POPs, and require measures to be
Pollutants in taken with respect to waste and
Stockholm in 2001 unintentional releases of POPs.
›› Entered into force (Secretariat of the Stockholm
in 2004 Convention 2008)
WHO International ›› Adopted by the ›› Prevent, protect against, control and Not applicable 196
Health Regulations (IHR) 58th World Health provide a public health response to
(2005) Assembly in Geneva the international spread of disease
in 2005 in ways that are commensurate
›› Entered into force with and restricted to public health
in 2007 risks, and which avoid unnecessary
interference with international traffic
and trade (Article 2).
(World Health Organization [WHO]
2016)
Minamata Convention ›› Adopted on the ›› Protect human health and the Mercury and 101
on Mercury occasion of the environment from anthropogenic mercury
Conference of emissions and releases of mercury compounds
Plenipotentiaries and mercury compounds.
on the Minamata
Convention on Commitments by Parties include:
Mercury in 2013 ›› Ban new mercury mines and phase
›› Entered into force out existing ones;
in 2017 ›› Phase out and phase down mercury
use in a number of products and
processes;
›› Establish control measures for
emissions to air and releases to land
and water;
›› Environmentally sound interim
storage of mercury, and its disposal
once it becomes waste.
(United Nations Environment
Programme [UNEP] 2018)
1.2 Voluntary international Code of Conduct serves as a point of reference

instruments for sound pesticide life cycle management
practices, particularly with respect to government
In addition to legally binding treaties, several authorities and the pesticide industry. The
voluntary international instruments adopted voluntary standards it sets out are especially
by the governing bodies of international relevant where there is inadequate or no national
organizations address a wide range of chemicals legislation concerned with pesticide regulation.
and issues. Prominent examples include the Among other objectives, the new International
International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Code of Conduct seeks to promote practices,
Management, the GHS and SAICM. including integrated pest management, that
minimize the potential health and environmental
The International Code of Conduct on Pesticide risks associated with pesticides while ensuring
Management their effective use (FAO 2018).
The Globally Harmonized System of

Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
The GHS is an internationally agreed-upon

standard managed by the United Nations. It was
first adopted in 2002 and subsequently revised
several times (seventh revision in 2017). Against
the background of the extensive global trade in
chemicals, as well as the significant differences
in labels and safety data sheets for the same
product across countries, it was recognized
that an internationally harmonized approach
to classification and labelling of chemicals would
provide the foundation for national programmes
to ensure their safe use, transport and disposal.
The GHS thus aims to provide countries with
consistent and appropriate information on the
chemicals they either import or produce.
An important core element of the GHS consists of

standardized chemical hazard criteria to support
government and industry in undertaking chemical
The International Code of Conduct on Pesticide hazard classifications. The GHS also features
Management is the pesticide management universal warning pictograms and a harmonized
framework for all public and private entities approach to the preparation of safety data sheets
engaged in (or associated with) the production, which provide users of dangerous goods with
regulation and management of pesticides. It extensive information. The Johannesburg Plan
was approved by the Conference of the Food of Implementation (JPOI), adopted by the World
and Agriculture Organization of the United Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002,
Nations (FAO) in June 2013 as the successor encouraged countries to implement the GHS
to the International Code of Conduct on the as soon as possible, with a view to the system
Distribution and Use of Pesticides (adopted in being fully operational by 2008.
1985 and revised in 2002). The new International
224
Part II
1.3 The Strategic Approach to used in ways that minimize significant adverse
International Chemicals impacts on the environment and human
Management (SAICM) health” (Secretariat of the Strategic Approach
to International Chemicals Management [SAICM
Paragraph 23(b) of the Secretariat], UNEP and WHO 2006).
2002 JPOI called for
the development of a SAICM differs from other chemical and waste
“strategic approach to international chemicals agreements on several key points: it is a voluntary
management based on the [2000] Bahia non-binding policy framework; it supports
Declaration and Priorities for Action beyond 2000 a comprehensive life cycle approach for all
of the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical hazardous chemicals; and it allows for active
Safety by 2005”. In 2006 the Strategic Approach participation by non-governmental stakeholders
to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) (Persson, Persson and Sam 2014). SAICM has
was adopted by the first International Conference three main elements, two of which were adopted
on Chemicals Management (ICCM1) held in Dubai, at the International Conference in Dubai (Box 1.1).
United Arab Emirates. SAICM was developed by a
multi-stakeholder and multi-sectoral Preparatory The Dubai Declaration states that, together
Committee. Its overall objective, as described in with the OPS, it constitutes a firm commitment
paragraph 13 of its Overarching Policy Strategy to SAICM and its implementation. These two
(OPS), is “to achieve the sound management documents provide the rationale for the creation
of chemicals throughout their life cycle so that of SAICM and its overarching principles and goals
by the year 2020, chemicals are produced and (Persson, Persson and Sam 2014). The Dubai
Box 1.1 The elements of the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM)
The Dubai Declaration on International Chemicals Management
The Dubai Declaration, adopted at the 2006 International Conference, expresses high-level
political support “for promoting the sound management of chemicals and wastes throughout
their life-cycle, in accordance with Agenda 21 and paragraph 23 of the JPOI”. The Declaration
explicitly states that significant, but insufficient, progress had been made in the implementation
of Chapter 19 of Agenda 21 and other relevant international instruments concerning chemicals
and waste.
The Overarching Policy Strategy (OPS)
The OPS, also adopted at the Conference, includes sections on the statement of needs, objectives,
financial considerations, principles and approaches, implementation, and taking stock of progress.
The five key thematic objectives in the OPS are:

›› risk reduction;
›› knowledge and information;
›› governance;
›› capacity building and technical cooperation; and
›› illegal international traffic in chemicals.
These thematic objectives are further divided into 46 specific objectives.
The Global Plan of Action (GPA)
The GPA lists possible work areas and 299 associated activities, as well as actors, targets/
timeframes, indicators of progress, and implementation aspects. The GPA is a non-negotiated
text and therefore has a different status than the Dubai Declaration and the OPS described above.
However, the Conference recommended its use and further development.
Declaration also acknowledges that SAICM is a ›› SDG 6 on Clean Water and

new voluntary initiative in the field of chemicals Sanitation, Target  6.3: By
management, and that it is not a legally binding 2030, improve water quality by
instrument (SAICM Secretariat, UNEP and WHO reducing pollution, eliminating
2006). dumping and minimizing release
of hazardous chemicals and
materials, halving the proportion
of untreated wastewater, and
1.4 Chemicals and waste in the substantially increasing recycling
2030 Agenda for Sustainable and safe reuse globally.
Development
›› SDG 12 o n R e s p o n s i b l e
A number of targets in the 2030 Agenda for Consumption and Production,
Sustainable Development (which was adopted Target 12.4: By 2020, achieve
by all United Nations Member States in 2015) the environmentally sound
are directly or indirectly relevant to the sound management of chemicals and
management of chemicals and waste. Several all wastes throughout their life
targets, including 12.4, 3.9 and 6.3, contain direct cycle, in accordance with agreed
references to chemicals. Some of the Sustainable international frameworks,
Development Goals (SDGs) also provide specific and significantly reduce their
development objectives linked to chemicals release to air, water and soil in
management. In addition, SDGs and targets that order to minimize their adverse
seek to strengthen an enabling environment to impacts on human health and
advance sustainable development are relevant the environment.
to chemicals management.
Also relevant to the sound management of
SDG targets focusing on chemicals and waste chemicals and waste are SDG targets concerning
management environmental and social objectives related to
chemicals and waste management action. These
Target 12.4 is directly linked to (and encompasses) include the following:
successful implementation of the chemicals and
waste multilateral environmental agreements ›› SDG 8 on Decent Work and
(MEAs), the SAICM and other relevant policies Economic Growth, Target 8.8 on
and actions. Equally important, Target 3.9 the protection of labour rights
focuses on the ultimate impact of enhanced and promotion of safe working
sound management of chemicals and waste in environments.
terms of human health. Target 6.3 sheds light on
media-specific dimensions, highlighting the need ›› SDG  12 on Sustainable
for reduced pollution to maintain water quality. Consumption and Production,
Target 12.5 on the reduction of
›› SDG 3 on Good Health and waste generation.
Well-Being, Target 3.9: By 2030,
substantially reduce the number ›› SDG 14 on Life Below Water,
of deaths and illnesses from Target 14.1 on the reduction of
hazardous chemicals and air, marine pollution.
water and soil pollution and
contamination. ›› SDG 15 on Life on land,
Target 15.5 on the protection
of biodiversity and natural
habitats.
226
Part II
SDG targets fostering economic development A number of SDGs and targets seek to strengthen
and strengthening the enabling environment an enabling environment to advance sustainable
development. Putting in place certain enabling
The 2030 Agenda includes a number of SDGs conditions can help facilitate the sound
with specific development objectives. Given management of chemicals and waste and
the indivisible nature of the 2030 Agenda, maximize the benefits of chemistry. Relevant
sound management of chemicals and waste is enabling sectors and related SDGs include the
an important consideration for achieving the following:
development-related SDGs and targets. Like all
SDGs and targets, they require consideration ›› SDG 4 on Quality Education,
and careful balancing of the economic, social Target 4.7 on education for
and environmental dimensions of sustainable sustainable development.
development to ensure that progress on certain
indicators does not come at the expense of ›› SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and
others. Relevant economic sectors and related Strong Institutions, Target 16.10
SDGs include the following: on public access to information.
›› SDG 8 on Decent Work and ›› SDG 17 on Partnerships for the

Economic Growth, Target 8.8 on Goals, Target 17.3 on mobilizing
the protection of labour rights financial resources.
and promotion of safe working
environments.
›› SDG  2 on Zero Hunger,

Target 2.1 on access to safe,
nutritious and sufficient food.
›› SDG 7 on Affordable and Clean

Energy, Target 7.a on clean
energy.
›› SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities

and Communities, Target 11.1
on safe and affordable housing.
2/ Reporting schemes and indicators under

international agreements and frameworks
National reporting, and the use of indicators, are important mechanisms

for monitoring and tracking both the implementation and effectiveness of
international agreements.
International chemicals and waste agreements have individual reporting

processes and indicators, each with its own particular features. There is also a
global indicator framework for the Agenda 2030 SDGs and targets.
Participating organizations of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound

Management of Chemicals (IOMC) collect information about progress on
selected indicators.
Reporting rates vary across international agreements. High reporting rates have
been achieved for the WHO International Health Regulations (2005); reporting
rates under the Basel and Stockholm Conventions have not been optimal and
show decreasing trends.
SAICM has the most comprehensive framework for monitoring progress, but
reporting rates are not satisfactory.
B
uilding upon the structure provided in 2.1 Reporting schemes and
Chapter 1, this chapter examines existing indicators under multilateral
reporting and indicator schemes that have treaties on chemicals and waste
been developed under relevant international
agreements and frameworks. They include National reporting: tracking progress,
the mechanisms developed under multilateral identifying challenges
treaties, voluntary international instruments,
SAICM and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable All the legally binding multilateral agreements
Development. In addition, the IOMC tracks related to sound management of chemicals and
progress regarding selected activities. The waste discussed in Part II, Ch. 1 have a reporting
effectiveness and coherence of these reporting obligation, with the exception of the Rotterdam
schemes and indicators is examined to the extent Convention on Prior Informed Consent. The
possible, with findings indicating a fragmented common aim is to measure progress in regard
landscape. to technical obligations, implementation of
legislation, establishment of institutions, and
collection of data on the issues addressed by
each agreement. The analysis and discussion of
national reports - including of their availability
as well as their content - are important in order
to help understand implementation challenges
228
Part II
and opportunities. They are also important for to the UN Environment Secretariat of the Vienna
the development of tools to make information Convention and its Montreal Protocol (Ozone
exchange and mutual learning effective. The Secretariat). The compliance of each country
Secretariat of each agreement can play a critical with its obligations under the Montreal Protocol
role in identifying barriers to implementation. is then determined. All Parties report data on the
production, export, import and destruction of the
The reporting rates, results, content and format nine groups of ODS regulated under the Protocol.
of reporting vary with each agreement, although Reporting obligations are also established by
there are a number of similarities. Frequency Meetings of the Parties, which require relevant
of reporting is annual in most cases; for the countries to submit information on specific
Stockholm Convention it is every four years. issues such as uses of ODS as process agents
Reporting is carried out using electronic formats, and as feedstocks; approved essential or critical
although for the WHO International Health uses; exempted laboratory and critical uses;
Regulations (IHR) (2005) paper copies can be and reclamation facilities and their capacities.
submitted. Questions to be addressed through In addition, Parties are required to report every
reporting can relate to activities and/or the two years on research, public awareness and
outcomes of activities, as well as to information information exchange activities.
about implementation challenges encountered. In
the case of the Basel Convention on the Control of To provide support for the implementation of
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes the Montreal Protocol in developing countries,
and their Disposal, the Stockholm Convention on National Ozone Units (NOUs) have been
POPs, and the Minamata Convention on Mercury, established in these countries at government
reporting addresses activities and outcomes; in level. In addition to submitting ODS data to the
the case of the Montreal Protocol on Substances Ozone Secretariat annually, NOUs collect data on
that Deplete the Ozone Layer and the Chemical the production, export, import and destruction
Weapons Convention, it addresses outcomes; in of the nine groups of substances regulated by
the case of the IHR and ILO Conventions C170 the Protocol. This information is submitted
concerning Safety in the use of Chemicals at to the Secretariat of the Multilateral Fund for
Work and C174 on Prevention of Major Industrial the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol,
Accidents, reporting addresses activities. which continuously monitors activities at the
project level. Monitoring of projects involves
Reporting under the Montreal Protocol: a periodic reporting to gauge a project’s progress
success story or lack of it. Projects experiencing delays and
those with financial balances are monitored
Statistical data on ozone-depleting substances particularly closely and reported on to each
(ODS) for national reports are submitted yearly Executive Committee meeting (Secretariat of
Chapter 2. Reporting schemes and indicators under international agreements and frameworks 229
the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of Reporting under ILO Conventions C170 and
the Montreal Protocol 2018). C174
Beginning in 1990, and at least every four Reporting is to be carried out on a five-year cycle
years thereafter, Assessment Panels prepare basis with respect to both ILO Convention C170
quadrennial reports on available scientific, concerning Safety in the use of Chemicals at
environmental, technical and economic Work, and ILO Convention C174 on Prevention
information. The Panels present these reports of Major Industrial Accidents. Normally the
to the Parties to enable them to take informed reporting format is built around the Convention
decisions, with a view to strengthening the text. Parties are asked to specify actions taken by
Protocol’s control measures. There are currently answering open-ended questions corresponding
three Panels: the Scientific Assessment Panel, the to relevant obligations. The reporting formats
Technology and Economic Assessment Panel, specify that, in the first report, full information
and the Environmental Effects Assessment should be given concerning each question and
Panel. At least one year before each quadrennial each provision of the Convention. In subsequent
assessment, the Parties set out in a decision the reports information needs to be given only on
terms of reference for the assessments to be new measures taken, and on questions about
prepared by the Panels. practical application of the Convention and the
communication of the report to representative
This well-considered preparatory process, and organizations of employees and workers
the effective performance of the NOUs, could (together with any observations received from
be responsible for the high rate of compliance these organizations). The reports should also
of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol with contain responses to any comments by ILO
the reporting obligation. There has been a 100 supervisory bodies. The reporting rate under
per cent level of compliance with the reporting C170 and C174 has been universal. The ILO
obligations since 1989, when the Protocol entered reports cannot be accessed online.
into force (UN 2018).
230
Part II
The reporting process involves two bodies: the Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention 2018).
Committee of Experts on the Application of In addition, for the Stockholm Convention an
Conventions and Recommendations (CEACR) and evaluation of effectiveness is carried out (see
the Committee on the Application of Standards Part II, Ch. 3). An analysis of the process of
(CAS). The CEACR consists of independent legal national reporting under these Conventions can
experts who meet once a year. It provides consider three aspects: how the overall group of
comments, observations and direct requests on parties complies with reporting obligations; how
points of non-conformity and directly requests the process of national reporting has evolved
more information (ILO n.d. a). It also examines over time; and how compliance with national
national reports and provides feedback to reporting differs among groups of countries.
countries if it finds that further action is needed
in order to give effect to certain provisions of An initial finding has been that reporting rates are
the Conventions. The CEAR can express its relatively low. Not all countries submit the required
satisfaction regarding positive actions taken, national reports, while some submissions are
in response to comments and to provide an delayed, affecting the prompt availability of data
example for other countries addressing similar to assess performance (Secretariat of the Basel,
issues. Input from the CEACR feeds into the CAS, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions 2018).
a subsidiary body of the International Labour In addition, not all reports are available online.
Conference, which discusses how reporting Only in recent reporting cycles (particularly with
obligations are fulfilled by countries and respect to the Basel Convention) have data been
addresses serious violations (ILO n.d. b). The collected through electronic reporting systems.
ILO has a well-considered structure in place to In the case of the Basel Convention, countries
monitor compliance. Where there have been have reported an average 52 per cent of the
repeated cases of reporting failure, countries times they were required to do so since 2001,
are named in CEACR and CAS reports. while in the case of the Stockholm Convention
they have met this obligation only 44 per cent of
Reporting under the Basel and Stockholm these times since 2002 (Secretariat of the Basel
Conventions Convention 2011; Secretariat of the Stockholm
Convention 2018).
In the case of both the Basel and Stockholm
Conventions, national reports include specific Figure 2.1 shows compliance with national
information on measures taken to implement reporting obligations under the Basel and
the Convention; the effectiveness of those Stockholm Conventions in 2016: 19 countries
measures; designation of focal points to address (10 per cent of all Parties) had a 100 per cent
Convention-related matters; and statistical data reporting rate for the Basel Convention while
on the production, import, export and movement 20 countries (11 per cent of all Parties) never
of the hazardous substances concerned and their submitted a report. In the case of the Stockholm
impact on human health and the environment Convention, 40 countries (22 per cent of all
(Secretariat of the Basel Convention 2011; Parties) submitted all the required reports while
Figure 2.1 Compliance with national reporting obligations, 2016: Basel and Stockholm Conventions
Basel Convention 2% 11% 77% 10%
Stockholm Convention 1% 33% 44% 22%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100%
No reporting obligation Have never submitted a report Have submitted at least one report Full compliance with reporting
Figure 2.2 Historical evolution of general compliance with national reporting obligations: Basel and
Stockholm Conventions
100
90
80
Compliance rate (per cent)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Basel Convention Stockholm Convention
59 (33 per cent of all Parties) never submitted As shown in Figure 2.3, reporting rates in the
a report. period in the period 2001-2016 differ significantly
between developed and developing countries,
Figure 2.2 provides an overview of reporting using the country designation of the UN Statistics
rates between 2001 and 2015. For the Basel Division (United Nations Statistics Division 2018).
Convention the number of countries submitting In the case of the Basel Convention, the average
a report every year fell from 74 per cent in national reporting rate for developed countries
2001 to 30 per cent in 2015. For the Stockholm (82 per cent) has been almost twice as high
Convention there is a more positive trend, with as that for developing countries (42 per cent).
the number of countries that submitted reports In terms of regions, countries in Europe have
increasing from 39 per cent in 2002-2006 to submitted reports an average 80 per cent of
56 per cent in 2006-2010 and 49 per cent in 2010- the time; in Oceania, on the other hand, there
2014. However, there is still a significant group has been an average national reporting rate
of countries for which data are not available. of 24 per cent of countries. In the case of the
Figure 2.3 Average national reporting rate 2001-2016, by category of countries (developed/
developing) and by regions: Basel and Stockholm Conventions
100%
90%
80% 82% 80%
70%
73% 73%
60% Average Basel
56%
50% 49% 51%
46% Average Stockholm
40% 42%
35% 33%
30% 29%
24%
20%
13%
10%
0% Developed Developing Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania
Basel Convention Stockholm Convention
232
Part II
Stockholm Convention, the rate for developed performance levels on a continuum of progress.
countries has been 73 per cent compared with As of 2018, countries agreed to use the new State
35 per cent for developing countries. Party Self-Assessment Annual Reporting Tool
which requires them to report on 24 indicators
Reporting is a prerequisite for the monitoring and for developing 13 core capacities (WHO 2018a).
evaluation of implementation. National reporting In this reporting they move from exclusive self-
indicators like those described above illustrate evaluation to approaches that combine self-
the characteristics of the reporting process and evaluation, peer review and voluntary external
the challenges countries face in collecting the evaluations involving a combination of domestic
required information and completing reports. and independent experts.
Factors such as lack of capacity at the national
level, and the frequency of reporting cycles, A Joint External Evaluation (JEE) framework has
may help explain some of the challenges. It is also been developed to provide independent
important to analyze the information in national analysis of countries’ capacity to prevent, detect
reports to determine whether countries have and respond to public health threats. Countries
established the institutional, technical and can request a JEE mission to help them identify
regulatory frameworks that can contribute to the most urgent needs within their health
the solution of chemicals management problems. system (WHO 2018b). JEEs are voluntary and
Otherwise, it will not be possible to determine assist countries in identifying the most critical
the extent to which these agreements are being gaps and prioritizing opportunities for enhanced
translated into national policies. It should be preparedness and response. JEE mission reports,
noted, however, that while limited data in national which are available online, provide an overview
reports is challenging, this does not necessarily of a country’s strengths and challenges, and
tell the whole story. Monitoring reports and the proposed and/or agreed next steps towards
evaluation of effectiveness (as was done for the increasing IHR core capacities.
Stockholm Convention) also provide essential
information. The outcomes of effectiveness Reporting for the IHR is high, reaching over
evaluation for the Stockholm Convention are 80 per cent in 2017 with a 100 per cent reporting
discussed in Part II, Ch. 3. rate by countries in Africa. An explanation
could be that the WHO follows up directly with
Reporting under the WHO International Health countries that have not reported through its
Regulations (IHR) (2005): active support headquarters or the relevant WHO Regional and
promotes effectiveness Country Offices, depending on specific regional
arrangements. Countries that have not reported
Governments adopted the WHO International are mentioned in the World Health Assembly
Health Regulations (IHR) (2005) in 2005. They report, putting peer pressure on these countries
entered into force in 2007. Countries had a to report in the next round. WHO staff also
five-year period during which to put in place follow up with country delegations that have
core capacities. The initial reporting framework not reported, which often triggers immediate
consisted of 20 indicators, including four action and increases reporting the following year.
Box 2.1 The reporting mechanism for the WHO IHR (2005)
Each indicator used in the International WHO IHR (2005) self-assessment process is graded on
five performance levels. For each indicator five activities (or attributes) with different capability
levels are listed in a checklist format, filled in according to activities at the country level. Attaining
a given capability level requires that all the activities at lower levels are in place. For example, it
is a prerequisite to have all the level 1 activities before examining activities at level 2. The goal is
to reach or maintain level 5 for all 24 indicators. The level of achievement for each indicator is
determined in countries, through workshops with stakeholders, and is reported annually.
Because of the involvement of senior officials in 2.2 Reporting schemes and

country delegations (which are normally headed indicators under voluntary
by the Minister of Health), non-compliance with international instruments
the IHR receives attention at a high political level.
The International Code of Conduct on Pesticide
Reporting under the Minamata Convention on Management, the GHS and other activities
Mercury
Paragraph 1 of Article 21 of the Minamata Management and the Globally Harmonized
Convention on Mercury requires each Party to System of Classification and Labelling of
report to the Conference of the Parties (COP) Chemicals (GHS) are voluntary agreements which
on the measures it has taken to implement the are widely used throughout the world. A number
provisions of the Convention, the effectiveness of other voluntary activities are also carried out
of such measures, and possible challenges in many countries. The number of countries
in meeting the objectives of the Convention. active in voluntary agreements and activities is
At the first Conference of the Parties (COP1) reflected in the IOMC indicators (see section 2.4
agreement was reached on the timing (every below). Reporting schemes under non-binding
four years, with some questions to be reported global policy instruments have varying degrees
on every two years) and format of reporting by of formality.
the Parties, thereby taking into account lessons
learned from reporting under other relevant Under the International Code of Conduct,
treaties (Secretariat of the Minamata Convention governments, in collaboration with the FAO, the
on Mercury 2017). WHO and UNEP, are to monitor its observance
and report on the progress made. The pesticide
234
Part II
2.3 Reporting scheme and indicators

under SAICM
The International Conference on Chemicals

Management
The International Conference on Chemicals

Management (ICCM), SAICM’s oversight structure,
carries out periodic reviews of SAICM and seeks
to “receive reports from all relevant stakeholders
on progress in implementation and disseminate
information” (SAICM Secretariat 2018a). In
2009 the second session of the ICCM (ICCM2)
adopted modalities for reporting, based on 20
indicators, to review progress towards the 2020
Goal (SAICM Secretariat 2009) (Box 2.2). These
industry is invited to provide relevant reports, indicators were developed to cover the objectives
while non-governmental organizations (NGOs) of the OPS and relevant activities (rather than
and other interested entities are invited to results). A baseline report was prepared in 2011
monitor and report on activities related to its (SAICM Secretariat 2011). The questionnaire
implementation. Moreover, the governing bodies for measuring progress contains a mixture of
of the FAO, the WHO and UNEP should periodically mandatory and optional questions, with at least
review the relevance and effectiveness of the one mandatory question for each indicator.
Code (FAO and WHO 2014). A process is in in place Most of the mandatory questions include a
to supplement the provisions of the Code. While list of relevant activities alongside a series of
some governments and industry stakeholders check boxes. The average number of activities
regularly indicate adherence to the Code, regular per indicator (as a percentage of all possible
reporting by governments and industry under activities) is reported in the progress report. The
the voluntary scheme has not been forthcoming. same questionnaire applies to all stakeholders,
In some cases NGOs have submitted reports including governments, intergovernmental
about cases of non-adherence, which are not organizations (IGOs) and NGOs.
publicly available. Furthermore, the relevant
intergovernmental organizations track progress To date, three SAICM reporting rounds have been
in various ways, e.g. through global surveys. completed for which information is available:
2009-2010, 2011-2013, and 2014-2016 (SAICM
As regards the GHS, the Secretariat (hosted Secretariat 2012; SAICM Secretariat 2014a;
by the United Nations Economic Commission SAICM Secretariat 2019). Reporting rates under
for Europe [UNECE]) collects publicly available SAICM exhibit a worrying downward trend:
information (including reports from members of among governments, reporting rates dropped
the GHS Sub-Committee, NGOs, and other UN from around 40 per cent (78 submissions
entities) to monitor the status of implementation out of 194 governments) and 43 per cent (83
(UNECE n.d.). A 2018 Organisation for Economic submissions out of 194 governments) in the
Cooperation and Development (OECD) first two rounds to 28 per cent (54 submissions
Council Decision-Recommendation makes out of 193 governments) in the third round, with
implementation of the GHS by OECD member data lacking in particular from African countries.
countries mandatory. Monitoring implementation Overall, reporting rates have been especially
of this Council Act, as called for in the Act, would low among developing countries. SAICM also
therefore include monitoring implementation of benefits from reporting by IGOs, civil society
the GHS in these countries (OECD 2018; Stringer and the private sector, in some cases through
2018). collective reporting.
Box 2.2 SAICM indicators of progress
A. Risk reduction
1. Are implementing agreed chemicals management tools
2. Have mechanisms to address key categories of chemicals
3. Have hazardous waste management arrangements
4. Have activities that result in monitoring data on selected environmental and human health
priority substances
5. Have mechanisms in place for setting priorities for risk reduction
B. Knowledge and information

6. Are providing information according to internationally harmonized standards
7. Have specific strategies for communicating information on chemical risks to vulnerable
groups
8. Have research programmes
9. Have websites that provide information to stakeholders
C. Knowledge and information

10. Have committed themselves to implementation of the Strategic Approach
11. Have a multi-stakeholder coordinating mechanism
12. Have mechanisms to implement key international chemicals priorities
D. Capacity building and technical cooperation

13. Are providing resources for capacity building and technical cooperation with other countries
14. Have identified and prioritized their capacity building needs for the sound management of
chemicals
15. Are engaged in regional cooperation on issues relating to the sound management of
chemicals
16. Have development assistance programmes which include the sound management of
chemicals
17. Have projects supported by the SAICM Quick Start Programme (QSP) Trust Fund
18. Have projects for the management of chemicals supported by other sources of funding
(not QSP funding)
E. Illegal international traffic

19. Have mechanisms to prevent illegal traffic in toxic, hazardous and severely restricted
chemicals individually
20. Have mechanisms to prevent illegal traffic in hazardous waste
The second progress report identified some the 20 SAICM indicators, cross-reference the data
gaps in the indicators, including illegal national collected through the SAICM survey, and present
trade (such as through informal markets); a better picture of global progress towards the
the extent of national funding for chemicals sound management of chemicals. However, the
management through government budgets and report noted that it is not possible to present a
official development assistance; and the use of consistent global picture of progress given the
non-chemical alternatives and agroecological low reporting rate, and the lack of adequate data,
approaches. The report recommended across regions (SAICM Secretariat 2019). Since
complementing activity-based indicators with the conclusions are not fully reliable, and are
objectively verifiable results-based indicators not representative of the true status of global
which quantify reductions in health and progress towards the sound management of
environmental impacts of chemical use (SAICM chemicals, the report recommends encouraging
Secretariat 2014a). The third report included for greater participation in reporting by governments
the first time progress on the IOMC indicators of in the next reporting period.
progress, in order to explore the interlinkages with
236
Part II
Relationship between the OPS, the GPA and These two documents have a different status, as
the SAICM indicators of progress the OPS constitutes a negotiated outcome and
the GPA has not been formally adopted. Their
The SAICM framework for action consists of content does not match entirely; for example,
three main elements (Part II, Ch. 1, Box 1.1). The the GPA includes work areas which are not
OPS includes five thematic objectives with 46 covered by the OPS (e.g. regarding integrated
specific objectives, while the GPA includes 273 programmes, protected areas and contaminated
activities (each with an indicator of progress) sites). The 20 SAICM indicators of progress,
which have been grouped into 36 work areas. alongside the 299 GPA indicators (which may
Box 2.3 The SAICM Overall Orientation and Guidance (OOG) (SAICM Secretariat 2014b)
The following set of 11 basic elements have been recognized in the SAICM’s OOG as critical at the
national and regional levels for the attainment of sound chemicals and waste management:
1. Legal frameworks that address the life cycle of chemicals and waste
2. Relevant enforcement and compliance mechanisms
3. Implementation of chemicals and waste-related multilateral environmental agreements, as
well as health, labour and other relevant conventions and voluntary mechanisms
4. Strong institutional frameworks and coordination mechanisms among relevant stakeholders
5. Collection and systems for the transparent sharing of relevant data and information among
all relevant stakeholders using a life-cycle approach, such as implementation of the GHS
6. Industry participation and defined responsibility across the life cycle, including cost recovery
policies and systems as well as the incorporation of sound chemicals management into
corporate policies and practices
7. Inclusion of the sound management of chemicals and waste in national health, labour,
social, environment and economic budgeting processes and development plan
8. Chemicals risk assessment and risk reduction through the use of best practices
9. Strengthened capacity to deal with chemical accidents, including institutional strengthening
for poisons centres
10. Monitoring and assessing the impacts of chemicals on health and the environment
11. Development and promotion of environmentally sound and safer alternatives
also be used for certain specific activities), can that the OOG is beneficial to stakeholders,
present a confusing impression with respect as it consolidates the necessary elements of
to SAICM implementation. The lack of strategic what is essentially an extremely broad plan
focus resulting from the number of guidance encompassing the 299 activities listed in the GPA
documents – with varying content, emphasis and (Honkonen and Khan 2017). When evaluating the
status – has been cited as one of the weaknesses achievements of SAICM, it is therefore essential
of SAICM that has hampered implementation to understand the monitoring instrument which
and follow-up on progress (Honkonen and Khan is applied and its context.
2017; Urho 2018). Most importantly, the 20 SAICM
progress indicators and the 273 GPA indicators
provide contradictory guidance for monitoring
progress. 2.4 Activities tracked by the IOMC
indicators
In 2015 the fourth session of the ICCM (ICCM4)
endorsed the Overall Orientation and Guidance An initiative on simple indicators of progress
(OOG) for achieving the 2020 goal of sound
management of chemicals (OOG). The OOG The Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound
identifies 11 basic elements considered to Management of Chemicals (IOMC) brings together
be crucial at the national and regional levels nine intergovernmental organizations actively
for achieving the sound management of involved in chemical safety: the FAO, the ILO,
chemicals and waste (SAICM Secretariat 2014b, the UN Development Programme (UNDP), UNEP,
paragraph  19). Observers have remarked the UN Industrial Development Organization
Table 2.1 IOMC Indicators and linkages to other policy instruments
IOMC indicator Inherently Other Binding Links to Global Plan of Links to

SAICM voluntary agreement Action activities Overall
agreement Orientation
and
Guidance
elements
1. No. of countries with national profiles 1, 207, 211 4, 5

2. No. of countries with a Pollutant
124-126, 177-180 10
Release and Transfer Register (PRTR)
3. No. of countries with a poisons centre 35, 221, 237 9, 10
4. No. of countries with controls for lead
57 2, 8 ,10
in decorative paint
5. No. of countries that have
implemented pesticide legislation
23, 31, 189 3
based on the International Code of
Conduct on Pesticide Management
6. No. of countries that have achieved
core capacities for chemicals under
2
the International Health Regulations
(2005)
7. No. of countries that have
Implemented the Globally Harmonized
22, 99-101, 168, 248-250 3, 5
System of Classification and Labelling
of Chemicals (GHS)
8. No. of Parties to the Basel, Rotterdam,
169 3
Stockholm and Minamata Conventions
238
Part II
(UNIDO), the UN Institute for Training and conducts thematic reviews in a four-year cycle. For
Research (UNITAR), the WHO, the World Bank each meeting of the HLPF, countries are invited
and the OECD. These organizations coordinate to prepare Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs)
their chemicals management activities and have that are expected to contain useful information,
an important role in SAICM, as 80 per cent of identify best practices and challenges, and provide
the activities of the GPA make reference to the lessons that will contribute to implementation
involvement of IOMC organizations (SAICM of the 2030 Agenda. The VNRs can also make
Secretariat 2014b). In 2015 the IOMC developed a it possible to identify opportunities for multi-
set of indicators to help IOMC organizations track stakeholder collaboration and the establishment
progress relevant to SAICM by analyzing data of new partnerships to implement the SDGs.
from verifiable sources for which global data are
available. The IOMC participating organizations Table 2.2 shows SDGs related to the management
have undertaken work in all these areas to of chemicals and waste, with six targets and 11
support countries. The indicators are intended indicators. The custodian and partner agencies
to provide additional information to complement in charge of the indicator-related work are also
data provided through reporting which has gaps shown, as well as linkages to OOG elements
due to low reporting rates. They are in use and (UN 2016; Inter-agency and Expert Group on
are published on the IOMC website (IOMC 2010). Sustainable Development Goal Indicators 2018).
The IOMC indicators address legally binding To monitor progress on chemicals-related SDG
agreements, but also a number of voluntary targets, interaction with multilateral agreements
agreements such as the International Code of and the targets and indicators established by
Conduct on Pesticide Management and the them is critical. Implementation of the chemicals-
GHS, as indicated in Table 2.1. The table shows and waste-related multilateral agreements
linkages to GPA activities (because the GPA provides information relevant to Target 12.4
makes abundant reference to IOMC participating and Indicator 12.4.1 regarding the number of
organizations) and to the 11 basic elements of parties to the chemicals Conventions; the IHR
the OOG (because these have been established provide information on health-related risks under
in SAICM as crucial basic elements at the national Target 3.
and regional level).
There are clear linkages between the SDGs
and SAICM. In 2017 and 2018, in the ongoing
SAICM Intersessional process considering the
2.5 Reporting scheme and indicators Strategic Approach and the sound management
under the 2030 Agenda for of chemicals and waste beyond 2020, progress
Sustainable Development reporting, proposed objectives (derived from
the OOG), related milestones, and links to the
As explained in Part II, Ch. 1, a number of SDGs SDGs and the 2030 Agenda were discussed and
and targets under the 2030 Agenda are directly areas were identified where SAICM indicators
or indirectly relevant for the sound management could strategically relate to the SDG targets
of chemicals and waste. The existence of the (SAICM Secretariat 2017; SAICM Secretariat
SDG targets means new indicators and reporting 2018b). Furthermore, the WHO has developed
obligations have been brought into the system of a Chemicals Road Map to enhance engagement
global governance for chemicals and waste. The by the health sector in SAICM towards the 2020
High-Level Political Forum (HLPF), supported by goal and beyond, addressing SDGs 3, 6 and 12
the UN Economic and Social Council, has been (WHO 2017). The Road Map includes a number
designated as the main follow-up and review of actions related to better measuring progress
mechanism for progress on the SDGs. The HLPF and improving indicators.
Table 2.2 SDGs 3, 6, 11 and 12 with targets, indicators, custodian and partner agencies, and linkages
to OOG elements
Goal Target Indicator, with custodian (C) and Linkages to

partner (P) agencies OOG elements
3.9. By 2030, substantially reduce the 3.9.1 Mortality rate attributed to household and 1 3 5 7 8
number of deaths and illnesses from ambient air pollution 10 11
hazardous chemicals and air, water C: WHO; P: UNEP
and soil pollution and contamination 3.9.2 Mortality rate attributed to unsafe water,
unsafe sanitation and lack of hygiene (exposure to
unsafe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for All [WASH]
services)
C: WHO; P: UNEP
3.9.3 Mortality rate attributed to unintentional
poisoning
C: WHO; P: UNEP
6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by 6.3.1 Proportion of wastewater safely treated 1 3 7
reducing pollution, eliminating dumping C: WHO, UN Habitat, UNSD;
and minimizing release of hazardous P: UNEP, OECD, Eurostat
chemicals and materials, halving the 6.3.2 Proportion of bodies of water with good
proportion of untreated wastewater ambient water quality
and substantially increasing recycling C: UNEP; P: UN Water
and safe reuse globally
11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per 11.6.1 Proportion of urban solid waste regularly 3 7 9
capita environmental impact of cities, collected and with adequate final discharge out of
including by paying special attention total urban solid waste generated, by cities
to air quality and municipal and other C: UN Habitat, UNSD ; P: UNEP
waste management 11.6.2 Annual mean levels of fine particulate matter
(e.g. PM2.5 and PM10) in cities (population weighted)
C: WHO; P: UN Habitat, UNEP OECD
12.4 By 2020, achieve the 12.4.1 Number of parties to international multilateral 1 3 4 5 6
environmentally sound management of environmental agreements on hazardous waste, and 7 8 9 10 11
chemicals and all wastes throughout other chemicals that meet their commitments and
their life cycle, in accordance with obligations in transmitting information as required by
agreed international frameworks, and each relevant agreement
significantly reduce their release to C: UNEP
air, water and soil in order to minimize 12.4.2 Hazardous waste generated per capita and
their adverse impacts on human health proportion of hazardous waste treated, by type of
and the environment treatment
C: UNSD, UNEP; P: OECD, Eurostat
12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce 12.5.1 National recycling rate, tonnes of material 1 3 4 5 6
waste generation through prevention, recycled 7 8 9 10 11
reduction, recycling and reuse C: UNSD, UNEP; P: OECD, Eurostat
240
Part II
3/ Achieving the 2020 goal: what do we

know?
Although concerted action has been taken through multilateral treaties on

specific hazardous chemicals and issues of global concern, implementation gaps
remain.
Progress has also been made through voluntary international instruments,

including the International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management and the
Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS),
but implementation gaps remain.
Regional cooperation, including through regional economic integration

organizations, has assumed a prominent role in addressing chemicals and waste.
National profiles on chemicals management have produced country baseline

information in many countries through multi-sectoral and multi-stakeholder
collaboration.
The knowledge base on chemicals has been enhanced, among others through
national inventories, hazard assessments, and Pollutant Release and Transfer
Registers (PRTRs).
Many countries have made progress in enacting laws; creating programmes

and plans; and implementing and aligning policies to create knowledge and to
manage chemicals of concern.
The integrated approach to financing has mobilized significant resources, but

has not matched the need and demand for support expressed by developing
countries and economies in transition.
Illegal international traffic of hazardous waste and counterfeit products remains a

priority.
An independent evaluation found the Strategic Approach to International

Chemicals Management (SAICM) to be a unique framework, but pointed out
weaknesses.
T
his chapter provides insights into the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI),
extent to which progress has been and since the multilateral treaties contribute
made towards achieving the 2020 goal. across the five objectives of the OPS, they are
As implementation of relevant international discussed separately in the second section. The
instruments was explicitly referred to in the 2002 subsequent analysis of action taken, including
Chapter 3. Achieving the 2020 goal: what do we know? 241

through voluntary international instruments, agreements and frameworks are achieving their
is organized around the five objectives of the impact-oriented objectives (i.e. better protection
OPS: knowledge and information; risk reduction; of human health and the environment). The
governance; capacity building and technical approach taken here to assess progress takes
cooperation; and illegal international traffic. This into account that a consolidated international
approach follows, with some adjustments, the results and indicators framework for chemicals
institutional architecture in the international and waste (which could have been used as an
chemicals and waste cluster. In many cases organizing framework to assess progress) is not
activities discussed under one of the objectives in place.
may also contribute to the achievement of
other objectives, as also reflected in the GPA.
One such example is the GHS, discussed here
under knowledge and information although it 3.1 Implementation of multilateral
also contributes to risk reduction. The chapter treaties on chemicals and waste
concludes with a discussion of insights from
stakeholder reporting on SAICM implementation, On specific hazardous chemicals and issues of
as well as the independent evaluation of SAICM, to global concern, the international community
provide additional insights relevant for assessing has taken concerted action through multilateral,
progress towards the 2020 goal. legally binding treaties. While some experts
agree that multilateral, legally binding treaties
Measuring the success of international are effective, others argue that they cannot
agreements and frameworks has two aspects. fully resolve the problems they were designed
The first concerns activities undertaken by to address and point out that they are highly
Parties to meet their obligations or (in the dependent on countries’ capacity, political will
case of voluntary international instruments) and resources (Brown-Weiss and Jacobson 1998;
activities undertaken by stakeholders to Young 2011; Seelarbokus 2014; Sand 2016). As
implement voluntary commitments or agreed described below, progress towards the 2020
actions. Such activities include adoption of goal has been made through multilateral treaties
regulations, institutional arrangements, and on chemicals and waste. Yet implementation
awareness-raising activities. It is also essential, challenges remain.
but more difficult, to obtain insights into whether
242
Part II
3.1.1 The Montreal Protocol ›› To encourage countries to join the Protocol

(and to prevent companies that manufacture
The Montreal Protocol on Substances the Deplete or use CFCs and all other substances controlled
the Ozone Layer (see Part II, Ch. 1, 2) was adopted by the Montreal Protocol from shifting
in 1987, entered into force in 1989 and has 197 operations to non-Parties), the Protocol
Parties. As noted in more detail in Part I, Ch. 5, restricts trade in CFCs and CFC-related
7, implementation of the Montreal Protocol products with non-Parties. It also contains
has resulted in significant achievements. These a number of provisions restricting trade
include the phase-out of 99 per cent of ozone- in controlled substances between Parties
depleting chemicals (Secretariat of the Vienna (Center for International Environmental Law
Convention and its Montreal Protocol 2018), [CIEL] 2015).
averted emissions of 135 billion tonnes of carbon
dioxide equivalent (CO2-eq) to the atmosphere ›› The Protocol has provided a stable framework,
(Molina et al. 2009), and avoidance of much more allowing industry to plan long-term research
severe ozone depletion (World Meteorological and innovation.
Organization [WMO] 2018a; WMO 2018b). It
is particularly noteworthy that 142 out of 147 ›› The three Assessment Panels of the Montreal
developing country partners met the 100 per cent Protocol (see Part II, Ch. 2) have been the
phase-out target for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), pillars of the ozone protection regime since the
halons and other ODS in 2010 (Rae and Gabriel beginning of the Protocol’s implementation.
2012). Human health benefits achieved by the By providing independent technical and
implementation of the Montreal Protocol have scientific assessments and information, the
been realized primarily through the prevention Panels have helped the Parties reach solid and
of large increases in ultraviolet (UV) radiation timely decisions on often complex matters.
in most of the world’s inhabited regions. It is Panel experts have helped give countries
estimated that at least 100 million cases of skin the confidence to start their transition to
cancer and many million cases of cataracts will chemicals that do not deplete the ozone layer.
be avoided by the end of this century as a result The compliance procedure was designed from
of implementation of the Protocol (UNEP 2015) the outset to be non-punitive in cases where
(for more details, see Part I, Ch. 7). countries were not in compliance.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) have been ›› The Multilateral Fund for the Implementation
the most commonly used substitutes for of the Montreal Protocol (see Part II, Ch. 2)
ozone-depleting substances, especially for provides funding for developing countries
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). While HFCs to help them meet their compliance targets.
do not deplete the ozone layer, they have a high It also provides institutional support to help
global warming potential. The Kigali Amendment these countries build capacity within their
to the Montreal Protocol, which was agreed by governments.
Parties in 2016 and will enter into force in 2019,
“is projected to reduce future global average Even in the case of success stories such as the
warming in 2100 due to [HFCs] from a baseline Montreal Protocol, implementation may present
of 0.3-0.5°C to less than 0.1°C” (WMO 2019). challenges. For example, it emerged in 2018 that
the production and use of trichlorofluoromethane
A number of factors are responsible for the (CFC-11), a powerful ozone-depleting substance
success of the Montreal Protocol (Rae and Gabriel banned under the Montreal Protocol and also
2012). In addition to a high level of cooperation a potent greenhouse gas, may be ongoing
and commitment by the international community, (Montzka et al. 2018).
the following have been cited as determinants
of success:

Figure 3.1 Parties to the Basel Convention (adapted from Secretariat of the Basel Convention
2019a)
Party Non-Party
3.1.2 The Basel Convention The Basel Convention has an Implementation

and Compliance Committee which is a subsidiary
The Basel Convention on the Control of body of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous the Convention. The level of implementation
Waste and their Disposal (see Part II, Ch. 1, 2) can be measured across specific countries and
was adopted in 1989 and entered into force in regions. For example, national report templates
1992. It has 186 Parties, compared with 173 in ask Parties to report on the status of the control
2010 (Secretariat of the Basel Convention 2019a) procedure for transboundary movements of
(Figure 3.1). waste, including through the use of notification
and movement document forms. A detailed
analysis of their performance shows that many
Figure 3.2 Basel Convention implementation: Parties which have used the option to adopt a
national definition of hazardous waste (based on Secretariat of the Basel Convention
2019b)
Definition exists In preparation Definition does not exist
244
Part II
are making important progress. Under the 3.1.3 The Rotterdam Convention
Convention, Parties have the option to adopt
a national definition of hazardous wastes. The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed
Figure 3.2 shows the extent to which they Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
have used this option (Secretariat of the Basel Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade
Convention 2019b). (see Part II, Ch. 1, 2) was adopted in 1998, entered
into force in 2004 and has 161 Parties, compared
The Basel Convention has also strengthened with 140 in 2010 (Secretariat of the Rotterdam
Parties’ capacity for environmentally sound Convention 2019) (Figure 3.3). It facilitates
management of various types of waste through information exchange on the international trade
the development of a series of technical of certain hazardous chemicals by providing for
guidelines covering, among others, wastes a national decision-making process concerning
that consist of, contain or are contaminated the import and export of such chemicals, and
with (for example) mercury, polychlorinated by disseminating those decisions to Parties for
biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzodioxins collective consideration at the international
and dibenzofurans (Secretariat of the Basel level in accordance with the procedures of the
Convention 2011). Convention.
In 2011 the COP adopted a strategic framework There is no reporting obligation under the
for the implementation of the Basel Convention Rotterdam Convention. However, the Prior
for 2012-2021 consisting of a vision; guiding Informed Consent (PIC) scheme is an indicator
principles; strategic goals and objectives; means that reflects the extent to which countries are
of implementation; indicators for measuring achieving results on the objectives to which
achievement; and performance and evaluation. they have agreed. The PIC scheme requires an
For the mid-term evaluation in 2016, 35 responses exporting party to receive prior consent from an
were received from Parties. In its decision BC- importing party before it exports to that country
13/1, the COP noted the low level of submissions a chemical listed under the Convention. The
of information to enable the mid-term evaluation second progress report in 2013 noted that the
and agreed on a new approach to preparing Secretariat had received 45 notifications, from
the final evaluation of the strategic framework 16 Parties, of a final regulatory action to ban or
in time for the 15th meeting of the COP in 2021 severely restrict a chemical during the reporting
(Secretariat of the Basel Convention 2017). period 2012-2013. It also highlighted that a total
Figure 3.3 Parties to the Rotterdam Convention (adapted from Secretariat of the Rotterdam
Convention 2019)
Party Non-party

of 4,500 import responses had been submitted other organizations, such as the World Customs
by 135 Parties for Annex III chemicals since the Organization (WCO), and with the GHS.
Convention entered into force (Secretariat of
the Rotterdam Convention 2013). As the PIC 3.1.4 The Stockholm Convention
procedure has evolved, there have been several
challenges at the national level regarding effective The Stockholm Convention on POPs (see Part II,
implementation of the obligations. They have Ch. 1, 2) was adopted in 2001, entered into force
included the financial and technical capacity in 2004 and has 182 Parties, up from 172 in
to manage customs systems, and to review all 2010 (Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam and
requests for imports and control them. Stockholm Conventions [BRS Secretariat] 2018;
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention 2019a)
Article 17 of the Convention requires the COP to (Figure 3.4).
develop and approve procedures and institutional
mechanisms for determining non-compliance Article 7 of the Stockholm Convention requires
and for the treatment of Parties found to be non- Parties to develop and periodically update
compliant. The topic has been discussed at an National Implementation Plans (NIPs) to
Open-ended Ad-Hoc Working Group as well as at meet their obligations under the Convention.
each COP. However, to date no final decision has Depending on a country’s specific situation in the
been taken on this matter. The COP, at its eighth context of the Convention, NIPs could provide
meeting in 2017, established a working group to information about all measures taken on POPs,
identify a set of prioritized recommendations for such as legislative and policy measures; the
enhancing the effectiveness of the Convention, preparation of action plans; the setting up of
and to identify further steps in this respect for monitoring schemes related to the occurrence
consideration by the Parties. and releases of POPs; and efforts to reduce
their environmental concentrations. To date,
The Rotterdam Convention has contributed to 91 per cent of Parties have submitted NIPs
the establishment of key parameters for the covering the 12 initial POPs (UNEP and Secretariat
trade of hazardous substances. This is important of the Stockholm Convention 2017a) (Figure 3.5).
with respect to the transfer of information to NIPs are intended to be “living documents” and to
developing countries. The Convention has also be periodically updated as the Convention evolves
created a policy space for collaboration on trade and new substances are listed in the annexes,
in hazardous substances and materials with provided a Party is bound by the amendment
Figure 3.4 Parties to the Stockholm Convention (adapted from Secretariat of the Stockholm
Convention 2019a)
Party non-Party
246
Part II
Figure 3.5 Countries with National Implementation Plans (NIPs) under the Stockholm Convention
(based on Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention 2019b)
Initial NIPs Addressing COP 4 Addressing COP 5 Addressing COP 6 Addressing COP 7 No NIP submission non-Party
amendments amendments amendments amendments
or has deposited its instrument of ratification. and availability of data in national reports and
However, since 2011 only around one-quarter of national implementation plans.
NIPs have been updated to reflect the inclusion
of new substances (UNEP and Secretariat of the The effectiveness evaluation also found that
Stockholm Convention 2017b). limited progress had been made towards the
environmentally sound management of PCBs by
The Stockholm Convention includes periodic 2028 (Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention
effectiveness evaluations, which have so far been 2017; UNEP and Secretariat of the Stockholm
carried out twice, in 2009 and 2017, drawing upon Convention 2017b) (Table 3.1). An estimated
many sources of information including reporting, 1-1.5 million tonnes of technical grade PCBs have
NIPs, monitoring data and non-compliance been produced. Each tonne has generated at
information. The 2017 effectiveness evaluation least 20 tonnes of PCB waste, posing significant
concluded that “the Convention provides an challenges for countries with limited capacity
effective and dynamic framework to regulate for the environmentally sound management
POPs throughout their lifecycle, addressing the of PCB. It is estimated that 3 million tonnes of
production, use, import, export, releases, and PCB liquids and equipment were eliminated
disposal of these chemicals worldwide” (UNEP and by the Parties to the Stockholm Convention by
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention 2017b). 2015. Most of that progress was made after the
In addition, it reported that the Convention Convention entered into force in 2004, indicating
had put in place the mechanisms required to its effectiveness. However, it has been estimated
support Parties. However, the evaluation also that around 14 million tonnes of PCB liquids
noted areas for further work, including lack and equipment still need to be eliminated. This
of regulatory and assessment schemes for means 83 per cent of the total amount of PCB
industrial chemicals, limited availability of data liquids and equipment remains to be destroyed
from national inventories, and the existence by 2028 (Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention
of large stockpiles of obsolete pesticides. The 2017; UNEP and Secretariat of the Stockholm
evaluation report included recommendations to Convention 2017b).
improve implementation; create procedures and
mechanisms to support countries in compliance; The Global Monitoring Plan (GMP) was established
and address the challenge of limited reporting to provide Parties with a harmonized framework
for data collection and monitoring of the presence

Table 3.1 Estimates of progress made towards elimination of PCBs use per UN region (UNEP and
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention 2017b, p. 73)
Region Eliminated To be eliminated Total
Tonnes Share (%) Tonnes Share (%)

Africa 6,056 2 269,736 98 275,792
Asia-Pacific 2,017,916 14 12,374,821 86 14,392,736
Central and Eastern 111,009 19 482,076 81 593,085
Europe
Latin America and 76,772 14 484,768 86 561,540
the Caribbean
Western Europe 744,267 64 415,464 36 1,159,731
and Others
All 2,956,019 17 14,026,865 83 16,982,885
of POPs. It is the backbone of the effectiveness 3.1.5 The Minamata Convention

evaluation. The GMP provides information on
trends in the occurrence of POPs in humans The Minamata Convention on Mercury was
and the environment. The first GMP report adopted in 2013 and entered into force in 2017
(Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention 2009) (see Part II, Ch. 1, 2). As of January 2019, 101
provided information on baseline concentrations States and the EU had deposited instruments of
of 12 legacy POPs. The second report (UNEP ratification (or acceptance, approval or accession)
and Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (UNEP 2019a) (Figure 3.6).
2017a) provided the first indications of changes in
concentrations of legacy POPs, as well as baseline Like the Basel Convention, the Minamata
information on newly listed POPs. Monitoring Convention has an Implementation and
results indicate that concentrations of some Compliance Committee which is a subsidiary
POPs may be decreasing while trends are mixed body of the Conference of the Parties (UNEP
for others (see Part I, Ch. 6). 2018a). There is also a periodic effectiveness
evaluation, as in the case of the Stockholm
Figure 3.6 Parties to the Minamata Convention (adapted from UNEP 2019a)
Ratification Signature Not signed/ratified
248
Part II
Figure 3.7 Countries which have undertaken Minamata Initial Assessments (MIAs) (adapted from
UNEP 2019a)
UNDP UNEP UNEP (Pre-MIA) UNIDO Self-implementation
Convention. The Minamata Convention defines strengthen national capacity towards ratification
a financial mechanism to support developing and build national capacity to meet future
country Parties, and Parties with economies in obligations, particularly undertaking Minamata
transition, in meeting their obligations. It includes Initial Assessments (MIAs) (Figure 3.7).
the Global Environment Facility (GEF) Trust Fund
and a Specific International Programme (SIP) Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is
to Support Capacity-Building and Technical a major source of anthropogenic emissions of
Assistance. The first five projects were approved mercury. The Minamata Convention requires
by the Governing Board of the SIP in October Parties with more than insignificant ASGM using
2018 (Secretariat of the Minamata Convention mercury to extract gold from ore to develop
on Mercury 2018). The GEF supports, among and implement National Action Plans (NAPs).
others, enabling activities for eligible Parties to Figure 3.8 shows the Parties that are developing
Figure 3.8 Parties with National Action Plans (NAPs) for artisanal and small-scale gold mining
(adapted from UNEP 2019a)
UNEP UNIDO UNDP

Box 3.1 Synergies across multilateral treaties on chemicals and waste
In 2011 the COPs to the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions adopted substantively
identical decisions to further cooperation and coordination. To create more synergies among the
three Conventions, it was decided to hold joint sessions of two or three of the COPs on joint
issues. The objectives of holding these meetings in a coordinated manner are to strengthen
implementation of the three Conventions at the national, regional and global levels; promote
coherent policy guidance; and enhance efficiency in the provision of support to Parties (Secretariat
of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions [BRS Secretariat] 2018).
Regarding the last objective, the Secretariat structure for the Conventions
was streamlined. In 2012 the Secretariats of the Basel and Stockholm
Conventions, together with UNEP (which is part of the Rotterdam
Convention Secretariat), moved from three separate Secretariats with
a programmatic structure to a single Secretariat with a matrix structure
serving all three Conventions. Greater cooperation and coordination
among the chemicals and waste Conventions support capacity building,
knowledge transfer, enhanced awareness and efficiency, and improved implementation of the
Conventions and of the Sustainable Development Goals.
Synergies also exist between the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions (BRS Conventions)
and the Minamata Convention. Provisions under the Minamata Convention addressing the interim
storage of mercury and mercury wastes refer to relevant guidelines and definitions developed
under the Basel Convention. A number of decisions adopted by the COPs to the BRS Conventions
also make specific reference to the Minamata Convention. For example, identical decisions taken
by the BRS COPs at their 2017 meetings requested the BRS Secretariat “to continue to enhance
cooperation and coordination with the interim secretariat of the Minamata Convention” (BRS
Secretariat 2017). Accordingly, Parties to the Minamata Convention have requested the Secretariat
to continue to cooperate and coordinate with the BRS Secretariat (Secretariat of the Minamata
Convention on Mercury 2017).
these NAPs (UNEP 2019a). The Convention In 2007 a Meeting of Experts to Examine

also has provisions for phasing out the use of Instruments, Knowledge, Advocacy, Technical
mercury in various products and ensuring the Cooperation and International Collaboration as
environmentally sound management of mercury Tools with a view to Developing a Policy Framework
wastes, among others. Since the Convention for Hazardous Substances recommended that
entered into force in 2017, it is too early to assess a plan of action be developed based on the
its effectiveness in a comprehensive manner. following fundamental pillars: information and
knowledge; preventive and protective systems
3.1.6 ILO Conventions 170 and 174 aimed at the reduction of risks; capacity building;
social dialogue; and good governance. This plan
ILO Convention 170 (the Chemicals Convention) of action should be implemented using a variety
was adopted in 1990, entered into force in of instruments, including ILO standards and joint
1993 and has 21 Parties; ILO Convention 174 actions, and be based on the principles of the
(the Convention concerning the Prevention of 2003 Global Strategy on Occupational Safety and
Major Industrial Accidents) was adopted in 1993, Health and SAICM, in partnership with workers,
entered into force in 1997 and has 18 Parties (see employers and governments (ILO 2007). Follow-
Part II, Ch. 1, 2). As mentioned in Part II, Ch. 2, the up activities by the ILO have been summarized
ILO has a structure of committees that oversee in the document Safety and Health in the Use of
implementation of its Conventions. Chemicals at Work (ILO 2013).
250
Part II
Figure 3.9 Countries with core capacities for chemicals under the International Health Regulations
(2005) (adapted from WHO 2018a)
0–24% 25–49% 50–74% 75–100% No data
3.1.7 The WHO International Health 2016, when 60 countries had done so; however, a
Regulations (IHR) (2005) downward trend materialized by 2017, when only
56 countries had achieved these core capacities
The International Health Regulations (IHR) (2005) (IOMC 2019). Figure 3.9 provides an overview of
were adopted by the World Health Assembly the development of core capacities for chemicals
in 2005, entered into force in 2007 and have under the IHR in 2016, illustrating the need for
196 Parties (see Part II, Ch. 1 and 2). They further efforts to achieve full implementation,
require monitoring of the development and particularly in the African region (WHO 2018a).
implementation of defined core public health
capacities in order to detect, assess, notify and
report events, and to respond to public health risks
and emergencies of national and international 3.2 Progress in achieving the five
concern. For example, core capacity 12 covers objectives of the SAICM OPS
the detection and alerting of, and response to,
chemical events (WHO 2018a). Other capacities 3.2.1 Governance
include chemical events (e.g. emergencies)
legislation and policies, preparedness and One of SAICM’s objectives for “governance” is to
response, and strategic coordination. “promote the sound management of chemicals
within each relevant sector and integrated
The Global Health Observatory provides programmes for sound chemicals management
information on the status of implementation, across all sectors” (SAICM Secretariat, UNEP
which is indicated across four levels, with 59 and WHO 2006). Strengthening of appropriate
countries (30 per cent) having achieved the national, regional and international mechanisms,
highest level (75-100), 17 (9 per cent) scoring enforcement, relevant codes of conduct and
at the second level, 23 (12 per cent) at the third other relevant objectives has, among others,
level and 27 (14 per cent) at the basic level. For been achieved via the international agreements
67 countries (35 per cent) there is a lack of data discussed above. The section below provides
(WHO 2018a). Significant progress was made additional illustrations of progress at the national
between 2010, when 38 countries had achieved and regional levels.
core capacities for chemicals under the IHR, and

Africa (Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Materials

Management) Regulations (Hazlewood 2019).
In recent years, various countries in Africa have Other recent legislative progress in the region has
made progress in strengthening their chemicals largely been restricted to adoption of legislation
and waste management capacities. For example, addressing specific chemicals, such as the
Kenya is in the process of putting in place the national policy framework for the management
Environmental Management and Coordination of PCBs approved in Nigeria in 2015. Recent
Table 3.2 Examples of regional institutions and initiatives addressing chemicals and waste in the
African region
Institution/initiative Examples of implementation bodies and activities
Southern African ›› Technical Regulations Liaisons Committee promote and facilitates implementation of the SADC
Development Technical Regulation Framework
Community (SADC) ›› SADC Policy on the GHS
›› Development of the Code on Safe Use of Chemicals under the Employment and Labour Sector
Programme
Economic Community ›› Sahelian Pesticide Committee
of West African States ›› West African Committee for Pesticide Registration Harmonization of regulations for control of
(ECOWAS) pesticides
›› Harmonization of chemicals data requirements, test guidelines, risk assessment, registration
procedures and risk reduction
East African ›› Development and harmonization of standards and regulations on pollution control and waste
Community (EAC) management (e.g. EAC Electronic Waste Management Framework and Management of Plastic and
Plastic Waste Disposal)
252
Part II
efforts in South Africa to adopt a comprehensive (EAC) and the Economic Community of West
chemicals management law – with provisions African States (ECOWAS) play an important role
for industrial chemicals registration and risk in advancing action on the sound management
assessment, and seeking to streamline the of chemicals and waste, for example through
responsibilities of various government entities facilitating implementation of the GHS and
– have not materialized to date (Stringer 2017). harmonizing pesticides management (Table 3.2).
In past years a number of African countries Asia and the Pacific

have enacted legislation addressing chemicals
in products, such as restrictions on certain Important recent legislative developments in the
substances in cosmetics in Morocco (Morocco Asia-Pacific region include China’s 2013 landmark
Ministry of Health n.d.) and Rwanda (Rwanda Five-Year Plan for Chemical Environmental Risk
Ministry of Health 2016) and new toy safety Prevention and Control, which established
standards in Egypt (European Commission [EC] chemicals management principles and featured
2018). As of 2018, 11 countries (Algeria, Burundi, a list of 58 priority chemicals for risk prevention
Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, and control (Chemical Watch 2013a). In addition,
South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe) in 2018 several ministries jointly issued a list of
had legislation and statutes limiting lead in all 22 priority chemicals which would be subject
decorative paints. Waste management continues to risk management and control measures
to be a priority in the region. In 2016 Ghana (Chemical Watch 2018a). In Japan the Chemical
passed an act to streamline and strengthen waste Substances Control Act, often referred to as the
management and recycling systems, including “Japanese Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation
through the establishment of a fund to provide and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)”, was
finance for the management of electrical and amended in 2009, modifying the approach
electronic waste (Republic of Ghana 2016). used to a risk- rather than hazard-based one
(Zaman 2016). The Act on the Registration and
Africa has a dense network of regional political Evaluation of Chemicals (often referred to as
and economic integration organizations. Given “K-REACH”) was adopted in the Republic of Korea
often limited national capacities, organizations in 2013 and entered into force in 2015, with an
such as the Southern African Development amendment entering into force in 2019 (Chemical
Community (SADC), the East African Community Inspection and Regulation Service [CIRS] 2019).

Asia and the Pacific region
Association of ›› Working Group on Chemicals and Waste (established in 2016)

Southeast Asian ›› Establishment of the ASEAN-Japan Chemical Safety Database (launched in 2016)
Nations (ASEAN n.d.)
South Asia Association ›› Development of regional standards for chemicals and chemical products
for Regional ›› Establishment of a network on waste management initiated via the Dhaka Declaration (2004)
Cooperation (SAARC)
Secretariat of the ›› Projects to strengthen legislative frameworks and waste management capacity
Pacific Regional
Environment
Programme
In 2017 Viet Nam issued a Chemicals Decree South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation
specifying, among others, requirements for the (SAARC) (Figure 3.3). Countries in the Asia-
production and trade of industrial chemicals and Pacific region have also joined forces under the
requiring classification in accordance with the umbrella of intergovernmental organizations
GHS. The Decree features five lists of regulated targeting specifically environmental matters.
chemicals (including lists of banned and restricted The South Asia Cooperative Environment
chemicals) (ChemSafetyPro 2017). Programme and the Secretariat of the Pacific
Regional Environment Programme, for example,
In India in 2017, the Ministry of Environment, implement projects to strengthen capacities for
Forests and Climate Change established an expert environmentally sound management of waste
committee responsible for the formulation of the and support the development of chemicals
National Action Plan for Chemicals to address management legislation, among others. Another
the issues of chemical control, management and example for regional cooperation on chemicals
pollution in India (Global Business Briefing 2017; and waste related issues is the developed a
Niadu 2017). Thailand is currently streamlining regional roadmap by the WHO South East Asia
its hazardous substances lists and amending its Regional Office (SEARO) to help Member States
Hazardous Substances Act, which regulates the develop and implement national antimicrobial
import, production, marketing and possession resistance (AMR) prevention and containment
of all hazardous chemicals used in Thailand action plans.
(Chemical Watch 2013b; ChemSafetyPro
2016a). Regional cooperation on chemicals and Europe
waste management led by other organizations
supports legislative and policy development in Chemicals legislation and policies are to a large
the region. The programme “Toward a Non-Toxic extent jointly developed by Member States in
Environment in South-East Asia” has helped to the framework of the European Union (EU), most
develop a regulatory framework and institutional notably in the case of the Registration, Evaluation,
capacity in the countries of the Mekong region Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals
(Swedish Chemicals Agency [KEMI] 2016). (REACH) Regulation. As REACH applies not only
Moreover, countries such as Malaysia and to chemicals produced in the EU but also to those
Thailand are aligning their policies with guidance imported, it has had significant economic and
provided by the OECD. legislative effects beyond the Member States.
In Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) Russia
Economic and political integration organizations undertook a significant reform of its chemicals
advancing regional cooperation on chemicals management system in 2016 by adopting a new
and waste management include the Association technical regulation for chemical product safety,
of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the to come into force in 2021. It seeks, among others,
254
Part II
to improve the existing chemicals inventory, The EU is the key regional economic and
requesting notification procedures such as those political integration organization driving the
stipulated in REACH for any new substances development of a harmonized legal framework
(ChemSafetyPro 2016b). The effect of the EU’s in Europe (Table 3.4). The most important and
legislative initiatives extends beyond its Member comprehensive legislation governing chemicals
States. Accession candidate countries align their production and use in Europe is REACH, which
regulations with EU standards, as was recently entered into force in 2007 with three deadlines
done by Serbia (Chemical Watch 2018b). Similar for registration of chemicals in the ensuing years,
developments can be observed in non-candidate the last taking effect in 2018. The identification
countries (e.g. Ukraine) (Chemical Watch 2018c). of substances of very high concern (SVHC) is an
Table 3.4 Examples of regional institutions and initiatives addressing chemicals and waste in Europe
European Union (EU) ›› European Chemicals Agency (ECHA)

›› Development and implementation of joint chemicals and biocides regulations (e.g. REACH;
Biocidal Products Regulation; Classification, Labelling and Packaging [CLP] Regulation)
Eurasian Economic ›› Single registry of chemical materials and substances
Commission (EEC) ›› Adoption of a technical regulation on the safety of chemical products (2018)
Commonwealth of ›› Development of common standards for classification and labelling of chemicals and safety data
Independent States sheets (SDS)
(CIS) ›› Harmonization with the GHS
›› Cooperation on e-waste management

© Stefano Ravalli
ongoing process. An SVHC Roadmap foresees initiatives on substance management in these

having all currently known SVHC included associations are mainly aimed at implementing
in the Candidate List by 2020 (European the GHS and managing risks arising from the
Chemicals Agency [ECHA] n.d. a). Concerning handling of substances and materials.
the assessment and management of the risks
of chemicals, REACH shifts responsibility from Latin America and the Caribbean
public authorities to industry. In Central and
Eastern Europe the Eurasian Economic Union, the Several countries in this region have recently
Eurasian Customs Union and the Commonwealth established overarching chemicals management
of Independent States are institutional umbrellas policies, including Guatemala (2013), Honduras
for the development of harmonized chemicals (2013), Ecuador (2015), Colombia (2016), Chile
management frameworks (Table 3.4). Legislative (2017) and Costa Rica (2017). Eight Caribbean
Table 3.5 Examples of regional institutions and initiatives addressing chemicals and waste in Latin
America and the Caribbean
Southern Common ›› Ad hoc Group on Environmental Management of Waste and Post-use Responsibility
Market (Sistema de ›› Ad hoc Group on Environmental Management of Chemical Substances and Products
Informacion Ambiental ›› Action Plan on Chemical Substances and Products (2008); places priority on pesticides, mercury,
del Mercosur n.d.) management of contaminated sites, and implementation of the GHS
Andean Community of ›› Andean Law on the registration and control of chemical pesticides for agricultural use (created in
Nations (Comunidad 1998, modified in 2015)
Andina n.d.) ›› Action Plan for the Prevention and Response to Emergencies by Hazardous Chemical Products
Regional ›› Identification of regional priorities on chemicals and waste; first Action Plan for 2019-2020
Intergovernmental
Network on Chemicals
and Waste
256
Part II
countries (Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, acceding to (Costa Rica) or collaboration with
Belize, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint (e.g. Brazil, Jamaica) the OECD (OECD 2017).
Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and
Trinidad and Tobago) are preparing a legal Regional and sub-regional economic and political
framework for chemicals management through integration organizations such as the Southern
a Global Environment Facility (GEF) funded Common Market and the Andean Community
project supported by the GEF and the Basel of Nations (Table 3.5) play an important role in
Convention Regional Centre for Training and advancing regulatory harmonization and the
Technology Transfer for the Caribbean Region development and implementation of policy-
(BCRC-Caribbean). oriented action plans on chemicals and waste. The
Caribbean Community and the Central American
In addition, several countries have developed Commission for Environment and Development
specific policies and programmes on industrial are also actively addressing chemicals and waste
chemicals. Examples include the draft law issues. Free trade agreements with other regions
on industrial chemicals in Brazil (scheduled and countries, such as the Caribbean Forum-
to be submitted to Congress in 2018), whose EU Economic Partnership Agreement (Mclean
intention, among others, is to establish a and Khadan 2015), have further catalysed
national chemicals inventory and to establish the regulatory progress in regard to sound chemicals
process of registering, evaluating and controlling management. At the regional level, an important
these chemicals (SAICM Secretariat 2018a). milestone accelerating implementation of the
Countries in the region are also advancing in the 2020 goal was the establishment of the Regional
implementation of the GHS, the implementation Intergovernmental Network on Chemicals and
of PRTRs and the establishment of waste Waste in the context of the Forum of Ministers
management capacity, including through of Environment in 2016.
promoting the concept of extended producer
responsibility (e.g. in Argentina and Chile). A North America
strong driver of chemicals management capacity
in the region is countries’ (imminent) membership In the United States the Frank R. Lautenberg
in (Chile, Colombia and Mexico), interest in Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act, in

Table 3.6 Examples of regional institutions and initiatives addressing chemicals and waste in North
America
North American ›› Commission for Environmental Cooperation supports cooperation to address environmental issues
Agreement on of continental concern
Environmental
Cooperation
force since 2016, amended the Toxic Substances in a future parliament (Government of Canada
Control Act. It regulates the introduction of new 2018a).
or already existing chemicals on the market in
that country and authorizes the United States The United States, Canada and numerous other
Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) to countries are members of the OECD, which
evaluate potential risks from such chemicals, has been a critical driver for the development
as well as to restrict their production and use and application of harmonized methods and
accordingly. Among others, the Amendment approaches for testing and assessment of
requires the US EPA to evaluate the safety of chemicals, risk management, and chemical
existing chemicals in commerce, starting with accident prevention, preparation and response,
those that may present unreasonable risk, and among others.
removes a requirement that the US EPA choose
the “least burdensome” way to address the Established by the North American Agreement
unreasonable risk posed by a chemical (United on Environmental Cooperation, the Commission
States Congress 2016). for Environmental Cooperation supports
cooperation among Canada, Mexico and the
Launched in 2006, the Chemicals Management Unites States to address environmental issues of
Plan (CMP) is a Government of Canada initiative continental concern, including the environmental
aimed at reducing the risks posed by chemicals challenges and opportunities presented by
to Canadians and their environment. The CMP the North American Free Trade Agreement. A
builds on previous initiatives to protect human Technical Working Group on Pesticides facilitates
health and the environment by assessing cost-effective pesticide regulation through
chemicals used in Canada and by taking action harmonization (e.g. a registration system). In
on chemicals found to be harmful. The CMP is February 2011 the Governments of the United
delivered jointly by Environment and Climate States and Canada launched the Canada-U.S.
Change Canada and Health Canada through Regulatory Cooperation Council to facilitate
partnership and engagement with stakeholders. closer cooperation between the two countries on
The CMP assesses environmental and human the development of smarter and more effective
health risks posed by chemical substances, and approaches to regulation that strengthen the
develops and implements measures to prevent economy, enhance competitiveness, and protect
or manage those risks from a broad suite of risk public safety and welfare (Government of Canada
management tools. The Canadian Government is 2017) (Table 3.6).
taking action to set new directions and objectives
for chemicals management. It has initiated a West Asia
broad-based engagement with partners and
stakeholders to inform the direction of chemicals An example of an important recent legislative
management in Canada beyond 2020. This development with respect to the sound
engagement will include consideration of many management of chemicals and waste in the West
issues, including the approach to “substances of Asia Region is the Turkish Chemical Registration,
very high concern”. The Government has also Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction
committed to introducing a bill to amend CEPA Regulations. These regulations are modelled
258
Part II
on the EU’s REACH Regulation and will streamline Regional Organization for Protection of the
several existing chemicals regulations (Chemical Marine Environment.
Watch 2017a). Turkey is also a member of the
OECD. The Gulf Cooperation Council members Integrated national programmes, national
– Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, profiles and institutional coordination
Oman, Qatar and Saudi Arabia – and Yemen
recently initiated legislation to restrict the use of The development of country-driven and country-
certain chemicals of concern in products such as owned chemical management processes
electrical and electronic equipment (Hazlewood is among the topics prominently featured
2018), cosmetics and personal care products in the Overarching Policy Strategy of SAICM.
(Chemical Watch 2017b), toys (Chemical Watch Under governance, the OPS features as a
2013c) and detergents (Chemical Watch 2017c). specific objective promoting the development
of “integrated programmes for the sound
The Gulf Cooperation Council is an important management of chemicals across all sectors”.
vehicle driving the development of the
harmonized legal chemicals management Under the work area “Implementation of
frameworks of its members (Table 3.7). Other integrated national programmes” the GPA
entities active at the regional levels include the elaborates elements of such programmes
West Asia region
Gulf Cooperation ›› Common System for the Management of Hazardous Chemicals (2002) established minimum
Council legislation for the member states in dealing with hazardous chemicals
›› “Green Gulf 2020 Project” implemented to help achieve the vision of an environmentally friendly
Gulf by the year 2020

Figure 3.10 National profiles to assess the chemicals and management infrastructure (adapted from
UNITAR 2018a)
National profile completed National profile in preparation No data
including, among others, the development of a As of 2016, 116 countries had produced a national
comprehensive national profile; formalizing inter- profile and many had developed a second or
ministerial and multi-stakeholder coordination third edition. This represents a modest increase
(including coordination of national government in numbers compared to the 106 countries in
and multi-stakeholder positions in international 2010 (IOMC 2019). The regional distribution of
meetings); and developing national chemical the preparation of national profiles in 2016, as
safety policies, outlining strategic goals and compared to 2010, is as follows: Africa (39, up
milestones towards reaching the 2020 goal from 34), Asia-Pacific (23, up from 20), Central
agreed at the Johannesburg Summit in 2002. The and Eastern Europe (CEE) (17, up from 16), Latin
specific indicator for this work reads as follows: America and the Caribbean (LAC) (24, up from
“All countries have developed integrated national 23) and the Western European and Others Group
programmes for the sound management of (WEOG) (13, the same as in 2010) (Figure 3.10).
chemicals within a five-year timeframe (2006- The relatively small number of national profiles
2010)”. prepared or updated in the past years may be
explained by the absence of stable funding. For
National profiles have fostered country- example, the Quick Start Programme (QSP), which
driven processes to strengthen chemicals provided support for a number of countries to
management develop or update their national profile, does
not exist anymore. The GPA had set a target/
The national profile concept, developed through timeframe of 2006-2010 for the development of
collaboration of countries, stakeholders and national profiles, which has thus not been met
IOMC participating organizations (with UNITAR in in many countries.
the lead), involves the development of a national
baseline document concerning chemicals Integrated national programme and SAICM
management through a process involving Implementation Plans
all concerned ministries and stakeholders. A
national profile provides the status and identifies In a number of countries the process of developing
gaps in areas such as chemical legislation, a has led to the establishment of formalized inter-
institutional responsibilities and coordination, ministerial coordinating committees, and fostered
and information systems (UNITAR 2018a). development of a programmatic and integrated
approach to advance the sound management of
260
Part II
Box 3.2 SAICM Implementation Plan for Guyana (Urho 2018)
The SAICM implementation Plan for Guyana (2012-2015) aimed to strengthen national policies,
programmes, networks and other mechanisms to ensure sound management of chemicals.
The plan was based on a multi-sectoral approach involving all institutions, organizations and
disciplines that took part in chemicals management in Guyana. It identified seven priority areas
of work deriving from the GPA, including risk assessment, research and laboratory capacities,
waste management, education and awareness-raising, stakeholder participation, prevention
of illegal trafficking, and emergency planning. The Plan builds on valuable work done by the
preceding QSP project on “Developing an Integrated National Programme for the Sound
Management of Chemicals and SAICM Implementation in Guyana”, which enabled, among others,
the establishment of an inter-ministerial committee and the preparation of a national chemicals
profile to take stock of existing national efforts and to prepare a national capacity assessment to
identify priority work areas. Thus, through the implementation plan a logical continuum of prior
work helped to establish necessary institutional capacities to deliver an action-oriented plan.
chemicals and waste (UNITAR 2004). National (2012-2015) is described in Box 3.2. Urho (2018)
profiles have also served as a starting point discusses the implementation of this work area,
in some countries for the development of but points out that a comprehensive analysis
action plans to support implementation of of integrated national programmes, national
other international agreements. For example, profiles and SAICM implementation plans is
national plans to support implementation of lacking.
the Stockholm Convention were developed with
funding from the GEF in more than 80 countries Sectoral engagement in national coordination
(Bengtsson 2010). Another spin-off has been mechanisms
the development of SAICM implementation
plans, starting in 2009 with support from the The engagement of relevant sectors in national
QSP and based on guidance developed through coordinating mechanisms encouraged through
collaboration of the SAICM Secretariat, UNITAR the OPS is monitored through SAICM indicator 11,
and IOMC (SAICM Secretariat 2009a). A case study which focuses specifically on education and
on a SAICM Implementation Plan for Guyana health sector engagement. Figure 3.11 illustrates
Figure 3.11 Engagement of sectors in coordination mechanisms (adapted from SAICM Secretariat
2015a, p. 11)
Education 16%
Health 15%
Trade 14%
Customs authorities 14%
Science 14%
Environment 13%
Transport 11%
Agriculture 11%
Industry 8%
Labour 6%
Prime minister 1%
Other -2%
Foreign affairs -3%
-5% 0 5% 10% 15% 20%

the trend for engagement of a wide range of key ›› When first published in 1994, the Canadian
sectors in national coordination between the Domestic Substances List (DSL) contained
two reporting SAICM periods. Engagement of some 23,000 substances manufactured
the education and health sectors increased by in, imported into, or used in Canada on a
16 and 15 per cent, respectively. commercial scale (Government of Canada
2018b). Substances have been added since
3.2.2 Knowledge and information its inception: there are now approximately
28,000 substances in the DSL.
The SAICM objectives for “knowledge and
information” include a range of measures. They ›› The Inventory of Existing Chemical Substances
emphasize, among others, the need “to ensure in China listed 45,612 substances in 2013
that knowledge and information on chemicals (ChemSafetyPro 2015).
and chemicals management are sufficient to
enable chemicals to be adequately assessed ›› In 2018 Viet Nam launched the national
and managed through their life cycle”. Action by chemicals database, which includes more
governments and other stakeholders to achieve than 170,000 substances (Kawanishi 2018).
this objective (in addition to those already carried
out under more specialized agreements) are Knowledge on chemicals in commerce is
briefly outlined below. growing, but gaps remain
Chemical inventories have been established in A report has been jointly developed by UNEP
a number of countries and the International Council of Chemical
Associations (ICCA) to, among other purposes,
improve the understanding of the number of
chemicals in commerce (UNEP and ICCA 2019).
The findings of this report include the following:
›› There are an estimated 40,000 to 60,000

industrial chemicals in commerce globally.
›› An estimated 6,000 of them account for

more than 99 per cent of the total volume
of chemicals in commerce globally.
›› A number of factors contribute to uncertainty

in estimates of the numbers of chemicals,
including a lack of chemical inventories for
A number of governments have made efforts to many countries.
compile chemical inventories in order to obtain a
better understanding of the number of chemicals ›› Environmental, health and safety (EHS) data
on the market. Examples include the following: exist for the majority of the highest production
volume chemicals, while knowledge gaps still
›› As of 2017, there were 140,000 chemical exist for many lower-volume chemicals.
substances in the EU’s CLP Inventory (ECHA
2017). ›› There is a need for more and better chemical
use and exposure information, particularly
›› The US EPA maintains an inventory covering from developing countries, to improve risk
about 85,000 chemicals sold in the United assessment and risk management.
States (US EPA 2018a).
262
Part II
Major initiatives have generated knowledge on risk management actions, the OECD observed
the hazards of industrial chemicals that “information gaps regarding the properties
for many existing chemicals hampered risk
On chemicals applied for specific purposes assessment and management and subsequently,
(e.g. pharmaceuticals, pesticides and food these chemicals may not have been appropriately
additives) extensive hazard data are generally risk managed” (OECD 2015). This analysis is
available. As discussed in section 3.1.2 above, consistent with studies in the past years pointing
the GHS is a harmonized system for classifying to data gaps in identifying human health and
chemicals according to their potential hazards at environmental hazards of many chemicals on
the international level. National and international the market (Grandjean et al. 2011; Egeghy et al.
initiatives have generated a growing body of 2012; Strempel et al. 2012; Buonsante et al. 2014;
knowledge on the hazards of industrial chemicals. Stieger et al. 2014; Bernhardt, Rosi and Gessner
2017).
›› The OECD’s High Production Volume Chemicals
Programme, designed to challenge chemical When the ECHA released its assessment of eight
manufacturers to assess the hazards of their years of REACH implementation, it noted that “a
chemicals, originally listed 5,235 chemicals significant proportion of registration dossiers are
and screened more than 1,200 before it was still not of a sufficient quality” (ECHA 2016). In
reformed into the Cooperative Chemicals 2017 the ECHA evaluation noted that 69 per cent
Assessment Programme (OECD n.d.). of the dossiers received lacked complete
hazard information. Of some 4,500 chemicals
›› Canada has addressed some 3,534 of the considered high priority by the ECHA, some 3,000
4,300 chemicals it identified as priorities for are considered to be in a “grey zone” where
action by 2020-21. The Government of Canada there is insufficient information to decide about
has found over 457 existing substances the risks they pose (ECHA 2018). Recognizing
to be harmful to the environment and/or this insufficiency of information, the OECD
human health, and is now in the final phase estimates that between 20,000 and 100,000
of addressing these substances through its existing chemicals with historical approvals or
Chemicals Management Plan (Government notifications have not received a sufficient risk
of Canada 2018c). assessment or reassessment (OECD 2015).
›› The EU’s REACH and CLP requirements have The Globally Harmonized System of
generated large amounts of information on Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
the health and environmental hazards of
chemicals. In 2018 the ECHA reported The GHS was adopted in 2002 and has been
receiving chemical dossiers from a total of updated periodically since. GHS implementation
88,319 registrations, covering 21,551 unique was encouraged in paragraph 23c of the JPOI,
substances under REACH. Of these, 2,575 with the objective of having this system fully
chemicals were manufactured in (or imported operational by 2008 (UN 2002). The GHS was later
into) the EU in quantities of over 1,000 tonnes included in the SAICM Overarching Policy Strategy
per year (ECHA n.d. b). (OPS), adopted in 2006. The Dubai Declaration
and the SAICM OPS refer to the implementation
Many chemicals in commerce still have limited of the GHS. It is one of the basic elements of the
data sets and incomplete characterizations SAICM Overall Orientation and Guidance (OOG)
adopted at ICCM 4 in 2015.
Despite the substantial hazard data generated for
thousands of chemicals, knowledge of chemical The GHS covers four sectors: transport,
hazards, common exposure pathways, and workplace (industrial), consumer and agricultural.
human health and environmental effects for Implementation of the GHS has three stages:
many chemicals is absent or insufficient. In a formal adoption by countries; incorporation
review of national efforts to implement chemical into national legislation; and facilitation and

Figure 3.12 Global GHS implementation status (adapted and updated based on Persson et al. 2017,
p. 8)
Full implementation Partial implementation No implementation No data
enforcement of the uptake and use of GHS by 2010, 126 countries have not yet implemented it
companies and any other relevant actors. GHS (updated based on Persson et al. 2017). Despite
implementation can be done using a “building the long history of GHS implementation, there
block” approach, in which building blocks are significant disparities in implementation
correspond to the different hazard classes and between developing and developed countries.
categories used to describe the nature of the Full legal GHS implementation is most common
hazards of hazardous substances/mixtures (UN in Europe and parts of Central Asia, East Asia and
2005). Southeast Asia. In Latin America two countries,
Ecuador and Colombia, have implemented the
Figure 3.12 shows the global status of GHS GHS fully; in Africa only Zambia and Mauritius
implementation. To date, 51 countries have have done so. The target established in the JPOI
fully implemented the GHS and 16 have partially for full implementation of the GHS in all countries
implemented it. While this shows progress by 2008 has not been achieved in 2019. Persson
compared to the total of 41 countries which et al. (2017) attributed insufficient progress to,
had fully or partially implemented the GHS in among others, a lack of financial and regulatory
© UNITAR/Andrea Cararo, coal power plant in Ulaanbaatar
264
Part II
capacities, as well as lower trade openness, in Principle 10 states that “each individual shall
many countries. have appropriate access to information
concerning the environment that is held by
Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers public authorities” as well as “the opportunity
to participate in decision making processes”, and
A Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) that countries shall “encourage public awareness
is a publicly accessible database, or multi-media and participation by making information widely
inventory, of chemicals and pollutants released available”. Ten years later the Johannesburg Plan
to air, water and soil and transferred off-site for of Implementation called for action at all levels
treatment or final disposal. PRTRs bring together to “encourage development of coherent and
information, usually reported on an annual basis, integrated information on chemicals, such as
about which chemicals are being released, where, through national pollutant release and transfer
how much and by whom. While the number of registers” (UN 2002).
chemicals and the number of sources covered
by a PRTR are limited, it is a useful basis for Public access to information on chemical releases
agencies and the public to compare releases and transfers is a central PRTR characteristic,
from different sources and consider follow-up which contributes to achieving SDG 12.4 by
discussions with the releasing parties. PRTRs are helping to track progress concerning pollutant
not a tool for regulating emissions. However, releases to air, water and soil. PRTRs have also
the public information on point sources (e.g. of been recognized as instruments for the collection
releases from industries) and diffuse sources and dissemination of information on estimates
(e.g. of releases from transport and agriculture) of the annual quantities of POPs (Article 10,
often helps create an incentive for companies to Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention 2008).
avoid being identified as major polluters and to In 2017 the Minamata Convention on Mercury
voluntarily invest in making emission reductions. entered into force. Its Article 18 encourages
Parties to promote and facilitate PRTRs as
The rationale for the establishment of PRTRs tools for the collection and dissemination of
was established in 1992, when the importance information on estimates of the annual quantities
of public access to information on environmental of mercury and mercury compounds that are
pollution, including emissions inventories, was emitted, released or disposed of through human
recognized in Agenda 21 at the United Nations activities.
Conference on Environment and Development.
Figure 3.13 Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (adapted from UNITAR 2018b)
Active PRTRs PRTR activities initiated or pilot project Expressed interest in PRTRs No data

© IISD/ENB (enb.iisd.org/chemical/poprc11-crc11/19oct.html), Eleventh Meeting of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (POPRC 11)
As of 2010, 35 countries had PRTRs in place; by A number of parameters were used to measure
2016 this number had increased to 50. Significant this, including monitoring of chemical incidents,
gaps therefore still exist (IOMC 2019). In Europe poisonings, human biomonitoring, occupational
and North America PRTRs are in place or are diseases and environmental monitoring systems.
in the process of being established. Progress With respect to human health, the average
is also being made in the LAC region, although increase was 5 per cent, a result similar to that
gaps remain. According to available data, in the obtained for environmental monitoring (SAICM
Asia-Pacific region only Australia, Japan and the Secretariat 2015a) (Figure 3.14).
Republic of Korea have PRTRs, and in West Asia
and Africa no country is known to have a PRTR in International bodies and initiatives working on
place. Interest in PRTRs exists in some countries, science assessment to support policymaking
notably China and Russia. Figure 3.13 shows
the global status of the development of PRTRs A number of international bodies and
(UNITAR 2018b). The target set in the GPA for mechanisms that bring together scientists and
PRTRs to be established in all countries by 2015 policymakers have been established to ensure
has thus not been achieved. that policymaking is informed by the latest
scientific evidence. A report prepared by the
Environmental and health monitoring IOMC in 2018 gave examples of science policy
bodies and mechanisms active in chemicals and
“Monitoring and assessing the impacts of waste issues (WHO et al. 2018). For example, the
chemicals on health and the environment” WHO has established a Chemical Risk Assessment
is element 10 of the Overall Orientation and Network. One of its objectives is to assist in the
Guidance (OOG). The latest SAICM Progress identification of emerging risks to human health
Report found that there had been an increase in from chemicals. Under the intersessional process
health and environmental monitoring since 2009. to prepare recommendations regarding the
Figure 3.14 Progress in environmental and health monitoring (adapted from SAICM Secretariat
2015a, p. 6)
Chemical incidents 11%
Occupationally- 9%
related disease
Human poisoning 6%
Environmental 5%
monitoring
None applicable -4%
Other types -5%
Human biomonitoring -6%

-10% -5% 0 5% 10 15%
266
Part II
Table 3.8 Examples of science policy bodies and mechanisms (based on WHO et al. 2018)
Body/initiative Activities/scope
Persistent Organic Pollutants Reviews Parties’ proposals for listing new chemicals, decides whether a proposed chemical
Review Committee (PORC) of is likely to have POPs characteristics warranting global action, evaluates possible control
the Stockholm Convention measures taking into account socio-economic considerations, and makes recommendations for
listing.
Basel Convention’s Open-ended Provides advice on issues relating to policy, technical, scientific, legal and other aspects of the
Working Group implementation of the Convention; expert working groups develop guidelines on specific waste-
related issues, e.g. e-waste, or to address other issues as mandated by the COP.
Rotterdam Convention’s Reviews proposals for listing severely hazardous pesticide formulations.
Chemical Review Committee
Scientific Assessment Panel Assesses the status of the depletion of the ozone layer and relevant atmospheric science
(SAP) of the Montreal Protocol issues; any emerging scientific issues of importance are brought to the attention of the Parties.
FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Charged with protecting the health of consumers and ensuring fair practices in food trade
Commission through the development of a broad range of voluntary standards, guidelines and codes of
practice under the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme.
FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Advises countries on matters pertaining to pesticide regulation, management and use, and
Pesticide Management (JMPM) alerts them to new developments, problems or issues that otherwise merit attention.
WHO Chemical Risk Aims to improve chemical risk management globally through facilitating sustainable interaction
Assessment Network between institutions on chemical risk assessment issues and activities; decisions may lead to
WHO guidelines, etc.
OECD Test Guidelines Development of internationally agreed testing methods used by governments, industry and
Programme independent laboratories to identify and characterize the potential hazards of chemicals.
Global Environment Facility´s Provides strategic scientific and technical advice on GEF policies, areas of work, projects, and
Scientific and Technical programmes; builds networks with the science and policy communities of the Conventions
Advisory Panel (GEF STAP) which the GEF serves; brings to the GEF’s attention priorities which may not be covered by the
Conventions.
Strategic Approach and the sound management of (WHO et al. 2018). The need for strengthened
chemicals and waste beyond 2020, stakeholders engagement by scientists and a stronger role
have shown interest in addressing the topic of for scientific research has been emphasized by
“science-policy interfaces”, which was one of various stakeholders (International Panel on
the agenda items during the second meeting Chemical Pollution 2018).
on the intersessional process (WHO et al. 2018).
Table 3.8 shows bodies and mechanisms working The IOMC report also includes reference to SAICM’s
on science policy issues which are listed in the ICCM, which brings together governments, IGOs,
report. Some of these bodies play an important industry, NGOs and academia (WHO et al. 2018).
role in the identification and prioritization of Under SAICM, a process has been established
chemicals and emerging issues. For example, to identify and call for appropriate action on
the POPs Review Committee (POPRC) reviews emerging policy issues (SAICM Secretariat
and provides recommendations on the listing 2009b) through the ICCM. This has resulted in
of new POPs.
The conclusions of the IOMC report include that

a variety of fora already exist for the provision
of scientific or technical advice on a wide range
of issues, and that there is a great deal of scope
within current organizational structures and
mandates to create new committees or panels to
cover a broad range of chemicals related aspects
© IISD/ENB (enb.iisd.org/ipbes/ipbes5/), 5th Session of the Plenary of the

Chapter 3. Achieving the 2020 goal: what do we know? Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 267
Box 3.3 Potential considerations for the selection of future issues of global concern
In defining possible future priorities related to specific issues or chemicals of concern at the
international level, questions of potential relevance for consideration by stakeholders may
include the following:
›› Which methodologies could facilitate the identification of possible future priorities at the
international level in a systematic manner (e.g. using information on health and environmental
impacts and harm caused, and by drawing on information from risk assessments)?
›› Could a possible science-policy interface have a role to play in determining future priories?
›› Should priorities be set for individual chemicals (or groups of chemicals)?
›› Should they cover broader management issues?
›› How could a nomination process be designed, including clear criteria?
›› How would the role of science in identifying and agreeing on issues/priorities be organized?
›› How can commitment by key actors to take action be mobilized?
›› What are criteria for sunsetting the issues?
Box 3.4 Identified challenges in creating a coherent global knowledge base: lessons for
strengthening the science-policy interface
While a wealth of data, information and knowledge on chemical production, releases,

concentrations and effects has been generated, the GCO-II has encountered challenges in
collecting coherent data and knowledge, developing global baselines and identifying trends.
Data gaps at national, regional and global level include: the number and volumes of hazardous
chemicals already on the market and those newly entering it; complete data sets concerning
the hazard potential; and environmental, health and safety data, in particular for many lower-
volume chemicals. Knowledge is also limited regarding outdoor and indoor releases of chemicals
both during production processes and from products; chemical exposures in varying contexts;
concentrations of hazardous chemicals in environmental media; and the adverse impacts of
chemicals, including costs of inaction and benefits of action.
Significant progress has already been made in some areas to harmonize data generation, for
example in testing chemicals. Yet challenges remain in facilitating coherent data collection
and availability across time and countries, particularly in developing countries. This makes the
identification of baselines, trends, emerging issues, priorities and progress at the global level
challenging. It also renders comparability across time and countries or regions difficult, for
example for chemical releases and concentrations. Research is often undertaken using different
protocols and methods, for example using different units of analysis, or in determining the effects
of chemicals on human health and the environment and translating these effects into economic
costs and benefits. Promising progress is being made in harmonizing biomonitoring across
countries, and could be extended to other areas.
Various barriers pose challenges in improving the scientific basis for informed decision-making. For
example, scientists are not necessarily given incentives for producing policy-relevant knowledge.
Another potential challenge is that policymakers may have short windows of opportunity for
scientific input while related research may require longer timeframes. Moreover, policymakers
and scientists may use different language, suited to the respective target audiences. Insufficient
communication may also result in scientists not being sufficiently informed of policy needs and
vice versa (Hering et al. 2014; Agerstrand et al. 2017).
Further examining and addressing some of the challenges noted above may be relevant for future
assessments related to the sound management of chemicals and waste. Related discussions
could also feed into the ongoing discussions on the science-policy interface.
268
Part II
the identification of eight emerging policy issues progress towards achieving this objective has
(EPIs) and other issues of concern to date (see been made via the international agreements on
Part II, Ch. 4). The “Paper by the Co-Chairs of the chemicals and waste discussed above. Further
intersessional process on the Strategic Approach areas of progress are noted below.
to International Chemicals Management and
the sound management of chemicals and Countries have prioritized chemicals for risk
waste beyond 2020” (prepared for the third assessment and management
meeting of the Open-ended Working Group of
the ICCM) includes as a strategic objective that In addition to and often preceding international
“issues of concern that warrant global action are efforts to prioritize chemicals, a number of
identified, prioritized and addressed”, noting in national and regional regulatory bodies have
the considerations that “the intention is to cover undertaken risk assessments and, subject to
topics similar in nature to those covered by the the results, undertaken risk management action
Strategic Approach, emerging policy issues and for a number of identified priority chemicals.
other issues of concern, as well as topics such Many countries have regulations on the use of
as managing specific chemicals, the burden of prioritized chemicals, including lead, cadmium,
disease and financing” (SAICM Secretariat 2019a). chromium, mercury and various highly hazardous
pesticides. Major initiatives to prioritize chemicals
3.2.3 Risk reduction for risk assessment and management include
the following:
The SAICM objectives for “risk reduction” include
the need to “minimize risks to human health, ›› The EU, under its REACH Regulation, had
including that of workers, and to the environment included as of February 2019, 197 chemicals
throughout the life cycle of chemicals”. Among on its “Candidate List of substances of very
others, stakeholders also aim “to implement high concern for Authorisation”. Special
transparent, comprehensive, efficient and authorization for production or use is
effective risk management strategies” (SAICM required for 43 chemicals (as of February
Secretariat, UNEP and WHO 2006). Significant 2019) and certain restriction conditions are in

place for 69 chemicals (ECHA n.d. c). The ECHA been assessed, and over 290 risk management
maintains a Community Rolling Action Plan actions have been taken to manage potential
that lists priority substances for evaluation risks to human health or the environment.
by Member States. By March 2018 the list (Government of Canada 2018a)
contained 108 chemicals (ECHA 2018).
›› In 2017 the Chinese Ministry of Environmental Management
Protection published the Prioritized List of
Substances Subject to Control. The use of The first version of the Code of Conduct on
the substances included on the list (currently Pesticide Management (see Part II, Ch. 1, 2) was
22 entries) is subject to restrictions, and adopted by the FAO Conference in 1985; the
enterprises are encouraged to opt for safer fourth version was approved by the Conference
alternatives (CIRS 2018). in 2013. The WHO adopted the Code in 2014 as its
reference framework for international guidance
›› Based on a screening process examining on pesticide management. The guidelines on
combined hazard, exposure and persistence pesticide legislation are an important tool for
and bioaccumulation characteristics, the US operationalizing the Code of Conduct by helping
EPA currently lists 90 chemicals/groups of to make necessary legislative changes (FAO and
chemicals in its Toxic Substances Control WHO 2014).
Action Work Plan. For selected chemicals/
groups of chemicals (10 to date), the agency The FAO hosts FAO-LEX, an on-line repository of
will conduct risk evaluations. Those conditions national legislation relevant to agriculture (FAO
of use determined by the risk evaluation to 2019). Almost all countries have implemented
present an unreasonable risk to health or pesticide legislation in accordance with the WHO/
the environment will move immediately into FAO Code of Conduct. According to a global survey
risk management, where restrictions will undertaken by the FAO in 2017, 173 FAO member
be imposed to eliminate such risk (US EPA countries had developed pesticide legislation
2018b). based on the Code of Conduct while five had not
yet done so (three from the African region and
›› Through Categorization, the Government of two from the LAC region). For 18 countries no
Canada identified approximately 4,300 of the data were available. Figure 3.15 shows countries
23,000 chemical substances on its Domestic that have pesticide legislation based on the Code
Substances List as meeting the criteria for of Conduct (FAO 2018). Progress in this area is
further attention, and launched the Chemicals promising, but significant further work is needed
Management Plan (CMP) to address these to fully implement best practices and minimize
priorities. Of the 4,300 substances, those that adverse effects from the use of pesticides, in
have been assessed and found to be toxic as particular highly hazardous pesticides, as further
per the Canadian Environmental Protection explored in Chapter 4.
Act, 1999 (i.e., harmful to human health and/or
the environment) have been further prioritized Asbestos
for development and implementation of risk
management measures, such as regulations, For a decade the Chemical Review Committee of
pollution prevention planning notices, codes the Rotterdam Convention has recommended
of practice and guidelines. Since the launch of listing chrysotile asbestos (the most common
the CMP in 2006, the Government of Canada type of commercial asbestos) in Annex III of
has implemented over 90 risk management the Convention in order to make it subject to
actions for existing chemicals (additional the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure in
tools are in development) and received international trade, but the COP has not yet
approximately 5900 notifications for new agreed to this. Altogether 56 countries have
substances prior to their introduction on the enacted legislation to strictly ban all uses of
Canadian market. These notifications have asbestos, as shown in Figure 3.16. However,
270
Part II
Figure 3.15 Countries with pesticide legislation, according to FAO data collected in the context of the
Code of Conduct (adapted from FAO 2018)
Active Not active No data
Figure 3.16 Countries that have banned the use of asbestos (updated and adapted based on Kazan-
Allen 2018)
Asbestos banned Asbestos not banned
© Mashava asbestos mine

Figure 3.17 Global status of phasing out lead in gasoline (adapted from UNEP 2017, p. 1)
Unleaded Leaded and unleaded
many countries outside Europe have not (yet) of countries took regulatory action to phase out
undertaken such action. Risk management of lead in gasoline, UNEP worked with a Partnership
asbestos throughout its life cycle can be seen for Clean Fuels and Vehicles, involving 120 civil
as contributing to OOG element 8. society organizations, governments and major
oil and vehicles companies, to support over 80
Lead in gasoline countries in the phase-out of lead in transport
fuel (UN 2011). This can be seen to contribute
In addition to regulatory action or bans, voluntary to OOG element 8. This commitment is also
initiatives can be instrumental in achieving reflected in many later documents, including
progress if they are taken seriously and tackled SAICM’s GPA. Progress has been steady and, as
in innovative ways by all actors. While a number of March 2017, lead in gasoline had been phased
Figure 3.18 Trends the in use of IOMC tools for risk reduction (adapted from SAICM Secretariat
2015a, p. 6)
International 52%
Code of Conduct
Others 13%
OECD eChem Portal 9%
WHO Classification 8%
of Pesticides
UNITAR Risk 7%
Management Plan
OECD technical 6%
guidelines
Control branding 2%
WHO Drinking Water -4%

Guidelines
WHO Air Quality -8%
Guidelines
FAO Pesticides -9%
Code of Conduct
-10% 0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
272
Part II
out in almost all countries. While phasing out lead poisonings and other chemical incidents” by
in gasoline can be considered a success story, it establishing poisons centres, which is also
also demonstrates that eliminating commonly underlined in a number of GPA activities (SAICM
used substances requires time and large-scale Secretariat 2015b).
investment (UNEP 2017) (Figure 3.17). Progress
in eliminating lead in decorative paint is explored Figure 3.19 shows the global distribution of
in Chapter 4. poisons centres as of September 2017. There
has been limited progress in establishing these
Use of IOMC tools for risk reduction centres. Less than half of countries have a
poisons centre, with the most notable gaps in
Risk assessment and risk reduction through the African, Eastern Mediterranean and Western
the use of best practices is reflected in OOG Pacific regions (WHO 2017). While 91 countries
element 8. A number of IOMC organizations had a poisons centre in 2010, only 90 countries
have developed guidance material which can be had one in 2016, the only IOMC indicator for
used by countries as tools for risk assessment which a downward trend can be observed (IOMC
and reduction. Some trends in the use of these 2019). The GPA target to have poisons centres
tools are shown in Figure 3.9. In general, there established in all countries by 2010 has therefore
is increased use of these tools, particularly not been achieved.
concerning the International Code of Conduct
on Pesticide Management. The tools shown in 3.2.4 Capacity building and technical
Figure 3.18, and many others, can be found in cooperation
the IOMC Toolbox (OECD 2018a).
SAICM’s objectives of “capacity building and
Poisons centres technical cooperation” include the need to
increase the capacity for sound chemicals
A poisons centre is a specialized unit that advises management, especially in developing countries
on, and assists with, the prevention, diagnosis and countries with economies in transition,
and management of poisoning. The WHO has through partnerships and mechanisms for
developed guidance and training materials technical cooperation, among others. SAICM
on poisons centres and their operations and is also to call upon existing and new sources of
periodically organizes training workshops financial support to provide additional resources
(WHO 2018b). Element 9 of the SAICM OOG (SAICM Secretariat, UNEP and WHO 2006). The
calls for strengthening “capacities to deal with section below provides an indication of the
Figure 3.19 Existence and distribution of poisons centres (adapted from WHO 2017)
Poisons centre

© Asian Development Bank, 30540-013: Agrarian Reform Communities in the Philippines CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
progress made towards this objective, in addition Assembly (UNEA) at its first session in 2014.
to the capacity building and financial support This approach has three mutually reinforcing
provided through international agreements. components to supplement and complement
domestic resources mobilized by countries, in
The SAICM Progress Report (SAICM Secretariat order to implement convention obligations and
2015a) found an increase of around 10 per cent in other commitments at the national and regional
the number of middle-income countries reporting level: mainstreaming, industry involvement, and
that their development assistance programmes dedicated external finance.
included chemicals, and increases of up to almost
80 per cent and 60 per cent for lower- and upper 3.4.2.1 Mainstreaming
middle-income countries, respectively, compared
with the first SAICM Progress Report. Moreover, Mainstreaming chemicals and waste occurs
progress was noted in the provision of financial when governments, both recipients and donors,
and technical resources: 57 per cent of countries integrate sound management of chemicals
reported the provision of bilateral financial and waste into their development plans and/
assistance, compared with only 34 per cent in or priorities. The overarching objective of
the first reporting period. Similar progress was mainstreaming is to align regulations, economic
observed in the provision of technical assistance. instruments and other policy instruments, with a
Yet the same report also found that, among the view to correcting market failures and ensuring
five objectives of the OPS, there had been least that the costs of environmental degradation are
progress towards achieving capacity building and covered according to the polluter pays principle.
technical cooperation (SAICM Secretariat 2015a). Various activities have been implemented to
support mainstreaming, including the UNEP and
As an important element of capacity building, UNDP partnership initiative, which was found to
the integrated approach to financing sound have been successful in introducing the sound
management of chemicals and waste was management of chemicals into development
adopted by the UNEP Governing Council in planning processes in some countries but less
2013 and welcomed by the UN Environment so in others (SAICM Secretariat 2015c). A number
274
Part II
of countries which participated in the initiative Given the limited progress in mobilizing financial
succeeded in engaging new stakeholders, resources in many countries, the report on
including in economic development sectors, Financing the Sound Management of Chemicals
finance and development planning (UNEP 2016). and Waste beyond 2020 (SAICM Secretariat
2018c) recommends exploring a range of new
The summary report on progress in the opportunities including, among others:
implementation of the Strategic Approach
for the period 2011-2013 (SAICM Secretariat ›› tapping into global sector funds related
2015a) found below-average levels of progress to sustainable development (e.g. those
on mainstreaming chemicals into national concerned with climate change or occupational
development plans. The impact evaluation of safety);
the Quick Start Programme (Nurick and Touni
2015) found that in many cases QSP projects ›› mobilizing philanthropic finance from
succeeded in “mainstreaming chemicals private individuals, foundations and other
management” into national legislation, policies organizations;
and institutions. However, in a few countries
projects were followed up through resources ›› exploring the potential of public pension
allocated from national budgets/resources. The funds and sovereign wealth funds;
draft independent evaluation of the Strategic
Approach from 2006-2015 (SAICM Secretariat ›› strengthening engagement of the financial
2018b) highlighted Zambia as a particularly sector and investors; and
successful example of mainstreaming chemicals
and waste into national financing as a result ›› creating linkages with the implementation of
of a QSP mainstreaming project. The Zambian the 2015 Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the
Environment Management Authority retained Third International Conference on Financing
fees raised through licensing of chemicals for Development.
manufacture and registration, importation
and export, and used them for monitoring and 3.2.4.2 Industry involvement
enforcement.
Industry involvement, in the context of the
In reviewing existing projects, the UNEP Report on integrated approach, has been understood
the Implementation of the Integrated Approach to as referring to financial resources for the
Financing the Sound Management of Chemicals and chemicals and waste agenda generated by the
Waste (UNEP 2016) identified a number of factors involvement of industry when, among others,
considered to be critical in further advancing industry internalizes the costs of complying
mainstreaming, namely: with chemicals and waste regulations; economic
instruments are used to recover and shift costs
›› align the chemicals mainstreaming activities to the private from the public sector; industry
with the policy cycle for national development transfers technology; industry pays taxes to
planning processes; governments; and industry takes innovative steps
to “green” chemicals and waste throughout their
›› ensure high-level buy-in by government life cycles. The private sector is an important
departments at the outset of activities; driver of progress, for example in light of the
importance of the significant resources it can
›› integrate the sound management of chemicals mobilize. At different stages of the chemical
into chemical-intensive sector plans to ensure life cycle relevant industries may have different
acceptance by the sector; and roles to play in chemicals management, for
example with respect to the application of the
›› make advice and guidance on economic polluter pays principle and extended producer
analysis available. responsibility. As highlighted in a report on
industry involvement, based on a consultative

Figure 3.20 Trends in private sector financial support (adapted from SAICM Secretariat 2015a, p. 13)
Western European and 44%

Others group
Central and 33%
Eastern Europe
Average 10%
Africa 2%
Asia-Pacific 0%
Latin America and -9%

the Caribbean
World -23%
-40% -20% 0 20% 40% 60%
Note: World = IOMC and global organizations; Average = average for all regions and world categories of
respondents
process facilitated by UNEP, “chemical producers (SAICM Secretariat 2015a) (Figure 3.21). The
have a specific responsibility” and “it is equally consultative process facilitated by UNEP
important to ensure that all others involved in highlighted that chemical producers already
the value chain recognize their responsibility contribute to the sound management of chemicals
and act accordingly” (SAICM Secretariat 2015d). in various ways, including through testing of
substances; development of exposure scenarios;
While a very small number of respondents development of Material Safety Data Sheets;
reported accessing private sector finance in meeting labelling and packaging requirements;
the first SAICM reporting period, a 10 per cent sharing information with downstream users;
increase during the second reporting period and voluntary product stewardship initiatives.
represents a doubling of the total number; However, it also found “significant gaps in
however, this was mainly driven by the Western practice” regarding the contribution of producers
European and Other States (SAICM Secretariat (SAICM Secretariat 2015d). The process made
2015a) (Figure 3.20). Stakeholders also reported a number of recommendations to advance
that industry participation in multi-stakeholder industry involvement, including that governments
committees increased on average by 6 per cent adopt and implement legal instruments that
Figure 3.21 Trends in industry participation in multi-stakeholder committees (adapted from SAICM
Secretariat 2015a, p. 13)
Western European and 20.11%

Others Group
Central and 16.67%
Eastern Europe
Latin America and 6.39%
the Caribbean
Africa 5.79%
Average 5.62%
Asia-Pacific -15.81%
-20% -10% 0 10% 20% 30%
Note: Average = average for all regions and world categories of respondents
276
Part II
define responsibilities and that industry further BRS Conventions. The chemical industry has
incorporate sound chemicals management in also contributed financial resources amounting
corporate governance. to around US dollars 299,000 to the SAICM
Secretariat (SAICM Secretariat 2018b). The Quick
The Responsible Care® Global Charter is Start Programme impact evaluation (Nurick and
described as the backbone of the global Touni 2015) found industry involvement in QSP
chemical industry’s voluntary Responsible project coordination and delivery to be common
Care® programme. It outlines nine key elements if not universal, with provision of information
intended to enhance partners’ health, safety, constituting an important contribution by
and environmental performance. The Global industry stakeholders. More substantive industry
Charter has been signed in 68 countries by 580 involvement has been achieved through projects
companies, comprising 96 per cent of the largest with industry-relevant themes (e.g. GHS projects
chemical companies (ICCA 2015a) (Figure 3.22). which involved importers, while Chemical
However, there are significant regional variations Accident Prevention Plan projects involved users
in the implementation of the Responsible Care® of chemicals). However, a very small minority of
programme. Gaps, especially in Africa and Latin countries reported examples of the development
America, are explained partly by the lack of major and introduction of economic instruments to
chemical company operations in many countries promote industry participation in financing for
in these regions, and partly by the difficulty of chemical management. Some limited examples of
engaging local and regional chemical companies clarification of responsibilities are also described.
in Responsible Care®. The target set in the GPA In Nepal, for example, the introduction of a ban
(SAICM Secretariat, UNEP and WHO 2006) for on lead in paint resulted in the establishment of
the implementation of Responsible Care® in all private sector laboratories to meet the demand
relevant countries by 2010 has thus not yet been from the paint industry to test paints for lead
fully achieved. concentrations (Nurick and Touni 2015).
Industry is also involved in a number of activities 3.4.2.3 External financing

related to chemicals and waste (including
SAICM) at the international level, for example External financing complements the components
through partnerships such as those between of mainstreaming and industry involvement
UNEP and the ICCA and the Mobile Phone through a financial mechanism to support
Partnership Initiative of the Secretariat of the recipient countries in implementing their legal
Figure 3.22 Countries with a chemical industry which have implemented the Responsible Care®
programme (adapted from ICCA 2019, p. 26 and 27)
Implementing Not implementing

obligations and other commitments for the since its first Operational Strategy in 1995. At
sound management of chemicals and waste. The that time funding was restricted to action under
external financing component of the integrated the Montreal Protocol. In GEF-2 a dedicated
approach comprises the establishment of programme for POPs was first introduced, as
national chemicals and waste units in all recipient the GEF became an official funding mechanism
countries, as well as the creation of an integrated under the Stockholm Convention. In GEF-4
chemicals and waste focal area under the GEF, as separate focal areas for POPs and ODS were
established in GEF-5 (2010-2014). Strengthening maintained, while support for sound chemicals
sustainable chemistry technology innovation and management was made explicit for the first time
financing is discussed in Part IV, Ch. 3. through a cross-cutting strategic objective on
sound chemicals management. Mercury was
The Global Environment Facility addressed to a limited extent by one of the
strategic programmes under the International
The Global Environment Waters focal area.
Facility (GEF) strategy
to address chemicals Subsequently, under GEF-5, a Chemicals Strategy
and waste has changed offered a unifying framework to support the
significantly over POPs and ODS focal areas, as well as for sound
time, and funding has chemicals management and mercury (projects
increased substantially on sound management and mercury were
Figure 3.23 Resource allocations for chemicals and waste by GEF round (based on GEF projects
online database [GEF 2018])
1,800 1,781
1,658
1,600
1,400
1,200
US dollars million
1,000
800
600
400 375
352
200
110 43 21 116 112 37 23
83 78 6 7 2 2 1 91 87
0 TF CF TF CF TF CF TF CF TF CF TF CF TF CF TF CF TF CF TF CF
Chemicals
ODS ODS POPs ODS POPs ODS POPs ODS POPs and waste
GEF-1 GEF-2 GEF-3 GEF-4 GEF-5 GEF-6
1994–1998 1998–2002 2002–2006 2006–2010 2010–2014 2014–2018
TF=Trust fund CF=Co-funding ODS=Ozone-depleting substances POPs=Persistent organic pollutants
The figure shows the total value/cost of all single-focal area projects (unless ODS and POPs
are combined, in which case the project values were summed in the POPs focal area). For GEF
1-4 only the value/cost of completed projects are included in the calculation. The value/cost of
cancelled projects and projects submitted to the GEF Secretariat but not (yet) approved were
not included in any replenishment cycle.
278
Part II
Figure 3.24 GEF-6 projects by chemical group (based on GEF projects online database GEF 2018)
80 79
70
60
Number of projects
50
43
40
30
20
10 5 4 11
1
0 Mercury Persistent organic Sound management Ozone-depleting Municipal waste Multi-focal area
pollutants substances
Multi-focal area projects that include chemicals and waste among other focal areas have been
counted. Excludes cancelled projects and projects submitted to the GEF Secretariat but not (yet)
approved.
included in the POP Focal Area). GEF-5 (2010- The Quick Start Programme
2014) established an integrated chemicals and
waste Focal Area under the GEF. For GEF-6 the The Quick Start Programme (QSP) was established
GEF Assembly created a single Focal Area for in 2006 by the International Conference of
chemicals and waste, replacing the POPs and ODS Chemicals Management (ICCM) at its first session
focal areas. The GEF-6 Strategy shows increased to support initial capacity building activities for
attention to mercury, covered under four of its the implementation of SAICM. Subject to certain
six programmes, consistent with the progress conditions, civil society networks participating in
in negotiations of the Minamata Convention SAICM are eligible for QSP projects.
(Figure 3.23) (Independent Evaluation Office of
the Global Environment Facility 2018). Under From the date it was established to
GEF-7 chemicals and waste objectives can also December 2017, the QSP mobilized over
be achieved through impact programmes, for US dollars 47.6 million. This amount includes
example on sustainable cities. approximately US dollars 39.4 million in cash
contributions to the QSP Trust Fund and over
The programming targets for the chemicals US dollars 9.7 million in cash and/or in-kind
and waste focal area under GEF-6 consisted of contributions from project implementers and
US dollars 554 million, compared to US dollars Executing Agencies. The largest share of the
425 million for GEF-5, to support implementation projects was implemented in Africa, followed by
of the Stockholm Convention, the Minamata Asia-Pacific and LAC (SAICM Secretariat 2018d)
Convention, the Montreal Protocol and SAICM (in (Figure 3.25). The QSP impact evaluation (Nurick
order of magnitude). This represents 12.5 per cent and Touni 2015), which reviewed 158 projects
of total GEF-6 replenishment (GEF 2014) As of funded by the QSP Trust Fund as of October 2014,
August 2018, US dollars 375 million was allocated found the Trust Fund to be a unique funding
to projects and almost US dollars 2 billion in co- stream. Many projects developed externally
financing was mobilized. The majority of direct funded projects that effectively continued QSP
funding was allocated for projects in Africa, projects (e.g. with funds from GEF, UN agencies,
while Asia mobilized the highest amount of NGOs and donors). However, challenges were
co-financing. GEF-7 has an indicative allocation encountered in leveraging further resources.
of US dollars 599 million, representing a slight The QSP has been terminated.
increase compared to GEF-6, which is entirely
for the Minamata Convention, while the other
recipients from GEF-6 received less.

Figure 3.25 Overview of the Quick Start Programme (adapted from SAICM Secretariat 2018d)
10
countries
US dollars 4.5 M
Central and
Eastern Europe
28
countries 30
countries
40
countries
US dollars 9.6 M
US dollars 9.3 M
Latin America and
the Caribbean Asia-Pacific
US dollars 13.3 M
Africa
Total of 184 QSP projects in 108 countries.
The Special Programme to Support must be a Party to any one of the relevant
Institutional Strengthening conventions or have demonstrated that they
are in the process of preparing for ratification of
The Special any one of the Conventions. Countries also have
Programme to identify the associated domestic measures to
to Support be taken, in order to ensure that the national
Institutional institutional capacity supported by the Special
St r e ngt he ni ng Programme is sustainable in the long term. As
supports country-driven institutional of August 2018, the Special Programme had
strengthening at the national level, in the received contributions of US dollars 17 million.
context of an integrated approach to address the It has processed two rounds of applications and
financing of the sound management of chemicals is currently funding projects in 24 countries in
and waste (taking into account the national Africa, CEE, Asia-Pacific and LAC with a total
development strategies, plans and priorities budget of US dollars 6.85 million.
of each country) to increase sustainable public
institutional capacity for the sound management 3.2.4.4 Other capacity development
of chemicals and waste throughout their life support
cycle. Institutional strengthening under the
Special Programme will facilitate and enable International bodies
the implementation of the Basel, Rotterdam
and Stockholm Conventions, the Minamata In line with their respective mandates, the nine
Convention and the Strategic Approach to IOMC participating organizations have made
International Chemicals Management (SAICM). significant efforts to strengthen national and
Its terms of reference were adopted by the UNEA regional capacities for the environmentally sound
at its first session in 2014. management of chemicals and waste. A large
number of projects have been implemented
Support from the Special Programme is available over the years, including technical assistance
for developing countries (taking into account the and guidance to reduce reliance on chemicals
special needs of least developed countries and in agriculture; promotion of occupational health
Small Island Developing States) and for countries and safety; facilitation of environmentally
with economies in transition, with priority given sound disposal of POPs; and development of
to those with least capacity. Eligible countries inventories. An overview of the large number
280
Part II
Figure 3.26 Increase in percentage of developing country governments with development assistance
programmes that address chemicals (adapted from SAICM Secretariat 2015a, p. 13)
LM -3%
OL 0%
LDC 4%
Average 8%
UM 10%
-10% -5% 0 5% 10 15%
LDC: Least Developed Countries; LM: Lower Middle-income countries; OL: Other Low-income
countries; UM: Upper Middle-income countries (DAC List of Official Development Assistance
Recipients) (OECD 2018b); Average = average for all regions and world categories of respondents
of activities on chemicals issues of the IOMC safety and disposal of obsolete pesticides (GIZ
participating organizations in countries is 2014). Another example is the Swedish Chemicals
compiled in a database (WHO 2018c). Agency (KEMI) programme “Towards a Non-toxic
South-East Asia”, which aims to reduce health
An important contribution to support national and environmental risks in several countries by,
capacity is the development of the IOMC Toolbox among others, strengthening capacity to innovate
for decision-making in chemicals management. and scale up integrated pest management (KEMI
The internet-based Toolbox enables countries 2016). Developing countries have also made
to identify the most relevant and efficient tools progress in incorporating chemicals management
(e.g. guidelines, protocols and data sheets) to in development assistance programmes
address specific national problems in chemicals (SAICM indicator 16) (SAICM Secretariat 2015a)
management, covering among others a (Figure 3.26).
national management scheme for pesticides,
an occupational health and safety system, and Civil society activities
a chemical accident prevention, preparedness
and response system. Since 2009 the IOMC A number of civil society organizations
participating organizations have also taken an implement projects across the world, particularly
active role in addressing the SAICM emerging in developing countries with limited capacity
policy issues, either leading or co-leading the for the environmentally sound management
activities. Moreover, these organizations have of chemicals and waste. Examples include the
continued to provide assistance to countries, International SAICM Implementation Project led
at their request, to implement the QSP project. by the International POPs Elimination Network
(IPEN), under which more than 100 activities
Bilateral development assistance have been implemented in 50 countries to raise
awareness, provide sectoral support, engage civil
A number of countries provide direct capacity- society in regulatory and institutional reforms,
development support and technical assistance and build capacity for the sound management
to facilitate sound chemicals management. For, of chemicals and waste (IPEN 2018). Among
example the Chemical Safety Convention Projects numerous other initiatives facilitated by civil
of the German Association for International society organizations are those implemented
Cooperation (GIZ) feature a number of projects by Health Care Without Harm and the Pesticide
in developing countries covering, for example, Action Network.
capacity building courses for SMEs on work

Figure 3.27 Comparison of results of the 2015 ICCA progress report with the 2009 baseline for
SAICM indicators under capacity building and technical cooperation (adapted from ICCA
2015b, p. 7)
2015
No. of countries providing resources
(financial and in kind) to assist
capacity building and technical
2009
cooperation with other countries
2015
No. of countries that have identified
and prioritized their capacity
building needs for the sound
management of chemicals 2009
2015
No. of countries engaged in regional

cooperation on issues relating to the
2009
sound management of chemicals

2015
No. of countries where development

assistance programmes include the
2009
sound management of chemicals

2015
No. of countries with projects

supported by the Strategic
Approach’s Quick Start Programme
2009
Trust Fund
No. of countries (and organizations)
2015
with sound management of chemical

projects supported by other sources
of funding (not Quick Start
2009
Programme funding)
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Updated Completed In development No progress
Private sector activities 3.2.5 Illegal international traffic
In its fifth update report on implementation Despite progress made, including through
of SAICM, the ICCA (ICCA 2015b) highlighted the Basel Convention and the Rotterdam
the chemical industry’s contribution to building Convention, illegal international traffic remains
capacity for the environmentally sound on the international agenda
management of chemicals and waste through
initiatives such as Responsible Care® and the Despite significant progress made in regulating
Global Product Strategy. Reporting collected from the transboundary movement of chemicals and
its member associations indicated significant waste, including through the Basel Convention
progress in advancing indicators under the OPS and the Rotterdam Convention, illegal
on capacity building and technical cooperation international traffic remains a pressing global
(Figure 3.27). Other examples include training problem for many countries. Under the heading
farmers in developing countries in the responsible in the OPS “Illegal international traffic”, SAICM
use of pesticides, facilitated by CropLife (CropLife aims to prevent illegal international traffic in
International 2018a). toxic, hazardous, banned and severely restricted
chemicals, including products incorporating
these chemicals, mixtures and compounds and
wastes (SAICM Secretariat, UNEP and WHO 2006).
In 2018 participants in the sixth SAICM Africa
282
Part II
from what an authorized seller represents (UNEP

2019b).
The rapid growth of the agriculture industry has

led to intensive production and use of pesticides,
including illegal pesticides. Trade in fake, obsolete
and banned chemicals is taking place in illicit and
licit markets. The identification and interception
of illegal pesticides, however, is complicated by
the vast number of chemicals on the market,
low human and physical capacities to inspect
shipments, and low awareness about the share
of illegal trade. In some countries inadequate and
unclear government enforcement responsibilities
encourage non-compliance. Furthermore, new
challenges emerge with e-commerce.
© Lisa Rivali/Shutterstock
Some examples reveal that illegal trade of

pesticides can be rather high. For instance,
Regional Meeting emphasized the importance of Europol conducted a series of three enforcement
stopping illegal traffic, as well as the dumping of actions against the illegal trade in chemicals,
chemicals and waste, in Africa (SAICM Secretariat the latest of which seized 360 tonnes of illegal
2018e). The need for more work to address pesticides including counterfeit pesticides
illegal trafficking of chemicals and waste across (Europol 2018). Recent EU reports estimate
countries was also highlighted at the fifth SAICM that 14 per cent of pesticides sold in Europe are
Asia-Pacific Regional Meeting (SAICM Secretariat counterfeit and illegal, causing losses in revenue
2018f) and the sixth SAICM CEE Regional Meeting for the legitimate industry at around euros 1.3
(SAICM Secretariat 2018g). However, data and billion annually (European Union Intellectual
information on illegal international traffic of Property Office 2017; Europol 2018). Another
chemicals and waste is scarce. This gap is to be study from India indicates that about 30 per cent
addressed in a project led by UN Environment of the volume of the domestic pesticide industry
and GRID-Arendal. was illegal in 2013 (Agarwal and Garg 2015).
Illegal trade in products, pesticides and Illegal trade is also a challenge in production
production processes poses diverse challenges processes. For example, data available through
the Artisanal Gold Council and the United Nations
An important issue receiving the attention international trade statistics database (United
of policymakers is the import of products Nations Comtrade 2018) suggest that about
(e.g. cosmetics, toys, jewellery) that may contain half of all mercury used in artisanal and small-
banned substances (Chemical Watch 2018d). scale gold mining (ASGM) is traded illegally or
High concentrations of heavy metals in toys informally.
are regularly reported (Environment and Social
Development Organization 2013; Ismail et al. Initiatives are in place at the global and
2017; Venugopal and Bose 2018). However, regional level
capacities for authorities to detect chemical
concentrations in consumer products are often Addressing illegal international traffic requires
limited. Further examples of products containing the existence of adequate legislative frameworks
illegal contaminants are skin lightening creams and their enforcement, both of which continue to
and soaps. Another emerging topic is the trade present challenges in many countries including,
of low-quality fuels and fake fuels – products that but not exclusively, developing countries. Efforts
contain substances in addition to or different and initiatives are under way in many countries to

adopt new regulations and strengthen capacities Traffic (ENFORCE) coordinated by the Secretariat
for the control of transboundary movements. of the Basel Convention.
SAICM stakeholders have reported significant
progress in monitoring traffic; implementation Large amounts of illegal waste are seized by
of national legislation preventing traffic; and authorities
training border control authorities, among others
(SAICM Secretariat 2015a). Awareness and knowledge of the trade of
hazardous waste and other wastes between
A number of governments are scaling up countries with different economies are
monitoring and control measures for imported growing. In 2017 the International Criminal
products, but such activities still remain very Police Organization (INTERPOL) coordinated a
limited. For example, KEMI regularly inspects global enforcement initiative to combat illegal
companies importing products to verify that transboundary movement of chemicals and
they are in compliance with existing legislative waste. As a result of this operation, over 1.5 million
requirements (KEMI 2017a). It has implemented tonnes of illicit waste were detected (INTERPOL
enforcement projects targeting, among 2017a; INTERPOL 2017b). The European Network
others, trade in products exceeding allowable for the Implementation and Enforcement of
concentrations (KEMI 2017b). In the context of Environmental Law (IMPEL) regularly conducts
the Montreal Protocol, a global award has been coordinated regional inspections to implement
launched to recognize the critical role of customs the waste shipment regulation. The results of the
and enforcement officers in implementing trade latest project revealed that 16 per cent of waste-
restrictions and bans on HCFCs and HFCs (UNEP related shipments violated waste shipment
2018b). regulations (Olley, Ross and O’Shea 2016).
At the international level, the Rotterdam In 2013 a joint operation across Europe and the
Convention is a key instrument providing an Asia-Pacific region, Demeter III, was initiated
international framework to address international by China Customs and organized by the World
trade in certain hazardous chemicals and Customs Organization (WCO) to target mainly
pesticides. The Convention’s PIC procedure illicit maritime consignments of hazardous and
aims to ensure compliance of exporting Parties other wastes. The operation netted more than
with the decisions of importing Parties as to 7,000 tonnes of illegal waste, including hazardous
whether they wish to receive future shipments waste and e-waste (WCO 2014).
of chemicals listed in Annex III of the Convention.
With respect to the waste dimension of illegal Action is also taken in the private sector
international traffic, the Parties to the Basel
Convention adopt decisions providing policy A number of initiatives taken by, or in
guidance to the Parties on how to prevent and cooperation with, the private sector seek to
combat illegal traffic. For example, Parties are address international illegal traffic. The US
encouraged to exchange information on their EPA has taken a positive step by working out
legislation or best practices and to transmit to an agreement with one of the largest online
the Secretariat forms for confirmed cases of retailers to combat illegal trade in pesticides on
illegal traffic. Parties also develop and adopt the basis of inspections and monitoring evidence
guidelines on how to prevent and combat illegal (US EPA 2018c). A private sector initiative, China
traffic. A number of initiatives, soft laws and Checkup, has attempted to warn customers
policy frameworks foster cooperation between about fraudulent suppliers on the platform of
and within regions, building the capacities of law another major online retailer (Slater 2015). As
enforcers and providing additional knowledge regards pesticides, CropLife is engaged in anti-
tools, among other activities. Examples include counterfeiting activities and works with relevant
the Green Customs Initiative, coordinated by authorities to ensure that only authentic crop
UNEP, and the Environmental Network for protection products are traded and that they
Optimizing Regulatory Compliance on illegal
284
Part II
Table 3.9 Stakeholder perceptions of the degree of success regarding prevention of illegal
international traffic in chemicals and waste
Stakeholder group Very successful Some success Little success Unsuccessful Don’t know
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Africa 19 43 10 24 5
Asia-Pacific 0 25 50 0 25
Central and Eastern Europe 14 14 29 14 29
Latin American and Caribbean 0 30 22 4 43
EU/JUSSCANNZ 6 38 13 19 25
UN agencies 0 0 20 20 60
Civil society 12 12 12 35 29
Industry 7 36 21 7 29
JUSSCANNZ: Japan, US, Switzerland, Canada, Australia, Norway, New Zealand and other non-EU countries.
are used in a safe, responsible manner (CropLife to illegal international traffic (one of the five
International 2018b). objectives of the SAICM OPS) some measure of
success (very successful, some, little) has been
SAICM stakeholders report progress in achieved, while 49 per cent do not see a clear
addressing illegal international traffic measure of success (unsuccessful, don’t know).
Comparing this to the average of opinions on the
According to the Draft Report of the Independent four other objectives (86 per cent found there
Evaluation of the Strategic Approach from 2006- was a measure of success, while 14 per cent
2015 (SAICM Secretariat 2018b), 52 per cent of did not), it is obvious that this OPS objective
SAICM stakeholders consider that with respect has been the most challenging and needs more
© Basel Convention Regional Centre for Asia and the Pacific

effort. Opinions on success in the prevention of reported to return back to the markets (UNEP
illegal international traffic among the various 2019b).
stakeholder groups is presented in Table 3.9.
Particularly in the Latin American and Caribbean Ninety-five countries have ratified the Basel Ban
region, in civil society and within the UN agencies, Amendment, which would ban transboundary
there has clearly been a perception of success shipments of hazardous wastes for any reason,
(SAICM Secretariat 2018b). including recycling, from the Member States of
the EU and the OECD, and from Liechtenstein, to
Challenges remain, among others due to other Parties. However, the Amendment will only
differences in regulatory frameworks enter into force on the 90th day after receipt of
the instrument of ratification, approval, formal
National legislation regarding the legality of trade confirmation or acceptance by at least three-
in chemicals differs significantly from jurisdiction fourths (66) of the 87 Parties at the time the
to jurisdiction. The Basel Convention allows Amendment was adopted in 1995, which has not
Parties to define certain wastes as hazardous yet occurred. In addition, the majority of African
beyond those listed by the Convention; hence the countries have ratified the Bamako Convention,
exact scope of the Convention differs from one which prohibits the import of any hazardous
country to another, with the consequence that waste and which entered into force in 1998.
some wastes are legally defined as hazardous
in one jurisdiction but not in another. Similarly, 3.2.6 Additional insights from SAICM
maximum residue levels of pesticides are not stakeholder reporting
uniform despite attempts to adopt global
standards through the Codex Alimentarius. Food Stakeholder reporting on SAICM implementation,
products banned in one country may still be as well as the independent evaluation of SAICM,
permitted entry in countries that allow higher provide additional insights relevant for assessing
levels of hazardous substances. Adding to these progress towards the achievement of the 2020
complexities, existing multilateral treaties allow goal. Information gathered via these mechanisms
for certain exemptions and many chemicals that is primarily derived from stakeholder perceptions
are traded internationally fall outside the scope of progress made in advancing activities relevant
of multilateral treaties. for the five objectives of the OPS. It can thus
provide additional, although limited, knowledge
Avoiding loopholes: the Ban Amendment and and complement the analysis of initiatives and
the Bamako Convention actions described in the preceding sections.
Despite significant progress in international Stakeholder perceptions of progress under

governance, the consequences of illegal SAICM
international traffic of waste and chemicals
are still a burden on human health and the SAICM was adopted in 2006 at ICCM 1 in
environment. A topic of particular relevance is the Dubai. As stipulated in paragraph 24 of the
distinction between products and waste, which OPS, the ICCM undertakes a periodic review of
is often not straightforward but highly relevant, SAICM based on reports from stakeholders. A
as different regulations apply. In many cases baseline estimates report, covering the period
hazardous wastes are relabelled and replaced 2006-2008, was prepared in 2011 (SAICM
on the market. Hazardous waste, particularly Secretariat 2011). Three progress reports, for
electrical and electronic waste, is frequently falsely 2009-2010 (SAICM Secretariat 2012), 2011-
declared as second-hand goods for recycling 2013 (SAICM Secretariat 2014) and 2014-2016
in order to circumvent existing regulations (SAICM Secretariat 2019b), were subsequently
prohibiting the export of hazardous waste to a prepared. The Summary Report on progress in
number of developing countries (Lipman 2015; implementing the Strategic Approach for the
Garlapati 2016). Obsolete pesticides are also period 2011-2013 was submitted to the fourth
session of the International Conference on
286
Part II
Figure 3.28 Selected SAICM indicators, comparing results for 2009-2010 and 2011-2013 (adapted
from SAICM Secretariat 2014, p. 13)
3 - No. of countries (and organizations) with hazardous

waste management arrangements
12 - No. of countries (and organizations) with
mechanisms to implement key international chemicals
priorities
13 - No. of countries (and organizations) providing
resources (financial and in kind) to assist capacity
building and technical cooperation with other countries
20 - Per cent respondents with mechanisms to prevent
illegal traffic in hazardous waste
15 - No. of countries (and organizations) engaged in
regional cooperation on issues relating to the sound
management of chemicals
5 - No. of countries (and organizations) having
mechanisms in place for setting priorities for risk
reduction
6 - Number of countries (and organizations) providing
information according to internationally harmonized
standards
4 - No. of countries (and organizations) engaged in
activities that result in monitoring data on selected
environmental and human health priority substances
9 - No. of countries (or organizations) with websites that
provide information to stakeholders
7 - No. of countries (and organizations) that have specific
strategies in place for communicating information on the
risks associated with chemicals to vulnerable groups
2 - No. of countries (and organizations) with mechanisms
to address key categories of chemicals
19 - Per cent respondents with mechanisms to prevent
illegal traffic in toxic, hazardous and severely restricted
chemicals individually
1 - No. of countries (and organizations) implementing
agreed chemical management tools
11 - No. of countries (and organizations) with multi-

stakeholder coordination mechanisms
8 - No. of countries (and organizations) with research

programmes
10 - No. of countries (and organizations) that have
committed themselves to implementation of the
Strategic Approach
16 - No. of countries where development assistance
programmes include the sound management of
chemicals
18 - No. of governments with capacity building activities
supported by other sources of funding
14 - No. of countries (and organizations) that have
identified and prioritized their capacity building needs
for the sound management of chemicals
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
Average % of possible options selected by all stakeholders, by indicator
First SAICM reporting process Second SAICM reporting process
The figure shows the average number of activities undertaken for each indicator as a percentage
of all possible options for activities listed for the given indicator in the questionnaire. The
indicators are listed in order of the greatest positive change between the first and the second
reporting process.

Figure 3.29 Progress against objectives since the first reporting period, by region (adapted from
SAICM Secretariat 2015a, p. 4)
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
-0.10
-0.20
-0.30 Africa Asia-Pacific Central and Latin America Western World Average
Eastern Europe and the European and
Caribbean Others Group
Objective A Objective B Objective C Objective D Objective E
Note: World = IOMC and global organizations; Average = average for all regions and world
categories of respondents
Objective A: Risk reduction
Objective B: Knowledge and information
Objective C: Governance
Objective D: Capacity building and technical cooperation
Objective E: Illegal international traffic
International Chemicals Management (ICCM4) The SAICM progress reports show that efforts in
(SAICM Secretariat 2015a). most countries focus on obligations stemming
from legally binding instruments, particularly the
In the second progress report there was a Montreal Protocol and the Basel and Stockholm
comparison, for selected SAICM indicators, of Conventions. Countries also reported a high
the results for 2009-2010 with those for 2011- level of activity on mechanisms to address
2013. Figure 3.28 shows the average number pesticides and mercury, monitoring activities
of activities undertaken for each indicator as a and national chemicals safety committees. The
percentage of all possible options for activities least commonly selected activities related to
listed for the given indicator in the questionnaire accessing finance (SAICM Secretariat 2012; SAICM
(SAICM Secretariat 2014). The greatest increase Secretariat 2014).
observed in the number of activities selected was
in indicator 3 (hazardous waste management Information for a third report on progress in
arrangements). the 2014-2016 period has been collected from
stakeholders by the SAICM Secretariat. However,
The Summary Progress Report indicates progress the report notes that the very low response rate
by regions since the first report. As shown in does not allow comparison with previous reports,
Figure 3.29 progress across the regions differs and it is therefore not feasible to measure
significantly (SAICM Secretariat 2015a). A progress using the information received from
significant improvement in the range of activities stakeholders (SAICM Secretariat 2019b).
was reported by respondents in the Western
European and Other States between the first Results from the independent evaluation of
and second reporting periods. The CEE and SAICM
LAC regions reported generally higher levels
of activity during the second reporting period In 2016 SAICM started an independent evaluation
compared to the first, while the African and the of progress at the national and global levels,
Asia-Pacific regions reported fewer activities. with the objective of collecting data to inform
288
Part II
Box 3.5 SAICM independent evaluation: on-line survey of stakeholders
The draft Independent evaluation of the Strategic Approach from 2006-2015 was presented to
the second meeting of the intersessional process considering the Strategic Approach and the
sound management of chemicals and waste beyond 2020 (SAICM Secretariat 2018b). An online
survey was designed to capture SAICM stakeholder perceptions of the performance of SAICM. For
a variety of SAICM parameters or activities, stakeholders were asked whether they considered
work in this field to be very successful; having some success; having little success; unsuccessful;
or whether they did not know the extent of success. Between November 2016 and January
2017, 212 respondents completed (or partially completed) the survey, of which 64 per cent were
government representatives from across the five regions. The information in Tables 3.2 and 3.3
reflects the stakeholders’ perceptions of levels of success.
decisions for the Strategic Approach and the increasing knowledge and reducing risks.
sound management of chemicals and waste However, it pointed out weaknesses such as
beyond 2020 (Box 3.5). insufficient sectoral engagement; the capacity
constraints of national focal points; lack of
Stakeholder perceptions on achieving the OPS tools to measure progress; limited financing of
objectives, as obtained through the independent activities; and insufficient and uneven advances
evaluation, are shown in Table 3.10 (SAICM in substantive areas such as illegal international
Secretariat 2018b). For all the objectives the traffic (SAICM Secretariat 2018b).
majority of respondents indicated that there
was “some success”. An average of 14 per cent For each objective, however, and also in the
indicated they did not know what the degree various regions in most cases, the percentage
of success was, with a high percentage of indicating “some success” was highest.
31 per cent in the case of objective E on illegal Some significant differences concern CEE
international traffic. The independent evaluation stakeholders, of which 43 per cent considered
found that perceptions of the level of success in implementation of “Objective A. Risk reduction”
implementing the OPS objectives varied across to be very successful, 71 per cent considered
regions. implementation of “Objective B. Knowledge
and information” to be very successful, and
Overall, the independent evaluation found that 43 per cent considered implementation of the
SAICM is unique in its ambition as an inclusive capacity building objective to be successful.
multi-stakeholder, multi-sector voluntary policy Among civil society stakeholders, 35 per cent
framework. It also found that SAICM creates considered implementation of “Objective E. illegal
a collaborative space for raising awareness, international traffic” to be unsuccessful.
Table 3.10 Stakeholder perceptions of the degree of success in achieving OPS objectives (SAICM
Secretariat 2018b, p. 24)
OPS objective Very successful Some success Little success Unsuccessful Don’t know
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
A. Risk reduction 15 56 16 3 11
B. Knowledge- and information- 22 54 14 2 7
sharing
C. Governance 16 47 20 5 12
D. Capacity building and technical 20 40 25 4 11
cooperation
E. Illegal international traffic 7 27 18 18 31

Table 3.11 Stakeholder perceptions of the degree of success in incorporating the SAICM emerging
policy issues (EPIs) and other issues of concern in activities
EPI/issue of Start at (Co-)lead Very Some Little success Unsuccessful Don’t know
concern ICCM successful (%) success (%) (%) (%) (%)
number
Lead in paint 2 UNEP/WHO 27 29 5 6 34

Chemicals in 2 UNEP 14 38 13 7 28
products
HSLEEP 2 UNIDO 12 20 15 11 41
Nanotechnology/ 2 UNITAR/OECD 18 19 14 10 38
nanomaterials
PFCs OECD/UNEP 11 27 10 8 44
EDCs 3 OECD/UNEP/WHO 24 22 12 9 32
EPPP 4 UNEP/WHO 8 22 13 10 46
HHP 4 FAO/UNEP/ WHO 22 26 10 6 36
HSLEEP: hazardous substances within the life cycle of electrical and electronic products; PFCs:
perfluorinated chemicals and the transition to safer alternatives; EDCs: endocrine-disrupting
chemicals; EPPP: environmentally persistent pharmaceutical pollutants; HHP: highly hazardous
pesticides
Results from the independent evaluation of nanomaterials: 27 per cent “very successful” in

the EPIs and other issues of concern EU/JUSSCANNZ and 43 per cent “little success”
in the CEE region; hazardous substances
Table 3.11 shows the degree of success within the life cycle of electrical and electronic
respondents considered they had had in products (HSLEEP): 50 per cent “some success”
incorporating emerging policy issues (EPIs) into in the Asia-Pacific region and 50 per cent “little
their activities, as reflected in the independent success” or “unsuccessful” in the African region;
evaluations (SAICM Secretariat 2018b). Details and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs):
on progress with each EPI are given in Part II, 42 per cent “very successful” in industry and
Ch. 4. Perceptions of the level of success can 0 per cent in the LAC region.
differ significantly over regions and stakeholder
groups, possibly reflecting the level of activity The evaluation noted that the identification
in the region or the level of engagement of the of (and actions taken on) the eight EPIs and
stakeholder groups involved. Examples are: for other issues of concern were a major strength
lead in paint, 50 per cent “very successful” in civil and uniqueness of SAICM, and that the IOMC
society and 40 per cent in the EU/JUSSCANNZ participating organizations have been actively
(Japan, the United States, Switzerland, Canada, involved in leading activities on the EPIs (SAICM
Australia, Norway, New Zealand and other Secretariat 2018b). Nevertheless, it found that
non-EU countries), while this was 0 per cent progress in implementing the EPIs has been slow,
in the Asia-Pacific region; nanotechnology/ modest and uneven.
290
Part II
4/ Emerging policy issues and other issues of

concern
A process has been established under SAICM to identify emerging policy issues
(EPIs) and other issues of concern; to date, eight issues have been identified by
the international community.
The nomination of the EPIs and other issues of concern has successfully raised
awareness, focused the attention of stakeholders and catalysed initiatives;
however, challenges remain.
In addressing lead in paint, hazardous substances within the life cycle of

electrical and electronic products (HSLEEP) and highly hazardous pesticides
(HHPs), further collaborative action can be taken, including at the international
level, to further minimize risks.
In addressing chemicals in products, polyfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) and

environmentally persistent pharmaceutical pollutants (EPPPs), further awareness-
raising and transparency could advance the international agenda and circularity.
Further research and knowledge generation is needed in all regions on

nanotechnology and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), including through
a strengthened science-policy interface
T
o date, the International Conference 4.1 Emerging policy issues and other
on Chemicals Management (ICCM) has issues of concern: a core element
identified eight emerging policy issues of SAICM
(EPIs) and other issues of concern, understood
to be issues involving any phase in the life cycle of In 2016 the second United Nations Environment
chemicals and which have not yet been generally Assembly (UNEA-2) requested the Executive
recognized; are insufficiently addressed or arise Director of the UN Environment Programme to
from the current level of scientific information; “ensure that the update of the Global Chemicals
and which may have significant adverse effects Outlook (GCO-II) addresses the issues which have
on human health and/or the environment. In light been identified as emerging policy issues by the
of the UNEA mandate to address the EPIs, the ICCM, as well as other issues where emerging
GCO-II provides evidence concerning a number evidence indicates a risk to human health and
of remaining challenges and presents a range of the environment.”
measures to further address existing EPIs and
other issues of concern. While no assumptions One of the functions of the ICCM, set out in the
are made about these potential measures being Overarching Policy Strategy (OPS) of the SAICM, is
carried forward in the beyond 2020 process, they “to focus attention and call for appropriate action
are considered to be of relevance for further on emerging policy issues as they arise and to
consideration by stakeholders. forge consensus on priorities for cooperative
Chapter 4. Emerging policy issues and other issues of concern 291
action”. In accordance with that function, the taking into account the criteria below, and
ICCM has discussed “emerging policy issues” proposes a limited number of priority EPIs to
(EPIs) from its second session (ICCM2, held in the Conference for its consideration.
2009) onwards.
To provide a basis for further considering the
The Annex to Resolution II/4 adopted at ICCM2 priority of each nominated EPI, the following
sets out an open and transparent five-step criteria were developed:
procedure for the consideration of emerging
policy issues: 1. Magnitude of the problem and its impact on
human health or the environment, taking into
›› Call for nominations: Any SAICM stakeholder is account vulnerable subpopulations and any
free to nominate EPIs. While nominations are toxicological and exposure data gaps.
possible at any given time, stakeholders are
formally invited at specific periodic intervals, 2. Extent to which the issue is being addressed by
e.g. in the lead-up to each ICCM. other bodies, particularly at the international
level, and how it is related to, complements,
›› Submission of initial information: In nominating or does not duplicate such work.
an EPI, proponents are required to provide
information on why the issue is considered 3. Existing knowledge and perceived gaps in
an EPI, in particular how it is consistent with understanding about the issue.
the definition of an EPI (i.e. an issue involving
any phase in the life cycle of chemicals and 4. Extent to which the issue is of a cross-cutting
which has not yet been generally recognized, nature.
is insufficiently addressed or arises from the
current level of scientific information, and 5. Information on the anticipated deliverables
which may have significant adverse effects from action on the issue.
on human health and/or the environment)
and how the issue meets the selection criteria So far, resolutions have been adopted on the
(see below), and a description of the proposed following issues at ICCM2, ICCM3 and/or ICCM4:
cooperative action. Moreover, proponents
are encouraged to include a description of ›› Lead in paint (ICCM2, 2009);
proposed actions to be considered in moving
forward on the EPI. ›› Chemicals in products (ICCM2, 2009);
›› Initial review and publication of submissions: The ›› Hazardous substances within the life cycle
secretariat sets out the results of a screening of electrical and electronic products (ICCM2,
of the nominated EPI against the agreed 2009)
criteria and compiles a list of nominations,
thereby clustering similar nominations. The ›› Nanotechnology and manufactured
list of nominations is made publicly available nanomaterials (ICCM2, 2009);
for comments and thereafter consolidated.
›› Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)
›› Prioritization through consultation and advice and the transition to safer alternatives (ICCM2,
from stakeholders and experts: After publication 2009);
of the nomination list, the regions may
prioritize submissions by engaging formally ›› Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (ICCM3, 2012);
the full range of their stakeholders.
›› Environmentally persistent pharmaceutical
›› Inclusion of EPIs on the provisional agenda of pollutants (ICCM4, 2015) ; and
the Conference: The Open-ended Working
Group will consider the regional inputs and ›› Highly hazardous pesticides (ICCM4, 2015).
other information to assess the proposals,
292
Part II
4.2 Working towards further risk In 2009 the International Conference on

reduction Chemicals Management (ICCM) identified lead
in paint as an emerging policy issue. The Global
4.2.1 Lead in paint: enhanced action Alliance to Eliminate Lead Paint (GAELP), also
required to meet the 2020 known as Lead Paint Alliance, was established
phase-out targets and included in its business plan the target that
by 2020 all countries should have legally binding
Introduction controls on lead paint (UNEP and WHO 2012).
The global target to eliminate lead paint by 2020
Lead is a metal and a potent neurotoxin, was reaffirmed at the Fourth Session of the ICCM
whose widespread use has caused extensive in 2015. While considerable action has been
environmental contamination and health taken, the elimination of lead in paint, and the
problems in many parts of the world (WHO introduction of safe alternatives to lead pigments
2010a; WHO 2010b). Even though lead in paint1 in paints, remains a challenge in many countries.
is one of the main sources of exposure for
children, it continues to be used in over 70, and State of the issue
potentially more than 100, countries to enhance
colour, reduce corrosion or reduce drying No safe level of exposure to lead has been
time (WHO 2010a; UNEP and IPEN 2013; IPEN identified. While it is well known that exposure to
2017; UNEP 2017a; WHO 2017a). An estimated levels of lead that were previously considered to
11 per cent of global decorative paint production be acceptable can cause serious and irreversible
takes place in countries where its use is not health effects, including reduced intelligence
regulated (International Paint and Printing Ink quotient scores, there is now a scientific
Council [IPPIC] 2015). In addition, some of the consensus that even low levels of exposure
world’s largest economies which are restricting to lead are potentially harmful and may cause
domestic use of lead paint continue to export intellectual deficits (Fewtrell, Kaufmann and
lead pigments and lead paint (Kessler 2014; Prüss-Üstün 2003; Nevin 2007; Verstraeten, Aimo
Gottesfeld 2015; IPEN 2016). and Oteiza 2008; WHO and UNEP 2009; WHO
1 The preferred terminology by the Global Alliance to Eliminate Lead Paint (GAELP) is “lead paint”, which it defines as “paint to which one or more lead
compounds have been added and includes varnishes, lacquers, stains, enamels, glazes, primers and coatings used for any purposes” (WHO and UNEP
2012).
Figure 4.1 Economic costs of childhood lead exposure in low- and middle-income countries
(percentage of gross domestic product) (adapted from Attina and Trasande 2013)
0.00%-2.99% 3.00%-4.99% 5.00%-6.99% 7.00%-8.99% No data/not included in the analysis
2010a; United States National Toxicology Program Policy developments and considerations
[US NTP] 2012; Health Canada 2013a; Schnur and
John 2014; Evens et al. 2015; Gottesfeld 2015; The momentum to reduce the use of lead in
Aizer et al. 2018). Health impacts of lead have paints has resulted in a number of countries
resulted in significant economic and social costs adopting legislation in recent years (Figure 4.2).
(WHO and UNEP 2009). Childhood lead toxicity, As of September 2017, 67 countries had
with lead paint a major source of exposure, has confirmed that they had legally binding controls
been estimated to cost low- and middle-income on lead in paint, 70 countries had stated that they
countries US dollars 977 billion per year (Attina did not have such legislation, and information
and Trasande 2013) (Figure 4.1). was unavailable for 56 countries (UNEP 2017a).
Even in countries with adequate regulations,
Lead can be harmful to people of all ages, with weak enforcement has resulted in continued
children, infants and foetuses being particularly manufacture and sale (Kessler 2014; Gottesfeld
at risk. The main sources of exposure for infants 2015; IPEN 2016). Despite significant progress
and children are food and drinking water, and successful engagement of stakeholders,
household dust, soil, and mouthing of products including through the Lead Paint Alliance,
containing lead. The most common source will challenges remain, particularly in developing
vary based on geography and lifestyle (United countries. These challenges include the lack of
States Centers for Disease Control [US CDC] country-specific data, laboratory capacity, public
2010); Health Canada 2013b; UNEP and IPEN awareness of lead toxicity, and knowledge of
2013; Etchevers et al. 2015; US CDC 2016). Recent alternatives (Kessler 2014; IPEN 2017; UNEP
research indicates that even in countries where 2017a).
lead paint is regulated, high lead concentrations
can be found in paint on playground surfaces Continued production may be motivated by cost
(Turner et al. 2016). Workers are also at high considerations and export opportunities (Kessler
risk, as large quantities of lead can be released 2014). Lead pigments are readily available and
during manufacturing, application and removal relatively easy to manufacture. Moreover, SMEs
of lead paint (WHO and UNEP 2009). A significant may lack the knowledge to reformulate (UNEP
proportion of housing in developed countries and IPEN 2013; Kessler 2014; Gottesfeld 2015).
still contains legacy lead paint (US NTP 2012; However, there is evidence that it is technically
Dewalt et al. 2015). and economically feasible to replace lead
294
Part II
Figure 4.2 Status of lead paint regulation worldwide, as reported in 2017 (adapted from WHO
2018a)
Yes No Not applicable No data
additives (IPPIC 2015). Several manufacturers complementing efforts targeting consumer

have thus successfully eliminated lead from all uses.
paints (Curl 2013; UNEP and IPEN 2013; Kessler
2014; UNEP 2017a). Manufacturers in low-income ›› Restrict the export of lead pigments and lead
countries which have successfully switched paints to accelerate the transition in countries
have described increases in materials costs as still using lead.
insignificant (UNEP and IPEN 2013). Innovative
initiatives are also under way: in 2016 a multi- ›› Scale up awareness-raising activities and
stakeholder group in the Philippines established the use of innovative initiatives, such as
the world’s first programme to certify paints independent third-party verification schemes.
containing less than the recommended 90 parts
per million lead (IPEN 2017). ›› Use economic tools and incentives that
target both supply and demand, including
Potential measures to further address lead in assistance to small and medium-sized paint
paint manufacturers and the use of levies to
increase the cost of lead paint or subsidies
Taking into account the preceding analysis, for lead-free paint.
stakeholders may wish to consider the following
measures to further address lead in paint: 4.2.2 Hazardous substances within
the life cycle of electrical and
›› Urgently ensure that all countries have legally electronic products
binding controls in place as an effective and
simple means to phase out the manufacture, Introduction
sale and use of lead in paint.
The production and use of electrical and electronic
›› Strengthen enforcement at the national products containing hazardous substances,
level, including through increasing laboratory including substances whose risks have not
capacity. been fully characterized, is rapidly increasing
(Tsydenova and Bengtsson 2011; UNIDO 2015;
›› Address non-consumer use of lead paint Scruggs, Nimpuno and Moore 2016; Fowler 2017).
and legacies of lead paint in buildings, End-of-life electrical and electronic products
(“e-waste”) constitute the fastest growing waste in 2009. Conscious that actions are needed up-,
stream in the world, and their recycling rates mid- and downstream, a life cycle approach
remain low in many countries (Baldé et al. 2017; (Figure 4.3) was endorsed. Despite valuable
Cecere and Martinelli 2017). efforts made at all levels, significant challenges
remain in regard to identifying, disseminating
All the countries in the world combined generated and implementing best practices at all stages
approximately 44.7 million tonnes of e-waste of the life cycle, including design, recycling and
in 2016, the equivalent of 6.1 kilograms per disposal (Secretariat of the Basel Convention
inhabitant. Asia generated the largest amount and UNIDO 2011; UNIDO 2015).
of e-waste, followed by Europe and the Americas.
Out of the amount generated, only 20 per cent State of the issue
was recycled through formal channels
(Baldé et al. 2017). Informal and rudimentary In the manufacturing of electrical and electronic
recycling methods, as well as uncontrolled products workers may come into direct contact
disposal, are releasing chemical pollution, thus with hazardous chemicals, which can result in
creating concerns for human health and the significant adverse effects including high cancer
environment (Fujimori et al. 2012; Premalatha rates (Kim et al. 2012; Chou et al. 2016). Some
et al. 2014; Awasthi et al. 2016; Heacock et al. studies indicate that in some countries women
2016; Baldé et al. 2017). make up the majority of assembly line workers
in the electronics industry; therefore, women
In light of these considerations, “hazardous may be disproportionately affected (Koh, Chan
substances within the life cycle of electrical and Yap 2004), which has been reported to have
and electronic products” was adopted as an implications for reproductive outcomes (Kim et al.
Emerging Policy Issue (EPI) at the second ICCM 2012; Rim 2017). Consumers also experience
Figure 4.3 The life cycle of electronic and electrical products (adapted from Secretariat of the Basel
Convention and UNIDO 2011)
Upstream Design Raw materials extraction
International trading: global supply chain
Production and assembly
International trading: sales

Midstream
Repair, refurbishment
Consumption
(reuse)
International trading:
export/import
Storage
End-of-life Landfilling
Downstream
Dismantling
Scrapping Recycling
296
Part II
exposures in the use phase, typically in indoor classification of wastes poses challenges in
environments (Miller et al. 2016; Zheng et al. understanding potential risks and determining
2017; Kuang, Abdallah and Harrad 2018). This appropriate disposal options (Mmereki et al.
includes children, who may, for example, be 2016).
exposed to flame retardants in dusts released
from electronic products (Danish Environmental Policy developments and considerations
Protection Agency 2017). Downstream,
hazardous substances can be released from A growing number of countries are adopting
e-waste during disposal and recycling, affecting e-waste legislation (Baldé et al. 2017) (Figure 4.4).
ecosystems by contaminating the air, water and This includes, for example, India’s E-Waste
soil and entering food chains (Wang et al. 2005; Management Rules, adopted in 2016 (Ministry of
Duan et al. 2011; Fu et al. 2013; Yu et al. 2016; Environment, Forest and Climate Change of India
Anh et al. 2017; Klees, Hombrecher and Gladtke 2016) and the EU Waste Electrical and Electronic
2017; Chakraborty et al. 2018). Equipment Directive, revised in 2012 (European
Commission [EC] 2012a). Legislation targeting the
The adverse effects on human health, particularly up- and midstream life cycle includes the EU’s
among recycling workers in developing countries Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive
relying on informal and rudimentary methods, (EC 2017a). The global nature of supply chains
are significant and include increased risks of has prompted a number of countries to develop
cancer and negative effects on the reproductive, similar legislation (Selin and Van-Deveer 2006;
cardiovascular and immune systems (Tsydenova van Rossem, Tojo and Lindhqvist 2006), including
and Bengtsson 2011; Grant et al. 2013; Song and China and the United States (Congress of the
Li 2014; Song and Li 2015; Zheng et al. 2016). United States 2009). International regulatory
Women and children, as well as those living in frameworks focusing on the downstream phase
the vicinity of recycling sites, remain among include the Basel Convention on the Control
the most vulnerable groups (Eguchi et al. 2012; of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Song and Li 2014; Song and Li 2015; Xu et al. Wastes and their Disposal, and the Bamako
2017; Schecter et al. 2018). Lacking or insufficient Convention on the Ban on the Import into Africa
Figure 4.4 Percentage of the world population and number of countries covered by e-waste
legislation in 2014 and 2017 (adapted from Baldé et al. 2017, p. 6)
Not covered by
Not covered by legislation
legislation 34%
56% 61 countries 67 countries
2014 Covered by 2017
legislation Covered by
44% legislation
66%
and the Control of Transboundary Movement ›› Accelerate regulatory action in all countries
and Management of Hazardous Wastes within to protect workers, consumers and recyclers,
Africa. However, challenges remain: 34 per cent including mid- and upstream legislation,
of the world population is currently not covered criteria-based approaches, extended producer
by national e-waste management laws, and responsibility, and “green taxes”.
illegal traffic remains a major challenge even in
countries with regulations (Geeraerts et al. 2015; ›› Develop a global framework of accountability
Baldé et al. 2017). and close data gaps on the presence,
flow and transboundary movement of
Several major companies have voluntarily hazardous substances throughout the life
eliminated substances of concern from their cycle, thereby exploring synergies with the
product lines (Cobbing and Dowdall 2014). Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
Criteria-based approaches have also been taken Management (SAICM) Chemicals in Products
by several large electronics companies which (CiP) Programme.
could make regulators’ tasks in testing and
verifying products easier (Nimpuno, McPherson ›› Take global action to encourage the design
and Sadique 2009). In addition, civil society of a new generation of green electronics with
organizations undertake monitoring activities minimized use of hazardous substances,
and inform consumers by ranking consumer longer life spans and increased recyclability.
electronics companies according to their
commitment to, and progress in, eliminating ›› Improve understanding of the role and impact
hazardous chemicals from manufacturing and of the informal sector and explore concrete
from the product itself (Cobbing and Dowdall steps to reduce the exposure of recycling
2014; Cook and Jardim 2017). In parallel, strategies workers, including through promotion of best
are being explored to advance “sustainable practices;
electronics” designed for a closed-loop system
(O’Connor et al. 2016). ›› Scale up voluntary initiatives and sustainable
business models.
Potential measures to further address HSLEEP
›› Fuel shifts in consumer behaviour through
Taking into account the preceding analysis, increased awareness.
measures to further address HSLEEP:
298
Part II
4.2.3 Highly hazardous pesticides to best practices (Fan et al. 2015), highlighting
the importance of education and awareness.
Introduction This is of special importance in LMICs, where
training and adequate knowledge on risks,
The FAO and WHO International Code of handling and safety measures, access to and
Conduct on Pesticide Management defines appropriate conditions for use of personal
highly hazardous pesticides (HHPs) as: protective equipment (PPE), and potential
“Pesticides that are acknowledged to present alternatives might be lacking (Dalvie, Rother
particularly high levels of acute or chronic and London 2014; Andrade-Rivas and Rother
hazards to health or environment according to 2015; Weiss et al. 2016, Elibariki and Maguta
internationally accepted classification systems 2017; Rother 2018). A related challenge is the
such as the WHO or the GHS or their listing in very low rate at which pesticide containers are
relevant binding international agreements or disposed in an environmentally sound manner.
conventions. In addition, pesticides that appear Research in developing countries shows that they
to cause severe or irreversible harm to health are frequently discarded, burned, or reused, for
or the environment under conditions of use in example in toys or to store food or water (Akhter
a country may be considered to be and treated et al. 2016; Rengam et al. 2018). Another concern
as highly hazardous.” The FAO/WHO Guidelines is lack of enforcement, whereby uncontrolled
on Highly Hazardous Pesticides (2016) list a set access to HHPs has led to unintended uses, and
of eight criteria: HHPs are defined as meeting plant protection products that are banned in high-
one or more of these criteria. The guidelines income countries and do not meet international
apply to all pesticides, including agricultural, quality standards continue to be marketed in
public health, household, amenity and industrial some LMICs (Popp, Pető and Nagy 2013; Rother
pesticides. The FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on 2016). Adherence to best practices in the use of
Pesticide Specifications (JMPS) also developed biocides is of equal concern.
standard procedures for assessment of pesticide
data (WHO and FAO 2016). Certain HHPs can exhibit high acute toxicities on
non-target organisms, including plants, animals
Plant protection products and biocides, and humans (Mañosa, Mateo and Guitart 2001;
when managed safely, can make an Brühl et al. 2013; Kohler and Triebskorn 2013;
important contribution to achieving Fleischli et al. 2004). Studies show adverse effects
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 (zero on various animal species (Galloway and Depledge
hunger), SDG 3 (good health and well-being) 2001; Mañosa, Mateo and Guitart 2001; Galloway
and SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), among and Handy 2003; Hamlin and Guillette 2010;
others. However, HHPs in particular may Hayes et al. 2010; Kohler and Triebskorn 2013).
have adverse effects on human health, the Scientific studies have also associated exposure
environment and the sustainability of agricultural to pesticides with chronic effects in humans,
production, especially in low- and middle-income including increased risks for some cancers,
countries (LMICs). In 2015, therefore, the ICCM birth defects, adverse effects on organs and
adopted a resolution that recognized HHPs as reproduction, and pulmonary disease (Merhi et al.
an issue of concern and called for concerted 2007; Vinson et al. 2011; Sarwar 2016; Kim, Kabir
action to address HHPs, in particular through and Jahan 2017; Mostafalou and Abdollahi 2017).
implementation of the strategy that was These concerns also apply to biocides, which
presented to the Conference (SAICM Secretariat often contain the same active ingredients as
2015a; SAICM Secretariat 2015b). plant protection products and are applied in close
proximity to humans (e.g. mosquito repellents) or
State of the issue in the environment (e.g. anti-fouling). Increasing
insecticide resistance is another major concern,
Exposure of humans and other non-target particularly in the fight against malaria (WHO
organisms has been shown to be high if plant 2018b).
protection products are not used according
Figure 4.5 Discomfort or illness experienced during or after pesticide application in Mozambique
(adapted from Mancini et al. 2016, p. 8)
100
90
80
70
60
Per cent
50
40
30
20
10
0 Cabo Nampula Niassa Tete Zambezia Niassa Tete Gaza Maputo Maputo City
Delgado
Cotton Tobacco Vegetables, roots and tubers, pulses
No, never Yes, sometimes Yes, constantly No data
In a field survey undertaken in Mozambique, one-year period. Moreover, the WHO estimated
the majority of farmers reported symptoms of that in 2012 around 156,000 suicides using
pesticide exposure or poisoning (Figure 4.5). pesticides could have been prevented by sound
While there are significant data gaps, countries pesticide management (WHO 2016) (Box 4.1).
are reporting a significant number of deaths every
year from unintentional pesticide poisonings Policy developments and considerations
(WHO 2018c) (see also Part I, Ch. 7). A survey
undertaken by the Pesticide Action Network (PAN) The IOMC, under the leadership of the FAO,
(Rengam et al. 2018) in seven Asian countries supports countries and captures progress in
found that the majority of surveyed farmers had addressing HHPs, including at the regional and
experience acute poisoning symptoms over a national levels. A strong political will to mitigate
300
Part II
Box 4.1 Preventing suicides attributable to pesticides through regulatory measures in Sri Lanka
(Manuweera et al. 2008; Knipe et al. 2017)
As in many other low- and middle-income countries, a large number of suicides in Sri Lanka can
be attributed to access to toxic pesticides. To address this challenge Sri Lanka has taken a range
of regulatory measures over the past decades, including import bans on WHO Class I pesticides
and endosulfan as well as a more recent phased import ban (2008-2011) on three additional
pesticides. Studies suggest that these restrictions can be associated with a significant decrease
in pesticide suicide mortality and overall suicide mortality in Sri Lanka. While restricting access
to HHPs cannot solve the global challenge of suicides, data show that it decreases the number
of suicides at least in the short to medium term. The bans were found not to have resulted in
productivity loss or changes in the costs of production.
the impact of HHPs has been built in Africa and recommendations on the conditions of use of
Asia and the Pacific. A significant step forward HHPs (FAO and WHO 2007), the International
with respect to regional strategies in South Africa, Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management (FAO
East Africa and the Pacific has been taken in the and WHO 2014a), the FAO/WHO Guidelines on
context of three large regional consultations Highly Hazardous Pesticides (FAO and WHO 2016)
held in 2018. and the FAO Pesticide Registration Toolkit (FAO
2018a), and the OECD Best Practice Guidance to
In the context of a project implemented by the Identify Illegal Trade of Pesticides (OECD 2018a).
FAO, Mozambique cancelled the registrations Some have raised concerns about cases of non-
of 61 pesticide products containing 31 different compliance with some of these tools, for example
active ingredients and announced risk reduction regarding the distribution of HHPs (Public Eye
measures for another 52 pesticide products 2017). Although efforts have been made to
(FAO 2016). Botswana, Malawi, Tanzania and broaden the scope of existing instruments and
Zimbabwe have developed short lists of HHPs initiatives beyond plant protection products
and started to reduce their risks. Further (e.g. the updated Code of Conduct of 2014
examples include China, where 23 highly incorporates public health pesticides and vector
hazardous pesticides have been banned from control [FAO and WHO 2014b]), biocides have
use, and Ecuador, where all pesticides classified so far received limited international attention.
as extremely or highly hazardous by the WHO
were banned in 2010 (FAO and WHO 2010). Industry is addressing the issue among
According to a list developed by the PAN, a total others through risk mitigation and capacity
of 370 pesticide active ingredients or groups of building initiatives such as training of farmers
actives considered to be still in use have been (e.g. CropLife International 2018); measures to
banned in at least one country (PAN 2016). Some address the counterfeit pesticide market; and
pesticides have been internationally banned voluntary portfolio review to withdraw products
under the Stockholm Convention on POPs due meeting the Code’s HHP hazard criteria from
to their toxicity, persistence, bioaccumulation, the market (FAO/WHO 10th JMPM 2017). Civil
and potential for long-range transport. However, society stakeholders contribute among others by
the enforcement of bans remains a challenge monitoring of the conditions of use and adverse
in LMICs (Khan, Mahmood and Damalas 2015; impacts, awareness-raising; the promotion of
Yadav et al. 2015; Weiss et al. 2016; Elibariki and additional health and environmental criteria
Maguta 2017; Thompson et al. 2017). for the identification of HHPs (such as pollinator
toxicity); and a proposed list of pesticides
Several international instruments and initiatives considered to be highly hazardous (Rengam
exist to support stakeholders in managing et al. 2018).
pesticides and addressing risk associated with
pesticides. These include the Joint FAO/WHO Given the recommendation to reduce reliance on
Meeting on Pesticide Management (JMPM) pesticides as the first step in risk reduction (FAO
and WHO 2016), research and the implementation ›› Support the development and scaling-up of
of alternative practices have gained momentum. approaches that may help to reduce the use
Integrated pest management combines various of highly hazardous pesticides, such as IPM
management strategies and practices in order and agroecological approaches, including
to grow healthy crops and minimize the use development and use of non-chemical
of pesticides (FAO 2018b). Similarly, integrated alternatives and other good agricultural
vector management is a process for decision- practices, among others via awareness-raising
making when carrying out disease vector and training of users.
control interventions for control of vector-borne
diseases (FAO and WHO 2014b). Agroecological ›› Strengthen legislative frameworks and
approaches aim at pest prevention and enforcement for the regulation of pesticides
promote agricultural practices adapted to local in general, and HHPs in particular, throughout
environments in order to build long-term fertility the life cycle and improve capacity for
and soil health (Huang et al. 2014; Reddy 2016; enforcement.
United Nations Human Rights Council 2017). A
recent meta-study in France found that total ›› At the local level, provide basic infrastructure
pesticide use could be reduced by 42 per cent and training, particularly in developing
without loss of productivity and profitability countries and economies in transition, to
(Lechenet et al. 2017). There is also ongoing promote comprehension of pesticide labels,
scientific advancement in the development of best practices in handling and application, and
bio-pesticides (Senthil-Nathan 2015). Moreover, the use of and access to personal protective
there are ongoing discussions, including in the equipment (PPE).
context of the JMPM meetings about the use of
the “Hierarchy of Control”approach for pesticide ›› Increase efforts to synthesize available
risk reduction; however, no consensus and information and make it more easily available
common understanding has emerged to date to the public and to decision makers, e.g. via
(FAO and WHO 2017). According to the Guidelines the establishment of knowledge hubs
on Highly Hazardous Pesticides (FAO and WHO featuring relevant information on HHPs.
2016), the approach to pesticide risk reduction
comprises three main steps, namely to 1) reduce ›› Advance discussions on issues related
reliance on pesticides; 2) select pesticides with to biocides and measures to address and
the lowest risk; and 3) ensure proper use of the reduce the use of biocides, including though
selected products. Possible measures to reduce regulatory action, and strengthen awareness.
the use of biocides have also been proposed
(German Environment Agency [UBA] 2014).
Potential measures to further address HHPs 4.3 Working towards improved

transparency and awareness
Taking into account the preceding analysis, raising
measures to further address HHPs: 1.14.1 Chemicals in products
›› Strengthen international and national action Introduction

to speed up ending use of highly hazardous
pesticides (HHPs) based on a risk and needs Chemicals are important components in many
assessment and reduce their use in food of the products modern society uses and
production and supply chain, including via relies on (Goldenman et al. 2017). They may be
implementation of the strategy to address released at any stage of the product life cycle,
HHPs in the context of the Strategic Approach resulting in potential exposures of humans and
to International Chemicals Management the environment, including from both newly
(SAICM). produced articles and articles already present
302
Part II
in society (Fantke et al. 2016; Reihlen 2017) (see ›› to ensure that, through due diligence,
Figure 4.6). The Swedish Chemicals Agency (KEMI information is accurate, current and
2015) has stated that sharing, tracking and using accessible.
reliable chemical information throughout the
supply chain is a prerequisite for a non-toxic and To support these efforts, guidance on CiP for
resource-efficient product life cycle. stakeholders was developed (UNEP 2015). ICCM4
encouraged participants to consider this guidance
In light of these considerations, Chemicals in as appropriate (SAICM Secretariat 2015b).
Products (CiP) was identified as an emerging policy
issue at the second meeting of the ICCM (ICCM2) State of the issue
in 2009. Stakeholders of the Strategic Approach
to International Chemicals Management The exchange of important aspects of CiP
(SAICM) also identified four priority sectors: information throughout the supply chain has
textiles, toys, building products and electronics been advanced by diverse stakeholder action. A
(SAICM Secretariat 2009a). In 2015, at ICCM4, number of countries and state jurisdictions have
stakeholders adopted the SAICM Chemicals in put in place CiP policies and legislation, including
Products (CiP) Programme and agreed on three on the CiP programme priority sectors, but also
main objectives for CiP information exchange going beyond. For example, regulations such
(UNEP 2015): as REACH Article 33 in the EU, and Proposition
65 in the State of California in the United
›› within supply chains, to know and exchange States, require producers to pass certain CiP
information on CiP, associated hazards and information on to consumers in the supply chain
sound management practices; (EC 2006; Office of Environmental Health Hazard
Assessment of California [OEHHA] 2018). The
›› to disclose information of relevance to EU Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
stakeholders outside the supply chain to (WEEE) Directive and other similar directives, such
enable informed decision making and actions as China’s on WEEE, regulate communication
about CiP; and between producers, consumers and end-of-life
Figure 4.6 Conversion process from chemical products to articles in the supply chain (adapted from
©Joint Article Management Promotion-consortium 2018, p. 12)
Chemical Conversion Article

product process to
article
Part End product
Pellets A part which is Part 1

the first article
converted from a
chemical product
Moulding
process
Additives Part 2
Part 3
Chemicals in Chemicals in
products and products and
Chemicals in products and their amounts remain unchanged
their amounts their amounts
are not fixed are fixed
users (Mishima 2017). For cosmetics and personal release and transfer data across supply chains
care products in the EU, the United States and (DiGangi 2018). In the apparel industry, the Higg
Japan, separate regulations require producers Index is being used by over 2,000 members of
to communicate all ingredients to the consumer the Sustainable Apparel Coalition (Box 4.2).
(Japan External Trade Organization [JETRO]
2011; Cosmetics Europe 2018; United States Non-regulatory actions to advance the objectives
Food and Drug Administration [US FDA] 2017). of the CiP Programme include consumer
Other examples of tools for communication awareness projects, certification programmes,
between producers and customers include the and the publication of restricted substance lists
declarations of performance according to the (RSLs). In 2017 CVS Health published its full list
European Construction Products Regulation (EC of restricted chemicals by product category (CVS
2011a) and use of the CE marking for the safety Health 2017). Consumer awareness projects
of toys (EC 2009a). provide information on chemicals of concern
in certain products and help consumers make
In the private sector examples of sector-specific informed choices. An example is the “Mind
systems include the International Material Data the Store” initiative, which evaluates retailers’
System (IMDS), an information system developed progress in tackling chemicals of concern,
by the automotive industry, and BOMCHECK, including their policies to collect chemical
the joint declaration platform for the electronics ingredient information from suppliers and make
industry. In the United States the Toy Safety relevant information publicly available (Safer
Certification Program was initiated in response Chemicals, Healthy Families 2017). Certification
to new Federal Toy Safety requirements (Kogg programmes are voluntary initiatives in which
and Thidell 2010). To foster transparency, some companies can participate to communicate that
companies are making their safety data sheets their products meet certain requirements, while
(SDS) publicly available (Scruggs et al. 2014). not revealing confidential business information.
Moreover, some electronics multinationals have These programmes may include RSLs and
encouraged their suppliers to report pollutant requirements for chemical analysis.
Box 4.2 The Higg Index: advancing sustainability in the apparel industry (Hughes, Kibbey and
Rudgeway 2014)
The Higg Index is a suite of self-assessment tools for measuring the environmental and social
impact of apparel, footwear and home textile production. It encourages companies of all sizes in
the fashion industry to adopt sustainable practices and to integrate sustainability information into
their reporting cycle. The assessments cover brands, retailers, facilities and products, thus helping
members to adopt a holistic, consistent approach to managing sustainability performance.
Environment: apparel/footwear
Facility
Social/labour: apparel/footwear
Environment: apparel
HIGG index 2.0 Brand Environment: footwear
Social/labour: apparel/footwear
Rapid design module (RDM) beta

Product Material sustainability index (MSI)
data explorer
The index also allows downstream and upstream information exchange across the value chain,
increasing transparency and encouraging stakeholders to improve performance. Currently, over
2,000 members of the Sustainable Apparel Coalition are using the Higg Index.
304
Part II
Information technology (IT) solutions have also (Fantke et al. 2016). Another potential challenge
improved the quality and reliability of data in is that consumers who lack knowledge on
supply chains. New opportunities are emerging, chemicals of concern may not be able to use
such as the use of block chain technology in tracing the information that is made available in an
chemical information throughout the supply informed manner.
chain (Casey and Wong 2017). Models (e.g. the
UN Environment/Society of Environmental Policy developments and considerations
Toxicology and Chemistry Lifecyle Initiative’s
USEtox model) support the characterization of Recent years have seen a momentum in
human and ecotoxicological exposures to CiP. transparency requirements by governments
The CiP Programme has developed an indicative across products and supply chains and towards
list of information exchange schemes and tools circularity (e.g. Goldenman et al. 2017). At the
that already existed in different sectors. international level the implementation of
chemicals and waste conventions, and of the
Despite these advances, gaps remain. For SAICM CiP Programme, provide drivers for
example, while chemical information is often meeting CiP Programme objectives and for
available in the upstream of the supply chain information sharing. In addition, the OECD has
(UNEP 2011), downstream companies have compiled techniques to estimate releases of
reported difficulties in identifying chemicals chemicals from products to help address “a lack of
in materials and products “because relevant product use related information in PRTRs” (OECD
information was not communicated to them 2017a). The draft report of the independent
in usable forms in their supply chains” or was evaluation of the Strategic Approach 2006-2015
“lost in the supply chain” or was “protected by recognized some success in the implementation
trade secrets” (Scruggs et al. 2014). Furthermore, of the CiP EPI (SAICM Secretariat 2018). At the
lack of data on the concentration of chemicals same time, the CiP Programme has seen only
in products is considered a main limitation in limited activities by stakeholders to share their
assessing exposure to chemicals in products actions globally.
Opportunities for standardized systems. waste treatment operators and consumers (ECHA
Stakeholders have expressed an interest in, and 2018).
commenced actions to develop, harmonized
standards to reduce individual communication Legislative gaps and lack of enforcement:
efforts, such as collection and sharing of material The development of material declaration
data for articles across sectors (Goldenman et al. requirements concerning toxic substances
2017; Stringer 2018). Given the interlinkages of along the supply chain could ensure better flow
supply chains across sectors, such standards of CIP information (UNEP 2011). While some
would reduce transactions costs significantly. regulations exist, legal information on chemicals
Harmonization may include, for example, shared in products cover only a few sectors, such as
lists of RSLs, pooled resources, and standardized the electronics and the automotive industries,
formats for collecting, managing, reporting and and to a limited extent (Goldenman et al. 2017).
communicating CiP information. Sector-specific Equally relevant, enforcement is needed to
discussions and solutions are also needed in this ensure that stakeholders comply with these
context. Industry associations are likely to be regulations. Increased efforts to monitor
well-placed to support these efforts. A successful compliance through random tests and control
example of this approach is the IMDS used by measures could increase compliance rates and
the automotive industry (UNEP 2011). stimulate increased substitution actions and
information provision (Kogg and Thidell 2010;
Handling confidential business information: In Goldenman et al. 2017).
balancing confidential business information
with stakeholders’ right-to-know, one way to Awareness-raising and capacity building: Most of
handle this information is through non-disclosure the existing CiP information systems have been
agreements, either directly between business initiated in developed countries and therefore
partners or through a third party that gathers often do not take into account conditions present
relevant information and provides proof of in low- and middle-income countries (Scruggs,
compliance without revealing confidential Nimpuno and Moore 2016). Scaling up education
business information (UNEP 2011). The and capacity building could complement
SAICM OPS acknowledges the need to ensure legislative requirements and help stakeholders
that confidential commercial and industrial manage the collection and transmission of
information and knowledge are protected, CiP information according to the different
while noting that information on chemicals information requirements they have to meet.
relating to the health and safety of humans Moreover, experiences and lessons learned from
and the environment shall not be regarded as the implementation of CiP systems in developing
confidential. countries may be of value in developed countries,
particularly for developing country industries
Getting the information to end-of-life users: CiP seeking to enter the international market.
information is relevant for all stages of the
supply chain, including for the recycling and Potential measures to further address CiP
waste handling industry to better understand
potential exposure and to consider whether Taking into account the preceding analysis,
the recycling of relevant products could (re) stakeholders may wish to consider the following
introduce contaminants into the supply chain measures to further address CiP:
(Goldenman et al. 2017). Given current gaps,
opportunities exist for improved communication Strengthening global CiP approaches:
between producers and the waste and recycling
sector (Kogg and Thidell 2010). The European ›› Explore harmonized cross-sectoral CiP
Chemicals Agency (ECHA) will establish a new information sharing protocols to collect,
database on the presence of substances of very manage, report and communicate chemicals
high concern in articles, primarily for use by in products information (e.g. shared
restricted substance lists [RSLs], standardized
306
Part II
information management systems) across (energy and materials) and transport of

supply chains in each sector, including the chemicals throughout the supply chain.
waste sector.
›› Take action to share lessons learned, and
›› Include CiP elements in extended producer to scale up education and capacity building,
responsibility policies. in developing countries and countries with
economies in transition.
›› Integrate toxicity considerations into life
cycle analysis for products and increase 4.3.2 Per- and polyfluoroalkyl
awareness of product designers of chemical substances (PFASs) and the
selection consequences along the supply transition to safer alternatives
chain to advance design of safer products
and circularity. Introduction
›› Develop criteria for information disclosure and PFASs are a family of thousands of chemicals
protecting confidentiality where reasonable. widely used in industrial and consumer
applications since the 1950s, most often where
›› Strengthen capacities to estimate releases extremely low surface energy or surface tension
from products (e.g. through Pollutant Release and/or durable water and oil repellency is needed
and Transfer Registers (PRTRs). (e.g. in various fire-fighting foams and for surface
treatment of textiles). Some PFASs have been
›› Scale up and replicate non-disclosure produced and used on a scale of thousands of
agreement projects, consumer awareness tonnes or greater annually (Prevedouros et al.
projects and certification programmes. 2006; Wang et al. 2017a).
›› Explore how the use of emerging digital Numerous efforts have been made to assess
technologies can enable information sharing the risks associated with PFASs, with a focus
along the value chain while protecting on so-called “long-chain” perfluoroalkyl acids.2
confidential data (e.g. Blockchain). Consequently, long-chain PFASs have been widely
recognized as contaminants of high global concern
Further develop the SAICM CiP Programme: due to their high persistence, bioaccumulation
potential, toxicity, and ubiquitous distribution in
›› Identify new partnerships in the priority the global environment, biota and humans (OECD
categories (toys, textiles, construction 2013). In two recent cases, chemical companies
products, electronics) (e.g. link electronics, paid settlements in the range of hundreds of
occupational health and safety, and waste millions of US dollars as a result of injuries
treatment). caused through large releases of PFASs to local
water supplies (Stegon 2017; State of Minnesota
›› Develop guidance on integrating CiP objectives 2018). Widespread efforts are now under way
within corporate sustainability reporting. to phase out and replace long-chain PFASs with
alternatives. In 2009, at the second session of
›› Work with other bodies to stimulate the ICCM, “Perfluorinated chemicals and the
development of harmonized protocols to transition to safer alternatives” was recognized
collect, manage, report and communicate as an issue of concern under SAICM.
CIP information.
State of the issue
›› Coordinate the development of digital
applications (in tracing chemical information The OECD maintains a global database of
on toxicity, eco-toxicity, resource demand PFASs (OECD 2018b). To date, more than 4,700
2 PFCAs, CnF2nCOOH, n≥7), perfluoroalkane sulphonic acids (PFSAs, CnF2nSO3H, n≥6) and their major precursors.
Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) numbers have quantitative information on the production and
been identified which can be associated with use of PFASs, and lack of analytical standards
a large variety of PFASs that (may) have been in the public domain (Wang et al. 2017b; OECD
on the global market and in the environment 2018b). While substantial progress has been
(Figure 4.7). Meanwhile, a complete account is made in understanding the hazards, exposure,
still lacking due to an absence of transparent, risks and treatment of some long-chain PFASs,
Figure 4.7 Schematic overview of the structure categories of identified PFASs (adapted from OECD
2018b, p. 17)
Commonly recognized per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)

perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), CnF2n+1-COOH
perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids (PFSAs), CnF2n+1-S03H
perfluoroalkyl phosphonic acids (PFPAs), CnF2n+1-PO3H2
perfluoroalkyl/ - per- and polyfluoroalkylether perfluoroalkyl phosphinic acids (PFPiAs), (CnF2n+1)(CmF2m+1)-PO2H
acids (PFAAs)
per- and polyfluoroether carboxylic acids (PFECAs), e.g. C2F5 OC2F4
OCF2COOH
per- and polyfluoroether sulfonic acids (PFESAs), e.g.

C6F13OCF2CF2S03H
side-chain fluorinated polymers

perfluoroalkane PASF/ e.g. (meth)acrylate, urethane or oxetane
sulfonyl/carbonyl PACF-based polymers
fluorides (PASFs) substances
(PASFs/PACFs) CnF2n+1SO2-R / non-polymers
CnF2n+1SO2F/CnF2n+1CO2F CnF2n+1CO2-R R = NH, NHCH2CH2OH, etc.
PFASs
side-chain fluorinated
polymer e.g. (meth)
PFAA precursors Fluorotelomer acrylate, urethane or
Fluorotelomer
perfluoroalkyl iodides based oxetane polymers
iodides (FTIs)
(PFAIs) CnF2n+1l substances
CnF2n+1CH2CH2 non-polymers
CnF2n+1CH2CH2-R
R = NH, NHCH2CH2OH, etc.
Per- and polyfluoroether-based substances, e.g. C4F9OC2F4OC2F4OCF2-CH2OH (CAS number

317817-24-6)
fluoropolyethers (FPs) — polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF),

fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), perfluoroalkoxyl polymer (PFA), polyvinyl fluoride (PVF),
other PFASs etc.
perfluoropolyethers (PFPEs), e.g. HOCH2O-(CmF2mO)n-CH2OH
Other highly fluorinated substances that match the definition of PFASs, but have not yet been commonly regarded as PFASs
perfluorinated alkanes (CnF2n+2)
perfluorinated alkenes (CnF2n) and their derivatives (e.g. [(CF3)2CF]2C=(CF3)(OC6H4SO3Na), CAS number 70829-87-7)
perfluoroalkyl alcohols (CnF2n+1OH; e.g. (CF3)3C-OH, CAS number 2378-02-1), perfluoroalkyl ketones (e.g. CnF2n+1C(O)CmF2m+1) and
semi-fluorinated ketones (e.g. CnF2n+1C(O)CmH2m+1)
side-chain fluorinated aromatics, e.g. CnF2n+1-aromatic rings
perfluoroalkyl phosphonic acids (PFPAs), CnF2n+1-PO3H2
some hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs, e.g. CnF2n+1-CmH2m+1), hydrofluoroethers (HFFs, e.g. CnF2n+1OCmH2m+1) and hydrofluorooelfins (HFOs,
e.g. CnF2n+1-CH=CH2) that have a perfluoroalkyl chain of certain length
308
Part II
other PFASs and non-fluorinated alternatives have treatment technologies (e.g. Sun et al. 2016;
received limited attention (Holmquist et al. 2016; Xiao et al. 2017; Ross et al. 2018).
Wang et al. 2017b). Information on the hazards
of many non-fluorinated alternatives to PFASs is Most producers in developed countries and in
lacking (Holmquist et al. 2016); hence scientists, some in developing countries have phased out
regulators and civil society organizations are long-chain PFASs and moved to chemical and
increasingly calling for effective and efficient non-chemical alternatives (OECD 2015; POPRC
assessment and management of overlooked and 2016). The resulting market gap has been filled
novel PFASs and for research on non-fluorinated by other producers in developing countries
alternatives to PFASs (Scheringer et al. 2014; and economies in transition (Wang et al. 2014)
Blum et al. 2015; Borg et al. 2017; Wang et al. (Figure 4.8), leading to a number of developments
2017b; Brendel et al. 2018; Ritscher et al. 2018). with respect to human and environmental
exposure in different regions (Wang et al. 2014;
Recent studies suggest that many overlooked Land et al. 2018): While perfluorooctanesulfonic
and novel PFASs possess some of the same acid (PFOS) and perfluoroctanoic acid (PFOA)
properties as structurally similar long-chain show clear trends regarding concentrations in
PFASs, including toxicity, high persistence, humans (declining in North America and Europe,
mobility in the environment and modes of but increasing in China), no clear pattern can be
action (Scheringer et al. 2014; Birnbaum and identified for other substances (Land et al. 2018).
Grandjean 2015; Blum et al. 2015; Wang et al.
2015; Wang et al. 2016; Gomis et al. 2018). In Policy developments and considerations
addition, recent studies show that many PFASs,
particularly those with short perfluoroalkyl(ether) PFOS, its salts, and perfluorooctanesulfonyl
chains, cannot be removed from contaminated fluoride (POSF) are listed in the Stockholm
water by using conventional and many advanced Convention under Annex B on the restriction
Figure 4.8 Estimated annual releases of PFCAs from PFOA production sites (left) and fluoropolymer
production sites (right) in the United States, Western Europe and Japan (purple), as well
as in China, Russia, Poland and India (orange) (adapted from Wang et al. 2014, p. 19)
PFOA production sites Fluoropolymer production sites

Total annual emissions of C4-C14 PFCAs (t/yr)
Total annual emissions of C4-C14 PFCAs (t/yr)
90 450
80 400
70 350
60 300
50 250
40 200
30 150
20 100
10 50
0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
WHO PCDD/PCDF-TEQ/g fat WHO PCDD/PCDF-TEQ/g fat
Japan, Western Europe and the US India, Poland, China and Russia
Higher scenario Higher scenario

Plausible scenario Plausible scenario
Lower scenario Lower scenario

PFCAs: perfluorinated carboxylic acids; PFOA: perfluorooctanoic acid; TEQ: toxic equivalency
factor
of production, use, import and export. PFOA, Potential measures to further address PFASs
perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS) and
related substances are at different stages of ›› Taking into account the preceding analysis,
the evaluation process for listing. International stakeholders may wish to consider the
efforts to address some long-chain PFASs following measures to further address PFASs:
and to transition to safer alternatives are
being complemented by initiatives in various ›› Ensure that PFASs already identified as
countries. Examples of regulatory actions taken concerns are adequately managed.
on PFOA include those in the EU, Canada and
Norway (Norwegian Environment Agency 2013; ›› Generate further knowledge and advance
Government of Canada 2017a; EC 2017b). international action on short-chain PFASs and
Moreover, PFHxS has been recognized as non-fluorinated alternatives.
a substance of very high concern. In China a
research and development project on alternatives ›› Develop approach(es) to assess and manage
to PFOS in certain applications has been initiated, PFASs and alternatives, including the chemical
among other actions (OECD 2015). Moreover, the grouping approach and the differentiation
US EPA launched a voluntary PFOA Stewardship between essential and non-essential uses,
Program in 2006 aimed at eliminating emissions and gather additional data to conduct
and product content levels of long-chain PFASs by assessments.
end of 2015 (US EPA 2018). Existing efforts largely
follow a chemical-by-chemical management ›› Scale up development of alternatives to PFASs,
approach for the large family of PFASs, which including nonfluorinated alternatives, for
has been described as requiring significant time PFASs in currently essential uses where no
and resources (Cousins et al. 2016; Wang et al. alternatives are available.
2017b).
›› Support scientific efforts to assess alternatives
Significant efforts have also emerged whose in order to determine the safety of both short-
purpose is to raise awareness and initiate actions chain PFASs and non-fluorinated alternatives;
on PFASs other than long-chain PFASs (Borg et al. where sufficient evidence is available, consider
2017; ECHA 2017; Australian Department the development of a “white” list of PFASs that
of Health 2018a; Brendel et al. 2018). New are preferable alternatives.
concept(s) are emerging, such as the persistent,
mobile and toxic (PMT) concept (Neumann and ›› Strengthen the engagement of downstream
Schliebner 2017). Moreover, since 2002 there industrial users and retailers to complement
has been a trend among global manufacturers regulatory efforts and enhance the capacity
to replace long-chain PFASs with short-chain or of wastewater treatment plants.
non-fluorinated products (OECD 2013). Several
furniture retailers, fast food companies, food › › Enhance information exchange and
packaging manufacturers and apparel companies cooperative research, to fill knowledge
have taken a precautionary approach to either gaps and ensure that basic and consistent
phase out or restrict the use of certain PFASs information on all PFASs as well as potential
in their product lines (Cobbing, Campione and alternatives is available.
Kopp 2017; IKEA 2017; Chiang, Cox and Levin
2018; Gore-Tex 2018; Bergans n.d.). Some non- 4.3.3 Environmentally persistent
fluorinated alternatives have been developed pharmaceutical pollutants
by major PFAS producers in several applications
including fluoropolymer (Chemours 2016) and Introduction
textile finishes (Chemours 2018). Substantial
progress has also been made in the management Pharmaceuticals are indispensable for human and
of downstream PFAS contamination (Interstate animal health. However, certain pharmaceuticals
Technology and Regulatory Council 2017). may cause undesired adverse effects, including
310
Part II
endangerment of certain species of vultures, 2012; Beek et al. 2016a, Williams et al. 2016, Blair,
endocrine disruption such as reproductive failures Zimny-Schmitt and Rudd 2017). As a significant
in fish, and the development of antimicrobial milestone, EPPPs were recognized as an emerging
resistance due to the wide use of antibacterial policy issue (EPI) at the fourth session of the ICCM
agents in human and veterinary medicine in 2015 (SAICM Secretariat 2015c). The WHO
(Green et al. 2004; Kümmerer 2004; Oaks et al. (2014) has described antimicrobial resistance as
2004; Santos et al. 2010; BIO Intelligence Service a growing public health threat and warned about
2013; Berkner et al. 2014). Pharmaceuticals a post-antibiotic era in which common infections
designed to be slowly degradable or even non- and minor injuries may be fatal.
degradable present a special risk when they
enter, persist or disseminate in the environment. State of the issue
Such substances are referred to environmentally
persistent pharmaceutical pollutants (EPPPs) Pharmaceuticals, including antibiotics, and their
(SAICM Secretariat 2015c). There are also so- metabolites can enter the environment through
called “pseudo-persistent pharmaceutical a variety of pathways, including manufacturing
pollutants”, which are degradable although sites, untreated wastewater from households
continuous emissions to the environment can and hospitals, wastewater treatment plants, and
lead to their constant environmental presence municipal waste streams, animal husbandry,
(Daughton 2002). sewage sludge and aquafarming (Kümmerer 2009;
Monteiro 2010; Lapworth et al. 2012; Rastogi
Dozens of new pharmaceuticals are placed on et al. 2015; Haiß et al. 2016; Lübbert et al. 2017;
the market every year, with more than 7,000 Kümmerer et al. 2018; Kümmerer et al. 2019).
compounds currently under development (IFPMA Figure 4.9 shows pathways of antibiotics in the
2017). Due to their increasing use and following environment (Berkner et al. 2014) (antimicrobial
increasing attention in both the scientific resistance is further discussed in Part I, Ch. 7).
community and public media, policymakers Understanding the contribution of each emission
have initiated various actions to address source is a complex endeavour, which varies
pharmaceuticals in the environment (Boxall et al. across regions and pharmaceuticals. Several
© FAO/Domingo Caro, antibiotics use in animal husbandry
Figure 4.9 Pathways of antibiotics for human and veterinary use in the environment (adapted from
Berkner, Konradi and Schonfeld 2014)
Pharmaceutical
compounds Animal husbandry
Humans and pets
Sewage
Wastewater sludge
Sewage
Waste plant Manure
deposits
Aquafarming Runoff
Groundwater
Reprinted with permission from © 2014 Berkner, Konradi and Schonfeld.
studies suggest that municipal wastewater is the Puckowski et al. 2016; Madikizela, Tavengwa and
main emission source for human pharmaceuticals Chimuka 2017).
globally (Heberer and Feldmann 2005; Verlicchi,
Galletti and Masotti 2010; Verlicchi et al. 2010; Policy developments and considerations
Boxall et al. 2012; Beek et al. 2016a). Veterinary
pharmaceuticals are found in manure, dung and In a number of developed countries,
airborne dust and bioaerosols in the vicinity of pharmaceuticals need to be subject to a tiered
livestock farming (Klatte, Schaefer and Hempel environmental risk assessment prior to approval,
2017; WHO 2017b). including risk-benefit analysis (US FDA 1998;
Bound and Voulvoulis 2004; EC 2004; Küster
A wide range of treatment techniques have and Adler 2014). Action focusing specifically on
been developed to remove pharmaceutical environmentally persistent pharmaceuticals is
pollutants in the aquatic phase. However, the yet to be initiated. Given the large number of
removal efficiency varies considerably and no pharmaceuticals detected in the environment,
single technique has been found to remove some have suggested prioritizing those
all relevant pollutants from wastewater pharmaceutical pollutants that may pose
(Hollender et al. 2009; Behera et al. 2011; Melvin the greatest threats. Several prioritization
and Leusch 2016). Hundreds of substances have approaches have been developed in academia
been detected in countries in all regions and to support decision-making (Boxall et al. 2012;
across different environmental media (SAICM Roos et al. 2012; Donnachie, Johnson and
Secretariat 2015c; Beek et al. 2016a, Beek et al. Sumpter 2016; Guo et al. 2016) (Box 4.3). At the
2016b). Transformation products, including as international level, the World Health Assembly,
a result of effluent treatment (Boix et al. 2016), in 2015, endorsed a global action plan to tackle
may have higher toxicity and a higher potential antimicrobial resistance, including antibiotic
for accumulation than the parent compound resistance (WHO 2015).
(Kümmerer 2009). Higher concentrations of
pharmaceutical pollutants have been found in Efforts with respect to “green/sustainable
lower-income countries, possibly due to lack of pharmacy” are also gaining momentum. These
wastewater treatment infrastructure (Segura et al. efforts aim, among others, to create more easily
2015) and lower regulatory standards. Although degradable pharmaceuticals (Lubick 2008). The
analytical techniques have been continuously idea is to consider biodegradability and the
improved, challenges remain and monitoring, characteristics of drugs, with a view to minimizing
especially in developing countries, still lacks the excretion of the active ingredients as an
coverage and frequency (Buchberger 2011; important property starting from the early drug
312
Part II
Box 4.3 Helping doctors to make informed prescription choices
In the county of Stockholm, Sweden, human pharmaceuticals are assigned a score indicating
environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, toxicity and risk. These scores are used to give
prescription recommendations for common diseases. Doctors can choose to prescribe more
environmentally friendly pharmaceuticals where medically equal alternatives exist. In 2009, 77
per cent of doctors were reported to have adhered to the recommendations (Gunnarsson and
Wennmalm 2008; Gustafsson et al. 2011; Stockholm County Council 2014).
design stages (Kümmerer 2009; Kümmerer and ›› Implement the WHO global action plan
Hempel 2010). Studies have demonstrated that on antimicrobial resistance and WHO
biodegradability is not in contradiction with Guidelines on the use of medically important
effectiveness (Rastogi et al. 2015). In this context, antimicrobials in food-producing animals.
existing pharmaceuticals are also revisited and
enhanced in terms of their biodegradability. ›› Continue efforts to fill knowledge gaps and
Moreover, there are initiatives to advance share information globally regarding the
sustainable procurement of pharmaceuticals behaviour, fate, occurrence and effects
in order to create an incentive for manufacturers of pharmaceuticals in the environment,
to strive towards the production of more “green” including by upscaling the monitoring of
products, as well as to integrate environmental pharmaceuticals in the environment.
criteria into manufacturing practices (SAICM
Secretariat 2015c). ›› Ensure that relevant interventions address
the whole value chain, including research and
Potential measures to further address EPPPs development, production, prescription and
use, and treatment and disposal.
Taking into account the preceding analysis,
stakeholders may wish to consider the following ›› Enhance the training of doctors and medical
measures to further address environmentally staff to help them make informed prescription
persistent pharmaceutical pollutants (EPPPs): choices and improve hygienic standards in
hospitals while ensuring adequate health
›› Strengthen regulatory requirements and control.
capacities for waste treatment and
management, including effluent standards,
implementation of disposal and take-back
programmes, and adherence to best available 4.4 Working towards further
techniques and best environmental practices. developing the science and
information sharing
›› Provide incentive structures to incentivize
green and sustainable pharmacy for human 4.4.1 Nanotechnology and
and veterinary use, including through manufactured nanomaterials
sustainable procurement and other innovative
schemes. Introduction
›› At the international level, establish a Nanotechnology includes the manufacture, use

clear definition and identification criteria and manipulation of materials at the nano scale
for EPPPs, explore the potential of (CIEL 2014). While there is no internationally
prioritization approaches, and consider the agreed definition, nanomaterials have been
potential relevance of pseudo-persistent described as in the size range of 1 to 100
pharmaceutical pollutants. nanometres (EC 2011b; International Organization
for Standardization [ISO] 2017). The global be a potential source of significant environmental
nanotechnology market is expected to grow at releases (Khot et al. 2012; Kah et al. 2013;
an annual rate of around 17 per cent between Kookana et al. 2014). Depending on the product
2017 and 2024, when it has been estimated lifetime, large stocks may build up from which
to reach US dollars 125 billion (Research and nanoparticles can be released over long periods
Markets 2018). Manufactured nanomaterials of time (Song et al. 2017; Sun et al. 2017). Once
are now used in many industry applications and released to the environment, nanomaterials
consumer products, providing important benefits may undergo many transformations, potentially
in areas such as medicine and environmental altering their fate, transport and toxicity (Lowry
management. et al. 2012). Most nanomaterials do not undergo
biological degradation and can therefore persist
Despite multiple benefits associated with the in the environment (Schwirn and Völker 2016).
technology, concerns have emerged regarding
potential risks posed by manufactured Scientific research into nanomaterials and their
nanomaterials to human health and the properties has strongly increased since the
environment (Jones et al. 2017; WHO 2017c). In 1980s. While much progress has been made in
light of these concerns “Nanotechnology and closing knowledge gaps, methods and findings
manufactured nanomaterials” was designated are still often fragmented (Krug 2014; Maynard
an emerging policy issue at the second session of and Aitken 2016). So far, evidence of nano-
the ICCM in 2009. Stakeholders stressed the need specific hazards seems to be lacking (Donaldson
to close knowledge gaps; to understand, avoid, and Poland 2013; Dekkers et al. 2016) although
reduce and manage risks; and to review the discussions are ongoing (Lynch, Feitshans and
methods used for testing and assessing safety Kendall 2015). There is still a paucity of precise
(SAICM Secretariat 2009b). information on releases, fate and transport,
concentrations, exposure and effects of
State of the issue nanomaterials (Klaine et al. 2008; Montaño et al.
2014; Vance et al. 2015; Hansen et al. 2016;
Consumers may be exposed to nanomaterials Hansen 2017; Praetorius et al. 2017; WHO 2017c)
via a wide range of products, including food (See Box 4.4).
packaging, textiles and personal care products,
and workplace exposure to nanoparticles may Policy developments and considerations
occur in various types of industries (Nowack
et al. 2012; Ding et al. 2017). Their small size The regulatory approach in the United States
gives nanoparticles properties that may allow includes an information-gathering rule for new
for increased penetration of biological and and existing nanomaterials in commerce, as
environmental barriers, as well as increased well as premanufacture notifications for new
reactivity, making them potentially a more nanomaterials (US EPA 2017a). The nanotech
effective source of exposure compared to bulk initiative of the US-Canada Regulatory Cooperation
materials (Hartemann et al. 2015; SCENIHR Council identified common principles for the
2009). Potentially adverse effects, including regulation of nanomaterials to help ensure
cardiovascular and pulmonary disease, have consistency for industry and consumers in
been identified for a number of manufactured both countries (Government of Canada 2017b).
nanomaterials (Gwinn and Vallyathan 2006; Provisions for specific labelling obligations are in
Schulte et al. 2016; WHO 2017c). place in the EU for cosmetic products, food and
biocides containing nanomaterials (EC 2009b; EC
As regards releases to the environment, while in 2011c; EC 2012b). In 2013 the OECD adopted a
many applications nanoparticles are not present legal instrument (a Recommendation of the OECD
as freely dispersed particles, large fractions may Council) which recommends the application of
go to landfills, soils and sediments at the end of existing chemical regulatory frameworks when
the life cycle, and smaller fractions to water, and managing the safety of nanomaterials, while
air (Keller et al. 2013). Nanopesticides may also recognizing that some Guidelines may need to
314
Part II
Box 4.4 First standardized test method specifically for nanomaterials adopted by the OECD
In 2017 the OECD adopted its first Test Guideline describing a test procedure for obtaining
information on the dispersion stability of manufactured nanomaterials in simulated environmental
media (OECD 2017b). This has been described as an important element for the adaptation of
nano-specific requirements for environmental risk assessment (Schwirn and Völker 2016; UBA
2017). In addition, two existing Test Guidelines for inhalation toxicity studies have been updated
to allow for the determination the toxicity of inhaled nanomaterials (OECD 2018c; OECD 2018d).
Further OECD Test Guidelines and Guidance Documents for the testing of nanomaterials are in
progress or being planned.
be adapted to take into account the specific ›› Take global action to enhance hazard
properties of nanomaterials (OECD 2017c). communication by applying the Globally
Harmonized System of Classification and
More recently in the EU, a proposed amendment Labelling (GHS) to nanomaterials and product
under REACH would introduce the overarching labelling schemes.
principle that each nanoform or set of similar
nanoform is treated as if it were a separate ›› Adapt regular data requirements to take into
chemical substance, requiring specific hazard, account the properties of nanomaterials and
exposure and risk assessments (EC 2017c). At facilitate hazard and risk assessments.
the global level, the applicability of the Globally
Harmonized System of Classification and ›› Advance regulatory action, including to protect
Labelling (GHS) criteria for nanomaterials is workers and to ensure that legally binding
currently being reviewed and the WHO is already definitions of nanomaterials are consistent
advancing classification exercises in the area of and operational.
workers’ health (WHO 2017d). Nanomaterials are
also receiving increasing attention in developing 4.4.2 Endocrine-disrupting chemicals
countries, however limited regulatory action
has been identified to date (Karim et al. 2015; Introduction
Karunaratne 2015; Jain et al. 2018; Borges et al.
2018). An endocrine disruptor is defined by the WHO/
International Programme on Chemical Safety
Potential measures to further address (IPCS) as “an exogenous substance or mixture that
nanotechnology and manufactured alters the function(s) of the endocrine system and
nanomaterials consequently causes adverse effects in an intact
organism, or its progeny, or (sub) populations”.
Taking into account the preceding analysis, A potential endocrine disruptor is defined as “an
stakeholders may wish to consider the following exogenous substance or mixture that possesses
measures to further address nanotechnology properties that might be expected to lead to
and manufactured nanomaterials: endocrine disruption in an intact organism,
or its progeny, or (sub)populations” (WHO
›› Enable systematic assessment of the risks 2002). According to the European Commission
of manufactured nanomaterials by further (2016a), there is consensus on the use of this
developing standardized tests. definition for identifying endocrine disruptors.
Known endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)
›› At the international level, further harmonize include, among others, PCB, DDT, PBDE and
methods to facilitate comparison and some phthalates (see also Part II Ch. 5) (Bergman
reliability of data. et al. 2013; Schug et al. 2016; UNEP 2017b).
Figure 4.10 Milestones in the development of the EDC field (adapted from Schug et al. 2016, p. 835)
Roy Herts writes

of the potential for
human exposure to Early
hormones used in 1970’s: Health
consequences of DES EPA meeting
cattle feed lots on EDS research
exposure identified U.S.
needs
government
bodies issue first
1960’s: Wildlife batches of RFAs for
studies reveal EDC research
strange reproductive Wingspread I
patterns conference
1958 1962 1969 1970 1979 1985 1991 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 20
NIEHS
founded Endocrine
I II III Disruptor
Screening Program
EPA Oestrogens in the (EDSTAC)
Rachel founded environment launched
Carson,
Silent Spring
Reprinted with permission from Oxford University Press.
However, no commonly accepted criteria for State of the issue

the identification of EDCs are yet available.
While uncertainties remain, a number of
EDCs have become a topic of significant laboratory and epidemiological studies have
international interest. Substantial efforts have suggested associations between exposure to
been made over the past decades to develop a certain EDCs and adverse effects in humans,
better scientific understanding, to identify EDCs including reproductive dysfunctions, cancers,
and develop scientific approaches to support neurodevelopmental disorders, diabetes and
risk management (Figure 4.10). An important metabolic disorders, among others (European
milestone was reached in 2012, when the third Environment Agency 2012; Bergman et al. 2013;
session of the ICCM recognized EDCs as an Gore et al. 2015; Kabir, Rahman and Rahman
emerging policy issue (EPI). 2015; Schug et al. 2016). Some studies also
suggest that certain chemicals have endocrine-
316
Part II
World Health World Health

Organization Organization and United
Global Assessment of Nations Environment
the State-of-the-Science Programme, State-of-the-
of Endocrine Science of Endocrine
Endocrine
Disruptors Disrupting Chemicals,
Copenhagen Society
statement 2012
Workshops of
Endocrine
Disruptors
00 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Gordon European
Research Food Safety
Conference on Authority
Environmental statement
Endocrine
Disruptors
Tiered
Protocol for
Endocrine Disruption
(TiPED) developed
disrupting effects on wildlife, including disruptor”. Challenges remain with respect to

feminization of some species (Lange et al. assessing the impact of EDCs. Areas of uncertainty
2009; Flores-Valverde, Horwood and Hill 2010; include low-dose exposure, thresholds and
Annamalai and Namasivayam 2015; Baines et al. potency (i.e. the dose at which a substance has an
2017). effect and whether there a safe threshold exists)
and potential non-monotonic dose-response
Consensus is emerging on scientific principles for relationships, meaning that severity of effect
the identification of EDCs (Solecki et al. 2017). In and exposure are not proportional (EEA 2012;
this context, it has been noted that “non-specific Vandenberg et al. 2012; Beausoleil et al. 2013;
effects [...] are not considered appropriate for Bergman et al. 2013; US EPA 2013; National
identification of endocrine disruption [and] Research Council of the National Academies
endocrine activity on its own should not trigger 2014; Lagarde et al. 2015; Solecki et al. 2017).
a chemical’s identification as an endocrine Moreover, variation in species sensitivities in
vulnerability has been noted (Ottinger and Dean identify and manage EDCs. In the United States
2011). The European Commission (2016a) noted the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program is in
that “four modalities (pathways) are relatively place. Potential EDCs are identified and assessed
well known and internationally agreed tests using a two-tier screening programme, followed by
exist (the oestrogen, androgen, thyroid and a regular risk-based assessment (US EPA 2017b).
steroidogen modalities) [but] there are other EDCs are explicitly addressed in the regulatory
modalities which are not yet well known and for frameworks on pesticides, drinking water safety
which no internationally agreed tests exist. For and drugs (US EPA 2017c). In the EU several pieces
these modalities, still under discussion, science is of legislation address EDCs, including the Plant
under development and there is no consensus on Protection Products Regulation (with a potential
the extent of evidence (e.g. diabetes) available”. amendment currently under discussion), the
Biocidal Products Regulation, REACH, the Toy
While there are well established general exposure Safety Directive, the Cosmetics Regulation and
models for humans and wildlife, there is limited the Directive on water policy (EC 2000; Scholz
knowledge regarding their application during 2016). Efforts are ongoing regarding the stepwise
critical periods of development; potential mixture establishment of a list of priority substances
effects; sensitive windows of exposure; and for further evaluation of their role in endocrine
delayed effects (EEA 2012; Beausoleil et al. 2013; disruption. In a first assessment, clear evidence of
Bergman et al. 2013; US EPA 2013; Menard et al. endocrine-disrupting activity combined with high
2014; National Research Council of the National exposure concern was noted for 60 substances
Academies 2014; Lagarde et al. 2015; Giulivo et al. (EC 2016b). Since then, additional data has been
2016; Solecki et al. 2017). generated in the context of the development of
biocides and plant protection legislation (EC n.d.).
Policy developments and considerations In 2017 and 2018, the European Commission
adopted scientific criteria for identifying EDCs in
A number of countries have enacted laws and biocidal products and plant protection products,
policies, and initiated scientific assessments, to respectively (EC 2017d; EC 2018). A guidance
© Rawpixel.com - stock.adobe.com
318
Part II
document for the implementation of the criteria In addition, stakeholders are further exploring
pursuant to the Biocidal Products Regulation and the use of Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs),
the Plant Protection Products regulation was also with the aim of providing a plausible mechanistic
developed and published in 2018 (Andersson understanding of the key events linking a mode
et al.2018). Efforts to identify EDCs are also of action with an adverse outcome caused
ongoing in other countries, including Australia, by an EDC (Ankley et al. 2010; Kramer et al.
Brazil, Canada, China and Japan (Ministry of the 2011; Tollefsen et al. 2014; Becker et al. 2015;
Environment of Japan 2010; Brazilian Ministry Conolly et al. 2017).
of Foreign Affairs 2017; State Council of China
2016; UNEP 2017c; Australian Department of Potential measures to further address EDCs
Health 2018b).
There is lack of systematically gathered data, as stakeholders may wish to consider the following
few countries have included data requirements measures to further address endocrine-
for detecting endocrine disruptors in regular disrupting chemicals (EDCs):
data requirements for assessing the hazards
and risks of chemicals. Under the auspices of ›› Enable systematic screening and identification
the OECD, efforts are ongoing to further develop of EDCs by implementing scientific data
standardized test and data interpretation requirements and assessment as part of
methods to enable a systematic screening and national chemicals legislation.
identification of EDCs by regulators. In 2018 new
and updated OECD Test Guidelines for chemicals ›› At the global level, use and further develop
safety testing were adopted, including inclusion standardized testing methods and criteria
of endocrine-related endpoints in two Test to enable identification of EDCs, including to
Guidelines (OECD 2018e). The OECD Conceptual distinguish non-specific effects.
Framework for Testing and Assessment of
Endocrine Disrupters, last revised in 2017, is a ›› Continue efforts to reduce remaining
guide on available standardized tests available uncertainties, including on thresholds,
that can provide information on the assessment potency, and non-monotonic dose-response
of endocrine activity and which are grouped in relationships.
five levels, depending on the information the
tests are generating (OECD 2018f). In addition, ›› Scale up research and epidemiological studies
the OECD has developed a guidance document to identify exposures of concern that may
to interpret the results from the Test Guidelines lead to health impacts in humans.
that were developed (OECD 2018g).
›› Implement standard data requirements in
Efforts are also under way to screen chemicals regular chemicals regulation to improve
rapidly for bioactivity in several endocrine knowledge on the endocrine-disrupting
pathways, as well as to reduce the use of animals properties of certain chemicals and multiply
in testing through the use of high-throughput available assessments, which could be reused
screening assays and computational models by countries.
for evaluation and screening (US EPA 2017d).
5/ Other issues where emerging evidence

indicates a risk
In responding to the UNEA-2 mandate, “other issues where emerging evidence

indicates a risk” were identified based on a specific set of criteria and to foster
knowledge-sharing.
In recent years, assessments and regulatory risk management actions have been
taken by public bodies on various chemicals/groups of chemicals not addressed
at the international level.
The agreed criteria resulted in the identification of issues for: arsenic, bisphenol
A (BPA), glyphosate, cadmium, lead, microbeads, neonicotinoids, organotins,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates and triclosan.
For some of these, concerns had existed for a long time and recent regulatory
action has been taken in several countries in light of new evidence on lower
thresholds for adverse effects or additional evidence related to specific uses.
In other cases, additional or new evidence has emerged in recent years.
In yet other cases, some countries have taken precautionary action based on
existing knowledge.
I
n 2016 the second United Nations Environment 1.16 Methodology
Assembly (UNEA-2) requested the Executive
Director of the UN Environment Programme to Selection criteria and scope
“ensure that the update of the Global Chemicals
Outlook (GCO-II) addresses the issues which Several approaches to identifying and categorizing
have been identified as emerging policy issues these other issues have been explored. They
by the International Conference on Chemicals have included considering broader management
Management (ICCM), as well as other issues issues – which is, to some extent, compatible
where emerging evidence indicates a risk to with the list of potential emerging policy issues
human health and the environment.” Emerging (EPIs) (see Part I, Ch. 4) – and identifying actions
policy issues (EPIs) are addressed in the previous initiated by public bodies to regulate a chemical
chapter (Part II, Ch. 4). “Other issues where (or group of chemicals) or to conduct a full risk
emerging evidence indicates a risk to human assessment or reassessment based on emerging
health and the environment” are addressed in evidence indicating a risk.
this chapter.
320
Part II
The relevance of other international prioritization Through drawing upon various types of action by
efforts/initiatives and studies, developed through public bodies in UN Member States, a weight-of-
different approaches and methods, has been evidence approach is brought to the process. It is
taken into account (e.g. the Global Environment important to note that the approach taken does
Facility [GEF] Guidance on Emerging Chemicals not aim to conduct and deliver an international
Management Issues in Developing Countries and science-based assessment of specific chemicals
Countries with Economies in Transition (Bouwman or groups of chemicals. Rather, it is meant to
2012) and the WHO’s 10 chemicals of major public facilitate international sharing of knowledge on
health concern (WHO 2018a). As discussed in specific actions recently taken based on emerging
Part II, Ch. 3, a number of international bodies evidence indicating a risk. By undertaking a meta-
and mechanisms exist at the international level review and drawing attention to existing risk
to identify emerging issues. assessment and regulatory risk management
action, the objective is to facilitate understanding
In considering various options, it became clear of issues of potential interest to governments
that, without refining the approach, a large and and other stakeholders, which could facilitate
potentially unmanageable number of other future action in other countries or internationally.
issues would emerge (although they would all
potentially be compatible with the mandate to For some of the chemicals/groups of chemicals
address “other issues where emerging evidence discussed in the following sections, concerns had
indicates a risk”). Therefore, the following existed for a long time (e.g. about lead, which
approach was identified for the selection criteria continues to be widely used in applications
(i.e. entry points and necessary conditions other than paint) recent regulatory action has
for inclusion): At least two countries/regional been taken in several countries in light of new
economic integration organizations have recently evidence on lower thresholds for adverse effects
(since 2010) undertaken of these two types of or additional evidence related to specific uses.
action, including at least one regulatory risk In other cases, additional or new evidence has
management action: emerged in recent years, prompting regulatory
action (e.g. on microbeads). In yet other cases,
›› There has been a regulatory risk management some countries have taken precautionary action
action on a chemical or group of chemicals, based on existing knowledge.
based on emerging evidence indicating a risk
to human health and the environment. Information provided
›› A full risk assessment or reassessment action For each of the “other issues”, two to three
for the same chemical or group of chemicals paragraphs are featured covering the following
has been completed or initiated. information:
Chemicals/groups of chemicals comprehensively ›› basic information about the chemical/group

covered by existing multilateral environmental of chemicals;
agreements, 1 and issues covered by the
Strategic Approach to International Chemicals ›› areas of use/application and economic
Management (SAICM), are not included. It information/market developments;
should furthermore be noted that a number
of governments have taken risk assessment or ›› hazard classification and human health and
regulatory risk management action prior to 2010, environmental concerns; and
both on chemicals/groups of chemicals identified
here as well as one many other chemicals/groups ›› risk management/risk assessment action
of chemicals. taken by countries.
1 Thus chemicals currently being evaluated under the Stockholm Convention are not considered, nor are chemicals listed under Appendix V of the
Rotterdam Convention PIC [prior informed consent] Circular, i.e. chemicals not listed in Annex III of the Convention, but for which the Secretariat has
received one notification verified as complete. These chemicals are not considered because knowledge exchange at the international level has already
been initiated.
Chapter 5. Other issues where emerging evidence indicates a risk 321
In addition, for each of the “other issues” the including fish, rice and dairy products, or of
following supplementary information is included water (IARC 2012a; WHO 2018b). Arsenic is
in a table (see Annex): highly toxic in its inorganic form and classified
as carcinogenic to humans (IARC 2012a). It has
›› regulatory action taken since 2010; been associated with cardiovascular disease,
diabetes, and adverse effects on the nervous,
›› (re-)assessment action and reports published respiratory, immune and endocrine systems
and initiated since 2010; and (United States National Institute of Environmental
and Health Sciences 2014). In the environment
›› possible inclusion in existing prioritization arsenic can induce a variety of toxic effects in
initiatives. wildlife (Tokar, Xu and Waalkes 2015). Examples
of recent regulatory actions are a restriction on
These issues are presented in alphabetical order. the sale and use of arsenic in anti-fouling, water
treatment and wood preservation in Turkey,
and new limits on arsenic levels in rice in the
EU (see Annex).
5.2 Arsenic – potential risk to health
and environment
Arsenic is a naturally occurring element that is 5.3 Bisphenol A in products –

widely distributed in the Earth’s crust. It is used potential risk to health and
in wood preservatives, pesticides, batteries and environment
semiconductors, among other purposes (United
States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Bisphenols are a group of synthetic organic
Registry [US ATSDR] 2007). Global production has compounds primarily used as a building block
been relatively steady in recent years, at 37,100 in the production of polycarbonate plastics
tonnes in 2016 (United States Geological Survey and epoxy resins, which are used in a wide
[USGS] 2018). variety of products including water bottles,
sports equipment, medical devices, household
The primary route of arsenic exposure for the electronics, thermal paper receipts, and food
general population is via ingestion of food, and beverage cans (Carlisle et al. 2009; Liao and
© Cgoodwin, Part of the remains of arsenic processing plant, Ottery mine, Tent Hill, NSW. Arsenic compounds can be seen coating the surface of the brickwork CC
BY-SA 3.0
322
Part II
Kannan 2011). The global bisphenol A (BPA) et al. 2017; Hwang et al. 2018), are under
market is expected to experience a compound investigation and further research is needed,
annual growth rate (CAGR) of approximately for example to understand effects on human
6.5 per cent between 2018 and 2023 (Research health at low environmental exposures (US
and Markets 2018). CDC 2017b). BPA may also be a causal agent
in cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, metabolic
BPA has been detected in thermal paper at disorders, prostate cancer, and immune system
high levels of up to 3-22 g/kg (Mendum et al. alterations. Bisphenol S, which has been used
2011, Biedermann, Tschudin and Grob 2010) as an alternative to BPA, has been identified
as well as in paper currencies (Liao and Kannan in the literature as a regrettable substitution
2011). Polymers degradation is the dominant (see Part III, Ch. 5). In recent years a number of
mechanism responsible for bisphenol releases countries in Asia, Europe and North America have
from products (Mercea 2009). The primary banned or restricted the production and sale
source of exposure to BPA for most people of some products containing BPA (see Annex).
is through food and beverages, by migration
from containers (Carlisle et al. 2009); 1.4 and 2
times higher levels of daily intakes have been
observed for pregnant woment and for children 1.19 Glyphosate in agriculture and
compared to adults (Huang et al. 2017). Between residential use – potential risk to
2004 and 2012, median urinary levels of BPA in health and environment
the US population decreased (US CDC 2017a).
The omnipresent body burden to BPA in many Glyphosate is an organophosphorus compound
population groups has been confirmed in various without anti-cholinesterase activity. It is an
human biomonitoring studies (Koch et al. 2012).  active ingredient in herbicide formulations that
are widely used for agricultural, forestry, and
A number of studies provide evidence that residential weed control. The glyphosate market
BPA is an endocrine disruptor (Rochester and has grown rapidly since 1994 and is expected
Bolden 2015). Other potential effects, such as to continue to experience strong growth in the
adverse behavioral outcomes (Ejaredar et al. next years (Benbrook 2016; Markets and Markets
2017), obesity and type 2 diabetes (Stojanoska 2017).
Information on the extent of exposure to in the world currently considers glyphosate to

glyphosate among various populations is still be a cancer risk to humans at the levels at which
limited and the need for further research, humans are currently exposed” (Health Canada
including to understand temporal trends, has 2019). Some countries have taken regulatory
been noted (Gillezeau et al. 2019). A study on and/or assessment actions on glyphosates (see
time trends in glyphosate exposure undertaken Annex).
in Germany found the data to mirror increasing
glyphosate application and suggest possible
exposure reduction after 2012 (Conrad et al.
2017). The scientific debate regarding adverse 5.5 Cadmium – potential risk to
potential risks to human health are ongoing. health and environment
For example, a 2013 study (Chang and Delzell
2016) and a 2016 study (Acquavella et al. 2016) Cadmium is a soft, silver-white metal naturally
reviewing the literature could not find evidence found in the Earth’s crust. The largest use
for a causal relationship between glyphosate of cadmium is in batteries, predominantly
exposure and Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries. It
According to a 2019 study (Zhang et al. 2019), a is also widely used in pigments, coatings
meta-analysis of human epidemiological studies and electroplating (US ATSDR 2012). Global
suggests a compelling link between exposures to production, most of which is located in the
glyphosate-based herbicides and increased risk Asia-Pacific region, has increased since 2010,
for non-Hodgkin lymphoma in humans. reaching 23,900 tonnes in 2016 (USGS 2018).
An important application driving the growth of
A number of bodies have assessed glyphosate, cadmium production is solar cells (Transparency
in particular with a view to potential cancer risk Market Research 2015; World Energy Council
to humans. In 2015 the International Agency for 2016).
Research on Cancer (IARC) classified glyphosate
as “probably carcinogenic to humans” (IARC The non-smoking general population is exposed
2015); however, this is a hazard identification. to cadmium primarily via ingestion of food (IARC
Later in 2015, the European Food Safety Authority 2012b). Several studies have found cadmium
(EFSA) concluded that “the substance is unlikely (at levels up to 188 ppm) in plastic toys sold
to be genotoxic (i.e. damaging to DNA) or to pose in various countries (Kumar and Pastore 2007;
a carcinogenic threat to humans” (EFSA 2015). In Omolaoye et al. 2010; Korfali 2013). Cadmium
2016 the ECHA Committee for Risk Assessment containing waste also poses challenges (Friege,
(RAC) found that glyphosate causes serious eye Zeschmar-Lahl and Borgmann 2018). Cadmium
damage and is toxic to aquatic life with long- is classified as carcinogenic to humans (IARC
lasting effects; however, the RAC did not find 2012b). Exposure to cadmium mainly affects
evidence to classify glyphosate for specific target kidney function and has, among others, been
organ toxicity or as a carcinogen, as a mutagen, linked to reduced lung function as well as damage
or for reproductive toxicity (ECHA 2017). Also to bones, with children particularly at risk (US
in 2016, FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide ASTDR 2012). Adverse effects on animals and
Residues (JMPR) concluded that “glyphosate is plants have also been identified (Kumar and Singh
unlikely to pose a carcinogenic risk to humans 2010; Gallego et al. 2012). The UNECE Protocol
from exposure through the diet” (FAO and WHO on Heavy Metals under the Convention on Long
2016). In 2017 Health Canada concluded that Range Transboundary Air Pollution addresses
registered glyphosate products do not present cadmium among other heavy metals. In recent
unacceptable risks to human health or the years a number of regulatory agencies, including
environment, or present carcinogenic risk to in China, the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) and
humans, when used according to revised use the EU, have taken action to restrict the use of
directions (Health Canada 2017a). According to cadmium in electrical and electronic equipment,
Health Canada, “no pesticide regulatory authority paints and fertilizers (see Annex).
324
Part II
5.6 Lead – potential risk to health on Heavy Metals under the Convention on Long
Range Transboundary Air Pollution addresses
Lead is a heavy metal that occurs naturally in the lead among other heavy metals. While lead in
Earth’s crust. Historically, important uses of lead gasoline has largely been banned across the
and lead compounds have included in gasoline, world and lead in paint is being addressed as
pipes and many other products. Lead continues an emerging policy issue (EPI) under SAICM
to be used in paints, toys, furniture, ammunition (with many countries having taken regulatory
and batteries, among others. World production of action), a number of countries have recently
lead in 2017 was 11.3 million tonnes, with lead- taken further regulatory actions to restrict the
acid batteries reportedly accounting for around use of lead in other products such as jewelry,
80 per cent of consumption (International Lead toys and electronics (see Annex).
and Zinc Study Group [ILZSG] 2018). Increasing
production of electric cars and bicycles is likely
to boost demand for lead to be used in batteries
during the next couple of years (ILZSG 2018), with 5.7 Microbeads in personal care
this market expected to continue to grow in the products and cosmetics –
medium term (PR Newswire 2018). potential risk to the environment
Lead levels of up to 1,445 ppm have been found Microbeads are a type of primary (i.e. intentionally
in some toys (Omolaoye, Uzairu and Gimba 2010). added) microplastics (commonly considered to
People can be exposed to lead through inhalation be micrometre-sized particles less than 5 mm
of lead particles in air, drinking water, eating in length) intentionally used in personal care
foods, or swallowing dust or dirt. Children can products, other consumer applications, and
have higher exposure to lead in dust, soil or object various industrial applications. (e.g. scrubs,
coatings/paints due to frequent hand-to-mouth toothpastes) (Environment and Climate Change
or object-to-mouth activities (O’Rourke et al. Canada 2015; United States Food and Drug
1999). Significant reductions in lead exposure Administration 2017; United States National
and blood lead concentrations have occurred in Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2018).
many high- and some middle-income countries Exfoliating agents, for example, may contain
(Landrigan et al. 2018). However, there are still more than 10 per cent microbeads (Brande-
several important pathways of occupational and Lavridsen n.d.).
community exposure, particularly in developing
countries, such as lead-glazed pottery, lead pipes Studies show that the majority of microplastics2
and informal recycling of lead-acid batteries. released to the oceans are secondary
The health effects of exposure to lead include microplastics originating from the degradation of
hypertension, renal failure, cardiovascular larger plastic items, in particular textiles and tyres
disease and stroke, especially among workers, (Boucher and Friot 2017), while microbeads from
while neurodevelopmental toxicity constitutes personal care products and cosmetics represent
the most important consequence of lead toxicity a relatively small source of microplastics in the
in children (Landrigan et al. 2018). environment (Essel et al. 2015; UNEP 2016),
estimated in one study at 2 per cent (Boucher
According to the WHO, there is no known level and Friot 2017). Although modern wastewater
of lead exposure that is considered safe (WHO treatment plants may capture up to 99 per cent
2018c). Estimates from the Global Burden of of microplastics (Magnusson and Noren 2014),
Disease (GBD) study indicate that lead was significant amounts may nevertheless enter
responsible for 0.5 million premature deaths waterways, depending on the existence and
and 9.3 million DALYs in 2015 (GBD 2015 Risk efficacy of wastewater treatment facilities
Factors Collaborators 2016). The UNECE Protocol (Murphy et al. 2016; UNEP 2016).
2 While primary microplastics are intentionally added to products, secondary microplastics are generated from the breakdown of larger plastic items.
Given the focus on microplastics rather than microbeads (a type of microplastics) in the literature, most of the information provided in this section
refers to microplastics.
Aquatic organisms may be exposed to 2015) concluded that the continuous release of
microplastics through direct ingestion, microbeads may result in long-term effect on
consumption of prey that have ingested the biological diversity and ecosystems. The potential
plastics, and dermal exposure (Beaman et al. risks of microplastics to human health are largely
2016). Humans can be exposed to microplastics unknown (Crampton 2017). The limited evidence
through ingestion of contaminated food and available suggests that microplastics in seafood
drinking water (Crampton 2017). A study found might not currently represent a substantial health
that humans may consume up to 11,000 plastic risk, although uncertainties remain (UNEP 2016).
particles per person per year from shellfish Several countries have recently taken regulatory
alone (Van Cauwenberghe and Janssen 2014). actions to restrict the manufacture, import and
Given the relatively small share of microplastics sale of microbeads in cosmetics (see Annex).
in the oceans originating from cosmetics, it is
likely that only a small share of exposure can be
thus attributed. Hydrophobic chemicals, such
as PCBs and DDT, have been found to sorb to 5.8 Neonicotinoids in outdoor
microplastics (Nerland et al. 2014; Gallo et al. agriculture – potential risk to the
2018; Lassen et al. 2018). While evidence suggests environment
this may constitute a relatively minor impact
on contaminant exposure compared to other Neonicotinoids are a class of neuroactive
exposure pathways, further research could be insecticides chemically related to nicotine. Seven
warranted (Beaman et al. 2016; UNEP 2016; neonicotinoid insecticides are on the market,
Lassen et al. 2018). of which imidacloprid is the most widely used
(Jeschke et al. 2011). Neonicotinoids currently
Studies have shown various adverse effects on account for 24 per cent of the global market and
aquatic organisms (Beaman et al. 2016; Brande- their use is increasing globally (Duchet, Kraft and
Lavridsen n.d.). A state of the science summary Stark 2018). Neonicotinoids are not only used as
(Environment and Climate Change Canada plant protection products but also as biocides.
© Race for water/Peter Charaf CC BY-SA 4.0
326
Part II
A review found “a growing body of evidence multiple stressors (Rortais et al. 2017). Moreover,
demonstrates that persistent, low levels of a need for further studies on the potential
neonicotinoids can have negative impacts on a effects of neonictonids on human health has
wide range of free-living organisms” (Wood and been suggested (Cimino et al. 2017). Extensive
Goulson 2017). Another review of the literature assessments have been undertaken by relevant
predicts “substantial impacts on biodiversity authorities (e.g. Health Canada 2017b). As an
and ecosystem functioning” from present example of regulatory action, in 2013 the EU
concentrations of neonicoitnoids (van der Sluijs prohibited the use of three neonicotinoids in
et al. 2015). It has been suggested that effects bee-attractive crops (see Annex).
may differ between honeybees and bumblebees
(Rundlöf et al. 2015). Several studies have
found adverse effects on wild bee populations
from exposure to certain neonicotinoids 5.9 Organotins as biocides –
(e.g. Woodcock et al. 2016). Further studies potential risk to health and
found neonicotinoids to be negatively affecting environment
pollinator health under realistic agricultural
conditions (Tsvetkov et al. 2017; Woodcock et al. Organotins are organic compounds that contain
2017). at least one tin-carbon bond. There are four
main groups of organotin compounds, which are
Some have highlighted the difficulties entailed used in various applications including as biocidal
in such assessments, noting the multifactorial agents in wood preservatives and disinfectants,
nature of bee declines (de Miranda and Nazzi catalysts, sealants and stabilizers US ASTDR 2005;
2017). Efforts are under way to address KEMI 2018). Various uses have been restricted by
remaining uncertainties regarding field-realistic regulatory agencies, e.g. use as biocidal agents,
conditions (Rortais et al. 2017). Despite the or banned, e.g. use as antifouling paints on
significant progress made in recent years in ships. Production of organotins has increased
further assessing risks to pollinators, further significantly during the past decades (Cole et al.
research is needed, for example to assess risks of 2015).
Organotins have been found in water bodies soot (carbon black) to dye plastic (UBA 2016).
(e.g. US ASTDR 2005; Deng et al. 2018). The Products that contain PAHs include shoes, bicycle
organotin compound tributyltin (TBT) is considered handles and tyres. Following concerns about
among the most hazardous substances released potential exposure of consumers, several studies
into the marine environment, primarily from use have been undertaken to determine emissions
in anti-fouling systems, with levels in some areas of PAHs from products (e.g. Paschke et al. 2013;
posing significant environmental risk (Andersen Geiss et al. 2017). An example of regulatory action
et al. 2010). In addition to occupational exposure, includes the listing of eight PAHs under the EU’s
the general population can be exposed to some REACH restriction list (see Annex).
organotins through ingestion of food and contact
with household products containing organotin
compounds (Sousa et al. 2014; National Pollutant
Inventory of Australia 2019). Depending on the 5.11 Phthalates in consumer products
compound, exposure to organotins has been – potential effects on health
reported to cause skin, eye and respiratory
irritation, neurological problems, and effects on Phthalates are a group of plasticizers with
the immune system (National Pollutant Inventory softening and elastic effects. They are used
of Australia 2019; KEMI 2018; Nunes-Silva et al. in products such as vinyl flooring, adhesives,
2018). Adverse effects on animals have also detergents, lubricating oils, automotive plastics,
been observed, including endocrine disruption plastic clothing and personal care products (US
(National Pollutant Inventory of Australia 2019; CDC 2017d). Phthalates accounted for 65 per cent
Puñal de Araújo et al. 2018). Examples of recent of global consumption of plasticizers in 2017 and
regulatory action include restriction in China are forecast to account for 60 per cent in 2022;
and the EU of the use of anti-fouling systems consumption of phthalate plasticizers is forecast
containing organotin compounds as biocides to grow at an average annual rate of 1.3 per cent
(see Annex). during 2017-22, while that of other plasticizers
(terephthalates, epoxy, aliphatics, trimellitates,
polymerics, benzoates and phosphates) is
forecast to grow at an average annual rate of
5.10 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 5.8 per cent in the same period (IHS Markit 2018).
in products – potential risk to
health Phthalates are semi-volatile organic compounds
(SVOCs) with concentrations of typically
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a 1-40 per cent in flexible vinyl and other products
group of more than 100 different chemicals that (Biedermann-Brem et al. 2008; Goldsmith et al.
occur naturally in coal and crude oil, but are also 2014). They possess low volatility, high binding
formed as a by-product during the incomplete with polymer matrices, and high sorption to
burning of coal, oil, gas, wood, garbage and other dust, indoor surfaces and skin (Hopf et al. 2014;
organic substances (US CDC 2017c). Sugino et al. 2017). The main human exposure
pathway is oral via food (US CDC 2018). Other
A number of PAHs are classified as carcinogenic, pathways include direct mouthing (toys),
mutagenic and/or toxic for reproduction house dust ingestion and dermal gaseous
(CMR) substances. Some are also persistent, absorption. The highest urine concentrations of
bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) for humans phthalates are observed in the young population
and other organisms, and/or are of concern (Frederiksen et al. 2013; Hartmann et al. 2018). A
because they are very persistent and very study found that less than 3 per cent of surveyed
bioaccumulative. The majority of the PAHs that children had a DEHP3 level exceeding the health-
reach consumers come from tar oils, from specific based guidance value (Den Hond et al. 2015),
oils from petroleum refining added as softeners which may reflect significant action already taken
to rubbers and plastics, and the use of industrial to reduce its use.
328
Part II
Phthalates are a family of chemical compounds 5.12 Triclosan in hygiene products

whose characteristics may differ, among others – potential risk to health and
depending on their molecular weight. Some environment
phthalates may be linked to developmental
toxicity and adverse effects on reproductive Triclosan is an antibacterial and antifungal agent
function in humans, as well as in aquatic widely used in a variety of products, including
invertebrates, fish and birds (European Chemicals cosmetics (e.g. toothpaste and soaps). It can be
Bureau 2008; Watkins et al. 2017). While a released to the environment via various pathways
number of phthalates have so far been found and has been detected in surface, ground and
to present a limited risk of harm to human health drinking water (Dhillon et al. 2015). Triclosan
and the environment (Ventrice et al. 2013), others biodegrades relatively slowly in freshwater and
have been shown to be plausible endocrine sediments (Huang et al. 2014; Huang et al. 2015),
disruptors (e.g. Saillenfait et al. 2013; Albert but more rapidly by photolysis (Morrall et al.
and Jégou 2014).Under REACH, DCHP, DEHP, 2004; Latch et al. 2005; Aranami and Readman
DIBP, DBP and BBP have been included on the 2007).
Candidate List of substances of very high concern
for authorization due to toxicity for reproduction Exposure to triclosan occurs primarily through
and endocrine disrupting properties in humans. the skin or mouth during the use of triclosan-
Restrictions on the use of certain phthalates in containing products, with only a minor
some applications have been put in place in contribution via environmental exposures. A
recent years in several countries, including in study detected triclosan in the urine of around
Canada, China, the Republic of Korea and the 75 per cent of people tested in the United
United States and in the EU. (see Annex). States (US CDC 2017e). According to a recent
consensus statement by more than 200 scientists
and medical professionals (Halden et al. 2017),
triclosan is toxic to aquatic organisms and is an
endocrine disruptor in mammals. Further studies
have also found endocrine-disrupting properties
and other potential adverse effects (e.g. Wang
and Tian 2015; Feng et al. 2016; Olaniyan,
Mkwetshana and Okoh 2016). However, current
levels of use may not pose a major threat to
human health (Ena et al. 2018). In recent years
the United States, Canada and the EU have taken
action to restrict the placing on the market and
use of triclosan. Canada has also assessed and
published its assessment of triclosan under the
Canadian Environmental Protection Act (see
Annex).
3 Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate.
6/ Overall progress towards the 2020 goal:

what have we learned?
Significant progress has been made towards the implementation of the 2020 goal
at the national, regional and global level, and by all stakeholders.
Countries have strengthened their capacities for governance, knowledge

generation, risk reduction and control of illegal international traffic; however,
progress has been uneven.
Progress has been made through multilateral treaties and voluntary international
instruments, but gaps in implementation remain.
Opportunities exist to create synergies between different international

prioritization processes.
The development of an integrated national programme based on a national

profile, as called for by SAICM, could help to strengthen national chemicals
management in a coordinated way.
A coherent and impact-based results framework with meaningful indicators could

inform national action and capacity development, reporting, and tracking of
progress towards the 2020 goal.
T
his chapter synthesizes the information 6.1 Progress has been made towards
presented throughout Part II relevant for the 2020 goal at the national,
assessing progress towards the 2020 goal, regional and global level
which has provided an important aspirational
goal at all levels and for all stakeholders. While it is Significant progress has been made towards
difficult to measure progress in a systematic way, the five objectives of the SAICM OPS
given the absence of a comprehensive indicator
and reporting framework, it is nevertheless Many countries have made important headway
possible to identify certain trends, gaps and in enacting laws, creating programmes and
opportunities, as well as lessons learned that implementing policies to achieve the sound
point towards areas for action. management of chemicals and waste. SAICM,
with its multi-stakeholder and multi-sector
approach, has provided a space and opportunity
for government and non-government actors
to jointly discuss overarching issues, develop
national capacities through the QSP and address
emerging policy issues. Governments, the private
sector, civil society and other stakeholders,
through activities implemented at the local,
national, regional and global levels that are
330
Part II
complementary to, and often catalysed by, between the public and private sector;
international agreements have made important promoted extended producer responsibility
headway towards the five objectives identified and the internalization of costs by industry;
by the OPS: and used fiscal instruments. Industry
involvement has also been important in
›› Governance: Many countries have strengthened mobilizing resources and has built capacity.
their legal and institutional capacities. All As regards external financing, the GEF, the
regions, although in varying degrees, have QSP and the Special Programme, as well as
made significant progress in recent years bilateral donors, have provided significant
with the adoption of overarching chemicals resources.
management legislation. Regional institutions
have proven an effective tool to strengthen ›› Illegal international traffic: International and
capacity. Often prepared through multinational efforts have been ongoing in this
sectoral and multi-stakeholder collaboration, field. Various initiatives and agreements at
national profiles have led to the establishment the regional and global level have helped
of inter-ministerial committees in a number to monitor, reduce and control, to a certain
of countries; led to the production of country extent, illegal international traffic in chemicals
baseline information; and facilitated the and waste. Countries are cooperating to
identification of priority action. strengthen regulatory frameworks and build
capacity for enforcement to minimize illicit
›› Knowledge and information: Various initiatives transboundary movement of hazardous waste
have generated data and improved our and to tackle counterfeit products.
understanding of the hazards and risks of
chemicals of concern. Monitoring systems Countries save resources by aligning and
have been established in many countries and harmonizing their policies
generate important insights. The number
of countries implementing the GHS and Policy learning and alignment is advancing across
establishing PRTRs is increasing. Moreover, countries and organization. Many countries are
drawing on existing bodies, science-policy saving resources by aligning their approaches with
interfaces have been established and those of other countries or with internationally
strengthened, providing important insights agreed guidance. Such guidance includes that
to inform policymaking. developed by the OECD and the WHO. These
alignments and harmonization efforts create
›› Risk reduction: Regulatory bodies in all cost savings through benefiting from progress
regions have taken action to identify, assess made in regions with advanced schemes, sharing
and manage a number of priority chemicals workloads and facilitating trade. Care should
of concern, including through bans or be taken, however, to avoid the human health
restrictions on production and use. Progress impacts of manufacturing being shifted through
in the implementation of legal frameworks, international trade from countries that import
based on the International Code of Conduct goods to those that produce them (Normile
on Pesticide Management, is promising. 2017).
Use of the IOMC tools for risk reduction by
stakeholders is increasing, while poisons Numerous success stories showcase how
centres have been established in many regional institutions and organizations have
countries. advanced regulatory harmonization and the
development and implementation of policy-
›› Capacity building and financing: Some progress oriented action plans across regions. Regional
has been made in mainstreaming chemicals economic and political integration organizations
and waste management into national have assumed a particularly prominent role in
development plans and budgeting. A number addressing chemicals and waste in all regions.
of countries have clarified responsibilities Close trade relationships create opportunities
Chapter 5. Overall progress towards the 2020 goal: what have we learned? 331
for collaboration and harmonization, while 6.2 Significant implementation gaps

maintaining a high standard of protection. remain
Specific hazardous chemicals and issues of Overall progress towards achieving the sound
global concern are successfully addressed management of chemicals and waste is
through multilateral treaties. uneven across countries, regions and actors
The international community has taken Overall progress is insufficient, pointing to an

concerted action, through legally binding treaties, urgent need to take concerted action to develop
on specific hazardous chemicals and issues of basic chemicals management systems in all
global concern. These treaties have catalysed countries. Developing countries and economies
selected regulatory actions, raised awareness, in transition, in particular, still lack basic chemicals
and succeeded in reducing some exposures to and waste management systems. Major gaps
the targeted chemicals and wastes. remain, for example, in the implementation
of the GHS, in the establishment of PRTRs and
The Montreal Protocol has been successful in poisons centres, and in capacities for hazard and
removing ozone-depleting substances from risk assessment and risk management. Gaps are
the atmosphere and protecting the ozone particularly prevalent for industrial chemicals
layer, thus avoiding more than 100 million and consumer products. Further work is also
cases of skin cancer; the Basel Convention has needed to address pesticides. Moreover, even
successfully strengthened national capacities if regulations for specific chemicals are in place,
for the environmentally sound management of implementation may pose challenges. Similarly,
hazardous wastes; the Rotterdam Convention industry involvement has not been sufficient and
has facilitated the exchange of critical information challenges have been noted regarding voluntary
on the trade of hazardous substances; and the industry standards and initiatives.
production and use of a number of POPs has been
restricted or eliminated under the Stockholm Provision of financing, technology transfer and
Convention. The Minamata Convention on technical assistance has not met needs
Mercury is also expected to achieve positive
results, for example through phasing out the Limited progress has been made in integrating
use of mercury in various products. chemicals and waste considerations in
332
Part II
policymaking. Few success stories are known substances are beyond their scope. Moreover,
in which relevant projects were followed up not all treaties have been universally ratified.
by the allocation of resources from national SAICM suffers, among others, from insufficient
budgets/resources. Moreover, further efforts are sectoral engagement; the capacity constraints
needed in many countries to adopt legislation of national focal points; lack of tools to measure
to internalize costs, as well as to expand the progress; limited financing of activities; and
use of economic instruments. External funding insufficient and uneven advances in substantive
has also not matched the need and demand areas. Progress has also been slow, modest
for support, expressed by developing countries and uneven in implementing the EPIs, with the
and economies in transition, for building basic exception of lead in paint.
chemicals and waste management systems.
Further action is therefore required to achieve International prioritization processes are
full implementation of the integrated approach diverse and independent from each other
with respect to all three components.
A diverse set of mechanisms has been established
Strengthening integrated national at the international level to identify emerging
implementation, a priority but challenging issues and set priorities for action. This includes
processes under chemicals and waste MEAs, the
SAICM‘s quest to support the development of process under SAICM for identifying emerging
an integrated national programme based on policy issues and other issues of concern, and
a national profile has sought to align national regional processes. Moreover, UNEA called
processes to strengthen chemicals and waste for the GCO-II to address “other issues where
management in a systematic and coordinated emerging evidence indicates a risk”. These
way. While valuable work has been undertaken international mechanisms and processes follow
by countries through the development of national different procedures and base the identification
chemicals management profiles and plans, there and prioritization of chemicals and emerging
has been a loss of momentum, marked by lack issues on different criteria. In addition, different
of sufficient funding for developing countries organizing frameworks are used, with some
and economies in transition to develop basic targeting specific chemicals/groups of chemicals
capacities. Urho (2018) points out that the lack and others targeting broader management
of one single mechanism for working towards issues. Some of the instruments rely on scientific/
strategically prioritized national action results in technical bodies to provide scientific input to
an ad-hoc and diffuse approach, which makes it inform identification and prioritization. Synergies
challenging to assess collective progress. may exist among these mechanisms, and there
may be value in considering the lessons learned
Implementation gaps remain regarding from the respective processes in deliberating
multilateral treaties and SAICM options available to identify and prioritize issues
under a beyond 2020 framework.
The extent to which the objectives of a number of
treaties have been achieved is uncertain. Further
efforts are needed to achieve full implementation,
for example to address gaps in regulatory 6.3 A coherent global results,
schemes under the Stockholm Convention and indicator and reporting
to fully implement the chemicals dimension of framework is lacking
the IHR (2015). Given that treaties are designed
to address specific chemicals and issues – for Reporting rates are not satisfactory
example, some mainly focus on specific stages
of the life cycle or specific issues (e.g. ILO Reporting rates under several agreements are
C174), individual chemicals (e.g. the Minamata low, particularly among developing countries
Convention) or groups of chemicals (e.g. the and economies in transition. In some cases
Stockholm Convention) – many hazardous reporting rates exhibit a downward trend (e.g.
Chapter 5. Overall progress towards the 2020 goal: what have we learned? 333
under the Stockholm Convention and the Basel Secretariat 2018). The low response rate for the
Convention). Reporting rates under SAICM have third SAICM Progress Report emphasizes that
also been disappointing. They show a worrying such a reporting system is in need of a revision.
downward trend, with data lacking particularly
from the Africa region. By contrast, reporting Output-based indicators versus impact-based
compliance has been high or even universal indicators
under ILO Conventions, the Montreal Protocol
and the IHR. Further efforts are needed to Most of the indicators currently used to monitor
fully understand the reasons for significant progress with the implementation of the different
divergences in reporting rates and to share instruments are activity-, output- or instrument-
lessons learned. based. These indicators do not provide
information on the results achieved in protecting
Reporting mechanisms are fragmented human health and the environment from the
adverse effects of chemicals and waste. The
A range of different reporting mechanisms have activity-based indicators and related responses
been established across the various instruments to questionnaires may also be subjective and
in the international chemicals and waste cluster. open to a variety of responses. Consequently,
Relying on this diverse set of parameters and it is often not possible to ascertain whether the
indicators makes it challenging to develop a health and environment related objectives of the
baseline and derive informed insights on agreements are actually achieved (Urho 2018).
the overall progress. Data from the various When using the results chain to assess progress, it
instruments are currently scattered in different can be concluded that a large number of activities
Secretariats and databases, making it difficult to and outputs are being/have been implemented.
track overall progress in a systematic manner. In the framework of SAICM, stakeholders have
The co-chairs’ overview paper prepared for the made progress by developing a set of 11 basic
second meeting of the intersessional process elements recognized as critical at the national
on the sound management of chemicals and and regional level to the attainment of sound
waste beyond 2020, held in March 2018, stated chemicals and waste management, as outlined
that “countries have been burdened by their in the OOG for achieving the 2020 goal. However,
reporting obligations under different regimes” these indicators do not provide conclusive
and noted that “reporting under the beyond 2020 insights regarding progress in minimizing the
structure should take this into account when adverse impacts of chemicals and waste.
determining reporting mechanisms” (SAICM
334
Part II
Annex: Other issues where emerging

evidence indicates a risk
Arsenic
Action Scope Concern

Regulatory • Eurasian Economic Union • Prohibits arsenic • Potential health
actions (EEA) 2010, application of in milk dummies effects (risk to
sanitary measures within and pacifiers from infants)
the Customs Union silicone polymers and
latex
• Limits arsenic in
diapers and baby
swaddling bands
• EU, EC 2015, Regulation • Limits levels of • Potential health
(EC) No 2015/1006 arsenic in rice and effects (risk to
amending Regulation restricts sale consumers, infants
(EC) No 2006/1881 on and young children)
maximum levels for certain
contaminants in foodstuffs
• Canada, 2016, Health • Limits the amount • Protection of human
Canada Expansion Gates of arsenic in these health with a special
and Expandable Enclosures sources focus on children’s
Regulations, Cribs, Cradles health
and Bassinets Regulations
and Toys Regulations,
Canada Consumer Product
Safety Act
• Canada, 2016, Regulations • Specifies maximum • Protection of human
under the Canada Food and levels of arsenic in health
Drugs Act for foods, drugs these products
(2016) and natural health
products
• Turkey 2017, Ministry • Restricts the sale • Potential effects
of Environment and and use for use in on health and
Urbanization (MoEU), KKDIK anti-fouling, water environment (risk to
regulation (REACH-like treatment, wood humans and animals)
regulation) preservation
Assessment US 2016, FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Arsenic in Rice and Rice
actions and Products Risk Assessment Report
reports EU 2017, ECHA, Committee for Risk Assessment (RAC) Opinion on Arsenic acid and its
inorganic salts
Inclusion Global Environment Facility (GEF) Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP),
in existing GEF Guidance on Emerging Chemicals Management Issues in Developing Countries and
prioritization Countries with Economies in Transition (2012)
initiatives WHO’s chemicals of major public health concern
Norway Environment Agency’s List of Priority Substances (as of 2017)
335
Bisphenol A (BPA)

Regulatory • Canada, 2010, Bisphenol • Prohibits the import, • The concern is the
actions A added to the Canada sale and advertising health of newborns
Consumer Products Safety of polycarbonate and infants under 18
Act, Schedule 2 baby bottles months of age
containing BPA
• China 2011, Ministry of • Bans production of • Potential health
Health Ban on the Use any BPA-containing effects (risk to
of BPA in Infant Food baby bottles or other people; children,
Containers food and drink items infants and foetuses)
for children
• Malaysia 2011, Ministry of • Bans production, • Potential health
Health import and sale effects (risk to
of feeding bottles people, children,
containing BPA infants and foetuses)
• EU, EC 2011, Regulation • Limits the amount of • Potential health
(EC) 10/2011 amending BPA allowed to leach effects (risk to
Directive 2002/72/EC on out of materials people, children,
plastic materials and articles infants and foetuses)
intended to come into
contact with food
• EU, EC 2011, Regulation • Prohibits BPA in • Potential health
(EC) 321/2011 amending the manufacture of effects (risk to
Regulation (EU) 10/2011 as polycarbonate infant children and infants)
regards the restriction of feeding bottles
use of Bisphenol A in plastic
infant feeding bottles
• EU, EC 2016, Regulation • Prohibits sale of • Potential health
(EC) 2016/2235, amending thermal paper effects (risk to
Annex XVII to Regulation containing BPA workers, consumers,
(EC) No 1907/2006 (REACH unborn children of
Restriction List) pregnant workers)
• EU, EC 2017, Directive • Lowers applicable • Potential health
(EU) 2017/898, amending specific limit value for effects (risk to
Appendix C to Annex II to BPA in toys children)
Directive 2009/48/EC on the
safety of toys, as regards
bisphenol A
• Turkey 2017, Ministry • Restricts the amount • Potential health
of Customs and Trade of BPA permissible effects (risk to
Amendment to the Safety for use in toys children less than 36
of Toys Implementing • Mandates use of months old)
Regulation Gazette number: safety warning
30025
• Canada 2017, Ministerial • Bans manufacture or • Potential effects on
Condition No. 19233 of the import of consumer health, environment
Canadian Environmental products with fatty and biodiversity (risk
Protection Act, 1999 acids, tall oil and to pregnant women,
reaction products infants and foetuses)
containing BPA
• Regulates handling
and disposal
• EU, EC 2018, Regulation • Restricts use of BPA • Potential health
EC 2018/213, Bisphenol-A in in varnishes and effects (risk to
amendment to Regulation coatings consumers)
(EU) No 10/2011 on plastic
and food contact material.
To apply from September
2018
336
Part II

Assessment Canada, 2012 Health Canada’s Updated Assessment of Bisphenol A (BPA) Exposure
actions and from Food Sources
reports EU 2015, EFSA, Scientific Opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence
of bisphenol A (BPA) in foodstuffs
EU 2016, EFSA, A statement on the developmental immunotoxicity of bisphenol A
(BPA): answer to the question from the Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport
Sweden 2017, Swedish Chemicals Agency (KEMI), Bisphenols – a survey and analysis
EU 2017, Next EFSA Re-assessment on toxicity of bisphenol A (BPA) in 2018
US 2018, FDA National Toxicology Program (NTP), 2018, draft CLARITY-BPA Core Study
Research Report
initiatives Chemicals/groups of chemicals on which the US EPA issued a Chemical Action Plan
(2011)
Norwegian Environment Agency’s List of Priority Substances (as of 2017)
Glyphosate

Regulatory France 2014, Loi n° 2014-110 Forbids use of pesticides Potential health effects
actions du 6 février 2014 visant à by the French state,
mieux encadrer l’utilisation des local authorities and
produits phytosanitaires sur le public bodies for the
territoire national maintenance of public
spaces, forests and
roadsides
Netherlands 2016 Bans sale of glyphosate Potential health effects
to private parties
Italy 2016, Ministry of Health Prohibits use of Potential effects on
Restrictions on Glyphosate use glyphosate in public health and environment
areas and pre-harvest (risk to children and the
use of glyphosate. elderly)
Restricts non-agricultural
use of glyphosate in soils
Sri Lanka 2018 Use of glyphosate Potential health effects
banned except for tea on farmers (kidney
and rubber cultivation disease)
Assessment EU 2015, EFSA Peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the EDC properties of
actions and glyphosate
reports Canada 2017, Re-evaluation Decision RVD2017-01, Glyphosate. Catalogue number:
H113-28/2017-1E-PDF
US EPA 2017, Draft Human Health and Ecological Risk Assessments for Glyphosate.
Review docket EPA-HQ-OPP-2009-0361
Inclusion
in existing
prioritization
initiatives
337
Cadmium

Regulatory • EU 2011, Directive 2011/65/ • Restricts sale of • Potential health
actions EU, restriction of the use electrical and effects (risk to
of certain hazardous electronic equipment consumers)
substances (RoHS) in (EEE) above certain
electrical and electronic cadmium levels
equipment 
• Canada 2016, Health • Limits the amount • Protection of human
Canada Surface Coating of cadmium in these health with a special
Materials Regulations, sources focus on children’s
Glazed Ceramics and health
Glassware Regulations,
Children’s Jewellery
Regulations, Expansion
Gates and Expandable
Enclosures Regulations,
Cribs, Cradles and Bassinets
Regulations and Toys
Regulations, Canada
Consumer Product Safety
Act.
• EU, EC 2016, Regulation • Restricts placing on • Potential effects
(EC) 2016/217, amending the market of paints on health and
Annex XVII to Regulation biodiversity (risk to
(EC) No 1907/2006 (REACH humans and aquatic
Restriction List) life)
• EU, EC 2016, Circular • Restricts limits • Potential effects
economy package: rules on for cadmium in on health and
organic and waste-based phosphate fertilizers environment (risk to
fertilizers in the EU humans and soils)
• Republic of Korea 2016, • Restricts production • Potential health
Act for Resource Recycling and import effects (risk to
of Electrical and Electronic • Restricts levels consumers)
Equipment and Vehicles of cadmium and
its compounds in
electrical products
and vehicles
• China 2017, Ministry of • Restricts production • Potential health
Environmental Protection and use of cadmium effects and
(MEP), List of Priority • Mandates disclosure environment
Chemicals for Management of use or release of
(first batch), Notice No. 83 cadmium; mandates
of 2017 an application for a
disposal permit
• UAE 2017, Emirates • Restricts sale of • Potential health
Authority for electrical and effects and
Standardization and electronic equipment environment (risk to
Metrology RoHS regulation, (EEE) containing consumers)
Decision No. 10 of 2017 cadmium
• Eurasian Economic Union • Restricts sale of EEE • Potential effects
(EEU) 2018, alignment with containing cadmium on health and
EU (RoHS) environment (risk to
humans and animals)
• UK 2013, Food standards
Agency, Final Report: A
Survey of Cadmium in
Brown Crabmeat and Brown
Crabmeat Products
338
Part II

Assessment Norway 2015, Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (VKM), Risk assessment
actions and of dietary cadmium exposure. VKM 2015: 12
reports EU 2016, Impact assessment, limits for cadmium in phosphate fertilizers. An
accompanying document to a proposal for an EC Regulation
Global Environment Facility (GEF) Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP),
GEF Guidance on Emerging Chemicals Management Issues in Developing Countries and
Countries with Economies in Transition (2012)
WHO’s chemicals of major public health concern
Inclusion -
in existing
prioritization
initiatives
Lead

Regulatory • The Philippines 2013, • Restricts import, • Potential health
actions Department Administrative manufacture, effects (risk to
Order No. 2013- 24, processing, sale, children)
Chemical Control Order for distribution, use and
Lead and Lead Compounds disposal
• Bans use in
production of 7
types of consumer
products
• EU, EC 2015, Regulation • Expands scope of • Potential health
(EU) 2015/628 amending lead restriction from effects (risk to
Annex XVII to Regulation jewelry articles to children)
(EC) No 1907/2006 (REACH articles or accessible
Restriction List) parts of articles for
the general public
• Canada 2016, Health • Limits lead content in • Potential health
Canada Children’s Jewellery children’s jewelry effects (risk to
Regulations, Canada children)
Act, SOR/2016-168
• Canada 2016, Health • Limits the amount of • Protection of human
Canada Surface Coating lead in these sources. health with a special
Materials Regulations, focus on children’s
Glazed Ceramics and health
Glassware Regulations,
Kettles Regulations, Cribs,
Cradles and Bassinets
Regulations and Toys
Regulations, Canada
Act
• Canada, 2016, Regulations • Specifies maximum • Protection of human
under the Canada Food and levels of lead in these health
Drugs Act for foods, drugs products
and natural health products
339

• Singapore 2016, Ministry of • Restricts • Potential health
the Environment and Water manufacture, import effects (risk to
Resources, Environmental and sale consumers)
Protection and Management • Restricts lead levels
Act amendment in certain electrical
and electronic
equipment (EEE)
• United Arab Emirates (UAE) • Restricts sale of • Potential health
2017, Emirates Authority electrical and effects (risk to
for Standardization and electronic equipment consumers)
Metrology RoHS regulation, (EEE) containing
Decision No. 10 of 2017. lead to a maximum
concentration of 0.01
per cent
Assessment US 2012, US Department of Health and Human Services National Toxicology Program
actions and (NTP), NTP Monograph Health Effects of Low-level Lead Evaluation
reports Canada 2013, Health Canada, Final Human Health State of the Science Report on Lead
US 2013, EPA, Integrated Science Assessment for Lead
initiatives World Health Organization (WHO) chemicals of major public health concern
Microbeads

Regulatory • US 2015, Microbead-Free • Prohibits • Potential effects on
actions Waters Act (114-114) manufacture, the environment
packaging and and biodiversity (risk
distribution of to water supply,
rinse-off cosmetics waterbodies and fish/
containing plastic wildlife)
microbeads
• France 2017, Ministry of • Bans rinse-off • Potential effects
Environment, Energy and cosmetic products on environment
the Sea, Décret no 2017-291 for exfoliation or (marine environment,
cleaning that contain waterbodies and
solid plastic particles food chain)
• Canada, 2017, Microbeads • Prohibits • Potential effects on
in Toiletries Regulations manufacture, import the environment and
(SOR/2017-111) and sale of toiletries biodiversity (risk to
used to exfoliate or freshwater, marine
cleanse that contain ecosystems and non-
microbeads human species)
• Taiwan 2017, EPA Waste • Bans manufacture, • Potential effects on
Management Division, import, use and sale the environment
Administrative order of microbeads
• New Zealand 2017, Ministry • Bans sale and • Potential effects on
of Environment, Plastic manufacture of the environment (risk
microbeads ban, 2017/291 wash-off products of non-biodegradable
amending the 2008 Waste containing plastic microbeads)
Minimization Act microbeads
340
Part II

• UK 2017, Department for • Bans manufacture • Potential effects on
Environment, Food & Rural and sale of cosmetics biodiversity (risk to
Affairs, The Environmental and rinse-off marine life)
Protection (Microbeads) personal care
(England) Regulations, 2017 products with plastic
No. 1312) microbeads
• Sweden 2018, Ministry of • Bans sale of • Potential effects on
the Environment and Energy cosmetics and rinse- biodiversity (risk to
off personal care marine life)
products with plastic
microbeads
• UK: Northern Ireland 2018, • Prohibits use of • Potential harm to
Department of Agriculture, microbeads as living species in the
Environment and Rural an ingredient in marine environment
Affairs manufacture of
rinse-off personal
care products and
sale of any such
products containing
microbeads
• UK: Scotland 2018, Marine • Prohibits use of • Potential harm to
Scotland microbeads as living species in the
an ingredient in marine environment
manufacture of
rinse-off personal
care products and
sale of any such
products containing
microbeads
• UK: Wales 2018, Marine and • Prohibits use of • Potential harm to
Fisheries Division microbeads as living species in the
an ingredient in marine environment
manufacture of
rinse-off personal
care products and
sale of any such
products containing
microbeads
Canada, 2015, Microbeads – A Science Summary
Assessment
actions and UK 2016, the government is to conduct an investigation into the impact on human
reports health of microplastic particles found in shellfish and other marine animals
Denmark 2017, Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Partnership on
Microplastics in wastewater 2017
Sweden 2018, Swedish Chemicals Agency (KEMI), Microplastic in cosmetic products
and other chemical products Report 2/18
Inclusion Included in AMAP’s Chemicals of Emerging Arctic Concern (2017)
in existing
prioritization
initiatives
341
Neonicotinoids

Regulatory • EU, EC 2013, Regulation • Prohibits use in bee- • Potential effects on
actions 485/2013, amending attractive crops biodiversity (risk to
Regulation (EU) No bees)
540/2011 (clothianidin,
thiamethoxam and
imidacloprid)
Assessment EU, EC 2012, EFSA pesticide risk assessment for bees for three neonicotinoids
actions and EU, EC 2011, ECHA Assessment report of Imidacloprid in insecticides
reports
Canada, 2012, Health Canada, Pest Management Regulatory Agency, Re-evaluation of
Neonicotinoid Insecticides
EU, EC 2012, ECHA Assessment report of Thiamethoxam in wood preservatives and
insecticides
EU, EC 2014, ECHA Assessment reports of Clothianidin in wood preservatives and
insecticides
EU, EC 2014, ECHA Assessment report of Dinotefuran in wood preservatives
US EPA 2016, ongoing review and risk assessment to be completed in 2018/2019
(pollinator-only assessment for clothianidin, thiamethoxam, dinotefuran; updated
preliminary risk assessment for imidacloprid)
Canada, 2016, Health Canada, Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA),
Proposed Re-evaluation Decision PRVD2016-20, Imidacloprid
Canada, 2017, Health Canada, Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA), Update
on the Neonicotinoid Pesticides
Proposed Re-evaluation Decision PRVD2017-23, Clothianidin and Its Associated End-
use Products: Pollinator Re-evaluation
Proposed Re-evaluation Decision PRVD2017-24, Thiamethoxam and Its Associated
End-use Products: Pollinator Re-evaluation
Proposed Re-evaluation Decision PRVD2018-12, Imidacloprid and Its Associated End-
use Products: Pollinator Re-evaluation
Proposed Special Review Decision PSRD2018-01, Clothianidin: Special Review of Risk
to Aquatic Invertebrates
Proposed Special Review Decision PSRD2018-02, Thiamethoxam: Special Review of
Risk to Aquatic Invertebrates.
EU 2018, EFSA, Evaluation of the data on clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam
for the updated risk assessment to bees for seed treatments and granules in the EU
Inclusion -
in existing
prioritization
initiatives
342
Part II
Organotins

Regulatory Canada, 2012 Prohibition Prohibits the Potential effects on
actions of Certain Toxic Substances manufacture, use, sale, the environment or its
Regulations (Tributyltins , which offer for sale or import biological diversity
contain the grouping (C4H9)3Sn of the substance, and
added in 2013) products containing it
EU, EC 2014, Regulation Restricts use of anti- Potential effects on
1257/2013 on ship recycling fouling systems health and marine
and amending Regulation (EC) containing organotin environment
No 1013/2006 and Directive compounds as a biocide
2009/16/EC
China 2015, Merchant Shipping Bans organotin Potential effects on
(Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling compounds acting as health and marine
Systems on Ships) Regulation, biocides in anti-fouling environment
L.N. 54 of 2015 systems of ships
Thailand 2017, Department Limits concentration Potential health effects
of Labour Protection and of cyhexatin (risk to workers)
Welfare of Thailand, notification (tricyclohexyltin
on concentration limits of hydroxide) in the
dangerous chemicals. Gazette: workplace and in
Book 134 Special Episode 198 hazardous chemical
storage facilities
Canada, 2018 Guideline for the This guideline Harmful effects to
environmental management of addresses in-plant aquatic organisms if
tin stabilizers in Canada in 2018 handling methods for allowed to enter the
tin stabilizers and also aquatic environment
the management of tin
stabilizer packaging.
Assessment Canada 2010, Health Canada, Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA), Re-
actions and evaluation Decision - Tributyltin Compounds (RVD1017-01);
reports Canada 2010, Health Canada, Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA), Proposed
Re-evaluation Decision, Tributyltin Compounds (PRVD2010-11); Canada 2002, Health
Canada, Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA), Special Review Decision,
Tributyltin Antifouling Paints for Ship Hulls (SRD2002-01)
Denmark 2013, Danish Tributyltin compounds (TBT) assessment, Environmental
Project No. 1524, 2013
initiatives
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Regulatory EU, EC 2014, Regulation Restriction extended Potential health effects
actions 1272/2013, amending Annex to rubber and plastic (risk to consumers and
XVII to Regulation (EC) No components of children)
1907/2006 REACH Restriction article with direct and
List (8PAHs) prolonged or short-term
repetitive contact with
skin or mouth
343

Germany 2014, Product Safety Restricts PAH content in Potential health effects
Commission, “Testing and articles and consumer (risk to consumers)
Assessment of PAHs” (18 PAHs) products
EU, EC 2015, Regulation Restricts sale and sets Potential health effects
2015/1933, amending Annex maximum levels PAHs in
XVII to Regulation (EC) No certain foodstuffs
1907/2006 (REACH Restriction
List)
Turkey 2017 Ministry Restricts PAH content in Potential health effects
of Environment and articles and consumer (risk to consumers and
Urbanization (MoEU), KKDIK products children)
regulation (REACH-like
regulation) Annex 17 (8 PAHs)
Assessment Denmark 2013, Danish EPA, Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) Evaluation of health
actions and hazards and estimation of a quality criterion in soil, Environmental Project No. 1523,
reports 2013
initiatives Norwegian Environment Agency’s List of Priority Substances (as of 2017)
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) Chemicals of Emerging Arctic
Concern (2017)
Phthalates

Regulatory • Republic of Korea 2014, • Prohibits the • Potential health
actions Ministry of Food and production, effects (risk to
Drug Safety, Regulations import sale or use lactating women,
on medical device of intravascular pregnant women,
approval, notification and administration newborn babies,
examination (3 phthalates: medical devices infants, children and
DBP, BBP and DEHP) containing phthalates the elderly)
• EU, EC 2015, Directive (EU) • Restricts use in • Potential health
2015/863, amending Annex all electrical and effects (risk to
II to Directive 2011/65/EU (4 electronic equipment workers)
phthalates: DEHP, BBP, DBP, (apart from medical
DIBP) devices and
monitoring and
control equipment)
• China 2015, General • Restricts use in • Potential health
Administration of Quality infants’ and children’s effects (risk to infants
Supervision, Inspection textile products and children)
and Quarantine and
the Standardization
Administration, New
Safety Technical Code for
Infants and Children Textile
Products (6 phthalates:
DEHP, DBP, BBP, DINP,
DNOP, DIDP)
• China 2016, National Food • Prohibits use as • Potential health
Safety Standard GB9685- additives in food effects (risk to
2016 (4 phthalates: DMP, contact materials consumers)
DIBP, DIOP, DIDP)
344
Part II

• Canada, 2016, Canada • Restricts • Potential health
Consumer Product Safety concentrations of effects
Act, Phthalates Regulations DEHP, DBP, and BBP
(6 phthalates: DEHP, DBP, to 1 000 mg/kg in the
BBP, DINP, DIDP, DNOP) vinyl of a toy or child
care article
• Restricts
concentrations of
DINP, DIDP, and
DNOP to 1 000 mg/
kg in the vinyl in any
part of a toy or child
care article that can
be reasonably be
mouthed by a child
under four years of
age
• United States (US) 2017, • Prohibits children’s • Potential health
Consumer Product toys and child effects (risk to males,
Safety Commission care articles infants and children)
(CPSC), Prohibition of containing more
Children’s Toys and Child than 0.1 per cent of
Care Articles Containing certain phthalate
Specified Phthalates chemicals
under section 108 of the
Improvement Act of (2008)
(5 phthalates: DIBP, DPENP,
DHEXP, DCHP, DINP)
Assessment US 2012, EPA, Phthalates Action Plan
actions and EU 2013, European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), Evaluation of new scientific evidence
reports concerning DINP and DIDP in relation to entry 52 of Annex XVII to REACH Regulation
(EC) No 1907/2006
India 2016, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Report of the Committee to assess
the health and environmental impact of the use of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
or Plastic containers for primary packaging of drug formulations
Canada 2017, Draft Screening Assessment for the Phthalate Substance Grouping
EU 2018, ECHA, Committee for Risk Assessment Opinion proposing harmonized
classification and labelling at EU level of DINP
Inclusion Global Environment Facility (GEF) Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP), GEF
in existing Guidance on Emerging Chemicals Management Issues in Developing Countries and
initiatives Chemicals/groups of chemicals for which the US EPA issued a Chemical Action Plan
(2011)
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) Chemicals of Emerging Arctic
Concern (2017)
345
Triclosan

Regulatory • EU, EC 2014, Regulation • Restricts maximum • Potential health
actions (EU) No 358/2014 of 9 April concentration of effects
2014 amending Annexes triclosan in certain
II and V to Regulation cosmetic products
(EC) No 1223/2009 of the
European Parliament and
of the Council on cosmetic
products
• US 2016, Food and Drug • Restricts placing • Potential health
Administration (FDA) on market of effects
final rule on safety over-the-counter
and effectiveness of (OTC) consumer
antibacterial soaps rinse-off antiseptic
wash products
containing triclosan
and 18 other active
ingredients
• EU, EC 2016, Implementing • Restricts use of • Potential effects on
Decision (EU) 2016/110 triclosan as an active the environment
of 27 January 2016 not substance in human (unacceptable risks
approving triclosan as an hygiene biocidal for surface water and
existing active substance for products secondary poisoning
use in biocidal products for of non-target species)
product-type 1
• Canada, 2018, Triclosan was • An instrument is • Potential effects on
added to the List of Toxic currently under the environment and
Substances of the Canadian development to biodiversity
Environmental Protection manage the risk
Act, 1999. triclosan poses to the
environment
Assessment Canada, 2016, Environment and Climate Change Canada Health Canada, Assessment
actions and of Triclosan - found that it is toxic to the environment above certain levels, but is not
reports toxic to humans at current levels of exposure
EU 2015, ECHA. Opinion on the application for approval of the active substance:
Triclosan Product-type: 1
Inclusion Norwegian Environment Agency’s List of Priority Substances (as of 2017)
in existing
prioritization
initiatives
346
Part II
References
Chapter 1 Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International

Chemicals Management, United Nations Environment
Programme and World Health Organization (2006).
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
Nations (2018). AGP - International Code of Conduct
Management: SAICM Texts and Resolutions of the
on Pesticide Management. http://www.fao.org/
International Conference on Chemicals Management.
agriculture/crops/thematic-sitemap/theme/pests/
http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/
code/en/. Accessed 31 January 2019.
saicmtexts/New%20SAICM%20Text%20with%20
ICCM%20resolutions_E.pdf.
International Labour Organization (2017a). Convention
C170: Chemicals Convention, 1990. https://www.ilo.
org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO United Nations (2018). Montreal Protocol on
::P12100_ILO_CODE:C170. Accessed 31 January 2019. Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
International Labour Organization (2017b). Convention Minamata Convention on Mercury. http://www.
C174: Prevention of Major Industrial Accidents mercuryconvention.org/Home/tabid/3360/language/
Convention, 1993. https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/ en-US/Default.aspx. Accessed 5 September 2018.
en/f?p=1000:12100:::NO:12100:P12100_INSTRUMENT_
ID:312319. Accessed 31 January 2019. World Health Organization (2016). International Health
Regulations (2005). 3rd edn. http://www.who.int/ihr/
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons publications/9789241580496/en/.
(2019). Chemical Weapons Convention. https://www.
opcw.org/chemical-weapons-convention/. Accessed
31 January 2019.
Chapter 2
Persson, L., Persson, Å. and Sam, C. (2014). The Strategic
Approach to International Chemicals Management in Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Cambodia: Barriers and Opportunities. Stockholm: Nations and World Health Organization (2014). The
Stockholm Environment Institute. https://www.sei. International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management.
org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/SEI- http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/
PolicyBrief-Persson-Chemicals-Cambodia.pdf. documents/Pests_Pesticides/Code/CODE_2014Sep_
ENG.pdf.
Secretariat of the Basel Convention (2011a). New strategic
framework. http://www.basel.int/TheConvention/ Honkonen, T. and Khan, S.A. (2017). Chemicals and
StrategicPlan/NewStrategicFramework/tabid/1546/ Waste Governance beyond 2020: Exploring Pathways for
Default.aspx. Accessed 8 November 2018. a Coherent Global Regime. Copenhagen: Nordic Council
of Ministers. http://dx.doi.org/10.6027/TN2017-502.
Secretariat of the Basel Convention (2011b). Convention
overview. http://www.basel.int/TheConvention/ Inter-agency and Expert Group on Sustainable
Overview/tabid/1271/Default.aspx. Accessed 27 Development Goal Indicators (2018). Tier Classification
August 2018. for Global SDG Indicators. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/
files/Tier Classification of SDG Indicators_11 May
Secretariat of the Rotterdam Convention (2010). 2018_web.pdf.
Rotterdam Convention text: Rotterdam Convention
on the Prior informed Consent Procedure for Certain International Labour Organization (n.d. a). Committee
Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International of experts on the application of conventions and
Trade. http://www.pic.int/TheConvention/Overview/ recommendations. https://www.ilo.org/global/
TextoftheConvention/RotterdamConventionText/ standards/applying-and-promoting-international-
tabid/1160/language/en-US/Default.aspx. Accessed labour-standards/committee-of-experts-on-the-
27 August 2018. application-of-conventions-and-recommendations/
lang--en/index.htm. Accessed 27 August 2018.
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2008).
Convention text. http://chm.pops.int/TheConvention/ International Labour Organization (n.d. b). Conference
Overview/TextoftheConvention/tabid/2232/Default. committee on the application of standards.
aspx. Accessed 27 August 2018. https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/applying-
and-promoting-international-labour-standards/
conference-committee-on-the-application-of-
standards/lang--en/index.htm. Accessed 27 August
2018.
347
Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
Management of Chemicals (2010). IOMC indicators of Chemicals Management (2014a). Progress in Strategic
progress in implementing SAICM. http://www.who.int/ Approach Implementation for 2011-2013. http://www.
iomc/indicators_saicm/en/. Accessed 1 February 2019. saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/OEWG2/
inf/k1403579-eowg2-inf4.pdf.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development (2018). Decision-Recommendation of Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
the Council on the Cooperative Investigation and Risk Chemicals Management (2014b). Overall Orientation
Reduction of Chemicals. OECD/LEGAL/0441. https:// and Guidance for Achieving the 2020 Goal of Sound
legalinstruments.oecd.org/public/doc/638/638.en.pdf. Management of Chemicals. http://www.saicm.org/
Portals/12/documents/meetings/OEWG2/doc/
Secretariat of the Basel Convention (2011). National k1402879 saicm-eowg2-4-e.pdf.
reporting: overview and mandate. http://basel.int/
Countries/NationalReporting/OverviewandMandate/ Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
tabid/2314/Default.aspx. Accessed 27 August 2018. Chemicals Management (2017). Thought Starter for
the First Meeting of the Intersessional Process. http://
Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm www.saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/IP1/
Conventions (2018). Synergies among the Basel, IP_1_4_Thought_Starter.pdf.
Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions. http://www.
brsmeas.org/. Accessed 5 June 2018. Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
Chemicals Management (2018a). International
Secretariat of the Minamata Convention on Mercury Conference on Chemicals Management. http://www.
(2017). Timing and Format of the Reporting to be Followed saicm.org/About/ICCM/tabid/5521/Default.aspx.
by the Parties, as set out in Paragraph 3 of Article 21. Accessed 11 September 2018.
http://www.mercuryconvention.org/Portals/11/
documents/meetings/COP1/English/1_11_e_reporting. Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
pdf. Chemicals Management (2018b). Proposal on Objectives
in Support of the 2030 Agenda and Related Milestones.
Secretariat of the Multilateral Fund for the http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/
Implementation of the Montreal Protocol (2018) meetings/IP2/IP_2_8_OBJECTIVES AND SDG.pdf.
Executive Committee Primer – 2018. http://www.
multilateralfund.org/aboutMLF/executivecommittee/ Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
Shared%20Documents/2018Primer.pdf. Chemicals Management (2019). Progress in Strategic
Approach Implementation for 2014 - 2016. http://www.
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2018). saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/meetings/OEWG3/
Reporting: national reports. http://chm.pops.int/ inf/OEWG3-INF-4-2014-16-third-Progress-Report-.pdf.
Countries/Reporting/NationalReports/tabid/3668/
Default.aspx. Accessed 27 August 2018. Stringer, L. (2018). OECD makes GHS mandatory
for member states, 19 July. Chemical Watch. https://
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International chemicalwatch.com/68828/oecd-makes-ghs-
Chemicals Management (2009). Proposal on mandatory-for-member-states. Accessed 1 February
Modalities for Reporting by Stakeholders on Progress in 2019.
Implementation Proposal on Modalities for Reporting by
Stakeholders on Progress in Implementation. http://www. United Nations (2016). Final List of Proposed
saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM2/ Sustainable Development Goal Indicators. https://
doc/ICCM2 3 reporting E.pdf. sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/
documents/11803Official-List-of-Proposed-SDG-
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International Indicators.pdf.
Chemicals Management (2011). Draft Baseline Estimates
Report (2006-2008): Progress in Implementation of United Nations (2018) Sustainable development
the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals knowledge platform. https://sustainabledevelopment.
Management Progress. http://www.saicm.org/ un.org/. Accessed 11 September 2018.
Portals/12/documents/meetings/OEWG1/inf/OEWG1
INF1_Baseline report.pdf. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
(n.d.). GHS implementation. https://www.unece.org/
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International trans/danger/publi/ghs/implementation_e.html.
Chemicals Management (2012). Progress in Accessed 1 January 2019.
Implementation of the Strategic Approach to International
Chemicals Management for 2009 and 2010. http://www. United Nations Statistics Division (2018). Methodology:
saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM3/inf/ standard country or area codes for statistical use
ICCM_3_INF6_first progress report_Final.pdf. (M49). https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/
m49/. Accessed 27 August 2018.
348
Part II
Urho, N. (2018). Options for Effective Governance of Buonsante, V.A., Muilerman, H., Santos, T., Robinson,
the Beyond-2020 Framework for Sound Management C. and Tweedale, A.C. (2014). Risk assessment‫׳‬s
of Chemicals and Waste: Lessons Learned from Other insensitive toxicity testing may cause it to fail.
Regimes. Boston, MA: Center for Governance and Environmental Research 135, 139-147. https://doi.
Sustainability, University of Massachusetts Boston. org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.07.016.
http://environmentalgovernance.org/wp-content/
uploads/2018/07/DOWNLOAD-THE-REPORT.pdf. Center for International Environmental Law (2015).
Provisions of the Montreal Protocol affecting trade.
World Health Organization (2017). Chemicals Road https://www.ciel.org/reports/provisions-of-the-
Map: Road Map to Enhance Health Sector Engagement montreal-protocol-affecting-trade/. Accessed 11
in the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals September 2018.
Management Towards the 2020 Goal and Beyond. http://
www.who.int/ipcs/saicm/roadmap/en/. Chemical Inspection and Regulation Service (2018).
China MEP published list of priority chemicals, 5
World Health Organization (2018a). IHR core capacities January. http://www.cirs-reach.com/news-and-articles/
implementation status: chemical. http://www.who. China-MEP-Published-List-of-Priority-Chemicals.html.
int/gho/ihr/monitoring/chemical/en/index1.html. Accessed 25 May 2018.
Chemical Inspection and Regulation Service (2019).
World Health Organization (2018b). Strengthening Revised K-REACH - The Act on the Registration and
health security by implementing the International Evaluation of Chemicals, 23 January. http://www.
Health Regulations (2005): IHR (2005) monitoring cirs-reach.com/news-and-articles/revised-korea-
and evaluation framework. http://www.who.int/ihr/ reach---the-act-on-the-registration-and-evaluation-
publications/WHO_HSE_GCR_2016_2/en/. Accessed of-chemicals.html. Accessed 4 February 2019.
11 September 2018.
Chemical Watch (2013a). China publishes list of 58
substances for control measures, 27 February. https://
chemicalwatch.com/13952/china-publishes-list-of-
58-substances-for-control-measures. Accessed 28
Chapter 3 August 2018.
Agarwal, M. and Garg, S. (2015). Study on Sub-Standard, Chemical Watch (2013b). Thailand to streamline
Spurious/Counterfeit Pesticides in India. New Delhi: hazardous chemical law, 30 May. https://
Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and chemicalwatch.com/15029/thailand-to-streamline-
Industry. http://ficci.in/spdocument/20641/Pestiside- hazardous-chemical-law. Accessed 28 August 2018.
Report.pdf.
Chemical Watch (2013c). Gulf states advance revised
Agerstrand, M., Sobek, A., Lilja, K., Ruden, C. (2017). toy safety standards, 18 June. https://chemicalwatch.
An academic researcher’s guide to increased impact com/15328/gulf-states-advance-revised-toy-safety-
on regulatory assessment of chemicals. Environmental standards. Accessed 28 August 2018.
Science: Processes and Impacts 19(5), 644-655. https://
doi.org/10.1039/C7EM00075H. Chemical Watch (2017a). Turkey publishes law
modelled on REACH, 29 June. https://chemicalwatch.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (n.d.). com/57284/turkey-publishes-law-modelled-on-reach.
ASEAN cooperation on chemicals and waste. https:// Accessed 28 August 2018.
environment.asean.org/awgcw/. Accessed 11
September 2018. Chemical Watch (2017b). Gulf states notify WTO of
cosmetics regulations, 27 April. https://chemicalwatch.
Bengtsson, G. (2010). Global trends in chemicals com/55492/gulf-states-notify-wto-of-cosmetics-
management. In Regulating Chemical Risks. Eriksson, regulations. Accessed 28 August 2018.
J., Gilek, M., and Rudén, C. (eds). Dordrecht: Springer.
Chapter 12. 179-215. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90- Chemical Watch (2017c). Arab states notify WTO of
481-9428-5_12. draft detergent regulation, 19 December. https://
chemicalwatch.com/62693/arab-states-notify-wto-of-
Bernhardt, E.S., Rosi, E.J. and Gessner, M.O. (2017). draft-detergent-regulation. Accessed 28 August 2018.
Synthetic chemicals as agents of global change.
Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 15(2), 84-90. Chemical Watch (2018a). China’s MEP publishes first
https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1450. batch of priority control chemicals, 11 January. https://
chemicalwatch.com/63032/chinas-mep-publishes-
Brown-Weiss, E. and Jacobson, H.K. (eds) (1998). first-batch-of-priority-control-chemicals. Accessed
Engaging Countries: Strengthening Compliance with 28 August 2018.
International Environmental Accords. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press. https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/engaging-
countries
349
Chemical Watch (2018b). Serbia takes step towards EU CropLife International (2018a). Ensuring the Sound
chemical, biocidal law alignment, 19 March. https:// Management of Pesticides. Stockholm: Secretariat of
chemicalwatch.com/64971/serbia-takes-step-towards- the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
eu-chemical-biocidal-law-alignment. Accessed 28 Management. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/
August 2018. documents/meetings/IP2/IP_2_INF_11_Croplife_
PesticideManagement_f.pdf.
Chemical Watch (2018c). Ukraine implements RoHS-
like regulation, 9 January. https://chemicalwatch. CropLife International (2018b) Anti-counterfeiting.
com/62952/ukraine-implements-rohs-like-regulation. https://croplife.org/crop-protection/anti-
Accessed 28 August 2018. counterfeiting/. Accessed 21 November 2018.
Chemical Watch (2018d). Mercury found in fake UK Ecuador Ministry of Environment (2003). Unified Text on
cosmetics product, 29 August. https://chemicalwatch. Subsidiary Legislation of the Ministry of the Environment
com/69967/mercury-found-in-fake-uk-cosmetics- Part 1: Executive Decree No. 31589. Government of
product. Accessed 11 September 2018. Ecuador. http://www.ambiente.gob.ec/wp-content/
uploads/downloads/2015/06/Texto-Unificado-de-
ChemSafetyPro (2015). China IECSC: inventory of Legislacion-Secundaria-del-Ministerio-del-Ambiente.
existing chemical substances in China, 30 December. pdf.
http://www.chemsafetypro.com/Topics/China/China_
IECSC_Inventory_Existing_Substances.html. Accessed Egeghy, P.P., Judson, R., Gangwal, S., Mosher, S., Smith,
25 May 2018. D., Vail, J. and Cohen Hubal, E.A. (2012). The exposure
data landscape for manufactured chemicals. Science
ChemSafetyPro (2016a). Thailand hazardous substance of The Total Environment 414, 159-166. https://doi.
act, 1 May. https://www.chemsafetypro.com/Topics/ org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.10.046.
Thailand/Thailand_Hazardous_Substance_Act.html.
Accessed 28 August 2018. Environment and Social Development Organization
(2013). Study Report on “Toxic Toys” Heavy Metal Content
ChemSafetyPro (2016b). Russia national existing & Public Perception in Bangladesh. https://ipen.org/
chemical substance inventory, 12 August. https:// sites/default/files/documents/ESDO%20Study%20
www.chemsafetypro.com/Topics/Russia/Russia_ Report%20on%20Toxic%20Toys%20in%20Bangladesh.
National_Existing_Chemical_Substance_Inventory. pdf.
html. Accessed 28 August 2018.
European Chemicals Agency (2016). Report on the
ChemSafetyPro (2017). Vietnam chemicals decree Operation of REACH and CLP 2016. https://echa.europa.
No. 113/2017/ND-CP. https://www.chemsafetypro. eu/documents/10162/13634/operation_reach_
com/Topics/Vietnam/Vietnam_chemicals_decree_ clp_2016_en.pdf.
No_113_2017_ND_CP.html. Accessed 30 March 2019.
European Chemicals Agency (2017). REACH: The Story
Chile Ministry of the Environment (2017). National So Far and the Next Ten Years. https://www.hsa.ie/eng/
Policy on Chemical Safety 2017-2022 Action Plan. Chemicals/REACH/Session-1.pdf.
Government of Chile. http://portal.mma.gob.cl/wp-
content/uploads/2017/11/seguridad-quimica.pdf. European Chemicals Agency (2018). Community Rolling
Action Plan Update Covering Years 2018, 2019 and 2020.
Colombia National Council of Economic and Social https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/9801478/
Policy (2016). Risk Management Policy Associated corap_update_2018-2020_en.pdf/85e5f709-da61-
with the Use of Chemical Substances. Government 8b06-855c-79302dc17c70.
of Colombia. https://colaboracion.dnp.gov.co/CDT/
Conpes/Económicos/3868.pdf. European Chemicals Agency (n.d. a) SVHC roadmap
to 2020 implementation. https://echa.europa.eu/
Comunidad Andina (n.d.). Portal de la comunidad svhc-roadmap-to-2020-implementation. Accessed
andina. http://www.comunidadandina.org/index.aspx. 11 November 2018.
Accessed 11 September 2018.
European Chemicals Agency (n.d. b). REACH
Costa Rica Directorate of Environmental Quality registration results - ECHA. https://echa.europa.eu/de/
Management (2017). Executive Decree No. 40148: reach-registrations-since-2008. Accessed 9 July 2018.
Declaration of Public Interest and promulgation of The
National Chemical Safety Policy. San José: Government of European Chemicals Agency (n.d. c). Candidate list of
Costa Rica. http://www.digeca.go.cr/sites/default/files/ substances of very high concern for authorisation.
decreto_ejecutivo_no_40148_politica_de_seguridad_ https://echa.europa.eu/en/candidate-list-table.
quimica.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2018.
350
Part II
European Commission (2018). Notification detail: Global Environment Facility (2014). Report on the
The ministerial decree no. 1307/2017 (2 pages, in Sixth Replenishment of the GEF Trust Fund. https://
Arabic) mandating the Egyptian standards. http:// www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/council-meeting-
ec.europa.eu/growth/tools-databases/tbt/en/ documents/GEF.A.5.07.Rev_.01_Report_on_the_
search/?tbtaction=search.detail&Country_id=EGY&n Sixth_Replenishment_of_the_GEF_Trust_Fund_
um=183&dspLang=EN&basdatedeb=&basdatefin=& May_22_2014_1.pdf.
baspays=HUN&basnotifnum=30&basnotifnum2=&b
astypepays=&baskeywords=&CFID=714140&CFTOKE Global Environment Facility (2018). Projects. https://
N=3fce0e481a854b67-4E5. Accessed 28 August 2018. www.thegef.org/projects. Accessed 20 November
2018.
European Union Intellectual Property Office (2017).
The Economic Cost of IPR Infringement in the Pesticides Government of Canada (2017) Canada-United States
Sector: Quantification of Infringement in Manufacture of Regulatory Cooperation Council Initiative on Chemicals
Pesticides and Other Agrochemical Products (NACE 20.20).  Management, 6 October. https://www.canada.ca/
https://euipo.europa.eu/tunnel-web/secure/webdav/ en/health-canada/services/chemical-substances/
guest/document_library/observatory/resources/ chemicals-management-plan/canada-united-states-
research-and-studies/ip_infringement/study10/ regulatory-cooperation-council.html. Accessed 12
pesticides_sector_en.pdf. December 2018.
Europol (2018). Largest-ever seizure of illegal or Government of Canada (2018a). Domestic substances

counterfeit pesticides in Europol Silver Axe operation, list, 7 June. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-
11 July. https://www.europol.europa.eu/newsroom/ climate-change/services/canadian-environmental-
news/largest-ever-seizure-of-illegal-or-counterfeit- protection-act-registry/substances-list/domestic.html.
pesticides-in-europol-silver-axe-operation. Accessed Accessed 4 February 2019.
19 February 2019.
Government of Canada (2018b). Chemicals Management
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Plan, Progress Report: Summer 2018 https://www.
Nations (2018). AGP – International Code of Conduct canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/
on Pesticide Management: world map on pesticide services/evaluating-existing-substances/chemicals-
legislation, February. http://www.fao.org/agriculture/ management-plan-progress-report/summer-2018.
crops/thematic-sitemap/theme/pests/code/en/. html.
Government of Canada (2018c). Follow-up Report to
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United the Standing Committee on the Canadian Environmental
Nations (2019). FAOLEX database. http://www.fao. Protection Act. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-
org/faolex/en/. Accessed 4 February 2019. climate-change/services/canadian-environmental-
protection-act-registry/review/standing-committee-
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United report-cepa-2018.html.
Nations and World Health Organization (2014). The
International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management. Grandjean, P., Eriksen, M.L., Ellegaard, O. and Wallin,
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/ J.A. (2011). The Matthew effect in environmental
documents/Pests_Pesticides/Code/CODE_2014Sep_ science publication: a bibliometric analysis of chemical
ENG.pdf. substances in journal articles. Environmental Health
10(1), 96. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-10-96.
Garlapati, V.K. (2016). E-waste in india and developed
countries: management, recycling, business and Guatemala Ministry of Environment and Natural
biotechnological initiatives. Renewable and Sustainable Resources (2013). Government Agreement No. 341-
Energy Reviews 54, 874-881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 2013: National Policy for Management Environmentally
rser.2015.10.106. Rational Chemical Products and Waste Dangerous in
Guatemala. Government of Guatemala. http://www.sia.
German Association for International Cooperation marn.gob.gt/publicaciones/Politicas%20Marn/12%20
(2014). Chemical Safety GIZ Convention Project: Managing Pol%C3%ADtica%20Nacional%20de%20Productos%20
Chemicals Properly. The Role of Chemicals in Modern Qu%C3%ADmicos.pdf.
Life. https://www.global-chemicals-waste-platform.
net/fileadmin/files/doc/A5-webformat.pdf. Hazlewood, N. (2018). Arab states notify WTO of
RoHS-like regulation, 04 April. Chemical Watch. https://
Global Business Briefing (2017). India to have a national chemicalwatch.com/65677/arab-states-notify-wto-of-
action plan for chemicals by 2018, November. https:// rohs-like-regulation. Accessed 28 August 2018.
chemicalwatch.com/60306/india-to-have-a-national-
action-plan-for-chemicals-by-2018. Accessed 28 August Hazlewood, N. (2019). Kenya moves towards
2018. implementing chemicals management regulation,
15 March. Chemical Watch. https://chemicalwatch.
com/74866/kenya-moves-towards-implementing-
chemicals-management-regulation. Accessed 30
March 2019.
351
Hering, J.G., Dzombak, D.A., Green, S.A., Luthy, R.G., International Panel on Chemical Pollution. (2018).
Swackhamer, D. (2014). Engagement at the science- Thought Starter on a Possible Model for the Science-Policy
policy interface. Environmental Science and Technology Interface under the Post 2020 Framework. Submitted
48 (19), 11031-11033. http://doi.org/10.1021/ to the second meeting of the intersessional process
es504225t. considering the Strategic Approach and the sound
management of chemicals and waste beyond 2020.
Honduras Secretariat of Natural Resources and http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/
Environment (2013). Policy for the Environmentally meetings/IP2/A%20Thought%20%20Starter%20
Sound Management of Chemical Products in Honduras. on%20a%20Possible%20Model%20for%20the%20
Tegucigalpa: Government of Hounduras. Science_draft_15March2018_updated.pdf.
Independent Evaluation Office of the Global International POPs Elimination Network (2018).
Environment Facility (2018). Sixth Overall Performance International SAICM implementation project (ISIP).
Study of the GEF – The GEF in the Changing Environmental https://ipen.org/projects/international-saicm-
Finance Landscape. https://www.thegef.org/sites/ implementation-project-isip. Accessed 11 September
default/files/council-meeting-documents/GEF.A6.07_ 2018.
OPS6_0.pdf.
Inter-Organization Programme for The Sound
International Council of Chemical Associations (2015a). Management of Chemicals (2019). Data on IOMC
2015 Responsible Care Status Report. https://www. indicators of progress in implementing SAICM. Data
icca-chem.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/2015- Compiled by the IOMC Participating Organizations and
Responsible-Care-Status-Report.pdf. Provided Through IOMC Secretariat.
International Council of Chemical Associations (2015b). Ismail, S.N.S., Mohamad, N.S., Karuppiah, K., Abidin,
The International Council of Chemical Associations E.Z., Rasdi, I. and Praveena, S.M. (2017). Heavy metals
Fifth Update Report on the Implementation Indicators content in low-priced toys. ARPN Journal of Engineering
of the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals and Applied Sciences 12(5). 1499-1509. http://www.
Management. Geneva: Secretariat of the Strategic arpnjournals.org/jeas/research_papers/rp_2017/
Approach to International Chemicals Management. jeas_0317_5787.pdf.
http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/
meetings/ICCM4/inf/iccm4_inf26_icca_progress_ Kawanishi, A. (2018). Vietnam launches national
report.pdf. chemical database: more than 170,000 substances
included. Chemical Watch. https://chemicalwatch.
International Council of Chemical Associations com/69376/vietnam-launches-national-chemical-
(2019). 2018 Responsible Care® Status Report: The database. Accessed 30 March 2019.
Global Picture. https://www.icca-chem.org/wp-
content/uploads/2019/01/Responsible-Care-Status- Kazan-Allen, L. (2018). Current asbestos bans.
Report-2018.pdf. International Ban Asbestos Secretariat. http://
ibasecretariat.org/alpha_ban_list.php. Accessed 29
International Criminal Police Organization (2017a). November 2018.
Operation 30 Days of Action: Final Report. https://www.
interpol.int/Media/Files/Crime-areas/Environmental- Lipman, Z. (2015). Trade in hazardous waste. In
crime/Pollution-Crime-Working-Group/The-Final- International Environmental Law and the Global South.
Report-of-Operation-30-Days-of-Action. Alam, S., Atapattu, S., Gonzalez, C.G. and Razzaque,
J. (eds). Cambridge University Press. Chapter 12.
International Criminal Police Organization (2017b). 256-276. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
Operation 30 Days of Action: Key Operational cfm?abstract_id=2822585.
Findings. https://www.interpol.int/Media/Files/Crime-
areas/Environmental-crime/Pollution-Crime-Working- Mclean, S. and Khadan, J. (2015). An Assessment of
Group/The-Brief-on-Key-Operational-Findings-of- the Performance of CARICOM Extraregional Trade
Operation-30-Days-of-Action. Agreements: An Initial Scoping Exercise. Santiago: United
Nations. https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/
International Labour Organization (2007). Meeting of handle/11362/37612/5/lcarl455_rev1.pdf.
experts to examine instruments, knowledge, advocacy,
technical cooperation and international collaboration Molina, M., Zaelke, D., Sarma, K.M., Andersen, S.O.,
as tools with a view to developing a policy framework Ramanathan, V. and Kaniaru, D. (2009). Reducing
for hazardous substances. https://www.ilo.org/sector/ abrupt climate change risk using the Montreal Protocol
activities/sectoral-meetings/WCMS_160738/lang--en/ and other regulatory actions to complement cuts in
index.htm. Accessed 28 August 2018. CO2 emissions. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America 106 (49), 20616-
International Labour organization (2013). Safety and 20621. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0902568106.
Health in the Use of Chemicals at Work. https://www.ilo.
org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_protect/@protrav/@
safework/documents/publication/wcms_235085.pdf.
352
Part II
Montzka, S.A., Dutton, G.S., Yu, P., Ray, E., Portmannn, Persson, L., Karlsson-Vinkhuyzen, S., Lai, A., Persson,
R.W., Daniel, J.S., Kuijpers, L., Hall, B.D., Mondeel, Å. and Fick, S. (2017). The globally harmonized system
D., Siso, C., Nance, J.D., Rigby, M., Manning, A.J., Hu, of classification and labelling of chemicals: explaining
L., Moore, F., Miller, B.R. and Elkins, J.W. (2018). An the legal implementation gap. Sustainability 9(12), 1-14.
unexpected and persistent increase in global emissions https://doi.org/10.3390/su9122176.
of ozone-depleting CFC-11. Nature 557, 413-417.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0106-2. Rae I. and Gabriel, A. (2012). Saving the ozone layer:
why the Montreal Protocol worked, 9 September.
Morocco Ministry of Health (n.d.). Cadre Relatif à https://theconversation.com/saving-the-ozone-layer-
l’Enregistrement des Produits Cosmétiques et d’Hygiène why-the-montreal-protocol-worked-9249. Accessed
Corporelle - Circulaire N° 48 DMP/20. Rabat: Kingdom 28 August 2018.
of Morrocco. https://pharmacie.ma/uploads/pdfs/
circulaire_48-DMP-00_.pdf. Republic of Ghana (2016). Hazardous and Electronic
Waste Control and Management Act 917. Accra. http://
Niadu, R. (2017). New life breathed into India’s greenadgh.com/images/documentsrepository/
chemical policy plans, 7 June. Chemical Watch. https:// HazardousandElectronicWasteControl.pdf.
chemicalwatch.com/56650/new-life-breathed-into-
indias-chemical-policy-plans. Accessed 28 August 2018. Rwanda Ministry of Health (2016). Ministerial Order
Determining the List of Cosmetics Whose Use is Prohibited
Nurick, R. and Touni, E. (2015). Impact Evaluation of in Rwanda. Kigali. https://www.primature.gov.rw/
the Quick Start Programme. Geneva: Secretariat of fileadmin/user_upload/documents/Official%20
the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Gazettes/2016_Official_Gazettes/Official_Gazette_
Management. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/ no_09_of_29.02.2016.pdf.
documents/meetings/ICCM4/inf/ICCM4_INF5_QSP-
evaluation.pdf. Sand, P.H. (2016). The Effectiveness of Multilateral
Environmental Agreements: Theory and Practice. Joensuu:
Olley, K., Ross, N. and O’Shea, P. (2016). IMPEL University of Finland Law School and United Nations
– TFS Enforcement Actions Project Report 2014 – Environment Programme. https://www.researchgate.
2015: Enforcement of the European Waste Shipment net/publication/311717128_The_Effectiveness_of_
Regulation. Brussels: European Union Network Multilateral_Environmental_Agreements_Theory_and_
for the Implementation and Enforcement of Practice.
Environmental Law. https://www.impel.eu/wp-content/
uploads/2016/10/IMPEL-Enforcement-Actions-2014- Secretariat of the Basel Convention (2011).
15-FINAL-report.pdf. Development of technical guidelines. http://www.
basel.int/Implementation/TechnicalMatters/
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentofTechnicalGuidelines/tabid/2374/
Development (2015). Preliminary Analysis of Policy Default.aspx. Accessed 4 February 2019.
Drivers Influencing Decision Making in Chemicals
Management. http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/ Secretariat of the Basel Convention (2017). Mid-term
publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=env/jm/ evaluation. http://www.basel.int/Implementation/
mono(2015)21&doclanguage=en. StrategicFramework/Evaluation/Midtermevaluation/
tabid/3810/Default.aspx. Accessed 4 February 2019.
Development (2017). Active with Latin America and Secretariat of the Basel Convention (2019a). Parties to
the Caribbean. http://www.oecd.org/global-relations/ the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
Active-with-Latin-America-and-the-Caribbean.pdf. Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal.
http://www.basel.int/Countries/StatusofRatifications/
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and PartiesSignatories/tabid/4499/Default.aspx. Accessed
Development (2018a). IOMC toolbox for decision 11 September 2018.
making in chemicals management, 25 May. Inter-
Organization Programme for the Sound Management Secretariat of the Basel Convention (2019b).
of Chemicals. https://iomctoolbox.oecd.org/ National defintions of hazardous waste. http://
Default.aspx?idExec=d39e45a0-70e0-47f4-9949- www.basel.int/Countries/NationalDefinitions/
1ec46f320b1b. Accessed 1 June 2018. NationalDefinitionsofHazardousWastes/tabid/1480/
Default.aspx. Accessed 2 February 2019.
Development (2018b). DAC list of ODA recipients. Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm
http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable- Conventions (2017). Decisions Adopted by the
development/development-finance-standards/daclist. Conferences of the Parties to the Basel, Rotterdam and
htm. Accessed 21 November 2018. Stockholm Conventions that Make Specific Reference to the
Minamata Convention on Mercury. Geneva: Secretariat
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and of the Minamata Convention on Mercury. http://
Development (n.d.). The OECD Cooperative Chemicals www.mercuryconvention.org/Portals/11/documents/
Assessment Programme: An International Programme meetings/COP1/English/1_INF14_BRS_decisions.pdf.
with Global Reach. http://www.oecd.org/env/ehs/risk-
assessment/CoCAP-flyer.pdf.
353
Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
Conventions (2018). Synergies among the Basel, Chemicals Management (2009b). Emerging Policy
Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions. http://www. Issues. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/
brsmeas.org/. Accessed 5 June 2018. meetings/ICCM2/doc/ICCM2%2010%20emerging%20
issues%20E.pdf.
Secretariat of the Minamata Convention on Mercury
(2017). Report of the Conference of the Parties to the Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
Minamata Convention on Mercury on the Work of Chemicals Management (2011). Draft Baseline Estimates
its First Meeting. http://www.mercuryconvention. Report (2006-2008): Progress in Implementation of
org/Portals/11/documents/meetings/COP1/ the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
English/1_29_e_report.pdf. Management Progress. http://www.saicm.org/
Portals/12/documents/meetings/OEWG1/inf/
Secretariat of the Minamata Convention on Mercury OEWG1%20INF1_Baseline%20report.pdf.
(2018). Specific International Programme. http://
www.mercuryconvention.org/Implementation/ Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
SpecificInternationalProgramme/tabid/6334/ Chemicals Management (2012). Progress in
language/en-US/Default.aspx. Accessed 11 November Implementation of the Strategic Approach to International
2018. Chemicals Management for 2009 and 2010. http://www.
saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM3/inf/
Secretariat of the Rotterdam Convention (2013). ICCM_3_INF6_first%20progress%20report_Final.pdf.
Information on the Implementation of the Rotterdam
Convention. http://www.pic.int/Portals/5/download. Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
aspx?d=UNEP-FAO-RC-COP.6-4.En.pdf. Chemicals Management (2014). Progress in Strategic
Approach Implementation for 2011-2013. http://www.
Secretariat of the Rotterdam Convention (2019). saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/OEWG2/
Status of ratifications of the Rotterdam Convention. inf/k1403579-eowg2-inf4.pdf.
http://www.pic.int/Countries/Statusofratifications/
tabid/1072/language/en-US/Default.aspx. Accessed Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
4 February 2019. Chemicals Management (2015a). Summary Report on
Progress in the Implementation of the Strategic Approach
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2008). for the Period 2011-2013. http://www.saicm.org/
Convention text. http://chm.pops.int/TheConvention/ Portals/12/Documents/reporting/K1502325 SAICM-
Overview/TextoftheConvention/tabid/2232/Default. ICCM4-3-summary-second-progress-report.pdf.
aspx. Accessed 27 August 2018.
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2009). Chemicals Management (2015b). Overall Orientation
Global Monitoring Report Under the Global Monitoring and Guidance for Achieving the 2020 Goal of Sound
Plan for Effectiveness Evaluation. http://chm.pops. Management of Chemicals. http://www.saicm.org/
int/Implementation/GlobalMonitoringPlan/ Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM4/doc/
MonitoringReports/tabid/525/Default.aspx. K1501995%20SAICM-ICCM4-6-e.pdf.
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2017). Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
Outcomes of the effectiveness evaluation of Chemicals Management (2015c). The Integrated
the Stockholm Convention. http://chm.pops.int/ Approach to Financing of Sound Management of Chemicals
Implementation/EffectivenessEvaluation/Outcomes/ and Wastes: UNEP Case Studies on Mainstreaming. http://
tabid/5559/Default.aspx. Accessed 11 September www.saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/
2018. ICCM4/inf/ICCM4_INF12_UNEP%20Mainstreaming.pdf.
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2019a). Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
Status of ratifications of the Stockholm Convention. Chemicals Management (2015d). Report of the United
http://chm.pops.int/Countries/StatusofRatifications/ Nations Environment Programme on the Integrated
PartiesandSignatoires/tabid/4500/Default.aspx. Approach to Financing of Sound Management of
Accessed 4 February 2019 Chemicals and Waste: Industry Involvement. http://www.
saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM4/inf/
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2019b). K1502922-INF13%20UNEP%20Industry.pdf.
National Implementation Plans. http://chm.pops.
int/Implementation/NationalImplementationPlans/ Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
NIPTransmission/tabid/253/Default.aspx. Accessed Chemicals Management (2018a). Regional Meeting
4 February 2019. on the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
Management: Status of Input to the 2014-2016
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International Strategic Approach Report on Progress. http://www.
Chemicals Management (2009a). Proposal on saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM5/
Modalities for Reporting by Stakeholders on Progress Documents%20common%20to%20all%20regional%20
in Implementation. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/ meetings%202018/RM2018_1_Reporting_.pdf.
documents/meetings/ICCM2/doc/ICCM2%203%20
reporting%20E.pdf.
354
Part II
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International Secretariat of the Vienna Convention and its Montreal
Chemicals Management (2018b). Independent Protocol (2018). Ozone Secretariat: country data.
Evaluation of the Strategic Approach from 2006-2015 Draft https://ozone.unep.org/countries/data. Accessed
Report. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/ 11 September 2018.
meetings/IP2/IP_2_4_Independent_Evaluation.pdf.
Seelarbokus, C.B. (2014). Assessing the effectiveness
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International of international environmental agreements (IEAs):
Chemicals Management (2018c). Financing the Sound demystifying the issue of data unavailability. SAGE Open
Management of Chemicals and Waste beyond 2020. 4(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014521820.
meetings/IP2/IP_2_9_Finance.pdf. Sistema de Informacion Ambiental del Mercosur (n.d.).
Substances and chemical products. https://ambiente.
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International mercosur.int/p_68.t_40/SUSTANCIAS_Y_PRODUCTOS_
Chemicals Management (2018d). Quick Start QUIMICOS.html. Accessed 11 September 2018.
Programme. http://www.saicm.org/Implementation/
QuickStartProgramme. Accessed 11 September 2018. Slater, M. (2015). Banned on Alibaba – gold suppliers
blacklist, 21 January. China Checkup. https://www.
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International chinacheckup.com/blogs/articles/banned-on-alibaba.
Chemicals Management (2018e). Summary Perspectives Accessed 19 February 2019.
on SAICM and the Sound Management of Chemicals
and Waste beyond 2020 – Sixth SAICM African Stieger, G., Scheringer, M., Ng, C.A. and Hungerbühler,
Regional Meeting. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/ K. (2014). Assessing the persistence, bioaccumulation
documents/meetings/IP2/IP_2_INF_19_AFR_Summary_ potential and toxicity of brominated flame retardants:
Beyond2020.pdf. data availability and quality for 36 alternative brominated
flame retardants. Chemosphere 116, 118-123. https://
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.01.083.
Chemicals Management (2018f). Summary of Different
Perspectives on SAICM and the Sound Management Strempel, S., Scheringer, M., Ng, C.A. and Hungerbühler,
of Chemicals and Waste beyond 2020 – Fifth SAICM K. (2012). Screening for PBT chemicals among the
Asia-Pacific Regional Meeting. http://www.saicm.org/ ‘existing’ and ‘new’ chemicals of the EU. Environmental
Portals/12/documents/meetings/IP2/IP_2_INF_18_AP_ Science & Technology 46(11), 5680–5687. https://doi.
Summary_Beyond2020.pdf. org/10.1021/es3002713.
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International Stringer, L. (2017). South Africa’s chemicals bill is
Chemicals Management (2018g). Summary of Different “off the table”, 21 March. https://chemicalwatch.
Perspectives on SAICM and the Sound Management of com/54581/south-africas-chemicals-bill-is-off-the-
Chemicals and Waste Beyond 2020 – Sixth SAICM Central table. Accessed 28 August 2018.
and Eastern European Regional Meeting. http://www.
saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/IP2/IP_2_ Swedish Chemicals Agency (2016). Towards a Non-
INF_17_CEE_Summary_Beyond2020.pdf. Toxic South-East Asia. https://www.kemi.se/global/
broschyrer/towards-a-non-toxic-south-east-asia.pdf.
Chemicals Management (2019a). Paper by the Co- Swedish Chemicals Agency (2017a). The Swedish
Chairs of the Intersessional Process on the Strategic Chemicals Agency’s Analyses in Conjunction with
Approach to International Chemicals Management and Enforcement 2016. https://www.kemi.se/global/
the Sound Management of Chemicals and Waste Beyond tillsyns-pm/2017/enforcement-7-17-the-swedish-
2020. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/ chemicals-agencys-analyses-in-conjunction-with-
meetings/OEWG3/doc/K1900262-SAICM-OEWG3-4- enforcement-2016.pdf.
Co-Chairs-Paper-ADVANCE.pdf.
Swedish Chemicals Agency (2017b). Enforcement
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International projects. https://www.kemi.se/en/ inspectors/
Chemicals Management (2019b). Progress in Strategic enforcement-projects. Accessed 11 September 2018.
Approach Implementation for 2014 - 2016. http://www.
saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/meetings/OEWG3/ United Nations (2002). Plan of Implementation
inf/OEWG3-INF-4-2014-16-third-Progress-Report-.pdf. of the World Summit on Sustainable Development.
Johannesburg. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/
Secretariat of the Strategic Strategic Approach to documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/WSSD_PlanImpl.
International Chemicals Management, United pdf.
Nations Environment Programme and World Health
Organization (2006). Strategic Approach to International United Nations (2005) Building Block Approach: Guidance
Chemicals Management: SAICM Texts and Resolutions of and Implementation. https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/
the International Conference on Chemicals Management. DAM/trans/doc/2005/ac10c4/ST-SG-AC10-C4-2005-
Geneva: United Nations Environment Programme. 06e.doc.
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/
documents/SAICM_publication_ENG.pdf.
355
United Nations (2011). Phase-out of leaded petrol United Nations Environment Programme and
brings huge health and cost benefits – UN-backed Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2017a).
study, 27 October. UN News. https://news.un.org/ Second Global Monitoring Report: Global Monitoring Plan
en/story/2011/10/393292-phase-out-leaded-petrol- for Persistent Organic Pollutants. Geneva: Secretariat
brings-huge-health-and-cost-benefits-un-backed- of the Stockholm Convention. http://chm.pops.int/
study#.UZdkooJAsR4. Accessed 4 February 2019. TheConvention/ConferenceoftheParties/Meetings/
COP8/tabid/5309/Default.aspx.
United Nations Comtrade (2018). UN Comtrade
database: international trade statistics. https:// United Nations Environment Programme and
comtrade.un.org/data. Accessed 7 June 2018. Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2017b).
Report on the Effectiveness Evaluation of the Stockholm
United Nations Environment Programme (2015). The Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Geneva:
Montreal Protocol and Human Health: How Global Action Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention. http://chm.
Protects Us from the Ravages of Ultraviolet Radiation. pops.int/TheConvention/ConferenceoftheParties/
http://www.unep.fr/ozonaction/information/ Meetings/COP8/tabid/5309/Default.aspx.
mmcfiles/7738-e-TheMontrealProtocolandHumanH
ealth.pdf. United Nations Institute for Training and Research
(2004). Developing and Sustaining an Integrated National
United Nations Environment Programme (2016). Report Programme for Sound Chemicals Management: Guidance
on the Implementation of the Integrated Approach to Document. http://cwm.unitar.org/national-profiles/
Financing Sound Management of Chemicals and Waste. publications/cw/inp/inp_gd_2004-05_(13_may2004_
https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/report/ red_r1).pdf.
unepea2inf18-report-implementation-integrated-
approach-financing-sound-management. United Nations Institute for Training and Research
(2018a). National profile homepage: national profiles to
United Nations Environment Programme (2017). assess infrastructure and capacity needs for chemicals
Lead Petrol Phase-out: Global Status as at March management. http://cwm.unitar.org/national-profiles/
2017. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/ nphomepage/np3_region.aspx. Accessed 29 August
handle/20.500.11822/17542/MapWorldLead_ 2018.
March2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
United Nations Institute for Training and Research
United Nations Environment Programme (2018a). (2018b). UNITAR PRTR platform: what is a pollutant
Implementation and compliance committee. release and transfer register? http://prtr.unitar.org/
Minimata Convention on Mercury. http://www. site/unique/1126. Accessed 28 August 2018.
mercuryconvention.org/Implementation/
ImplementationandComplianceCommittee/ United States Congress (2016). The Frank R. Lautenberg
tabid/6331/language/en-US/Default.aspx. Accessed Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act. Public Law 114-
11 September 2018. 182 - 114th Congress. https://www.congress.gov/114/
plaws/publ182/PLAW-114publ182.pdf.
Launch of the Global Montreal Protocol Award for United States Environmental Protection Agency
Customs and Enforcement Officers: First Inter-Regional (2018a). Recent international developments under
Thematic Workshop and Regional Network Meetings of the the Montreal Protocol, 26 September. https://www.
Ten Ozone Networks. http://www.unep.fr/ozonaction/ epa.gov/ozone-layer-protection/recent-international-
information/mmcfiles/7930-e-Global_MP_Award_for_ developments-under-montreal-protocol. Accessed 20
Customs_Enforcement_Officers.pdf. November 2018.
United Nations Environment Programme (2019a). United States Environmental Protection Agency
National Action Plans. http://web.unep.org/ (2018b). Assessing and managing chemicals under
globalmercurypartnership/our-work/reducing- TSCA: risk evaluations for existing chemicals under
mercury-artisanal-and-small-scale-gold-mining-asgm/ TSCA, 14 November. https://www.epa.gov/assessing-
national-action-plans. Accessed 4 February 2019. and-managing-chemicals-under-tsca/risk-evaluations-
existing-chemicals-under-tsca. Accessed 20 November
United Nations Environment Programme (2019b). 2018.
Illegal Trade In Chemicals. In print.
United States Environmental Protection
United Nations Environment Programme and Agency (2018c). EPA settles with Amazon for
International Council of Chemical Associations (2019). distributions of illegal pesticides: agreement will
Knowledge Management and Information Sharing help protect online consumers, 15 February. 
for the Sound Management of Industrial Chemicals. https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-settles-
Montevideo: Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to amazon-distributions-illegal-pesticides. Accessed 19
International Chemicals Management. http://www. February 2019.
saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/meetings/OEWG3/
inf/OEWG3-INF-28-KMI.pdf.
356
Part II
Urho, N. (2018). Options for Effective Governance of World Meteorological Organization (2018b). Scientific
the Beyond-2020 Framework for Sound Management Assessment of Ozone Depletion. Global Ozone Research
of Chemicals and Waste: Lessons Learned from Other and Monitoring Project. https://ozone.unep.org/
Regimes. Boston, MA: Center for Governance and sites/default/files/Assessment_Panel/SAP-2018-
Sustainability, University of Massachusetts Boston. Assessment-report.pdf.
meetings/IP2/IP_2_INF_14_Governance_CGS_f.pdf. World Meteorological Organization (2019). Scientific
assessment confirms start of recovery of ozone layer,
Venugopal, A. and Bose, N. (2018). New York sues Target, 8 February. https://public.wmo.int/en/media/news/
Walmart over lead contaminated toys, 13 December. scientific-assessment-confirms-start-of-recovery-of-
Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-new-york- ozone-layer. Accessed 26 March 2019.
lawsuit-toys/new-york-sues-target-walmart-over-lead-
contaminated-toys-idUSKBN1OC2PC. Accessed 19 Young, O.R. (2011). Effectiveness of international
February 2019. environmental regimes: existing knowledge, cutting-
edge themes, and research strategies. Proceedings
World Customs Organization (2014). Tonnes of illegal of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
waste seized under Operation Demeter III, 20 January. States 108(50) 19853-19860. https://doi.org/10.1073/
http://www.wcoomd.org/en/media/newsroom/2014/ pnas.1111690108.
january/tonnes-of-illegal-waste-seized-under-
operation-demeter-iii.aspx. Accessed 19 February Zaman, R. (2016). Chemicals management laws
2019. continue to develop in Asia, 31 May. Enhesa. http://
www.enhesa.com/blog/chemicals-management-laws-
World Health Organization (2017). Global health continue-develop-asia. Accessed 28 August 2018.
observatory (GHO) data: poisons centres. http://www.
who.int/gho/phe/chemical_safety/poisons_centres/
en/. Accessed 28 August 2018.
Chapter 4
World Health Organization (2018a). IHR core capacities
implementation status: Chemical. http://www.who.
Aizer, A., Currie, J., Simon, P. and Vivier, P. (2018). Do
int/gho/ihr/monitoring/chemical/en/index1.html.
low levels of blood lead reduce children’s future test
scores? American Economic Journal: Applied Economics
10(1), 307-341. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20160404.
World Health Organization (2018b). International
programme on chemical safety: poisoning prevention
Akhter, M.N., Chakaborty, T.K., Ghosh, P., Jahan, S.,
and management. http://www.who.int/ipcs/poisons/
Ghosh, G.C. and Hossain, S.A. (2016). Assessment
en/. Accessed 4 July 2016.
of the using patterns of pesticides and its impact on
farmers health in the Jhenidah District of Bangladesh.
World Health Organization (2018c). Database of IOMC
American Journal of Environmental Protection 5(5), 139-
activities in countries. Inter-Organization Programme
144. http://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20160505.16.
For The Sound Management of Chemicals. http://www.
who.int/iomc/activity/poactivities/en/. Accessed 11
Andersson, N., Arena, M., Auteri, D., Barmaz, S.,
September 2018.
Grignard, E., Kienzler, A., Lepper, P., Lostia, A.M.,
Munn, S., Parra Morte, J.M., Pellizzato, F., Tarazona,
World Health Organization, United Nations
J., Terron, A., Van der Linden, S. (2018). Guidance
Environment Programme, Basel Rotterdam and
for the identification of endocrine disruptors in
Stockholm Conventions’ Secretariat and Organisation
the context of regulations (EU) no 528/2012 and
for Economic Cooperation and Development (2018).
(EC) no 1107/2009. EFSA Journal 16(6). https://doi.
Existing Science-Policy Interfaces for International
org/10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5311.
Chemicals and Waste Issues. Stockholm: Secretariat
of the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
Andrade-Rivas, F. and Rother, H.-A. (2015). Chemical
Management. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/
exposure reduction: factors impacting on South African
documents/meetings/IP2/IP_2_INF_12_Science_Policy_
herbicide sprayers’ personal protective equipment
Interface.pdf.
compliance and high risk work practices. Environmental
Research 142, 34-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
World Meteorological Organization (2018a). Executive
envres.2015.05.028.
Summary: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion:
2018. Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project
Anh, H.Q., Nam, V.D., Tri, T.M., Ha, N.M., Ngoc, N.T.,
– Report No. 58. http://conf.montreal-protocol.org/
Mai, P.T.N. , Anh, D.H., Minh, N.H., Tuan, N.A. and Minh,
meeting/oewg/oewg-41/presession/Background%20
T.B. (2017). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in plastic
Documents%20are%20available%20in%20English%20
products, indoor dust, sediment and fish from informal
only/SAP-2018-Assessment-report-ES-rev.pdf.
e-waste recycling sites in Vietnam: a comprehensive
assessment of contamination, accumulation pattern,
emissions, and human exposure. Environmental
Geochemistry and Health 39(4), 935-954. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10653-016-9865-6.
357
Ankley, G.T., Bennett, R.S., Erickson, R.J., Hoff, D.J., Becker, R.A., Ankley, G.T., Edwards, S.W., Kennedy, S.W.,
Hornung, M.W., Johnson, R.D., Mount, D.R., Nichols, Linkov, I., Meek, B., Sachana, M., Segner, H., Van Der
J.W., Russom, C.L., Schmieder, P.K., Serrrano, J.A., Burg, B., Villeneuve, D.L., Watanabe, H. and Barton-
Tietge, J.E. and Villeneuve, D.L. (2010). Adverse Maclaren, T.S. (2015). Increasing scientific confidence
outcome pathways: a conceptual framework to in adverse outcome pathways: application of tailored
support ecotoxicology research and risk assessment. Bradford-Hill considerations for evaluating weight of
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 29(3), 730-741. evidence. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 72(3),
https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.34. 514-537. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.YRTPH.2015.04.004.
Annamalai, J. and Namasivayam, V. (2015). Endocrine Beek, T. aus der, Weber, F.-A., Bergmann, A.,
disrupting chemicals in the atmosphere: their effects Grüttner, G. and Carius, A. (2016a). Pharmaceuticals
on humans and wildlife. Environment International 76, in the Environment: Global Occurrence and Potential
78-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVINT.2014.12.006. Cooperative Action Under the Strategic Approach to
International Chemicals Management (SAICM). Hickmann,
Attina, T.M. and Trasande, L. (2013). Economic costs of S. (ed.). Dessau-Roßlau: German Environment Agency.
childhood lead exposure in low- and middle-income https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/publikationen/
countries. Environmental Health Perspectives 121(9), pharmaceuticals-in-the-environment-global.
1097-1102. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1206424.
Beek, T. aus der, Weber, F.-A., Bergmann, A.,
Australian Department of Health (2018a). Per- and Hickmann, S., Ebert, I., Hein, A. and Küster, A.
poly-fluorinated substances (PFAS). National Industrial (2016b). Pharmaceuticals in the environment – global
Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme. https:// occurrences and perspectives. Environmental Toxicology
www.nicnas.gov.au/chemical-information/Topics-of- and Chemistry 35(4), 823-835. https://doi.org/10.1002/
interest2/subjects/Per-and-poly-fluorinated-alkyl- etc.3339.
substances. Accessed 24 August 2018.
Behera, S.K., Kim, H.W., Oh, J.-E. and Park, H.-S. (2011).
Australian Department of Health (2018b). Inventory Occurrence and removal of antibiotics, hormones
multi-tiered assessment and prioritisation (IMAP). and several other pharmaceuticals in wastewater
National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment treatment plants of the largest industrial city of Korea.
Scheme. https://www.nicnas.gov.au/chemical- Science of the Total Environment 409(20), 4351-4360.
information/imap-assessments. Accessed 13 June https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2011.07.015.
2018.
Bergans (n.d.). How we work with the PFAS challenge.
Awasthi, A.K., Zeng, X. and Li, J. (2016). Relationship https://www.bergans.com/About-us/CSR/PFAS.
between e-waste recycling and human health risk Accessed 13 June 2018.
in India: a critical review. Environmental Science and
Pollution Research 23(12), 11509-11532. https://doi. Bergman, Å., Heindel, J., Jobling, S., Kidd, K. and Zoeller,
org/10.1007/s11356-016-6085-7. R.T. (eds.) (2013). State of the Science on Endocrine
Disrupting Chemicals-2012: An Assessment of the State
Baines, D., Wilton, E., Pawluk, A., de Gorter, M. and of the Science of Endocrine Disruptors Prepared by a
Chomistek, N. (2017). Neonicotinoids act like endocrine Group of Experts for the United Nations Environment
disrupting chemicals in newly-emerged bees and Programme. Geneva: United Nations Environment
winter bees. Scientific Reports 7(1), 10979. https://doi. Programme and the World Health Organization. http://
org/10.1038/s41598-017-10489-6 www.who.int/ceh/publications/endocrine/en/.
Baldé, C.P., Forti V., Gray, V., Kuehr, R. and Stegmann, Berkner, S., Konradi, S. and Schönfeld, J. (2014).
P. (2017). The Global E-waste Monitor 2017: Quantities, Antibiotic resistance and the environment – there
Flows, and Resources. Bonn, Geneva and Vienna: United and back again. Society & Society Series on Science
Nations University, International Telecommunication and Drugs 15(7), 740-744. https://doi.org/10.15252/
Union and the International Solid Waste Association. embr.201438978.
https://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:6341/Global-
E-waste_Monitor_2017__electronic_single_pages_.pdf. BIO Intelligence Service (2013). Study on the
Environmental Risks of Medicinal Products, Final Report
Beausoleil, C., Ormsby, J.-N., Gies, A., Hass, U., Prepared for Executive Agency for Health and Consumers.
Heindel, J.J., Holmer, M.L., Nielsen, P.J., Munn, S. https://ec.europa.eu/health/sites/health/files/files/
and Schoenfelder, G. (2013). Low dose effects and environment/study_environment.pdf.
non-monotonic dose responses for endocrine active
chemicals: science to practice workshop: workshop Birnbaum, L.S. and Grandjean, P. (2015). Alternatives
summary. Chemosphere 93(6), 847-856. https://doi. to PFASs: perspectives on the science. Environmental
org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2013.06.043. Health Perspectives 123(5), 104-105. https://doi.
org/10.1289/ehp.1509944.
358
Part II
Blair, B., Zimny-Schmitt, D. and Rudd, M.A. (2017). U.S. Brühl, C.A., Schmidt, T., Pieper, S. and Alscher, A.
news media coverage of pharmaceutical pollution (2013). Terrestrial pesticide exposure of amphibians:
in the aquatic environment: a content analysis of an underestimated cause of global decline? Scientific
the problems and solutions presented by actors. Reports 3(1), 1135. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep01135.
Environmental Management 60(2), 314-322. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00267-017-0881-9. Buchberger, W.W. (2011). Current approaches to
trace analysis of pharmaceuticals and personal
Blum, A., Balan, S.A., Scheringer, M., Trier, X., care products in the environment. Journal of
Goldenman, G., Cousins, I.T., Diamond, M., Fletcher, Chromatography A 1218(4), 603-618. https://doi.
T., Higgins, C., Lindeman, A.E., Peaslee, G., de Voogt, P., org/10.1016/J.CHROMA.2010.10.040.
Wang, Z. and Weber, R. (2015). The Madrid Statement
on Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs). Casey, M.J. and Wong, P. (2017). Global supply chains
Environmental Health Perspectives 123(5), A107-A111. are about to get better, thanks to blockchain, 13 March.
https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1509934. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2017/03/
global-supply-chains-are-about-to-get-better-thanks-
Boix, C., Ibáñez, M., Sancho, J. V., Parsons, J.R., Voogt, to-blockchain. Accessed 12 June 2018.
P. de and Hernández, F. (2016). Biotransformation of
pharmaceuticals in surface water and during waste Cecere, G. and Martinelli, A. (2017). Drivers of knowledge
water treatment: identification and occurrence of accumulation in electronic waste management: an
transformation products. Journal of Hazardous analysis of publication data. Research Policy 46(5), 925-
Materials 302, 175-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 938. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RESPOL.2017.03.005.
jhazmat.2015.09.053. 
Center for International Environmental Law (2014).
Borg, D., Ivarsson, J., Andersson, A. and Moore, G. Nanomaterials Definition Fact Sheet. http://www.ciel.
(2017). Nordic Workshop on PFASs Outcomes. Stockholm: org/Publications/Nano_definition_Nov2014.pdf.
Nordic Council of Ministers. http://dx.doi.org/10.6027/
NA2017-913. Chakraborty, P., Selvaraj, S., Nakamura, M., Prithiviraj,
B., Cincinelli, A. and Bang, J.J. (2018). PCBs and PCDD/
Borges, B.J.P., Carminati, L.S., Fernandes, P.M.B. and Fs in soil from informal e-waste recycling sites and
Fernandes, A.A.R. (2018). Regulatory framework open dumpsites in India: levels, congener profiles
of nanopharmaceuticals in developing countries: and health risk assessment. Science of the Total
an analysis of the current rules in Brazil. Inorganic Environment 621, 930-938. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
Frameworks as Smart Nanomedicines 605-639. https:// SCITOTENV.2017.11.083.
doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813661-4.00014-6.
Chemours (2016). Teflon PTFE DISP 30LX Fluoroplastic
Bound, J.P. and Voulvoulis, N. (2004). Pharmaceuticals Dispersion Product Information. https://www.chemours.
in the aquatic environment––a comparison of risk com/Teflon_Industrial/en_US/assets/downloads/
assessment strategies. Chemosphere 56(11), 1143-1155. teflon-ptfe-disp-30lx-product-information.pdf.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.05.010.
Chemours (2018). Teflon EcoEliteTM renewably
Boxall, A.B.A., Rudd, M.A., Brooks, B.W., Caldwell, D.J., sourced non-fluorinated water repellent. https://
Choi, K., Hickmann, S., Innes, E., Ostapyk, K., Staveley, www.chemours.com/Teflon_Fabric_Protector/en_US/
J.P., Verslycke, T., Ankley, G.T., Beazley, K.F., Belanger, products/teflon_ecoelite.html#. Accessed 28 March
S.E., Berninger, J.P., Carriquiriborde, P., Coors, A., 2018.
DeLeo, P.C., Dyer, S.D., Ericson, J.F., Gagné, F., Giesy,
J.P., Gouin, T., Hallstrom, L., Karlsson, M. V., Larsson, Chiang, S., Cox, C. and Levin, J. (2018). Avoiding Hidden
D.G.J., Lazorchak, J.M., Mastrocco, F., McLaughlin, Hazards: A Purchaser’s Guide to Safer Foodware. https://
A., McMaster, M.E., Meyerhoff, R.D., Moore, R., www.ceh.org/wp-content/uploads/CEH-Disposable-
Parrott, J.L., Snape, J.R., Murray-Smith, R., Servos, Foodware-Report-final-1.31.pdf.
M.R., Sibley, P.K., Straub, J.O., Szabo, N.D., Topp, E.,
Tetreault, G.R., Trudeau, V.L. and Van Der Kraak, G. Chou, H.-M., Kao, C.-C., Pin Chuang, K., Lin, C., Shy,
(2012). Pharmaceuticals and personal care products C.-G., Chen, R.-F., Tsai, C.-C., Chuang, C.-Y., Cheng,
in the environment: what are the big questions? Y.-C., Chen, C.-C. and Chao, H.-R. (2016). Levels of
Environmental Health Perspectives 120(9), 1221-1229. polybrominated diphenyl ethers in air-conditioner filter
https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104477. dust used to assess health risks in clinic and electronic
plant employees. Aerosol and Air Quality Research 16,
Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2017). Personal 184-194. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2015.09.0541.
response to request for information, 24 February.
Cobbing, M. and Dowdall, T. (2014). Green Gadgets:
Brendel, S., Fetter, É., Staude, C., Vierke, L. and Biegel-
Designing the Future. Amsterdam: Greenpeace
Engler, A. (2018). Short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids:
International. https://www.greenpeace.org/archive-
environmental concerns and a regulatory strategy
international/Global/international/publications/
under REACH. Environmental Sciences Europe 30(1), 9.
toxics/2014/Green%20Gadgets.pdf.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-018-0134-4.
359
Cobbing, M., Campione, C. and Kopp, M. (2017). PFC Daughton, C.G. (2002). Environmental stewardship
Revolution in the Outdoor Sector. Zurich: Greenpeace. and drugs as pollutants. Lancet 360(9339), 1035-1036.
https://www.greenpeace.org/archive-international/ https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11176-7.
Global/international/publications/detox/2017/PFC-
Revolution-in-Outdoor-Sector.pdf. Dekkers, S., Oomen, A.G., Bleeker, E.A.J., Vandebriel,
R.J., Micheletti, C., Cabellos, J., Janer, G., Fuentes, N.,
Congress of the United States (2009). H.R.2420 – Vázquez-Campos, S., Borges, T., Silva, M.J., Prina-Mello,
Environmental Design of Electrical Equipment Act (EDEE) A., Movia, D., Nesslany, F., Ribeiro, A.R., Leite, P.E.,
Act. https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/ Groenewold, M., Cassee, F.R., Sips, A.J.A.M., Dijkzeul,
house-bill/2420/text. A., van Teunenbroek, T. and Wijnhoven, S.W.P. (2016).
Towards a nanospecific approach for risk assessment.
Conolly, R.B., Ankley, G.T., Cheng, W., Mayo, M.L., Miller, Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 80, 46-59.
D.H., Perkins, E.J., Villeneuve, D.L. and Watanabe, K.H. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.YRTPH.2016.05.037.
(2017). Quantitative adverse outcome pathways and
their application to predictive toxicology. Environmental Dewalt, F.G., Cox, D.C., O’Haver, R., Salatino, B., Holmes,
Science & Technology 51(8), 4661-4672. https://doi. D., Ashley, P.J., Pinzer, E.A., Friedman, W., Marker, D.,
org/10.1021/acs.est.6b06230. Viet, S.M. and Fraser, A. (2015). Prevalence of lead
hazards and soil arsenic in U.S. housing. Journal of
Cook, G. and Jardim, E. (2017). Guide to Greener Environmental Health 78(5), 22-29. http://www.ncbi.
Electronics 2017. Bach, N. (ed.). Washington, D.C.: nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26738315.
Greenpeace. https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/
wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Guide-to-Greener- DiGangi, J. (2018). Establishing a Pollutant Release
Electronics-2017.pdf. and Transfer Register is Critical for China’s Hazardous
Chemicals Management. http://ipen.org/sites/default/
Cosmetics Europe (2018). Understanding the Label. files/documents/PRTR%20report%20press%20
https://www.cosmeticseurope.eu/cosmetic-products/ release_EN_Final.pdf.
understanding-label/. Accessed 17 November 2017.
Ding, Y., Kuhlbusch, T.A.J., Van Tongeren, M., Jiménez,
Cousins, I.T., Vestergren, R., Wang, Z., Scheringer, A.S., Tuinman, I., Chen, R., Alvarez, I.L., Mikolajczyk,
M. and McLachlan, M.S. (2016). The precautionary U., Nickel, C., Meyer, J., Kaminski, H., Wohlleben, W.,
principle and chemicals management: the example Stahlmecke, B., Clavaguera, S. and Riediker, M. (2017).
of perfluoroalkyl acids in groundwater. Environment Airborne engineered nanomaterials in the workplace
International 94, 331-340. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. – a review of release and worker exposure during
ENVINT.2016.04.044. nanomaterial production and handling processes.
Journal of Hazardous Materials 322, 17-28. https://doi.
CropLife International (2018). Ensuring the Sound org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2016.04.075.
Management of Pesticides. Stockholm: Secretariat of
the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Donaldson, K. and Poland, C.A. (2013). Nanotoxicity:
Management. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/ challenging the myth of nano-specific toxicity. Current
documents/meetings/IP2/IP_2_INF_11_Croplife_ Opinion in Biotechnology 24(4), 724-734. https://doi.
PesticideManagement_f.pdf. org/10.1016/J.COPBIO.2013.05.003.
Curl, O. (2013). Firms phase out lead from paints. Donnachie, R.L., Johnson, A.C. and Sumpter, J.P.
Chemical Watch, March. https://chemicalwatch. (2016). A rational approach to selecting and ranking
com/14163/firms-phase-out-lead-from-paints. some pharmaceuticals of concern for the aquatic
Accessed 11 June 2018. environment and their relative importance compared
with other chemicals. Environmental Toxicology and
CVS Health (2017). CVS Health takes major step to Chemistry 35(4), 1021-1027. https://doi.org/10.1002/
address chemicals of consumer concern, 19 April. etc.3165.
https://cvshealth.com/newsroom/press-releases/
cvs-health-takes-major-step-to-address-chemicals- Duan, H., Li, J., Liu, Y., Yamazaki, N. and Jiang, W. (2011).
of-consumer-concern. Accessed 14 August 2018. Characterization and inventory of PCDD/Fs and PBDD/
Fs emissions from the incineration of waste printed
Dalvie, M.A., Rother, H.A. and London, L. (2014). circuit board. Environmental Science & Technology
Chemical hazard communication comprehensibility 45(15), 6322-6328. https://doi.org/10.1021/es2007403.
in South Africa: safety implications for the adoption
of the globally harmonised system of classification Eguchi, A., Nomiyama, K., Devanathan, G., Subramanian,
and labelling of chemicals. Safety Science 61, 51-58. A., Bulbule, K.A., Parthasarathy, P., Takahashi, S. and
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2013.07.013. Tanabe, S. (2012). Different profiles of anthropogenic
and naturally produced organohalogen compounds
Danish Environmental Protection Agency (2017). in serum from residents living near a coastal area
Exposure of Children and Unborn Children to Selected and e-waste recycling workers in India. Environment
Chemical Substances. Larsen, P.B., Boberg, J., Poulsen, International 47, 8-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
P.B., Mørck, T.A., Boyd, H.B., Andersen, D.N., Axelstad, ENVINT.2012.05.003.
M. and Hass, U. (eds.). https://www2.mst.dk/Udgiv/
publications/2017/04/978-87-93529-84-7.pdf.
360
Part II
Elibariki, R. and Maguta, M.M. (2017). Status European Commission (2009b). Regulation (EC) No
of pesticides pollution in Tanzania – a review. 1223/2009 of the European Parliament and of the
Chemosphere 178, 154-164. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. Council of 30 November 2009 on cosmetic products.
CHEMOSPHERE.2017.03.036. Official Journal of the European Union L 342(60),
1-151. https://ec.europa.eu/health/sites/health/files/
Etchevers, A., Le Tertre, A., Lucas, J.-P., Bretin, P., endocrine_disruptors/docs/cosmetic_1223_2009_
Oulhote, Y., Le Bot, B. and Glorennec, P. (2015). regulation_en.pdf.
Environmental determinants of different blood lead
levels in children: a quantile analysis from a nationwide European Commission (2011a). Regulation (EU) no
survey. Environment International 74, 152-159. https:// 305/2011 of the European Parliament and of the
doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2014.10.007. Council of 9 March 2011 laying down harmonised
conditions for the marketing of construction products
European Chemicals Agency (2017). Agreement of and repealing Council Directive 89/106/EEC. Official
the Member State Committee on the Identification Journal of the European Union L 88(6). https://eur-lex.
of Perfluorohexane-1-Sulphonic Acid and Its Salts as europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32
Substances of Very High Concern According to Articles 011R0305&from=EN.
57 and 59 of Regulation (EC) 1907/2006. https://echa.
europa.eu/documents/10162/fdc986a0-7479-245a- European Commission (2011b). Commission
b64a-7724d1ee760c. Recommendation of 18 October 2011 on the definition
of nanomaterial (text with EEA relevance) (2011/696/
European Chemicals Agency (2018). New database EU). Official Journal of the European Union L 275(38),
on candidate list substances in articles by 2021, 11 1–3. http://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/
July. https://echa.europa.eu/nl/-/new-database-on- emerging/docs/.
candidate-list-substances-in-articles-by-2021. Accessed
30 December 2018. European Commission (2011c). Regulation (EU) No
1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the
European Commission (2000). Directive 2000/60/EC Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food
Of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 information to consumers, amending Regulations
October 2000 establishing a framework for community (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the
action in the field of water policy. Official Journal of European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing
the European Communities L 327(2), 1-72. https://eur- Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive
lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:5c835afb- 90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC,
2ec6-4577-bdf8-756d3d694eeb.0004.02/ Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament
DOC_1&format=PDF. and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/
EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC)
European Commission (2004). Directive 2004/28/ No 608/2004. Official Journal of the European Union L
EC of the European Parliament and of the Council 304(18), 1-46. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/
of 31 March 2004 amending Directive 2001/82/ EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32011R1169&from=EN.
EC on the community code relating to veterinary
medicinal products. Official Journal of the European European Commission (2012a). Directive 2012/19/EU
Union L 136(58), 1-27. https://ec.europa.eu/health/ of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4
sites/health/files/files/eudralex/vol-5/dir_2004_28/ July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment
dir_2004_28_en.pdf. (WEEE). Text with EEA relevance. Official Journal of the
European Union L 197, 38-71. https://eur-lex.europa.
European Commission (2006). Regulation (EC) No. eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32012L00
1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of 19&from=EN.
the Council of 18 December 2006 concerning the
registration, evaluation, authorisation and restriction European Commission (2012b). Regulation (EU)
of chemicals (REACH), establishing a European No 528/2012 of the European Parliament and of
Chemicals Agency, amending Directive 1999. Official the Council of 22 May 2012 concerning the making
Journal of the European Union L 396, 3-280. https:// available on the market and use of biocidal products.
doi.org/10.04.2014. Official Journal of the European Union L 167(2), 1-123.
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF
European Commission (2009a). Directive 2009/48/EC /?uri=CELEX:32012R0528&from=EN.
of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18
June 2009 on the safety of toys. Official Journal of the European Commission (2016a). Defining Criteria
European Union L 170(2), 1-37. https://eur-lex.europa. for Identifying Endocrine Disruptors in the Context of
eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:170:0001 the Implementation of the Plant Protection Products
:0037:en:PDF. Regulation and Biocidal Products Regulation. https://
ec.europa.eu/health/sites/health/files/endocrine_
disruptors/docs/2016_impact_assessment_en.pdf.
European Commission (2016b). Which substances

are of concern? http://ec.europa.eu/environment/
chemicals/endocrine/strategy/substances_en.htm.
361
European Commission (2017a). Directive (EU) Fan, L., Niu, H., Yang, X., Qin, W., Bento, C.P.M.,
2017/2102 of the European Parliament and of the Ritsema, C.J. and Geissen, V. (2015). Factors affecting
Council of 15 November 2017 amending Directive farmers’ behaviour in pesticide use: Insights from
2011/65/EU on the restriction of the use of certain a field study in northern China. Science of the Total
hazardous substances in electrical and electronic Environment 537, 360-368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
equipment Text with EEA relevance. Official Journal scitotenv.2015.07.150.
of the European Union L 305, 8-11. https://eur-lex.
europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:L:2017 Fantke, P., Ernstoff, A.S., Huang, L., Csiszar, S.A. and
:305:FULL&from=EN. Jolliet, O. (2016). Coupled near-field and far-field
exposure assessment framework for chemicals in
European Commission (2017b). Commission consumer products. Environment International 94,
Regulation (EU) 2017/1000 of 13 June 2017 amending 508-518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.06.010.
Annex XVII to Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the
European Parliament and of the Council concerning the Fewtrell, L., Kaufmann, R. and Prüss-Üstün, A. (2003).
Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction Lead: Assessing the Environmental Burden of Disease
of Chemicals (REACH) as regards perfluorooctanoic at National and Local Levels. Geneva: World Health
acid (PFOA), its salts and PFOA-related substances. Organization. http://www.who.int/quantifying_
Official Journal of the European Union L 150(14). https:// ehimpacts/publications/en/leadebd2.pdf.
eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=C
ELEX:32017R1000&from=EN. Fleischli, M.A., Franson, J.C., Thomas, N.J., Finley, D.L.
and Riley, W. (2004). Avian mortality events in the
European Commission (2017c). Public consultation on United States caused by anticholinesterase pesticides:
amendments of the annexes to REACH for registration a retrospective summary of National Wildlife Health
of nanomaterials. https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/ Center records from 1980 to 2000. Archives of
better-regulation/initiatives/ares-2017-4925011_en. Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 46(4), 542-
Accessed 23 November 2017. 550. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15253053.
European Commission (2017d). Commission Delegated Flores-Valverde, A.M., Horwood, J. and Hill, E.M.
Regulation (EU) 2017/2100 of 4 September 2017 setting (2010). Disruption of the steroid metabolome in
out scientific criteria for the determination of endocrine- fish caused by exposure to the environmental
disrupting properties pursuant to Regulation (EU) No estrogen 17α-ethinylestradiol. Environmental Science
528/2012 of the European Parliament and Council. & Technology 44(9), 3552-3558. https://doi.org/10.1021/
Official Journal of the European Union L 301(1). https:// es9039049.
eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CE
LEX:32017R2100&from=EN. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (2016). Addressing Highly Hazardous Pesticides
European Commission (2018). Commission Regulation in Mozambique. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5360e.pdf.
(EU) 2018/605 of 19 April 2018 amending Annex II to
Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 by setting out scientific Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
criteria for the determination of endocrine disrupting Nations (2018a). Pesticide Registration Toolkit. http://
properties. Official Journal of the European Union L www.fao.org/pesticide-registration-toolkit/en/.
101, 33-36. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3132.
European Commission (n.d.). Process to set scientific Nations (2018b). AGP - Integrated Pest Management.
criteria to identify endocrine disruptors. https:// http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/thematic-
ec.europa.eu/health/endocrine_disruptors/process_ sitemap/theme/pests/ipm/en/. Accessed 12 June 2018.
en. Accessed 14 August 2018.
European Environment Agency (2012). The Impacts Nations and World Health Organization (2007). 1st
of Endocrine Disrupters on Wildlife, People and FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide Management
their Environments: the Weybridge+15 (1996-2011) and 3rd Session of the FAO Panel of Experts on
Report. Copenhagen. https://www.eea.europa.eu/ Pesticide Management. Rome: Food and Agriculture
publications/the-impacts-of-endocrine-disrupters. Organization of the United Nations and The World
Health Organisation. http://www.who.int/whopes/
Evens, A., Hryhorczuk, D., Lanphear, B.P., Rankin, recommendations/First_FAO_WHO_jmps07.pdf.
K.M., Lewis, D.A., Forst, L. and Rosenberg, D. (2015).
The impact of low-level lead toxicity on school Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
performance among children in the Chicago public Nations and World Health Organization (2010). 4th
schools: a population-based retrospective cohort FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide Management
study. Environmental Health 14(21), 1-9. https://doi. and 6th Session of the FAO Panel of Experts on
org/10.1186/s12940-015-0008-9. Pesticide Management. http://www.who.int/whopes/
recommendations/Fourth_FAO_WHO_jmps.pdf.
362
Part II
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Geeraerts, K., Illes, A. and Schweizer, J.-P. (2015). Illegal
Nations and World Health Organization (2014a). 8th Shipment of E-Waste from the EU: A Case Study on Illegal
FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide Management and E-Waste Export from the EU to China. A Study Compiled
10th Session of The FAO Panel of Experts on Pesticide as Part of the EFFACE Project. London: Institute for
Management. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/ European Environmental Policy. https://efface.eu/
agphome/documents/Pests_Pesticides/Code/8th_ sites/default/files/EFFACE_Illegal%20shipment%20
JMPM_2014_Report_22Dec14.pdf. of%20e%20waste%20from%20the%20EU.pdf.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United German Environment Agency (2014). Biocides:
Nations and World Health Organization (2014b). Proposal for a Concerted European Approach Towards
International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management. a Sustainable Use. https://www.umweltbundesamt.
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/ de/sites/default/files/medien/378/publikationen/
documents/Pests_Pesticides/Code/CODE_2014Sep_ biocides_0.pdf.
ENG.pdf.
German Environment Agency (2017). First OECD test
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations guideline on the investigation of nanomaterials, 11
and World Health Organization (2016). International October. https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/
Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management: Guidelines topics/first-oecd-test-guideline-on-the-investigation-
on Highly Hazardous Pesticides. http://apps.who.int/iris/ of. Accessed 13 June 2018.
bitstream/handle/10665/205561/9789241510417_eng.
pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Giulivo, M., Lopez de Alda, M., Capri, E. and Barceló,
D. (2016). Human exposure to endocrine disrupting
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United compounds: their role in reproductive systems,
Nations and World Health Organization (2017). metabolic syndrome and breast cancer. A review.
Report of the 10th FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide Environmental Research 151, 251-264. https://doi.
Management. http://www.who.int/about/licensing/ org/10.1016/J.ENVRES.2016.07.011.
copyright_form/en/index.html.
Goldenman, G., Holland, M., Lietzmann, J. and Meura, L.
Fowler, B.A. (2017). Current E-Waste Data Gaps (2017). Study for the Strategy for a Non-Toxic Environment
and Future Research Directions. In Electronic Waste: of the 7th Environment Action Programme Final Report.
Toxicology and Public Health Issues. London: Elsevier Brussels: European Commission DG Environment.
77-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803083- https://doi.org/10.2779/025.
7.00007-X.
Gomis, M.I., Vestergren, R., Borg, D. and Cousins,
Fu, J., Zhang, A., Wang, T., Qu, G., Shao, J., Yuan, B., I.T. (2018). Comparing the toxic potency in vivo of
Wang, Y. and Jiang, G. (2013). Influence of e-waste long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids and fluorinated
dismantling and its regulations: temporal trend, alternatives. Environment International 113, 1-9. https://
spatial distribution of heavy metals in rice grains, doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.01.011.
and Its potential health risk. Environmental Science &
Technology 47(13), 7437-7445. https://doi.org/10.1021/ Gore, A.C., Chappell, V.A., Fenton, S.E., Flaws, J.A., Nadal,
es304903b. A., Prins, G.S., Toppari, J. and Zoeller, R.T. (2015). EDC-
2: The Endocrine Society’s second scientific statement
Fujimori, T., Takigami, H., Agusa, T., Eguchi, A., Bekki, K., on endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Endocrine Reviews
Yoshida, A., Terazono, A. and Ballesteros, F.C. (2012). 36(6), E1-E150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/er.2015-1010.
Impact of metals in surface matrices from formal and
informal electronic-waste recycling around Metro Gore-Tex (2018). Responsible usage of fluoromaterials.
Manila, the Philippines, and intra-Asian comparison. https://www.gore-tex.com/pfcgoal. Accessed 13 June
Journal of Hazardous Materials 221-222, 139-146. 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2012.04.019.
Gottesfeld, P. (2015). Time to ban lead in industrial
Galloway, T. and Handy, R. (2003). Immunotoxicity paints and coatings. Frontiers in Public Health 3(144),
of organophosphorous pesticides. Ecotoxicology 1-4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2015.00144.
12(1-4), 345-363. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/12739880. Government of Canada (2017a). Fall 2016 amendments
to the Prohibition of Certain Toxic Substances
Galloway, T.S. and Depledge, M.H. (2001). Regulations, 7 July. https://www.canada.ca/en/
Immunotoxicity in invertebrates: measurement and environment-climate-change/services/canadian-
ecotoxicological relevance. Ecotoxicology 10(1), 5-23. environmental-protection-act-registry/fall-2016-
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11227817. amendments-prohibition-toxic-substances.html.
Accessed 13 June 2018.
Government of Canada (2017b). Regulatory

Cooperation Council (RCC), 12 April. http://science.
gc.ca/eic/site/063.nsf/eng/h_97378.html. Accessed
18 February 2018
363
Grant, K., Goldizen, F.C., Sly, P.D., Brune, M.-N., Neira, Hansen, S.F., Heggelund, L.R., Revilla Besora, P.,
M., van den Berg, M. and Norman, R.E. (2013). Health Mackevica, A., Boldrin, A. and Baun, A. (2016).
consequences of exposure to e-waste: a systematic Nanoproducts – what is actually available to European
review. Lancet Global Health 1(6), 350-361. https://doi. consumers? Environmental Science: Nano 3(1), 169-180.
org/10.1016/S2214-109X(13)70101-3. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EN00182J.
Green, R.E., Newton, I., Shultz, S., Cunningham, A.A., Hartemann, P., Hoet, P., Proykova, A., Fernandes, T.,
Gilbert, M., Pain, D.J. and Prakash, V. (2004). Diclofenac Baun, A., De Jong, W., Filser, J., Hensten, A., Kneuer,
poisoning as a cause of vulture population declines C., Maillard, J.-Y., Norppa, H., Scheringer, M. and
across the Indian subcontinent. Journal of Applied Wijnhoven, S. (2015). Nanosilver: safety, health and
Ecology 41(5), 793-800. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021- environmental effects and role in antimicrobial
8901.2004.00954.x. resistance. Materials Today 18(3), 122-123. https://
doi.org/10.1016/J.MATTOD.2015.02.014.
Gunnarsson, B. and Wennmalm, Å. (2008). Mitigation
of the pharmaceutical outlet into the environment Hayes, T.B., Khoury, V., Narayan, A., Nazir, M., Park, A.,
– experiences from Sweden. In Pharmaceuticals in Brown, T., Adame, L., Chan, E., Buchholz, D., Stueve,
the Environment: Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks. 3rd T. and Gallipeau, S. (2010). Atrazine induces complete
edn. Kümmerer, K. (ed.). Freiburg: Springer-Verlag. feminization and chemical castration in male African
Chapter 30, 475-487. https://link.springer.com/ clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis). Proceedings of the National
content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-540-74664-5.pdf. Academy of Sciences 107(10), 4612-4617. https://doi.
org/10.1073/pnas.0909519107.
Guo, J., Sinclair, C.J., Selby, K. and Boxall, A.B.A.
(2016). Toxicological and ecotoxicological risk-based Heacock, M., Kelly, C.B., Asante, K.A., Birnbaum, L.S.,
prioritization of pharmaceuticals in the natural Bergman, Å.L., Bruné, M.-N., Buka, I., Carpenter,
environment. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry D.O., Chen, A., Huo, X., Kamel, M., Landrigan, P.J.,
35(6), 1550-1559. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.3319. Magalini, F., Diaz-Barriga, F., Neira, M., Omar, M.,
Pascale, A., Ruchirawat, M., Sly, L., Sly, P.D., Van den
Gustafsson, L.L., Wettermark, B., Godman, B., Berg, M. and Suk, W.A. (2016). E-waste and harm to
Andersén-Karlsson, E., Bergman, U., Hasselström, vulnerable populations: a growing global problem.
J., Hensjö, L.-O., Hjemdahl, P., Jägre, I., Julander, M., Environmental Health Perspectives 124(5), 550-555.
Ringertz, B., Schmidt, D., Sjöberg, S., Sjöqvist, F., Stiller, https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1509699.
C.-O., Törnqvist, E., Tryselius, R., Vitols, S. and von Bahr,
C. (2011). The ‘wise list’ – a comprehensive concept Health Canada (2013a). Final Human Health State of
to select, communicate and achieve adherence to the Science Report on Lead. https://www.canada.ca/
recommendations of essential drugs in ambulatory content/dam/hc-sc/migration/hc-sc/ewh-semt/alt_
care in Stockholm. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & formats/pdf/pubs/contaminants/dhhssrl-rpecscepsh/
Toxicology 108(4), 224-233. https://doi.org/10.1111/ dhhssrl-rpecscepsh-eng.pdf.
j.1742-7843.2011.00682.x.
Health Canada (2013b). Risk Management Strategy
Gwinn, M.R. and Vallyathan, V. (2006). Nanoparticles: for Lead. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-
health effects-pros and cons. Environmental health sc/migration/hc-sc/ewh-semt/alt_formats/pdf/pubs/
perspectives 114(12), 1818-1825. https://doi. contaminants/prms_lead-psgr_plomb/prms_lead-
org/10.1289/EHP.8871. psgr_plomb-eng.pdf.
Haiß, A., Jordan, A., Westphal, J., Logunova, E., Heberer, T. and Feldmann, D. (2005). Contribution of
Gathergood, N. and Kümmer, K. (2016). On the effluents from hospitals and private households to the
way to greener ionic liquids: identification of a fully total loads of diclofenac and carbamazepine in municipal
mineralizable phenylalanine-based ionic liquid. Green sewage effluents – modeling versus measurements.
Chemistry 18, 4361-4373. http://doi.org/10.1039/ Journal of Hazardous Materials 122(3), 211-218. https://
C6GC00417B. doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2005.03.007.
Hamlin, H.J. and Guillette, L.J. (2010). Birth Hollender, J., Zimmermann, S.G., Koepke, S., Krauss,
defects in wildlife: the role of environmental M., McArdell, C.S., Ort, C., Singer, H., von Gunten,
contaminants as inducers of reproductive and U. and Siegrist, H. (2009). Elimination of organic
developmental dysfunction. Systems Biology in micropollutants in a municipal wastewater treatment
Reproductive Medicine 56(2), 113-121. https://doi. plant upgraded with a full-scale post-ozonation
org/10.3109/19396360903244598. followed by sand filtration. Environmental Science &
Technology 43(20), 7862-7869. https://doi.org/10.1021/
Hansen, S.F. (2017). React now regarding nanomaterial es9014629.
regulation. Nature Nanotechnology 12(8), 714-716.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2017.163.
364
Part II
Holmquist, H., Schellenberger, S., van der Veen, Japan External Trade Organization (2011). Guidebook
I., Peters, G.M., Leonards, P.E.G. and Cousins, I.T. for Export to Japan 2011 (Cosmetics). http://www.acma.
(2016). Properties, performance and associated us/content/pdf/guidebook_cosmetics.pdf.
hazards of state-of-the-art durable water repellent
(DWR) chemistry for textile finishing. Environment Joint Article Management Promotion-consortium
International 91, 251-264. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. (2018). Guidelines for the Management of Chemicals in
ENVINT.2016.02.035. Products (CiP): Deliberation of Collaboration Committee
of Guidelines for Chemicals in Products. 4th edn. https://
Huang, S., Wang, L., Liu, L., Fu, Q. and Zhu, D. (2014). chemsherpa.net/english/docs/guidelines.
Nonchemical pest control in China rice: a review.
Agronomy for Sustainable Development 34(2), 275-291. Jones, W., Gibb, A., Goodier, C. and Bust, P. (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-013-0199-9. Managing the unknown – addressing the potential
health risks of nanomaterials in the built environment.
Hughes, D., Kibbey, J. and Rudgeway, R. (2014). Construction Management and Economics 35(3), 122-
Emerging vertical partnerships for scale in impact 136. https://doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2016.1241413.
measurement: the case of the Higg Index, 23 June.
Sustainable Brands. https://www.slideshare.net/ Kabir, E.R., Rahman, M.S. and Rahman, I. (2015). A
sustainablebrands/emerging-vertical-partnerships- review on endocrine disruptors and their possible
for-scale-in-impact-measurement-the-case-of-the- impacts on human health. Environmental Toxicology and
higg-index. Accessed 12 June 2018. Pharmacology 40(1), 241-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
ETAP.2015.06.009.
IKEA (2017). Vanliga Frågor Och Svar Perfluorerade
Ämnen. Inter IKEA Systems B.V. https://www.ikea. Kah, M., Beulke, S., Tiede, K. and Hofmann, T. (2013).
com/ms/sv_SE/pdf/sustainability/kemikalier/FAQ_ Nanopesticides: state of knowledge, environmental
Perfluorerade_amnen.pdf. fate, and exposure modeling. Critical Reviews in
Environmental Science and Technology 43(16), 1823-
International Federation of Pharmaceutical 1867. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2012.671750.
Manufacturers & Associations (2017). The
Pharmaceutical Industry and Global Health – Facts and Karim, E., Munir, A.B., Reza, A.W., Muhammad-Sukki,
Figures 2017. https://www.ifpma.org/wp-content/ F., Mohd Yasin, S.H., Abu-Bakar, S.H. and Abdul Rahim,
uploads/2017/02/IFPMA-Facts-And-Figures-2017.pdf. R. (2015). Too enthusiastic to care for safety: present
status and recent developments of nanosafety in
International Organization for Standardization (2017). ASEAN countries. Technological Forecasting and
ISO/TR 18401:2017(en), Nanotechnologies — Plain Social Change 92, 168-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
language explanation of selected terms from the TECHFORE.2014.07.003.
ISO/IEC 80004 series. https://www.iso.org/obp/
ui/#iso:std:iso:tr:18401:ed-1:v1:en. Accessed 13 June Karunaratne, G.P. (2015). Environmental and Health
2018. Impacts of Nanotechnology: Need for a Precautionary
Approach. Journal of Chemical Engineering Research
International Paint and Printing Ink Council (2015). Studies 2(1), 1-3. https://www.researchgate.net/
Module D Industry Perspective on the Elimination of publication/271966445.
Lead Paint. http://web.unep.org/sites/all/themes/
noleadpaint/docs/Module%20D%20Industry%20 Keller, A.A., McFerran, S., Lazareva, A. and Suh, S. (2013).
Perspective%20FINAL.pdf. Global life cycle releases of engineered nanomaterials.
Journal of Nanoparticle Research 15(6), 1692-1694.
International POPs Elimination Network (2016). Global https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-013-1692-4.
Lead Paint Elimination Report. http://ipen.org/sites/
default/files/documents/IPEN-global-lead-report-final- Kessler, R. (2014). Lead-based decorative paints: where
Oct-2016-en.pdf. are they still sold – and why? Environmental Health
Perspectives 122(4), A96-A103. https://doi.org/10.1289/
International POPs Elimination Network (2017). Lead EHP.122-A96.
in Solvent-Based Paints for Home Use Global Report.
http://ipen.org/sites/default/files/documents/ipen- Khan, M., Mahmood, H.Z. and Damalas, C.A. (2015).
global-lead-report-2017-v1_2-en.pdf. Pesticide use and risk perceptions among farmers in the
cotton belt of Punjab, Pakistan. Crop Protection 67, 184-
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (2017). 190. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CROPRO.2014.10.013.
PFAS fact sheets – PFAS per- and polyfluoroalkyl
substances. https://pfas-1.itrcweb.org/fact-sheets/. Khot, L.R., Sankaran, S., Maja, J.M., Ehsani, R. and
Accessed 13 August 2018. Schuster, E.W. (2012). Applications of nanomaterials in
agricultural production and crop protection: A review.
Jain, A., Ranjan, S., Dasgupta, N. and Ramalingam, Crop Protection 35, 64-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
C. (2018). Nanomaterials in food and agriculture: an CROPRO.2012.01.007.
overview on their safety concerns and regulatory
issues. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
58(2), 297-317. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2
016.1160363.
365
Kim, I., Kim, H.J., Lim, S.Y. and Kongyoo, J. (2012). Kookana, R.S., Boxall, A.B.A., Reeves, P.T., Ashauer,
Leukemia and non-Hodgkin lymphoma in R., Beulke, S., Chaudhry, Q., Cornelis, G., Fernandes,
semiconductor industry workers in Korea. International T.F., Gan, J., Kah, M., Lynch, I., Ranville, J., Sinclair, C.,
Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health Spurgeon, D., Tiede, K. and Van den Brink, P.J. (2014).
18(2), 147-153. https://doi.org/10.1179/107735251 Nanopesticides: guiding principles for regulatory
2Z.00000000019. evaluation of environmental risks. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry 62(19), 4227-4240. https://doi.
Kim, K.-H., Kabir, E. and Jahan, S.A. (2017). Exposure to org/10.1021/jf500232f.
pesticides and the associated human health effects.
Science of the Total Environment 575, 525-535. https:// Kramer, V.J., Etterson, M.A., Hecker, M., Murphy, C.A.,
doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.009. Roesijadi, G., Spade, D.J., Spromberg, J.A., Wang, M. and
Ankley, G.T. (2011). Adverse outcome pathways and
Klaine, S.J., Alvarez, P.J.J., Batley, G.E., Fernandes, T.F., ecological risk assessment: bridging to population-level
Handy, R.D., Lyon, D.Y., Mahendra, S., McLaughlin, effects. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 30(1),
M.J. and Lead, J.R. (2008). Nanomaterials in the 64-76. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.375.
environment: behavior, fate, bioavailability, and
effects. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 27(9), Krug, H.F. (2014). Nanosafety research – are we on
1825. https://doi.org/10.1897/08-090.1. the right track? Angewandte Chemie International
Edition 53(46), 12304-12319. https://doi.org/10.1002/
Klatte, S., Schaefer, H.-C. and Hempel, M. (2017). anie.201403367.
Pharmaceuticals in the environment – a short review on
options to minimize the exposure of humans, animals Kuang, J., Abdallah, M.A.-E. and Harrad, S. (2018).
and ecosystems. Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy Brominated flame retardants in black plastic kitchen
5, 61-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCP.2016.07.001. utensils: concentrations and human exposure
implications. Science of the Total Environment
Klees, M., Hombrecher, K. and Gladtke, D. (2017). 610-611, 1138-1146. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
Polychlorinated biphenyls in the surrounding of an SCITOTENV.2017.08.173.
e-waste recycling facility in North-Rhine Westphalia:
levels in plants and dusts, spatial distribution, Kümmerer, K. (ed.) (2004). Pharmaceuticals in the
homologue pattern and source identification using Environment: Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks. 2nd edition.
the combination of plants and wind direction data. Berlin: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-
Science of the Total Environment 603-604, 606-615. 09259-0.
Kümmerer, K. (2009). The presence of pharmaceuticals
Knipe, D.W., Chang, S.-S., Dawson, A., Eddleston, M., in the environment due to human use – present
Konradsen, F., Metcalfe, C. and Gunnell, D. (2017). knowledge and future challenges. Journal of
Suicide prevention through means restriction: impact Environmental Management 90(8), 2354-2366. https://
of the 2008-2011 pesticide restrictions on suicide in Sri doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.01.023.
Lanka. PLoS ONE 12(4), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0172893. Kümmerer, K., Dionysiou, D.D., Olsson, O. and Fatta-
Kassinos, D. (2018). A path to clean water. Science
Kogg, B. and Thidell, Å. (2010). Chemicals in Products 361(6399), 222-224. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.
an Overview of Systems for Providing Information aau2405.
Regarding Chemicals in Products and of Stakeholders’
Needs for Such Information. Lund: United Nations Kümmerer, K., Dionysiou, D.D., Olsson, O. and Fatta-
Environment Programme. http://www.saicm.org/ Kassinos, D. (2019). Reducing aquatic micropollutants
Portals/12/Documents/EPI/Guidance%20for%20 – increasing the focus on input prevention and
Stakeholder%20in%20Exchanging%20CiP%20 integrated emission management. Science of The Total
Information_October2015.pdf. Environment 652, 836-850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2018.10.219.
Koh, D., Chan, G. and Yap, E. (2004). World at work: the
electronics industry. Occupational and Environmental Kümmerer, K. and Hempel, M. (eds.) (2010). Green
Medicine 61(2), 180-183. https://doi.org/10.1136/ and Sustainable Pharmacy. Berlin: Springer. https://
OEM.2002.001073. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-05199-9.
Kohler, H.-R. and Triebskorn, R. (2013). Wildlife Küster, A. and Adler, N. (2014). Pharmaceuticals in
ecotoxicology of pesticides: can we track effects to the environment: scientific evidence of risks and its
the population level and beyond? Science 341(6147), regulation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
759-765. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1237591. Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences 369(1656),
1-8. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0587.
366
Part II
Lagarde, F., Beausoleil, C., Belcher, S.M., Belzunces, Mancini, F., van der Valk, H., Cassam, K. and Davis, M.
L.P., Emond, C., Guerbet, M. and Rousselle, C. (2016). Reducing Risks of Highly Hazardous Pesticides
(2015). Non-monotonic dose-response relationships (HHPs) in Mozambique. Food and Agriculture
and endocrine disruptors: a qualitative method of Organization of United Nations. https://slideplayer.
assessment. Environmental Health 14(1), 1-13. https:// com/slide/10700846/.
doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-14-13.
Mañosa, S., Mateo, R. and Guitart, R. (2001). A review of
Land, M., de Wit, C.A., Bignert, A., Cousins, I.T., the effects of agricultural and industrial contamination
Herzke, D., Johansson, J.H and Martin, J.W. (2018). on the Ebro delta biota and wildlife. Environmental
What is the effect of phasing out long-chain per- and monitoring and assessment 71(2), 187-205. http://www.
polyfluoroalkyl substances on the concentrations ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11686200.
of perfluoroalkyl acids and their precursors in the
environment? A systematic review. Environmental Manuweera, G., Eddleston, M., Egodage, S. and
Evidence 7(4), 1-32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750- Buckley, N.A. (2008). Do targeted bans of insecticides
017-0114-y. to prevent deaths from self-poisoning result in reduced
agricultural output? Environmental Health Perspectives
Lange, A., Paull, G.C., Coe, T.S., Katsu, Y., Urushitani, H., 116(4), 492-495. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.11029.
Iguchi, T. and Tyler, C.R. (2009). Sexual reprogramming
and estrogenic sensitization in wild fish exposed to Maynard, A.D. and Aitken, R.J. (2016). ‘Safe handling of
ethinylestradiol. Environmental Science & Technology nanotechnology’ ten years on. Nature Nanotechnology
43(4), 1219-1225. https://doi.org/10.1021/es802661p. 11, 998. https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2016.270.
Lapworth, D.J., Baran, N., Stuart, M.E. and Ward, Melvin, S.D. and Leusch, F.D.L. (2016). Removal of trace
R.S. (2012). Emerging organic contaminants in organic contaminants from domestic wastewater:
groundwater: a review of sources, fate and occurrence. a meta-analysis comparison of sewage treatment
Environmental Pollution 163, 287-303. https://doi. technologies. Environment International 92-93, 183-
org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2011.12.034. 188. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVINT.2016.03.031.
Lechenet, M., Dessaint, F., Py, G., Makowski, D. and Menard, S., Guzylack-Piriou, L., Leveque, M., Braniste,
Munier-Jolain, N. (2017). Reducing pesticide use V., Lencina, C., Naturel, M., Moussa, L., Sekkal, S.,
while preserving crop productivity and profitability Harkat, C., Gaultier, E., Theodorou, V. and Houdeau, E.
on arable farms. Nature Plants 3(17008), 1-6. https:// (2014). Food intolerance at adulthood after perinatal
doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2017.8. exposure to the endocrine disruptor bisphenol A. The
Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology
Lowry, G.V., Gregory, K.B., Apte, S.C. and Lead, J.R. Journal 28(11), 4893-4900. https://doi.org/10.1096/
(2012). Transformations of nanomaterials in the fj.14-255380.
environment. Environmental Science & Technology
46(13), 6893-6899. https://doi.org/10.1021/es300839e. Merhi, M., Raynal, H., Cahuzac, E., Vinson, F., Cravedi,
J.P. and Gamet-Payrastre, L. (2007). Occupational
Lübbert, C., Baars, C., Dayakar, A., Lippmann, N., Rodloff, exposure to pesticides and risk of hematopoietic
A.C., Kinzig, M. and Sörgel, F. (2017). Environmental cancers: meta-analysis of case–control studies.
pollution with antimicrobial agents from bulk drug Cancer Causes & Control 18(10), 1209-1226. https://
manufacturing industries in Hyderabad, South India, is doi.org/10.1007/s10552-007-9061-1.
associated with dissemination of extended-spectrum
beta-lactamase and carbapenemase-producing Miller, G.Z., Tighe, M.E., Peaslee, G.F., Peña, K. and
pathogens. Infection 45(4), 479-491. https://doi. Gearhart, J. (2016). Toys, décor, and more: evidence
org/10.1007/s15010-017-1007-2. of hazardous electronic waste recycled into new
consumer products. Journal of Environmental
Lubick, N. (2008). Opening the “green pharmacy”. Protection 07(03), 341-350. https://doi.org/10.4236/
Environmental Science & Technology 42(23), 8620-8621. jep.2016.73030.
https://doi.org/10.1021/es802555w.
Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change of
Lynch, I., Feitshans, I.L. and Kendall, M. (2015). ‘Bio- India (2016). Government of India Ministry of Environment,
nano interactions: new tools, insights and impacts’: Forest and Climate Change E-waste Management and
summary of the Royal Society discussion meeting. Handling Rules Notification. http://www.moef.gov.
Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. in/sites/default/files/EWM%20Rules%202016%20
Series B, Biological sciences 370(1661), 1-11. https://doi. english%2023.03.2016.pdf.
org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0162.
Ministry of the Environment of Japan (2010). Further
Madikizela, L.M., Tavengwa, N.T. and Chimuka, L. Actions to Endocrine Disrupting Effects of Chemical
(2017). Status of pharmaceuticals in African water Substances - EXTEND 2010. https://www.env.go.jp/en/
bodies: occurrence, removal and analytical methods. chemi/ed/extend2010_full.pdf.
Journal of Environmental Management 193, 211-220.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2017.02.022.
367
Mishima, T. (2017). Regulations on and management of Norwegian Environment Agency (2013). Forbyr
chemical substances in products. Sei Technical Review PFOA i norske forbrukerprodukter. http://www.
85(5), 5-9. http://global-sei.com/technology/tr/bn85/ miljodirektoratet.no/no/Nyheter/Nyheter/
pdf/85-01.pdf. Old-klif/2013/juni-2013/Forbyr-PFOA-i-norske-
forbrukerprodukter/. Accessed 13 June 2018.
Mmereki, D., Baldwin, A., Hong, L. and Li B. (2016).
The management of hazardous waste in developing Nowack, B., Brouwer, C., Geertsma, R.E., Heugens,
countries. In Management of Hazardous Wastes. Saleh, E.H.W., Ross, B.L., Toufektsian, M.-C., Wijnhoven, S.W.P.
H.E.-D.M. and Rahman, R.A. (eds.). London: Intech. and Aitken, R.J. (2012). Analysis of the occupational,
Chapter 3. 39-51 http://doi.org/10.5772/63055. consumer and environmental exposure to engineered
nanomaterials used in 10 technology sectors.
Montaño, M.D., Lowry, G.V, Von Der Kammer, F., Blue, Nanotoxicology 7(6), 1152-1156. https://doi.org/10.3
J. and Ranville, J.F. (2014). Current status and future 109/17435390.2012.711863.
direction for examining engineered nanoparticles in
natural systems. Environmental Chemistry 11, 351-366. O’Connor, M.P., Zimmerman, J.B., Anastas, P.T. and
https://doi.org/10.1071/EN14037. Plata, D.L. (2016). A strategy for material supply chain
sustainability: enabling a circular economy in the
Monteiro, S.C. and Boxall, A.B.A. (2010). Occurrence electronics industry through green engineering. ACS
and fate of human pharmaceuticals in the environment Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 4(11), 5879-5888.
BT – reviews of environmental contamination and https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b01954.
toxicology. In Reviews of Environmental Contamination
and Toxicology. Whitacre, D.M. (ed.). New York: Springer. Oaks, J.L., Gilbert, M., Virani, M.Z., Watson, R.T.,
53-154. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1157-5_2. Meteyer, C.U., Rideout, B.A., Shivaprasad, H.L., Ahmed,
S., Iqbal Chaudhry, M.J., Arshad, M., Mahmood, S., Ali,
Mostafalou, S. and Abdollahi, M. (2017). Pesticides: A. and Ahmed Khan, A. (2004). Diclofenac residues as
an update of human exposure and toxicity. Archives the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan.
of Toxicology 91(2), 549-599. https://doi.org/10.1007/ Nature 427(6975), 630-633. https://doi.org/10.1038/
s00204-016-1849-x. nature02317.
National Research Council of the National Academies Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment
(2014). Review of the Environmental Protection Agency’s of California (2018). The Proposition 65 List. https://
State-of-the-Science Evaluation of Nonmonotonic Dose- oehha.ca.gov/proposition-65/proposition-65-list.
Response Relationships as they Apply to Endocrine Accessed 12 June 2018.
Disruptors. Washington, D.C.: National Academies
Press. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/18608/review-of- Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
the-environmental-protection-agencys-state-of-the- Development (2013). OECD/UNEP Global PFC Group,
science-evaluation-of-nonmonotonic-dose-response- Synthesis Paper on Per- and Polyfluorinated Chemicals
relationships-as-they-apply-to-endocrine-disruptors. (PFCs). Paris: Environment, Health and Safety,
Environment Directorate. https://www.oecd.org/env/
Neumann, M. and Schliebner, I. (2017). Protecting the ehs/risk-management/PFC_FINAL-Web.pdf.
Sources of our Drinking Water from Mobile Chemicals:
A Revised Proposal for Implementing Criteria and an Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Assessment Procedure to Identify Persistent, Mobile Development (2015). OECD/UNEP Risk Reduction
and Toxic (PMT) and Very Persistent, Very Mobile Approaches for PFASS − A Cross-Country Analysis. https://
(vPvM) Substances Registered Under REACH. 2nd edn. www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/risk-management/
Dessau-Roßlau: German Environment Agency. https:// Risk_Reduction_Approaches%20for%20PFASS.pdf.
medien/1410/publikationen/171027_uba_pos_pmt_ Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
substances_engl_2aufl_bf.pdf. Development (2017a). Resource Compendium of
PRTR Part 4: Summary of Techniques for Releases from
Nevin, R. (2007). Understanding international crime Products. Series on Pollutant Release and Transfer
trends: the legacy of preschool lead exposure. Registers. http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/pu
Environmental Research 104(3), 315-336. https://doi. blicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=env/jm/mono(2017)2/
org/10.1016/j.envres.2007.02.008. ann&doclanguage=en.
Nimpuno, N., McPherson, A. and Sadique, T. (2009). Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Greening Consumer Electronics – Moving Away from Development (2017b). Test no. 318: dispersion stability
Bromine and Chlorine. Göteborg and Spring Brook: of nanomaterials in simulated environmental media.
International Chemical Secretariat and Clean In OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals. https://
Production Action. https://www.cleanproduction. doi.org/10.1787/9789264284142-en.
org/static/ee_images/uploads/resources/Greening_
Consumer_Electronics.pdf.
368
Part II
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Popp, J., Pető, K. and Nagy, J. (2013). Pesticide
Development (2017c). Recommendation of the council productivity and food security. A review. Agronomy
on the safety testing and assessment of manufactured for Sustainable Development 33(1), 243-255. https://
nanomaterials. https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/ doi.org/10.1007/s13593-012-0105-x.
instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0400. Accessed 13 August
2018. Praetorius, A., Gundlach-Graham, A., Goldberg, E.,
Fabienke, W., Navratilova, J., Gondikas, A., Kaegi, R.,
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Günther, D., Hofmann, T. and von der Kammer, F.
Development (2018a). Best Practice Guidance to (2017). Single-particle multi-element fingerprinting
Identify Illegal Trade of Pesticides. https://one.oecd. (spMEF) using inductively-coupled plasma time-of-
org/document/ENV/JM/MONO(2018)35/en/pdf. flight mass spectrometry (ICP-TOFMS) to identify
engineered nanoparticles against the elevated natural
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and background in soils. Environmental Science: Nano 4(2),
Development (2018b). Toward a New Comprehensive 307-314. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6EN00455E.
Global Database of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
(PFASs): Summary Report on Updating the OECD 2007 List Of Premalatha, M., Abbasi, T., Abbasi, S.A. and Abbasi, S.A.
per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs).. http://www. (2014). The generation, impact, and management of
oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocument e-waste: state of the art. Critical Reviews in Environmental
pdf/?cote=ENV-JM-MONO(2018)7&doclanguage=en. Science and Technology 44(14), 1577-1678. https://doi.
org/10.1080/10643389.2013.782171.
Development (2018c). Test no. 412: subacute inhalation Prevedouros, K., Cousins, I.T., Buck, R.C. and
toxicity: 28-day study. In OECD Guidelines for the Testing Korzeniowski, S.H. (2006). Sources, fate and transport
of Chemicals. https://doi.org/10.1787/20745788. of perfluorocarboxylates. Environmental Science &
Technology 40(1), 32-44. https://doi.org/10.1021/
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and es0512475.
Development (2018d). Test no. 413: subchronic
inhalation toxicity: 90-day study. In OECD Public Eye (2017). UN experts fail to deliver assessment
Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals. https://doi. of Bayer and Syngenta compliance with the International
org/10.1787/9789264070806-en. Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management, 27
November. https://www.publiceye.ch/en/news/detail/
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and un-experts-fail-to-deliver-assessment-of-bayer-and-
Development (2018e). OECD guidelines for the testing syngenta-compliance-with-the-international-code-
of chemicals. http://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/ of-conduct-on-pesticide-management. Accessed
testing/oecdguidelinesforthetestingofchemicals.htm. 18 February 2019.
Puckowski, A., Mioduszewska, K., Łukaszewicz,
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and P., Borecka, M., Caban, M., Maszkowska, J. and
Development (2018f). OECD work related to endocrine Stepnowski, P. (2016). Bioaccumulation and analytics of
disrupters. http://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/ pharmaceutical residues in the environment: a review.
testing/oecdworkrelatedtoendocrinedisrupters.htm. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 127,
Accessed 14 August 2018. 232-255. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JPBA.2016.02.049.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Rastogi, T., Leder, C and Kümmerer, K. (2015).
Development (2018g). Revised Guidance Document Re-designing of existing pharmaceuticals for
150 on Standardised Test Guidelines for Evaluating environmental biodegradability: a tiered approach with
Chemicals for Endocrine Disruption. https://doi. β-blocker propranolol as an example. Environmental
org/10.1787/9789264304741-en. Science & Technology 49(19), 11756-11763. http://doi.
org/10.1021/acs.est.5b03051.
Ottinger, M.A. and Dean, K.M. (2011). Neuroendocrine
impacts of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in birds: life Reddy, P.P. (2016). Agro-ecological Pest Management.
stage and species sensitivities. Journal of Toxicology and In Sustainable Intensification of Crop Production.
Environmental Health, Part B 14(5–7), 413-422. https:// Singapore: Springer. Chapter 18. 269-287. https://
doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2011.578560. doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2702-4_18.
Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee Reihlen, A. (2017). Study for the Strategy for a Non-
(2016). Consolidated Guidance on Alternatives to Toxic Environment of the 7th EAP Sub-Study B: Chemicals
Perfluorooctane Sulfonic Acid (PFOS) and its Related in Products and Non-Toxic Material Cycles. Brussels:
Chemicals. https://www.informea.org/sites/default/ European Commission DG Environment. http://
files/imported-documents/UNEP-POPS-POPRC.12- ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/non-toxic/
INF-15-Rev.1.English.pdf. pdf/Sub-study%20b%20articles%20non-toxic%20
material%20cycles%20NTE%20final.pdf.
Pesticide Action Network (2016). PAN International
List of Highly Hazardous Pesticides. http://www.pan-
germany.org/download/PAN_HHP_List_161212_F.pdf.
369
Rengam, S.V., Serrana, M.S., Quijano, I.I., Castillo, Sarwar, M. (2016). Indoor risks of pesticide uses are
D. and Ravindran, D. (2018). Of Rights and Poisons: significantly linked to hazards of the family members.
Accountability of the Agrochemical Industry. Penang: Cogent Medicine. Lee, A. (ed.) 3(1), 1-10. https://doi.or
Pesticide Action Network Asia Pacific. http://files.panap. g/10.1080/2331205X.2016.1155373.
net/resources/Of-Rights-and-Poisons-Accountability-
of-the-Agrochemical-Industry.pdf. Schecter, A., Kincaid, J., Quynh, H.T., Lanceta, J., Tran,
H.T.T., Crandall, R., Shropshire, W. and Birnbaum,
Research and Markets (2018). Global Nanotechnology L.S. (2018). Biomonitoring of metals, polybrominated
Market Outlook 2018-2024. RNCOS E-Services Private diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated biphenyls,
Limited. https://www.researchandmarkets.com/ and persistent pesticides in Vietnamese female
reports/4536705/global-nanotechnology-market- electronic waste recyclers. Journal of Occupational
outlook-2018-2024. and Environmental Medicine 60(2), 191-197. https://
doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000001200.
Rim, K.-T. (2017). Reproductive toxic chemicals at work
and efforts to protect workers’ health: a literature Scheringer, M., Trier, X., Cousins, I.T., de Voogt,
review. Safety and Health at Work 8(2), 143-150. https:// P., Fletcher, T., Wang, Z. and Webster, T.F. (2014).
doi.org/10.1016/J.SHAW.2017.04.003. Helsingør Statement on poly- and perfluorinated alkyl
substances (PFASs). Chemosphere 114, 337-339. https://
Ritscher, A., Wang, Z., Scheringer, M., Boucher, J.M., doi.org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2014.05.044.
Ahrens, L., Berger, U., Bintein, S., Bopp, S.K., Borg, D.,
Buser, A.M., Cousins, I., DeWitt, J., Fletcher, T., Green, Schnur, J. and John, R.M. (2014). Childhood lead
C., Herzke, D., Higgins, C., Huang, J., Hung, H., Knepper, poisoning and the new Centers for Disease Control
T., Lau, C.S., Leinala, E., Lindstrom, A.B., Liu, J., Miller, and Prevention guidelines for lead exposure. Journal
M., Ohno, K., Perkola, N., Shi, Y., Småstuen Haug, L., of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners 26(5),
Trier, X., Valsecchi, S., van der Jagt, K. and Vierke, L. 238-247. https://doi.org/10.1002/2327-6924.12112.
(2018). Zürich Statement on Future Actions on Per-
and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs). Environmental Scholz, N. (2016). Setting Criteria on Endocrine
Health Perspectives, 126(8), 084502 1-5. https://doi. Disruptors: Follow-up to the General Court Judgment.
org/10.1289/EHP4158. Brussels: European Parliamentary Research Service.
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/
Roos, V., Gunnarsson, L., Fick, J., Larsson, D.G.J. and BRIE/2016/581986/EPRS_BRI(2016)581986_EN.pdf.
Rudén, C. (2012). Prioritising pharmaceuticals for
environmental risk assessment: towards adequate Schug, T.T., Johnson, A.F., Birnbaum, L.S., Colborn, T.,
and feasible first-tier selection. Science of the Guillette, L.J., Crews, D.P., Collins, T., Soto, A.M., vom
Total Environment 421-422, 102-110. https://doi. Saal, F.S., McLachlan, J.A., Sonnenschein, C. and Heindel,
org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2012.01.039. J.J. (2016). Minireview: endocrine disruptors: past
lessons and future directions. Molecular Endocrinology
Ross, I., McDonough, J., Miles, J., Storch, P., 30(8), 833-847. https://doi.org/10.1210/me.2016-1096.
Kochunarayanan, P.T., Kalve, E., Hurst, J., Dasgupta,
S. and Burdick, J. (2018). A review of emerging Schulte, P.A., Roth, G., Hodson, L.L., Murashov, V.,
technologies for remediation of PFASs. Remediation Hoover, M.D., Zumwalde, R., Kuempel, E.D., Geraci, C.L.,
Journal 28(2), 101-126. https://doi.org/10.1002/ Stefaniak, A.B., Castranova, V. and Howard, J. (2016).
rem.21553. Taking stock of the occupational safety and health
challenges of nanotechnology: 2000-2015. Journal of
Rother, H.-A. (2016). Pesticide vendors in the informal Nanoparticle Research: An Interdisciplinary Forum for
sector. New Solutions: A Journal of Environmental and Nanoscale Science and Technology 18(159), 1-21. https://
Occupational Health Policy 26(2), 241-252. https://doi. doi.org/10.1007/s11051-016-3459-1.
org/10.1177/1048291116651750.
Schwirn, K. and Völker, D. (2016). Nanomaterials in
Rother, H.-A. (2018). Pesticide labels: protecting liability the Environment – Current State of Knowledge and
or health? – unpacking ‘misuse’ of pesticides. Current Regulations on Chemical Safety: Recommendations of the
Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 4, 10-15. German Environment Agency. Dessau-Roßlau: German
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2018.02.004. Environment Agency https://www.umweltbundesamt.
de/sites/default/files/medien/378/publikationen/
Safer Chemicals, Healthy Families (2017). Who’s nanomaterials_in_the_environment.pdf.
minding the store? – ranking retailers on toxic
chemicals. https://retailerreportcard.com/. Accessed Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified
14 August 2018. Health Risks (2009). SCENIHR Risk Assessment of Products
of Nanotechnologies. Brussels: European Commission.
Santos, L.H.M.L.M., Araújo, A.N., Fachini, A., Pena, A., http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/risk_en.htm.
Delerue-Matos, C. and Montenegro, M.C.B.S.M. (2010).
Ecotoxicological aspects related to the presence of
pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. Journal
of Hazardous Materials 175(1-3), 45-95. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.100.
370
Part II
Scruggs, C.E., Nimpuno, N. and Moore, R.B.B. Segura, P.A., Takada, H., Correa, J.A., El Saadi, K.,
(2016). Improving information flow on chemicals in Koike, T., Onwona-Agyeman, S., Ofosu-Anim, J.,
electronic products and E-waste to minimize negative Sabi, E.B., Wasonga, O. V., Mghalu, J.M., dos Santos,
consequences for health and the environment. A.M., Newman, B., Weerts, S. and Yargeau, V. (2015).
Resources, Conservation and Recycling 113, 149-164. Global occurrence of anti-infectives in contaminated
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RESCONREC.2016.06.009. surface waters: Impact of income inequality between
countries. Environment International 80, 89-97. https://
Scruggs, C.E., Ortolano, L., Schwarzman, M.R. and doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVINT.2015.04.001.
Wilson, M.P. (2014). The role of chemical policy in
improving supply chain knowledge and product safety. Selin, H. and VanDeveer, S.D. (2006). Raising global
Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences 4(2), 132- standards: hazardous substances and e-waste
141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-013-0158-4. management in the European Union. Environment:
Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 48(10),
Secretariat of the Basel Convention and United Nations 6-18. https://doi.org/10.3200/ENVT.48.10.6-18.
Industrial Development Organization (2011). Report of
the International Workshop on Hazardous Substances Senthil-Nathan, S. (2015). A review of biopesticides
within the Life-cycle of Electrical and Electronic Products, and their mode of action against insect pests. In
held in Vienna, from 29 to 31 March 2011. Vienna: Environmental Sustainability. New Delhi: Springer, 49-
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International 63. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2056-5_3.
Chemicals Management. http://www.saicm.org/
Portals/12/Documents/EPI/report%20e-waste%20 Solecki, R., Kortenkamp, A., Bergman, Å., Chahoud, I.,
workshop_vienna.pdf. Degen, G.H., Dietrich, D., Greim, H., Håkansson, H.,
Hass, U., Husoy, T., Jacobs, M., Jobling, S., Mantovani,
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International A., Marx-Stoelting, P., Piersma, A., Ritz, V., Slama,
Chemicals Management (2009a). Background R., Stahlmann, R., van den Berg, M., Zoeller, R.T.
Information in Relation to the Emerging Policy Issue of and Boobis, A.R. (2017). Scientific principles for the
Chemicals in Products. Geneva. http://www.saicm.org/ identification of endocrine-disrupting chemicals: a
Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM2/inf/ICCM2%20 consensus statement. Archives of Toxicology 91(2), 1001-
INF35%20products%20background%20E.pdf. 1006. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1866-9.
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International Song, Q. and Li, J. (2014). A systematic review of the
Chemicals Management (2009b). Emerging Policy Issues. human body burden of e-waste exposure in China.
Geneva. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/ Environment International 68, 82-93. https://doi.
meetings/ICCM2/doc/ICCM2%2010%20emerging%20 org/10.1016/J.ENVINT.2014.03.018.
issues%20E.pdf.
Song, Q. and Li, J. (2015). A review on human health
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International consequences of metals exposure to e-waste in China.
Chemicals Management (2015a). Proposal on Highly Environmental Pollution 196, 450-461. https://doi.
Hazardous Pesticides. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/ org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.11.004.
documents/meetings/ICCM4/doc/K1502177%20
SAICM-ICCM4-8-e.pdf. Song, R., Qin, Y., Suh, S. and Keller, A.A. (2017). Dynamic
model for the stocks and release flows of engineered
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International nanomaterials. Environmental Science & Technology
Chemicals Management (2015b). Report of the 51(21), 12424-12433. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.
International Conference on Chemicals Management est.7b01907.
on the Work of its Fourth Session. http://www.unitar.
org/cwm/sites/unitar.org.cwm/files/uploads/iccm4_ State Council of China (2016). Circular of the state
adopted_resolution_on_nano.pdf. council on printing and distributing the “thirteenth
five-year” ecological environmental protection plan.
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2016-12/05/
and Chemicals Management (2015c). Nomination for content_5143290.htm. Accessed 22 February 2018.
New Emerging Policy Issue: Environmentally Persistent
Pharmaceutical Pollutants. http://www.saicm.org/ State of Minnesota (United States) (2018). State of
Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM4/doc/ Minnesota, by its Attorney General, Lori Swanson, its
K1502367%20SAICM-ICCM4-7-e.pdf. Commissioner of Pollution Control, John Linc Stine, and
its Commissioner of Natural Resources, Tom Landwehr
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International vs 3M Company. Hennepin County, MN. https://www.
Chemicals Management (2018). Independent Evaluation pca.state.mn.us/sites/default/files/c-pfc2-11f.pdf.
of the Strategic Approach Draft Report. http://www.
saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/IP2/ Stegon, D. (2017). DuPont, Chemours settle PFOA
IP_2_4_Independent_Evaluation.pdf. lawsuit for $670m, 16 February. Chemical Watch.
https://chemicalwatch.com/53632/dupont-chemours-
settle-pfoa-lawsuit-for-670m. Accessed 12 June 2018.
371
Stockholm County Council (2014). Environmentally United Nations Environment Programme (2015).
Classified Pharmaceuticals 2014-2015. https://noharm- The Chemicals in Products Programme: Guidance for
uscanada.org/documents/environmentally-classified- Stakeholders on Exchanging Chemicals in Products
pharmaceuticals-2014-2015. Information. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/
Documents/EPI/Guidance%20for%20Stakeholder%20
Stringer, L. (2018). Industry representatives start in%20Exchanging%20CiP%20Information_
talks on cross-sector material declarations, 15 March. October2015.pdf.
Chemical Watch. https://chemicalwatch.com/64946/
industry-representatives-start-talks-on-cross-sector- United Nations Environment Programme (2017a).
material-declarations. Accessed 12 June 2018. Update on the Global Status of Legal Limits on Lead
in Paint: September 2017. https://wedocs.unep.
Sun, M., Arevalo, E., Strynar, M., Lindstrom, A., org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/22001/
Richardson, M., Kearns, B., Pickett, A., Smith, C. Glbbal%20Update%20Final%20Version%2011_Oct.
and Knappe, D.R.U. (2016). Legacy and emerging pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
perfluoroalkyl substances are important drinking
water contaminants in the Cape Fear River Watershed United Nations Environment Programme (2017b).
of North Carolina. Environmental Science & Technology Overview Report III: Existing National, Regional, and
Letters 3(12), 415-419. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs. Global Regulatory Frameworks Addressing Endocrine
estlett.6b00398. Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs). https://wedocs.unep.org/
bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25636/edc_report3.
Sun, T.Y., Mitrano, D.M., Bornhöft, N.A., Scheringer, M., pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Hungerbühler, K. and Nowack, B. (2017). Envisioning
nano release dynamics in a changing world: using United Nations Environment Programme (2017c).
dynamic probabilistic modeling to assess future Overview Report I: Worldwide Initiatives to Identify
environmental emissions of engineered nanomaterials. Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) and Potential
Environmental Science & Technology 51(5), 2854-2863. EDCs The International Panel on Chemical Pollution
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b05702. (IPCP). https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/
handle/20.500.11822/25633/EDC_report1.
Swedish Chemicals Agency (2015). Action plan for a pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
toxic-free everyday environment 2015-2020. https://
www.kemi.se/en/about-us/our-task/government- United Nations Environment Programme and
assignments/action-plan-for-a-toxic-free-everyday- International POPs Elimination Network (2013). Lead
environment. Accessed 11 June 2018. in Enamel Decorative Paints: National Paint Testing
Results - A Nine Country Study. Geneva: United Nations
Thompson, L.A., Darwish, W.S., Ikenaka, Y., Nakayama, Environment Programme. http://www.ipen.org/sites/
S.M.M., Mizukawa, H. and Ishizuka, M. (2017). default/files/documents/lead_in_enamel_decorative_
Organochlorine pesticide contamination of foods in paints-en.pdf.
Africa: incidence and public health significance. Journal
of Veterinary Medical Science 79(4), 751-764. https:// United Nations Environment Programme and
doi.org/10.1292/jvms.16-0214. World Health Organization (2012). Global Alliance to
Eliminate Lead Paint: Business Plan. http://www.who.
Tollefsen, K.E., Scholz, S., Cronin, M.T., Edwards, S.W., int/ipcs/assessment/public_health/business_plan_
de Knecht, J., Crofton, K., Garcia-Reyero, N., Hartung, en.pdf?ua=1.
T., Worth, A. and Patlewicz, G. (2014). Applying Adverse
Outcome Pathways (AOPs) to support Integrated United Nations Human Rights Council (2017).
Approaches to Testing and Assessment (IATA). Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food.
Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 70(3), 629- https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/
640. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.YRTPH.2014.09.009. G17/017/85/PDF/G1701785.pdf?OpenElement.
Tsydenova, O. and Bengtsson, M. (2011). Chemical United Nations Industrial Development Organization
hazards associated with treatment of waste electrical (2015). Emerging Policy Issue Update on Hazardous
and electronic equipment. Waste Management 31(1), Substances within the Life Cycle of Electrical and Electronic
45-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WASMAN.2010.08.014. Products. Geneva: Secretariat of the Strategic Approach
to International Chemicals Management. http://www.
Turner, A., Kearl, E.R. and Solman, K.R. (2016). Lead and saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM4/
other toxic metals in playground paints from South inf/ICCM4_INF18_EPI%20HSLEEP.pdf.
West England. Science of the Total Environment 544, 460-
466. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2015.11.078. United States Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (2010). Notice to readers: examining the
United Nations Environment Programme (2011). A effect of previously missing blood lead surveillance
Synthesis of Findings Under the UNEP/IOMC Project on data on results reported in MMWR. MMWR Weekly
Information on Chemicals in Products. https://www. Report 59 (19), 592. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/
saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM3/ preview/mmwrhtml/mm5919a4.htm.
inf/ICCM3_INF20_CiP%20Project%20synthesis%20
report.pdf.
372
Part II
United States Centers for Disease Control and United States Food and Drug Administration (2017).
Prevention (2016). CDC investigation: blood lead levels Cosmetics & U.S. Law. Center for Food Safety and
higher after switch to Flint River water: stark reminder Applied Nutrition. https://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/
of dangers of lead exposure for young children, 25 GuidanceRegulation/LawsRegulations/ucm2005209.
June. https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2016/ htm. Accessed 17 November 2017.
p0624-water-lead.html. Accessed 18 February 2019.
United States National Toxicology Program (2012).
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2008). NTP Monograph on Health Effects of Low-Level Lead.
TSCA Inventory Status of Nanoscale Substances - General https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/ohat/lead/final/
Approach 2008. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/ monographhealtheffectslowlevellead_newissn_508.
files/2015-10/documents/nmsp-inventorypaper2008. pdf.
pdf.
van Rossem, C., Tojo, N. and Lindhqvist, T. (2006).
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2013). Extended Producer Responsibility an Examination
EPA’s State of the Science Evaluation: Nonmonotonic of its Impact on Innovation and Greening Products.
Dose Responses as They Apply to Estrogen, Androgen, Brussels and Amsterdam: European Environmental
and Thyroid Pathways and EPA Testing and Assessment Bureau, Friends of the Earth Europe and Greenpeace
Procedures (Draft). https://www.epa.gov/sites/ International. https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/lup/
production/files/2016-01/documents/nmdr.pdf. publication/7c4e1114-ce30-43b1-9aa6-aba51ba28940.
United States Environmental Protection Agency Vance, M.E., Kuiken, T., Vejerano, E.P., McGinnis, S.P.,
(2017a). Control of nanoscale materials under the Hochella, M.F., Rejeski, D., Hull, M.S. and Hull, M.S.
toxic substances control act, 30 November. https:// (2015). Nanotechnology in the real world: redeveloping
www.epa.gov/reviewing-new-chemicals-under- the nanomaterial consumer products inventory.
toxic-substances-control-act-tsca/control-nanoscale- Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology 6, 1769-1780.
materials-under. Accessed 14 August 2018. https://doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.6.181.
United States Environmental Protection Agency Vandenberg, L.N., Colborn, T., Hayes, T.B., Heindel,
(2017b). Endocrine disruptor screening program (EDSP) J.J., Jacobs, D.R., Lee, D.-H., Shioda, T., Soto, A.M., vom
universe of chemicals, 22 February. https://www. Saal, F.S., Welshons, W.V., Zoeller, R.T. and Myers,
epa.gov/endocrine-disruption/endocrine-disruptor- J.P. (2012). Hormones and endocrine-disrupting
screening-program-edsp-universe-chemicals. chemicals: low-dose effects and nonmonotonic dose
Accessed 8 November 2018. responses. Endocrine Reviews 33(3), 378-455. https://
doi.org/10.1210/er.2011-1050.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
(2017c). Endocrine disruptor screening program (EDSP) Verlicchi, P., Galletti, A. and Masotti, L. (2010).
policies and procedures, 22 February. https://www. Management of hospital wastewaters: the case of
epa.gov/endocrine-disruption/endocrine-disruptor- the effluent of a large hospital situated in a small town.
screening-program-edsp-policies-and-procedures. Water Science & Technology 61(10), 2507. https://doi.
Accessed 14 November 2018. org/10.2166/wst.2010.138.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2017d). Verlicchi, P., Galletti, A., Petrovic, M. and Barceló, D.
Use of high throughput assays and computational tools (2010). Hospital effluents as a source of emerging
in the endocrine disruptor screening program, 22 pollutants: an overview of micropollutants and
February. https://www.epa.gov/endocrine-disruption/ sustainable treatment options. Journal of Hydrology
use-high-throughput-assays-and-computational-tools- 389(3-4), 416-428. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
endocrine-disruptor. Accessed 14 August 2018. JHYDROL.2010.06.005.
United States Environmental Protection Agency Verstraeten, S.V., Aimo, L. and Oteiza, P.I. (2008).
(2018). Risk management for per- and polyfluoroalkyl Aluminium and lead: molecular mechanisms of brain
substances (PFASs) under TSCA: PFOA stewardship toxicity. Archives of Toxicology 82(11), 789-802. https://
program. https://www.epa.gov/assessing-and- doi.org/10.1007/s00204-008-0345-3.
managing-chemicals-under-tsca/risk-management-
and-polyfluoroalkyl-substances-pfass#tab-3. Accessed Vinson, F., Merhi, M., Baldi, I., Raynal, H. and
11 June 2018. Gamet-Payrastre, L. (2011). Exposure to pesticides
and risk of childhood cancer: a meta-analysis of
United States Food and Drug Administration (1998). recent epidemiological studies. Occupational and
Guidance for Industry Environmental Assessment of Human Environmental Medicine 68(9), 694-702. https://doi.
Drug and Biologics Applications. http://www.fda.gov/ org/10.1136/oemed-2011-100082.
cder/guidance/index.htm.http://www.fda.gov/cber/
guidelines.htm.Copiesalsomaybeobtainedbyfaxfrom1- Wang, D., Cai, Z., Jiang, G., Leung, A. and Wong, W.K.
8 8 8 - C B E R F A X o r 3 0 1 - 8 2 7 - (2005). Determination of polybrominated diphenyl
3844orfromVoiceInformationat800-835- ethers in soil and sediment from an electronic waste
4709or301-827-1800. recycling facility. Chemosphere 60(6), 810-816. https://
doi.org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2005.04.025.
373
Wang, Z., Boucher, J.M., Scheringer, M., Cousins, World Health Organization (2014).
I.T. and Hungerbühler, K. (2017a). Toward a Antimicrobial Resistance: Global Report on
comprehensive global emission inventory of C4–C10 Surveillance. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/
perfluoroalkanesulfonic acids (PFSAs) and related handle/10665/112642/9789241564748_eng.
precursors: focus on the life cycle of C8-based products pdf?sequence=1.
and ongoing industrial transition. Environmental Science
& Technology 51(8), 4482-4493. https://doi.org/10.1021/ World Health Organization (2015). Global Action Plan
acs.est.6b06191. on Antimicrobial Resistance. https://apps.who.int/iris/
bitstream/handle/10665/193736/9789241509763_eng.
Wang, Z., Cousins, I.T., Berger, U., Hungerbühler, K. pdf?sequence=1.
and Scheringer, M. (2016). Comparative assessment
of the environmental hazards of and exposure to World Health Organization (2016). The Public Health
perfluoroalkyl phosphonic and phosphinic acids (PFPAs Impact of Chemicals: Knowns and Unknowns. http://
and PFPiAs): current knowledge, gaps, challenges and apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/206553/
research needs. Environment International 89-90, 235- WHO_FWC_PHE_EPE_16.01_eng.pdf?sequence=1.
247. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVINT.2016.01.023.
World Health Organization (2017a). Global health
Wang, Z., Cousins, I.T., Scheringer, M. and observatory (GHO) data: Countries and territories with
Hungerbuehler, K. (2015). Hazard assessment of legally-binding controls on lead paint. http://www.who.
fluorinated alternatives to long-chain perfluoroalkyl int/gho/phe/chemical_safety/lead_paint_regulations/
acids (PFAAs) and their precursors: status quo, ongoing en/. Accessed 11 June 2018.
challenges and possible solutions. Environment
International 75, 172-179. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. World Health Organization (2017b). WHO Guidelines
ENVINT.2014.11.013. on use of Medically Important Antimicrobials in Food-
Producing Animals. https://www.who.int/foodsafety/
Wang, Z., Cousins, I.T., Scheringer, M., Buck, R.C. and areas_work/antimicrobial-resistance/cia_guidelines/
Hungerbühler, K. (2014). Global emission inventories en/.
for C4–C14 perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid (PFCA)
homologues from 1951 to 2030, Part I: production World Health Organization (2017c). Nanotechnologies:
and emissions from quantifiable sources. Environment WHO guidelines on nanomaterials and workers’ health.
International 70, 62-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. http://www.who.int/occupational_health/topics/
ENVINT.2014.04.013. nanotechnologies/en/. Accessed 5 December 2017.
Wang, Z., DeWitt, J.C., Higgins, C.P. and Cousins, World Health Organization (2017d). WHO Guidelines
I.T. (2017b). A never-ending story of per- and on Protecting Workers from Potential of Manufactured
polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)? Environmental Nanomaterials. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/hand
Science & Technology 51(5), 2508-2518. https://doi. le/10665/259671/9789241550048-eng.pdf;jsessionid=
org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04806. 2FD1722707BDE8E98B9B1D9F345DE46E?sequence=1.
Weiss, F.T., Leuzinger, M., Zurbrügg, C. and Eggen, World Health Organization (2018a). Global health
R.I.L. (2016). Chemical Pollution in Low- and Middle- observatory (GHO) data: legislation - regulations and
Income Countries. Dübendorf: Swiss Federal Institute controls on lead paint. http://www.who.int/gho/phe/
of Aquatic Science and Technology. https://www. chemical_safety/lead_paint_regulations/en/. Accessed
eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/ 6 January 2019.
publikationen/Chemical_Pollution/Lamics-WEB.pdf.
World Health Organization (2018b). Global Report on
Williams, M., Backhaus, T., Bowe, C., Choi, K., Connors, Insecticide Resistance in Malaria Vectors: 2010-2016 -
K., Hickmann, S., Hunter, W., Kookana, R., Marfil-Vega, Global Malaria Programme. http://apps.who.int/iris/
R. and Verslycke, T. (2016). Pharmaceuticals in the bitstream/handle/10665/272533/9789241514057-eng.
environment: an introduction to the ET&C special pdf?ua=1.
issue. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 35(4),
763-766. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.3394. World Health Organization (2018c). World Health
Statistics 2018: Monitoring Health for the SDGs,
World Health Organization (2002). Global Assessment Sustainable Development Goals. http://apps.who.int/
of the State-of-the-Science of Endocrine Disruptors. iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272596/9789241565585-
Damstra, T., Barlow, S., Bergman, A., Kavlock, R., Van, eng.pdf?ua=1.
G. and Kraak, D. (eds.). http://www.who.int/ipcs/
publications/en/toc.pdf. World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (2016). Manual on
World Health Organization (2010a). Childhood Lead Development and Use of FAO and WHO Specifications
Poisoning. http://www.who.int/ceh/publications/ for Pesticides – Third Revision. 1st edn. http://www.
leadguidance.pdf. fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/documents/
Pests_Pesticides/Specs/JMPS_Manual_2016/3rd_
World Health Organization (2010b). Exposure to Lead: A Amendment_JMPS_Manual.pdf.
Major Public Health Concern. http://www.who.int/ipcs/
features/lead..pdf?ua=1.
374
Part II
World Health Organization and United Nations

Environment Programme (2009). Background Chapter 5
Information in Relation to the Emerging Policy Issue of
Lead in Paint. Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to Acquavella, J., Garabrant, D., Marsh, G., Sorahan, T. and
International Chemicals Management. http://www. Weed, D.L. (2016). Glyphosate epidemiology expert
saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM2/ panel review: a weight of evidence systematic review
inf/ICCM2%20INF38%20lead%20in%20paint%20 of the relationship between glyphosate exposure and
background.pdf. non-hodgkin’s lymphoma or multiple myeloma. Critical
Reviews in Toxicology 46(sup1), 28-43. https://doi.org/
World Health Organization and United Nations 10.1080/10408444.2016.1214681.
Environment Programme (2012). Progress Report
on the Implementation of Resolution II/4 B on Lead in Albert, O. and Jégou, B. (2014). A critical assessment
Paint. Nairobi: Secretariat of the Strategic Approach of the endocrine susceptibility of the human testis
to International Chemicals Management. http://www. to phthalates from fetal life to adulthood. Human
saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM3/ Reproduction Update 20(2), 231-249. https://doi.
doc/SAICM_ICCM3_14_EN.pdf. org/10.1093/humupd/dmt050.
Xiao, X., Ulrich, B.A., Chen, B. and Higgins, C.P. (2017). Andersen, J.H., Asplund, L., Berger, U., Bignert, A.,
Sorption of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances Boalt, E., Broeg, K., Brzozowska, A., Cato, I., Durkin,
(PFASs) relevant to aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF)- M., Garnaga, G., Gustavson, K., Haarich, M., Hedlund,
impacted groundwater by biochars and activated B., Köngäs, P., Lang, T., Larsen, M.M., Lehtonen, K.,
carbon. Environmental Science & Technology 51(11), Mannio, J., Mehtonen, J., Murray, C., Nielsen, Sven
6342-6351. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b00970. Nyström, B., Pazdro, K., Ringeltaube, P., Schiedek, D.,
Schneider, R., Stankiewicz, M., Strand, J., Sundelin, B.,
Xu, X., Liao, W., Lin, Y., Dai, Y., Shi, Z. and Huo, X. (2017). Söderström, M., Vallius, H., Vanninen, P., Verta, M.,
Blood concentrations of lead, cadmium, mercury and Vieno, N., Vuorinen Pekka J. and Zahharov, A. (2010).
their association with biomarkers of DNA oxidative Hazardous Substances in the Baltic Sea: An Integrated
damage in preschool children living in an e-waste Thematic Assessment of Hazardous Substances in the
recycling area. Environmental Geochemistry and Health Baltic Sea. Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No.
1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-017-9997-3. 120B. Korpinen, S. and Laamanen, M. (eds.). Helsinki:
Helsinki Commission. http://www.helcom.fi/lists/
Yadav, I.C., Devi, N.L., Syed, J.H., Cheng, Z., Li, J., Zhang, publications/bsep120b.pdf.
G and Jones, K.C. (2015). Current status of persistent
organic pesticides residues in air, water, and soil, Aranami, K. and Readman, J.W. (2007). Photolytic
and their possible effect on neighboring countries: degradation of triclosan in freshwater and seawater.
A comprehensive review of India. Science of the Total Chemosphere 66(6), 1052-1056. https://doi.
Environment 511, 123-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2006.07.010.
scitotenv.2014.12.041.
Beaman, J., Benson, R., Cook, A.-M., Gallagher, K.,
Yu, G., Bu, Q., Cao, Z., Du, X., Xia, J., Wu, M. and Huang, Ho, K., Hoff, D. and Laessig, S. (2016). State of the
J. (2016). Brominated flame retardants (BFRs): a Science White Paper: A Summary of Literature on the
review on environmental contamination in China. Chemical Toxicity of Plastics Pollution to Aquatic Life and
Chemosphere 150, 479-490. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. Aquatic-Dependent Wildlife. Washington, D.C.: United
CHEMOSPHERE.2015.12.034. States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.
epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-12/documents/
Zheng, J., Yu, L.-H., Chen, S.-J., Hu, G.-C., Chen, K.-H., plastics-aquatic-life-report.pdf.
Yan, X., Luo, X.-J., Zhang, S., Yu, Y.-J., Yang, Z.-Y. and
Mai, B.-X. (2016). Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in Benbrook, C.M. (2016). Trends in glyphosate herbicide
human hair and serum from e-waste recycling workers use in the United States and globally. Environmental
in southern China: concentrations, chiral signatures, Sciences Europe 28(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/
correlations, and source identification. Environmental s12302-016-0070-0.
org/10.1021/acs.est.5b04955. Biedermann, S., Tschudin, P. and Grob, K. (2010).
Transfer of bisphenol A from thermal printer paper to
Zheng, X., Sun, R., Qiao, L., Guo, H., Zheng, J. and the skin. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 398(1),
Mai, B. (2017). Flame retardants on the surface of 571-576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-010-3936-9.
phones and personal computers. Science of the Total
Environment 609, 541-545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Biedermann-Brem, S., Biedermann, M., Pfenninger, S.,
scitotenv.2017.07.202. Bauer, M., Altkofer, W., Rieger, K., Hauri, U., Droz, C.
and Grob, K. (2008). European Union risk assessment
report on Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), 2008.
Chromatographia 68(3-4), 227-234. https://doi.
org/10.1365/s10337-008-0672-9.
375
Boucher, J. and Friot, D. (2017). Primary Microplastics in Den Hond, E., Govarts, E., Willems, H., Smolders,
the Oceans: Global Evaluation of Sources. Lundin, C. G. R., Casteleyn, L., Kolossa-Gehring, M., Schwedler,
and Sousa, J. M. de (eds). Gland: International Union G., Seiwert, M., Fiddicke, U., Castaño, A., Esteban,
for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. M., Angerer, J., Koch, H.M., Schindler, B.K., Sepai,
https://doi.org/10.2305/iucn.ch.2017.01.en. O., Exley, K., Bloemen, L., Horvat, M., Knudsen,
L.E., Joas, A., Joas, R., Biot, P., Aerts, D., Koppen,
Bouwman, H. (2012). GEF Guidance on Emerging G., Katsonouri, A., Hadjipanayis, A., Krskova, A., Maly,
Chemicals Management Issues in Developing Countries M., Mørck, T.A., Rudnai, P., Kozepesy, S., Mulcahy,
and Countries with Economies in Transition. Washington, M., Mannion, R., Gutleb, A.C., Fischer, M.E., Ligocka,
D.C.: Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel. https:// D., Jakubowski, M., Reis, M.F., Namorado, S., Gurzau,
www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/publications/GEF_ A.E., Lupsa, I.R., Halzlova, K., Jajcaj, M., Mazej,
Guidance_on_Emerging_Chemicals-Full-Report_0.pdf. D., Tratnik, J.S., López, A., Lopez, E., Berglund,
M., Larsson, K., Lehmann, A., Crettaz, P. and Schoeters,
Brande-Lavridsen, N. (n.d.). Microplastics in the G. (2015). First steps toward harmonized human
Freshwater Environment. Knoxville, TN: University of biomonitoring in Europe: demonstration project to
Tennessee. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/ perform human biomonitoring on a European scale.
files/2017-01/documents/microplastics-in-freshwater- Environmental Health Perspectives 123(3), 255-263.
environment.pdf. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408616.
Carlisle, J., Chan, D., Golub, M., Henkel, S., Painter, P. Deng, T., Wu, L., Gao, J.-M., Zhou, B., Zhang, Y.-L., Wu,
and Wu, K.L. (2009). Toxicological Profile for Bisphenol A. W.-N., Tang, Z.-H., Jiang, W.-C. and Huang, W.-L. (2018).
Sacramento, CA: California Environmental Protection Occurrence and health risk assessment of organotins
Agency. http://www.opc.ca.gov/webmaster/ftp/ in waterworks and the source water of the Three
project_pages/MarineDebris_OEHHA_ToxProfiles/ Gorges Reservoir Region, China. Environmental Science
Bisphenol%20A%20Final.pdf. and Pollution Research 25(15), 15019-15028. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-1704-0.
Chang, E.T. and Delzell, E. (2016). Systematic review
and meta-analysis of glyphosate exposure and risk of Dhillon, G.S., Kaur, S., Pulicharla, R., Brar, S.K., Cledón,
lymphohematopoietic cancers. Journal of Environmental M., Verma, M. and Surampalli, R.Y. (2015). Triclosan:
Science and Health, Part B 51(6), 402-434. https://doi. current status, occurrence, environmental risks and
org/10.1080/03601234.2016.1142748. bioaccumulation potential. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health 12(5), 5657-
Cimino, A.M., Boyles, A.L., Thayer, K.A. and Perry, M.J. 5684. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120505657.
(2017). Effects of neonicotinoid pesticide exposure
on human health: A systematic review. Environmental Duchet, C., Kraft, A. and Stark, J.D. (2018). Effects
Health Perspectives 125(2), 155-162. http://dx.doi. of environmentally realistic concentrations
org/10.1289/EHP515. of neonicotinoid insecticides on an aquatic
invertebrate community. Seattle, WA: Salish Sea
Cole, R.F., Mills, G.A., Parker, R., Bolam, T., Birchenough, Ecosystem Conference. Western Washington
A., Kröger, S. and Fones, G.R. (2015). Trends in University. https://cedar.wwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
the analysis and monitoring of organotins in the cgi?article=2833&context=ssec.
aquatic environment. Trends in Environmental
Analytical Chemistry 8, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Ejaredar, M., Lee, Y., Roberts, D.J., Sauve, R. and
teac.2015.05.001. Dewey, D. (2017). Bisphenol a exposure and children’s
behavior: a systematic review. Journal of Exposure
Conrad, A., Schröter-Kermani, C., Hoppe, H.-W., Science & Environmental Epidemiology 27(2), 175-183.
Rüther, M., Pieper, S. and Kolossa-Gehring, M. (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2016.8.
Glyphosate in german adults – time trend (2001 to
2015) of human exposure to a widely used herbicide. Ena, L., Lim, J.S., Son, J.Y., Park, Y.J., Lee, Y.H., Kim, J.Y.,
International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Kwack, S.J., Lee, B.M., Ahn, M.-Y. and Kim, H.S. (2018).
Health 220(1), 8-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Evaluation of subchronic exposure to triclosan on
ijheh.2016.09.016. hepatorenal and reproductive toxicities in prepubertal
male rats. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental
Crampton, L. (2017). Microplastics in the environment Health, Part A 81(11), 421-431. https://doi.org/10.108
and in the human body, 12 September. https:// 0/15287394.2018.1451188.
owlcation.com/stem/Microplastics-in-the-Human-
Body-and-Potential-Health-Effects. Accessed 14 June Environment and Climate Change Canada (2015).
2018. Microbeads – a science summary, 30 July. https://www.
ec.gc.ca/ese-ees/default.asp?lang=En&n=ADDA4C5F-
de Miranda, J.R. and Nazzi, F. (2017). Multiple stressors, 1#s02. Accessed 20 February 2019.
neonicotinoid insecticides and bee declines. Science
356(6345), Letters. https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/15318/1/
de_miranda_et_al_180507.pdf.
376
Part II
Essel, R., Engel, L., Carus, M. and Heinrich Ahrens, GBD 2015 Risk Factors Collaborators(2016). Global,
R. (2015). Sources of Microplastics Relevant to Marine regional, and national comparative risk assessment
Protection in Germany. Werner, S. (ed.). Dessau- of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational,
Roßlau: German Environment Agency. https:// and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990–2015: a
www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/ systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease
medien/378/publikationen/texte_64_2015_sources_ Study 2015. The Lancet 388(10053), 1659-1724. https://
of_microplastics_relevant_to_marine_protection_1.pdf. doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31679-8.
European Chemicals Agency (2017). Glyphosate not Geiss, O., Bianchi, I., Senaldi, C., Lucena, A., Tirendi, S.
classified as a carcinogen by ECHA, 15 March. https:// and Barrero-Moreno, J. (2017). Skin surface film liquid
echa.europa.eu/de/-/glyphosate-not-classified-as-a- as new migration medium for the determination of
carcinogen-by-echa. Accessed 13 June 2018. PAHs released from rubber containing consumer
goods. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds 1-10. https://
European Chemicals Bureau (2008). European Union Risk doi.org/10.1080/10406638.2018.1458742.
Assessment Report on Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP),
2008. https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/ German Environment Agency (2016). Polycyclic
e614617d-58e7-42d9-b7fb-d7bab8f26feb. Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Harmful to the Environment!
Toxic! Inevitable? Brandt, M. and Einhenkel-Arle, D.
European Food Safety Authority (2015). Glyphosate: (eds). https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/
EFSA Explains Risk Assessment. https://doi. default/files/medien/376/publikationen/polycyclic_
org/10.2805/654221. aromatic_hydrocarbons_web.pdf.
Feng, Y., Zhang, P., Zhang, Z., Shi, J., Jiao, Z. and Shao, Gillezeau, C., van Gerwen, M., Shaffer, R.M., Rana,
B. (2016). Endocrine disrupting effects of triclosan on I., Zhang, L., Sheppard, L. and Taioli, E. (2019). The
the placenta in pregnant rats. PLoS ONE 11(5), 1-14. evidence of human exposure to glyphosate: a review.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154758. Environmental Health 18(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/
s12940-018-0435-5.
Nations and World Health Organization (2016). Joint Goldsmith, M.-R., Grulke, C.M., Brooks, R.D., Transue,
FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues: Summary T.R., Tan, Y.M., Frame, A., Egeghy, P.P., Edwards, R.,
Report. http://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/ Chang, D.T., Tornero-Velez, R., Isaacs, K., Wang, A.,
chemical-risks/jmpr/en/. Johnson, J., Holm, K., Reich, M., Mitchell, J., Vallero,
D.A., Phillips, L., Phillips, M., Wambaugh, J.F., Judson,
Frederiksen, H., Nielsen, J.K.S., Mørck, T.A., Hansen, R.S., Buckley, T.J. and Dary, C.C. (2014). Development
P.W., Jensen, J.F., Nielsen, O., Andersson, A.-M. and of a consumer product ingredient database for
Knudsen, L.E. (2013). Urinary excretion of phthalate chemical exposure screening and prioritization.
metabolites, phenols and parabens in rural and urban Food and Chemical Toxicology 65, 269-279. https://
Danish mother–child pairs. International Journal of doi.org/10.1016/J.FCT.2013.12.029.
Hygiene and Environmental Health 216(6), 772-783.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHEH.2013.02.006. Halden, R.U., Lindeman, A.E., Aiello, A.E., Andrews,
D., Arnold, W.A., Fair, P., Egeghy, P.P., Edwards, R.,
Friege, H., Zeschmar-Lahl, B. and Borgmann, A. (2018). Chang, D.T., Tornero-Velez, R., Isaacs, K., Wang, A.,
Managing cd containing waste—caught by the past, Johnson, J., Holm, K., Reich, M., Mitchell, J., Vallero,
the circular economy needs new answers. Recycling D.A., Phillips, L., Phillips, M., Wambaugh, J.F., Judson,
3(2), 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling3020018. R.S., Buckley, T.J. and Dary, C.C. (2017). The florence
statement on triclosan and triclocarban. Environmental
Gallego, S.M., Pena, L.B., Barcia, R.A., Azpilicueta, C.E., Health Perspectives 125(6), 064501 1-13. https://doi.
Iannone, M.F., Rosales, E.P., Zawoznik, M.S., Groppa, org/10.1289/EHP1788.
M.D. and Benavides, M.P. (2012). Unravelling cadmium
toxicity and tolerance in plants: insight into regulatory Hartmann, C., Uhl, M., Weiss, S., Scharf, S. and König,
mechanisms. Environmental and Experimental J. (2018). Austrian reference values for phthalate
Botany 83, 33-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. metabolite exposure in children/adolescents
ENVEXPBOT.2012.04.006. and adults. International Journal of Hygiene and
Environmental Health 221(6), 985-989. https://doi.
Gallo, F., Fossi, C., Weber, R., Santillo, D., Sousa, J., org/10.1016/J.IJHEH.2018.06.001.
Ingram, I., Nadal, A. and Romano, D. (2018). Marine
litter plastics and microplastics and their toxic Health Canada (2017a). Re-evaluation decision
chemicals components: the need for urgent preventive RVD2017-01, glyphosate, 28 April. https://www.
measures. Environmental sciences Europe 30(1), 13. canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/consumer-
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-018-0139-z. product-safety/reports-publications/pesticides-
pest-management/decisions-updates/registration-
decision/2017/glyphosate-rvd-2017-01.html. Accessed
20 February 2019.
377
Health Canada (2017b). Update on the neonicotinoid International Lead and Zinc Study Group (2018). Lead
pesticides, 19 December. https://www.canada.ca/en/ and zinc statistics. http://www.ilzsg.org/static/statistics.
health-canada/services/consumer-product-safety/ aspx. Accessed 22 May 2018.
reports-publications/pesticides-pest-management/
fact-sheets-other-resources/update-neonicotinoid- Jeschke, P., Nauen, R., Schindler, M. and Elbert, A.
pesticides.html. Accessed 20 February 2019. (2011). Overview of the Status and Global Strategy
for Neonicotinoids. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Health Canada (2019). Statement from Health Canada Chemistry 59(7), 2897-2908. https://doi.org/10.1021/
on glyphosate, 1 November. https://www.canada.ca/ jf101303g.
en/health-canada/news/2019/01/statement-from-
health-canada-on-glyphosate.html. Accessed 31 March Koch, H.M., Kolossa-Gehring, M., Schröter-Kermani,
2019. C. and Angerer, J. (2012). Bisphenol A in 24 h urine
and plasma samples of the German Environmental
Hopf, N.B., Berthet, A., Vernez, D., Langard, E., Specimen Bank from 1995 to 2009: a retrospective
Spring, P. and Gaudin, R. (2014). Skin permeation exposure evaluation. Journal of Exposure Science and
and metabolism of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate Environmental Epidemiology 22, 610-616. https://doi.
(DEHP). Toxicology Letters 224(1), 47-53. https://doi. org/10.1038/jes.2012.39.
org/10.1016/J.TOXLET.2013.10.004.
Korfali, S.I., Sabra, R., Jurdi, M. and Taleb, R.I. (2013).
Huang, R., Liu, Z., Yuan, S., Yin, H., Dang, Z. and Wu, P. Assessment of toxic metals and phthalates in children’s
(2017). Worldwide human daily intakes of bisphenol toys and clays. Archives of Environmental Contamination
A (BPA) estimated from global urinary concentration and Toxicology 65(3), 368-381. https://doi.org/10.1007/
data (2000–2016) and its risk analysis. Environmental s00244-013-9925-1.
Pollution 230, 143-152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envpol.2017.06.026. Kumar, A. and Pastore, P. (2007). Lead and cadmium
in soft plastic toys. Current Science 93(6), 818-822.
Huang, X., Wu, C., Xiong, X., Zhang, K. and Liu, J. https://www.calepa.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/
(2014). Partitioning and degradation of triclosan and sites/62/2016/10/CEPC-2010yr-AsltonBird-AppAEx10.
formation of methyl-triclosan in water-sediment pdf.
systems. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 225(2099) 1-10.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-014-2099-2. Kumar, P. and Singh, A. (2010). Cadmium toxicity in
fish: an overview. GERF Bulletin of Biosciences 1(1),
Huang, X., Wu, C., Hu, H., Yu, Y. and Liu, J. (2015). 41-47. http://www.academia.edu/2346003/Cadmium_
Sorption and degradation of triclosan in sediments and toxicity_in_fish_An_overview.
its effect on microbes. Ecotoxicology and Environmental
Safety 116, 76-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. Landrigan, P.J., Fuller, R., Acosta, N.J.R., Adeyi, O.,
ECOENV.2015.03.002. Arnold, R., Basu, N.N., Baldé, A.B., Bertollini, R.,
Bose-O’Reilly, S., Boufford, J.I., Breysse, P.N., Chiles,
Hwang, S., Lim, J., Choi, Y. and Jee, S.H. (2018). Bisphenol T., Mahidol, C., Coll-Seck, A.M., Cropper, M.L., Fobil,
a exposure and type 2 diabetes mellitus risk: a meta- J., Fuster, V., Greenstone, M., Haines, A., Hanrahan,
analysis. BMC Endocrine Disorders 18(81), 1-10. https:// D., Hunter, D., Khare, M., Krupnick, A., Lanphear,
doi.org/10.1186/s12902-018-0310-y. B., Lohani, B., Martin, K., Mathiasen, K. V, McTeer,
M.A., Murray, C.J.L., Ndahimananjara, J.D., Perera,
IHS Markit (2018). Plasticizers, May 2018. Chemical F., Potočnik, J., Preker, A.S., Ramesh, J., Rockström,
Economics Handbook. https://ihsmarkit.com/products/ J., Salinas, C., Samson, L.D., Sandilya, K., Sly, P.D.,
plasticizers-chemical-economics-handbook.html. Smith, K.R., Steiner, A., Stewart, R.B., Suk, W.A., van
Accessed 25 August 2018. Schayck, O.C.P., Yadama, G.N., Yumkella, K. and Zhong,
M. (2018). The Lancet Commission on Pollution and
International Agency for Research on Cancer (2012a). Health. The Lancet 391(10119), 462-512. https://doi.
Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds. IARC Monographs org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32345-0.
on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans.
http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/ Lassen, C., Hansen, S.F., Magnusson, K., Hartmann,
mono100C-6.pdf. N.B., Rehne Jensen, P., Nielsen, T.G. and Brinch, A.
(2018). Microplastics: Occurrence, Effects and Sources of
International Agency for Research on Cancer (2012b). Releases to the Environment in Denmark. Copenhagen:
Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds. IARC Monographs Danish Environmental Protection Agency. http://orbit.
on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. dtu.dk/files/118180844/Lassen_et_al._2015.pdf.
http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/
mono100C-8.pdf. Latch, D.E., Packer, J.L., Stender, B.L., VanOverbeke,
J., Arnold, W.A. and McNeill, K. (2005). Aqueous
International Agency for Research on Cancer photochemistry of triclosan: Formation of 2,4‐
(2015). IARC Monographs Vol. 112: Evaluation of dichlorophenol, 2,8‐dichlorodibenzo‐p‐dioxin, and
Five Organophosphate Insecticides and Herbicides. oligomerization products. Environmental Toxicology and
http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/iarcnews/pdf/ Chemistry 24(3), 517-525. https://doi.org/10.1897/04-
MonographVolume112.pdf. 243R.1.
378
Part II
Liao, C. and Kannan, K. (2011). High levels of bisphenol Olaniyan, L.W.B., Mkwetshana, N. and Okoh, A.I.
A in paper currencies from several countries, and (2016). Triclosan in water, implications for human
implications for dermal exposure. Environmental and environmental health. SpringerPlus 5(1639), 1-17.
Science & Technology 45(16), 6761-6768. https://doi. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-3287-x.
org/10.1021/es200977t.
Omolaoye, J.A., Uzairu, J.O.A. and Gimba, C.E.
Magnusson, K. and Norén, F. (2014). Screening of (2010). Heavy metal assessment of some soft plastic
Microplastic Particles in and Down-stream a Wastewater toys imported into Nigeria from China. Journal of
Treatment Plant. C 55. Stockholm: IVL Swedish Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology 2(8),
Environmental Research Institute. https://www.diva- 126-130. http://www.academicjournals.org/article/
portal.org/smash/get/diva2:773505/FULLTEXT01.pdf. article1379515824_Omolaoye%20et%20al.pdf.
Markets and Markets (2017). Glyphosate market by Paschke, M., Hutzler, C., Brinkmann, J., Henkler, F.
crop type, application, region – 2022. https://www. and Luch, A. (2013). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/glyphosate- in newspaper Inks: migration, metabolism, and
market-8522593.html. Accessed 2 May 2018. genotoxicity in human skin. Polycyclic Aromatic
Compounds 35(1), 32-40. https://doi.org/10.1080/10
Mendum, T., Stoler, E., VanBenschoten, H. and Warner, 406638.2014.900643.
J.C. (2011). Concentration of bisphenol A in thermal
paper. Green Chemistry Letters and Reviews 4(1), 81-86. PR Newswire (2018). Global motive lead-acid battery
https://doi.org/10.1080/17518253.2010.502908. market, 1 May. https://www.prnewswire.com/
news-releases/global-motive-lead-acid-battery-
Mercea, P. (2009). Physicochemical processes involved market-2018-2022-300638339.html . Accessed 2 May
in migration of bisphenol A from polycarbonate. 2018.
Journal of Applied Polymer Science 112(2), 579-593.
https://doi.org/10.1002/app.29421. Puñal de Araújo, J.F., Podratz, P.L., Merlo, E., Sarmento,
I.V., da Costa, C.S., Niño, O.M.S., Faria, R.A., Freitas
Morrall, D., McAvoy, D., Schatowitz, B., Inauen, J., Jacob, Lima, L.C. and Graceli, J.B. (2018). Organotin exposure
M., Hauk, A. and Eckhoff, W. (2004). A field study of and vertebrate reproduction: a review. Frontiers
triclosan loss rates in river water (Cibolo Creek, TX). in Endocrinology 9, 64. https://doi.org/10.3389/
Chemosphere 54(5), 653-660. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. fendo.2018.00064.
CHEMOSPHERE.2003.08.002.
Research and Markets (2018). Global Bisphenol A (BPA)
Murphy, F., Ewins, C., Carbonnier, F. and Quinn, B. market – segmented by application and geography –
(2016). Wastewater treatment works (WwTW) as a growth, trends, and forecast (2018-2023), April. https://
source of microplastics in the aquatic environment. www.researchandmarkets.com/research/pcjqf4/
Environmental Science & Technology 50, 5800-5808. global_bisphenol?w=4. Accessed 26 September 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b05416.
Rochester, J.R. and Bolden, A.L. (2015). Bisphenol
National Pollutant Inventory of Australia (2019). S and F: a systematic review and comparison of
Organo-tin compounds, 18 January. http://www.npi. the hormonal activity of bisphenol A substitutes.
gov.au/resource/organo-tin-compounds. Accessed Environmental Health Perspectives 123(7), 643-50.
19 February 2019. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408989.
Nerland, I.L., Halsband, C., Allan, I., Thomas, K. V and Rortais, A., Arnold, G., Dorne, J.-L., More, S.J., Sperandio,
Thomas Kristoffer Naes, K. (2014). Microplastics in G., Streissl, F., Szentes, C. and Verdonck, F. (2017).
marine environments: Occurrence, distribution and effects. Risk assessment of pesticides and other stressors
Oslo: Norwegian Institute for Water Research. http:// in bees: principles, data gaps and perspectives from
www.miljodirektoratet.no/Documents/publikasjoner/ the European Food Safety Authority. Science of The
M319/M319.pdf. Total Environment 587-588, 524-537. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.127.
Nunes-Silva, A., Dittz, D., Santana, H.S., Faria, R.A.,
Freitas, K.M., Coutinho, C.R., de Melo Rodrigues, Rundlöf, M., Andersson, G.K.S., Bommarco, R., Fries,
L.C., Miranda-Alves, L., Silva, I.V., Graceli, J.B. and I., Hederström, V., Herbertsson, L., Jonsson, O., Klatt,
Freitas Lima, L.C. (2018). The pollutant organotins B.K., Pedersen, T.R., Yourstone, J. and Smith, H.G.
leads to respiratory disease by inflammation: a mini- (2015). Seed coating with a neonicotinoid insecticide
review. Frontiers in Endocrinology 8, 369. https://doi. negatively affects wild bees. Nature 521(7550), 77-80.
org/10.3389/fendo.2017.00369. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14420.
O’Rourke, M.K., Van de Water, P.K., Jin, S., Rogan, Saillenfait, A.-M., Sabaté, J.-P., Robert, A., Cossec,
S.P., Weiss, A.D., Gordon, S.M., Moschandreas, D.M. B., Roudot, A.-C., Denis, F. and Burgart, M. (2013).
and Lebowitz, M.D. (1999). Evaluations of primary Adverse effects of diisooctyl phthalate on the male
metals from NHEXAS Arizona: Distributions and rat reproductive development following prenatal
preliminary exposures. Journal of Exposure Analysis exposure. Reproductive Toxicology 42, 192-202. https://
and Environmental Epidemiology 9(5), 435-445. http:// doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2013.09.004.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10554146.
379
Sousa, A.C.A., Pastorinho, M.R., Takahashi, S. and United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Tanabe, S. (2014). History on organotin compounds, Registry (2007). Toxicological Profile for Arsenic. https://
from snails to humans. Environmental Chemistry Letters www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp2.pdf.
12(1), 117-137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-013-
0449-8. United States Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (2017a). Fourth National Report on Human
Stojanoska, M.M., Milosevic, N., Milic, N. and Abenavoli, Exposure to Environmental Chemicals: Updated Tables,
L. (2017). The influence of phthalates and bisphenol a Volume 1. https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/pdf/
on the obesity development and glucose metabolism FourthReport_UpdatedTables_Volume1_Jan2017.pdf.
disorders. Endocrine 55(3), 666-681. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s12020-016-1158-4. United States Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (2017b). Bisphenol A (BPA) factsheet, 7
Sugino, M., Hatanaka, T., Todo, H., Mashimo, Y., Suzuki, April. https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/BisphenolA_
T., Kobayashi, M., Kobayashi, M., Hosoya, O., Jinno, H., FactSheet.html. Accessed 20 February 2019.
Juni, K. and Sugibayashi, K. (2017). Safety evaluation
of dermal exposure to phthalates: Metabolism- United States Centers for Disease Control and
dependent percutaneous absorption. Toxicology Prevention (2017c). Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
and Applied Pharmacology 328, 10-17. https://doi. (PAHs) factsheet, 7 April. https://www.cdc.gov/
org/10.1016/J.TAAP.2017.05.009. biomonitoring/PAHs_FactSheet.html. Accessed 18
April 2018.
Swedish Chemicals Agency (2018). Organotin
compounds, 13 December. https://www.kemi.se/ United States Centers for Disease Control and
en/prio-start/chemicals-in-practical-use/substance- Prevention (2017d). Phthalates factsheet, 7 April.
groups/organotin-compounds. Accessed 18 February https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/Phthalates_
2019. FactSheet.html. Accessed 17 August 2018.
Tokar, E.J., Xu, Y. and Waalkes, M.P. (2015). Cancer United States Centers for Disease Control and
induced by exposure to arsenicals in animals. Prevention (2017e). Triclosan factsheet, 7 April. https://
In Arsenic. States, J.C. (ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/Triclosan_FactSheet.html.
Wiley & Sons. Chapter 19. 439-452. https://doi. Accessed 13 June 2018.
org/10.1002/9781118876992.ch19.
United States Centers for Disease Control and
Transparency Market Research (2015). Solar cell films Prevention (2018). National report on human exposure
market (type - amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, to environmental chemicals. https://www.cdc.gov/
and copper indium gallium selenide; end user - exposurereport/index.html. Accessed 17 August 2018.
residential, commercial, and industrial) - global industry
analysis, size, share, growth trends, and forecast 2015- United States Food and Drug Administration (2017).
2023. https://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/ The microbead-free waters act: FAQs, 11 March.
solar-cell-films-market.html. Accessed 2 May 2018. https://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/GuidanceRegulation/
LawsRegulations/ucm531849.htm. Accessed 25 April
Tsvetkov, N., Samson-Robert, O., Sood, K., Patel, 2018.
H.S., Malena, D.A., Gajiwala, P.H., Maciukiewicz, P.,
Fournier, V. and Zayed, A. (2017). Chronic exposure United States Geological Survey (2018). Mineral
to neonicotinoids reduces honey bee health near Commodity Summaries 2018. https://minerals.usgs.
corn crops. Science 356(6345), 1395-1397. https://doi. gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2018/mcs2018.pdf.
org/10.1126/science.aam7470.
United States National Institute of Environmental
United Nations Environment Programme (2016). Health Sciences (2014). Arsenic. https://www.niehs.
Marine Plastic Debris and Microplastics – Global Lessons nih.gov/health/materials/arsenic_508.pdf.
and Research to Inspire Action and Guide Policy Change.
http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/7720. United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (2018). What are microplastics? 25 June.
United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/microplastics.
Registry (2012). Toxicological Profile for Cadmium. html. Accessed 14 June 2018.
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp5.pdf.
Van Cauwenberghe, L. and Janssen, C.R. (2014).
United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human
Registry (2005). Toxicological profile for tin and tin consumption. Environmental Pollution 193, 65-70.
compounds. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/ https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2014.06.010.
tp55.pdf.
380
Part II
van der Sluijs, J.P., Amaral-Rogers, V., Belzunces, World Energy Council (2016). World Energy Resources:
L.P., Bijleveld van Lexmond, M.F.I.J., Bonmatin, J.-M., Solar. https://www.worldenergy.org/wp-content/
Chagnon, M., Downs, C.A., Furlan, L., Gibbons, D.W., uploads/2017/03/WEResources_Solar_2016.pdf.
Giorio, C., Girolami, V., Goulson, D., Kreutzweiser, D.P.,
Krupke, C., Liess, M., Long, E., McField, M., Mineau, P., World Health Organization (2018a). International
Mitchell, E.A.D., Morrissey, C.A., Noome, D.A., Pisa, Programme on Chemical Safety: ten chemicals of
L., Settele, J., Simon-Delso, N., Stark, J.D., Tapparo, major public health concern. http://www.who.int/
A., Van Dyck, H., van Praagh, J., Whitehorn, P.R. and ipcs/assessment/public_health/chemicals_phc/en/.
Wiemers, M. (2015). Conclusions of the worldwide Accessed 26 September 2018.
integrated assessment on the risks of neonicotinoids
and fipronil to biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. World Health Organization (2018b). Arsenic: Key facts,
Environmental Science and Pollution Research 22(1), 15 February. http://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-
148-154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3229-5. sheets/detail/arsenic. Accessed 18 April 2018.
Ventrice, P., Ventrice, D., Russo, E. and De Sarro, G. World Health Organization (2018c). Lead poisoning
(2013). Phthalates: European regulation, chemistry, and health, 23 August. http://www.who.int/news-
pharmacokinetic and related toxicity. Environmental room/fact-sheets/detail/lead-poisoning-and-health.
Toxicology and Pharmacology 36(1), 88-96. https://doi. Accessed 14 June 2018.
org/10.1016/J.ETAP.2013.03.014.
Zhang, L., Rana, I., Shaffer, R.M., Taioli, E. and Sheppard,
Wang, C.-F. and Tian, Y. (2015). Reproductive endocrine- L. (2019). Exposure to glyphosate-based herbicides
disrupting effects of triclosan: Population exposure, and risk for non-hodgkin lymphoma: a meta-analysis
present evidence and potential mechanisms. and supporting evidence. Mutation Research/Reviews
Environmental Pollution 206, 195-201. https://doi. in Mutation Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2015.07.001. mrrev.2019.02.001.
Watkins, D.J., Sánchez, B.N., Téllez-Rojo, M.M., Lee, J.M.,

Mercado-García, A., Blank-Goldenberg, C., Peterson,
K.E. and Meeker, J.D. (2017). Phthalate and bisphenol
A exposure during in utero windows of susceptibility Chapter 6
in relation to reproductive hormones and pubertal
development in girls. Environmental Research 159, Normile, D., (2017). International trade shifts the
143-151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.07.051. burden of pollution-related deaths, 29 March. Science.
Wood, T.J. and Goulson, D. (2017). The environmental https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aal0979. Accessed 17
risks of neonicotinoid pesticides: a review of the February 2019.
evidence post 2013. Environmental Science and Pollution
Research 24(21), 17285-17325. https://doi.org/10.1007/ Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
s11356-017-9240-x. Chemicals Management (2018). Report of the Second
Meeting in the Intersessional Process to Consider
Woodcock, B.A., Isaac, N.J.B., Bullock, J.M., Roy, D.B., the Strategic Approach and the Sound Management
Garthwaite, D.G., Crowe, A. and Pywell, R.F. (2016). of Chemicals and Waste Beyond 2020. http://www.
Impacts of neonicotinoid use on long-term population saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/meetings/Bureau/
changes in wild bees in England. Nature Communications ICCM5B5/SAICM%20IP%202%20report%20FINAL.pdf.
7, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12459.
Urho, N. (2018). Options for Effective Governance of
Woodcock, B.A., Bullock, J.M., Shore, R.F., Heard, the Beyond-2020 Framework for Sound Management
M.S., Pereira, M.G., Redhead, J., Ridding, L., Dean, H., of Chemicals and Waste: Lessons Learned from Other
Sleep, D., Henrys, P., Peyton, J., Hulmes, S., Hulmes, Regimes. Boston, MA: Center for Governance and
L., Sárospataki, M., Saure, C., Edwards, M., Genersch, Sustainability, University of Massachusetts Boston.
E., Knäbe, S. and Pywell, R.F. (2017). Country-specific http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/
effects of neonicotinoid pesticides on honey bees and meetings/IP2/IP_2_INF_14_Governance_CGS_f.pdf.
wild bees. Science 356(6345), 1393-1395. https://doi.
org/10.1126/science.aaa11t90.
381
III. Advancing and sharing
chemicals management
tools and approaches:
taking stock, looking into
the future
Part III of the Global Chemicals Outlook II
© Heiner Heine/robertharding
Part III
Advancing and sharing chemicals management tools and approaches: taking stock, looking into the future
About Part III
In Part II a range of initiatives by countries, international organizations and other stakeholders

to achieve sound management of chemicals are described. Part III provides insights into the
progress made, as well as gaps and opportunities concerning science-based approaches,
tools, methodologies and instruments used in managing chemicals to protect human health
and the environment. Valuable lessons have been learned over the past decades in the
practical application of these approaches, tools, methodologies and instruments. In addition,
opportunities have emerged to enhance their effectiveness, simplify their use, and employ
them more systematically in all countries.
The order of the chapters in Part III generally follows the chemical risk assessment and risk
management process. That process leads from hazard assessment to exposure assessment,
risk assessment, and risk management and alternatives assessment. Later in Part III, special
attention is given to chemical risk management in small and medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs) and the informal sector in developing countries – including the challenges faced and
opportunities to improve chemical safety in these settings.
Part III concludes with a forward-looking chapter (Chapter 8) on assessment approaches

that consider a life cycle perspective and broader sustainability criteria. Throughout Part III,
specific suggestions are made concerning ways that countries with limited resources could
benefit from considering scientific work undertaken in other countries that have more
advanced chemical management schemes.
Governments are the main drivers of the risk assessment and risk management approaches
presented. However, Part III also addresses a range of work in (and results generated by)
international organizations, which bring together governments and other actors, particularly
industry, to identify opportunities for collaboration and foster harmonized approaches. These
organizations include the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE), which serve as the secretariat for the Globally Harmonized
System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). Furthermore, the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) leads a range of technical work to
harmonize methods and approaches that are used in its 36 member countries and in many
other countries. Global risk assessment and management actions on chemicals of global
concern are facilitated though a number of legally binding and soft law instruments, several
of which are serviced by the United Nations Environment Programme.
Contents
1/ Hazard assessment: progress in information generation and

hazard characterization 384
2/ Exposure assessment: benefiting from internationally available

resources396
3/ Risk assessment: opportunities to improve and accelerate progress 406
4/ Risk management decision-making: making it work in all countries 419
5/ Assessment of chemical and non-chemical alternatives: focusing

on solutions 435
6/ Chemical risk management in facilities and during production 453
7/ Approaches to sustainability assessment 468
References474
383
1/ Hazard assessment: progress in

information generation and hazard
characterization
Chapter Highlights
Harmonization of test methods saves resources and reduces the need for animal
testing.
Important progress and efficiencies are being obtained through the use of new
methodologies based on the grouping of chemicals.
Hazard classification criteria have been developed in the Globally Harmonized

System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). However, achieving
globally harmonized hazard classifications of chemicals has proven more
challenging.
Efficiencies can be obtained through global sharing and acceptance of hazard

assessments undertaken at the national or regional level.
All of the actions above would result in major efficiencies for all actors
concerned, but would benefit, in particular, countries with limited resources.
C
hemical hazard assessment is the first “hazard characterization” or “dose-response
stage in the risk assessment and risk assessment”), exposure assessment, and finally
management process. This chapter risk characterization. Risk assessment is followed
summarizes advances in the approaches and by risk management decision-making and by the
methods that are used to generate chemical implementation of risk management measures,
hazard data and to assess chemical hazards if these are considered necessary.
globally. It also identifies gaps and points to
opportunities to accelerate chemical hazard
assessment.
1.1 Drivers for the generation of
Chemical risk assessment has been described hazard information
as a systematic process that is “intended to
calculate or estimate the risk to a given target What are chemical hazards?
organism, system or (sub) population, including
the identification of attendant uncertainties, The term chemical hazard refers to the intrinsic
following exposure to a particular agent, taking properties of chemicals which have the potential
into account the inherent characteristics to cause adverse effects on human health and
of the agent of concern as well as the the environment. Examples of such properties
characteristics of the specific target system” include: acute toxicity; corrosive properties;
(OECD 2003). It comprises four steps: hazard the ability to bring about allergies; long-term
identification, hazard assessment (also called effects on reproduction, development and other
384
Part III
Figure 1.1 From risk assessment to risk management (adapted from United States National Library
of Medicine 2018, image source: Oak Ridge Associated Universities©)
Risk assessment Risk management

Dose-response Central
assessment decision
Risk characterization
Hazard Determine
identification acceptable
risk level
Exposure
assessment Central
alternatives
Feedback
systems in the human body; and persistence in Given the size of the global chemicals market
environmental media. A hazard assessment is a and the potential of many chemicals to cause
qualitative and – where possible – quantitative harm, there is broad consensus internationally
description of the adverse effects of a chemical, that more hazard information is needed to allow
based on generated information (American meaningful hazard assessments to be made.
Chemical Society 2018; Swedish Chemicals National, intergovernmental, industry and other
Agency [KEMI] 2018). Many factors can influence initiatives to identify chemical properties in order
the impacts of exposure to a chemical. These to carry out hazard assessment include:
factors include the dose and duration of the
exposure, the kinetics of the chemical in an ›› Regulatory requirements: In many countries a
organism, and the susceptibility of the exposed minimum set of information on new chemicals
organism. – as defined by national jurisdictions – and
on priority existing chemicals already on
Who generates chemical hazard information? the market is required by chemical safety
Chapter 1. Hazard assessment: progress in information generation and hazard characterization 385
legislation. Such legislation exists, for important area of OECD work. This includes
example, in Canada (Government of Canada precise characterization of the test substance
2016a), the European Union (EU) (European and ensures methods’ reproducibility and
Commission [EC] 2006; European Chemicals transferability (OECD 2005). The Test Guidelines
Agency [ECHA] n.d. a), Japan (Japan Ministry of developed by the OECD are the most complete
Economy, Trade and Industry 2016) and the set of international standards for chemical
United States (United States Environmental hazard testing for regulatory purposes. They
Protection Agency [US EPA] 2018a; US EPA include methods to determine physical-chemical
2018b). properties, ecotoxicity, fate and behaviour in the
environment, and mammalian toxicity (OECD
›› Testing of new chemicals in the development 2018b; OECD 2018c; OECD 2018d; OECD 2018e).
stage: In the development stage of new Quality control is ensured through the OECD
chemicals, producers often use predictive Principles of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP)
methods such as quantitative structure- and the GLP compliance monitoring system
activity relationships (QSAR) and screening (OECD 2018f). The OECD Test Guidelines are
to identify hazardous properties of candidate continuously updated and further developed. For
chemicals, or to perform screening risk example, for technically challenging substances
assessments for these chemicals’ intended such as nanomaterials the OECD is currently
uses. As chemicals move from the research working on a set of standardized Test Guidelines
and development phase to production, for, inter alia, precise characterization to enable
additional testing is often performed to appropriate testing and assessment of these
obtain better knowledge for use in deciding substances (OECD 2018g).
whether (and which) risk reduction measures
will be needed to adequately protect workers Through international standardization and
involved in their production and use and to harmonization of test methods, resources
protect the environment (Maertens et al. needed for chemical hazard assessment can
2014). be significantly reduced: chemicals need to be
tested only once, after which the results will be
›› Research programmes: Extensive testing of accepted in many other countries (OECD 2018h).
the mechanisms of toxicity of chemicals The OECD’s system of Mutual Acceptance of Data
takes place in research programmes, for (whereby test results generated according to the
example to develop test methods for new OECD Test Guidelines and the OECD Principles
types of substances whose impacts on human of GLP are in principle accepted in 42 OECD and
health and the environment are not yet fully non-OECD countries) was already estimated in
understood, such as nanomaterials (US EPA 2010 to save governments and industry about
2016; Gottardo et al. 2017; EC 2018; OECD euros 150 million per year (OECD 2010). Avoiding
2018a) or to investigate newly identified duplication of testing also significantly reduces
effects, as in the case of endocrine disruptors the use of animals in testing (OECD 2018i).
(Beronius et al. 2014; US EPA 2017).
Harmonization of test methods saves

resources and reduces use of animals 1.2 Test methods to identify chemical
hazards are evolving rapidly
To support
regulatory Animal testing provides important
requirements information, but progress is being made on
in member non-animal test methods
countries of
the Organisation for Economic Co-operation Chemical testing has traditionally been carried
and Development (OECD), standardization out on animals (e.g. rats, mice and fish). Through
of test methods has been identified as an the use of laboratory animals, insights can be
386
Part III
obtained into the toxicological effects a chemical high-throughput toxicity data on thousands
could have on humans or wildlife. For certain of chemicals (US EPA 2018c). High-throughput
more complicated toxicological endpoints, such screening results are especially useful in setting
as carcinogenicity and effects on the reproductive priorities for further work to investigate hazards.
system, this type of testing can be costly, requires Another approach with significant potential to
large numbers of animals and raises ethical replace animal testing is in vitro embryonic
concerns. While such testing may be required stem cell research (Colaianna et al. 2017;
by statute, it is usually conducted for chemicals Cynober 2018).
which are a priority due to their high production
volumes, their wide use, or the expectation that Guidance on the use of non-animal testing
they have hazardous properties of particular approaches under relevant European legislation
concern (e.g. are carcinogenic). has been developed by the ECHA (ECHA 2017a;
ECHA 2017b; ECHA 2017c). In the United States
Reducing, refining and replacing test methods new approaches and alternative methods for
that use laboratory animals has been a use in a regulatory context are developed
priority in many countries for many years. In and evaluated (US EPA 2018d; United States
particular, since the publication of the report Interagency Coordinating Committee on the
Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A Vision and Validation of Alternative Methods 2018). Many
a Strategy (United States National Academy of of the new testing methods are not direct
Sciences 2007), governments have increased replacements for in vivo tests. Instead, they
their efforts to move towards the adoption of require countries to accept different approaches
alternative test methods such as systems using to hazard identification for regulatory purposes
cell cultures (in vitro methods) instead of animals (see also section 1.3 below). Considerable
(in vivo methods) (Krewski et al. 2010). The most progress has been made in the international
recent developments in this field include high- development of methods that do not require the
throughput screening and toxicogenomics and use of animals in testing. However, it is expected
RNA sequencing methodologies. An example of that this (often expensive) type of testing will
work being carried out is the US EPA’s ToxCast continue to be needed in the coming decade,
programme, which includes publicly available particularly for long-term toxicity endpoints.
© Kate Holt/AusAID, Scientists work in a laboratory at the International Livestock Research Institute in Nairobi, Kenya. Australia provides funding to the Institute
through the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), to improve African food security CC BY 2.0
What are current opportunities for global 1.3 New approaches are accelerating
acceptance of test data? hazard assessment
As discussed in Part II, a number of countries Encouraging progress is being made through

are establishing regulatory frameworks or emerging approaches, e.g. grouping, and read-
upgrading frameworks already in place in order across
to advance sound chemicals management –
including through provisions concerning data New Approach Methodologies and their
requirements. These initiatives often focus on integration in regulatory settings are being
industrial chemicals, as well as on consumer uses widely discussed because of their potential to
of chemicals which are not regulated elsewhere. complement traditional approaches (ECHA 2016a;
Examples of regulatory initiatives that involve Environment and Climate Change Canada 2016;
requests for data submissions for a large number US EPA 2018e) (see also Part III, Ch. 3). In addition
of chemicals include those in China (initiated in to the growing use of in vitro (non-animal) testing
2003 and amended in 2009) (Chemical Inspection methods, non-testing methods are increasingly
and Regulation Service [CIRS] 2017; Lexology used to obtain data on chemical hazards. This
2018), the Republic of Korea (CIRS 2012a; may involve grouping chemicals based on similar
ChemSafetyPro 2017; ChemSafetyPro 2018; He properties and then filling data gaps through
2019) and Turkey (CIRS 2012b; SGS 2017). As part read-across (Figure 1.2) (Berggren et al. 2015).
of these initiatives, countries usually request Furthermore, a joint US EPA, Government of
data from both producers and importers and Canada and ECHA initiative on Accelerating the
may therefore ask for testing. Pace of Chemical Risk Assessment (APCRA) aims
to develop a series of joint case studies which
Hazards are intrinsic chemical properties which could help increase the use of New Approach
are the same in all countries. Global acceptance Methodologies for chemical prioritization,
of test data is, in principle, possible and desirable screening and quantitative risk assessment
provided there is full transparency concerning (ECHA and US EPA 2016).
the test methods used and the limitations
of these methods. Wide acceptance of test ECHA reported in 2017 that read-across was
data could provide efficiency gains and make the most common alternative method used by
resources available for testing more chemicals industry to comply with Registration, Evaluation,
than is currently possible. Any country that Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals
requires (or plans to require) the generation of (REACH) hazard information requirements
data by chemical producers and importers for (ECHA 2017b). Assessments under Canada’s
hazard assessment and risk assessment could Chemicals Management Plan also commonly
therefore consider joining the OECD’s system of use read-across (Government of Canada 2017).
Mutual Acceptance of Data, which considerably For grouping challenging substances such as
reduces costs for governments and industry (see nanomaterials, progress has been made in using
section 1.1 above). In the context of the sound read-across (ECHA 2017c).
management of chemicals and waste beyond
2020, ways to promote global acceptance of The development of computer tools such as the
data on chemicals’ hazards might be agreed by OECD’s QSAR Toolbox for Grouping Chemicals
countries. into Categories (OECD 2007; Dimitrov et al. 2016;
OECD 2018j) or the European Chemical Industry
Council’s AMBIT (Jeliazkova et al. 2016; European
Chemical Industry Council Long-Range Research
Initiative 2017) exemplify the trend to use read-
across for chemical hazard assessment. The
QSAR Toolbox helps users apply read-across
by identifying relevant structural characteristics
and the potential mechanisms or mode of
388
Part III
Figure 1.2 Graphical representation of a chemical category and some approaches for filling data
gaps (adapted from OECD 2014a, p. 14)
Chemical 1 Chemical 2 Chemical 3 Chemical 4
Structure XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX

Property 1 SAR/read-across
Property 2 Interpolation
Property 3 Extrapolation
Activity 1 SAR/read-across
Activity 2 Interpolation
Activity 3 Extrapolation
Existing data point Missing data point
In a group of chemicals whose physical-chemical and human health and/or ecotoxicological properties
and/or environmental fate properties are likely to be similar, or to follow a regular pattern (usually as a
result of structural similarity), not all of these chemicals need to be tested for all properties. Above is a
representation of some approaches that can be used to fill data gaps: SAR (structure-activity relationship)/
read-across, interpolation and extrapolation.
action of a target chemical. It also helps identify into the validity of the results have not yet been
other chemicals that have the same structural accepted internationally. As science advances,
characteristics and/or mechanism or mode of growing confidence in these new methods could
action. nurture broader regulatory acceptance. In the
context of sound management of chemicals and
A more holistic approach to information waste beyond 2020, agreements on international
generation is needed standardization and validation efforts could
Despite the progress already made, a more widen the availability of information on hazard
holistic approach to testing across national properties and promote wider (if gradual)
jurisdictions could involve defining categories regulatory acceptance globally, leading to
and jointly identifying priority chemicals for significant efficiencies.
testing. The results could be used to inform a
better understanding of the properties of many A new hazard assessment paradigm focusing
other chemicals in the same category (US EPA on Adverse Outcome Pathways is being
2010; Government of Canada 2016b). Further developed
integration of information generated through
toxicity and ecotoxicity testing could also help As a possible bridge towards 21st century toxicity
achieve a more holistic approach to interpreting testing (see section 1.1 above), the concept of
hazard information. Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs) is gaining
momentum and is being investigated. An AOP
The OECD’s Mutual Acceptance of Data system is “a logical sequence of key events triggered
has been effective in ensuring wider acceptance by chemical exposure and occurring at the
of test data. However, efforts to bring about the molecular, cellular, organ, whole organism
acceptance of conclusions on hazard identification or population level” (OECD 2017). An AOP
that use different types of information (such investigation involves studying an interaction
as in silico or computational data) have not at a molecular target (a Molecular Initiating Event,
been as successful. One reason could be that or MIE), which then signals events within a cell
regulators are not yet fully convinced of the or tissue and leads to an adverse outcome. The
reliability of the newer methods since insights adverse outcome can occur at any biological
level of organization. It could have regulatory ›› select test methods that can be standardized
significance if it corresponds to a protection and harmonized.
goal or endpoint in a regulatory guideline test.
Interactions among the levels within an AOP may Figure 1.3 illustrates the AOP concept within an
be causal, mechanistic, inferential or correlation- Integrated Approach to Testing and Assessment
based. By gathering mechanistic information (IATA). This approach has already been
relevant to specific adverse outcomes, regulators successfully piloted for the hazard endpoint of
might be able to identify key events that are skin sensitization. OECD Test Guidelines have
predictive of the adverse outcome, and for which been developed for all relevant key events in the
(in vitro) test methods can be developed. While AOP (OECD 2014b). The success of this approach
experience with the use of AOPs is limited – for other endpoints will depend on the availability
and there is still a significant gap between AOP- of scientific knowledge about the mechanism of
based approaches and hazard assessment that is action of chemicals. To further strengthen the
based on traditional test data – AOPs are already scientific robustness of predictions based on
particularly helpful for obtaining in-depth insights grouping and read-across, regulatory authorities
into the mechanism of the toxicity exhibited by are using the AOP concept by, for example,
groups of chemicals. grouping chemicals that are predicted to trigger
the same AOP. As a single AOP is unlikely to
Information generated through an AOP can be capture all events of potential regulatory
used, for example, to: significance, AOP networks (based on AOPs that
share at least one common element) will help
›› interpret results from non-standardized test provide further representation of pathways that
methods; lead to adverse outcomes (Delrue et al. 2016).
›› group chemicals into toxicologically Opportunities to accelerate chemical hazard

meaningful categories; assessment and fill knowledge gaps
›› develop testing strategies; or Many countries are actively engaged in assessing

the hazards and risks of priority chemicals on
Figure 1.3 Testing and assessment based on the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) concept (adapted
from Vinken et al. 2017, p. 3699)
AOP
KER1 KER2 KER3 KER4 KER5 KERn
MIE KE1 KE2 KE3 KE4 KEn AO
of biological organization
molecular organelle cellular tissue organ organism population
Common types of information
in chemico
in vitro in vivo epidemiology
in silico
Republished with permission of Springer Nature; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
390
Part III
their markets, as called for by the 2020 goal of categorization (ECHA 2016a). In the recently
(see Part II). Nevertheless, the generation of new completed registration of existing chemicals in
and robust test results remains quite limited. the EU, 5,900 chemicals were registered in the
The ECHA has reported that, overall, 11 per cent 1-10 tonnes/year range and 4,000 in the 10-100
of total REACH information requirements tonnes/year range. These chemicals still need to
were generated by new experimental studies be considered by the ECHA.
performed on vertebrate animals (ECHA 2017d).
Given that alternative methods are still evolving, Limited generation of new test results also has
authorities are having difficulty assessing the repercussions on the use of grouping and read-
hazards of a number of chemicals, including across. These techniques rely on the presence of
those that potentially have CMR (carcinogenic, high-quality experimental results for at least some
mutagenic or reprotoxic) properties based on members of a group or category of chemicals. In
such methods. the absence of adequate experimental results
for close analogues, this approach cannot be
A study by the German Federal Institute for applied. That may be especially problematic in
Risk Assessment found that for chemicals the case of low-volume production chemicals,
produced in volumes above 1,000 tonnes which for which most jurisdictions do not require test
were registered under REACH, an average of data. In such cases information for classification
39 per cent were compliant with the information and labelling may also be derived from non-test
requirements for eight toxicological endpoints, methods, as is the case for new chemicals under
ranging from 19 per cent for developmental the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) in the
toxicity to 56 per cent for biotic degradation. The United States (US EPA 2017).
rest of the dossiers were non-compliant or did
not allow final conclusions to be made on the
dossier due to methodological limitations (ECHA
2017e). Better compliance with information 1.4 Achieving globally harmonized
requirements would obviously help accelerate classifications of chemicals is
hazard assessments. challenging, but valuable
The ECHA estimated that of 4,450 substances Globally harmonized criteria are accepted,
manufactured or imported above 100 tonnes/ but how feasible are globally accepted
year registered under REACH, about 3,000 classifications of chemicals?
could not be categorized as either low or high
priority for in-depth evaluation, partly due The development of the Globally Harmonized
to lack of hazard data, but also partly due to System for Classification and Labelling of
insufficient use information to allow this type Chemicals (GHS) and its implementation by a
Table 1.1 Health hazards and environmental hazards – classes for global hazard classification
(Derived from UN 2017)
Health hazards Environmental hazards
›› Acute toxicity ›› Hazardous to the aquatic environment

›› Skin corrosion/irritation ›› Hazardous to the ozone layer
›› Serious eye damage/eye irritation
›› Respiratory or skin sensitization
›› Germ cell mutagenicity
›› Carcinogenicity
›› Reproductive toxicity
›› Specific target organ toxicity–single exposure
›› Specific target organism-repeated exposure
›› Aspiration hazards
growing number of countries has been one of into their respective languages (ILO 2018). In
the successes in the field of chemical safety addition, the EU has already agreed on
during the last 20 years (Persson et al. 2017; harmonized classifications for chemicals using
UNECE n.d.). Globally harmonized classification GHS criteria. These national or regional lists of
criteria have been developed for physical, health classified chemicals can be consulted by countries
and environmental hazards. Table 1.1 shows with limited resources which are committed to
the specific health and environmental hazards implementing the GHS.
covered by the GHS (United Nations [UN] 2017).
Despite the many hazards covered already, work
could be undertaken to increase the number
of hazard criteria, particularly with respect to
environmental hazards and endocrine disruption.
While the GHS has established harmonized

criteria for hazard classification, companies
– and, in some cases, governments – classify
chemicals individually. This may result in
different classifications of the same chemical
due to different interpretations of available test
results. Not only can different classifications of
the same chemical create confusion, but such
parallel classifications may waste resources.
Although it might be difficult to achieve a globally
harmonized list of classified chemicals, work is
ongoing to explore the potential development of
such a list in a cost-effective manner (OECD 2016). 1.5 Global relevance of the growing
knowledge about chemical
A pilot classification project has been carried hazards
out for three substances, each sponsored by a
country or agency (OECD 2016). The sponsors Improved knowledge-sharing
spent an average of 38 days drafting and updating
the substance classification proposals. Reviewers Owing to the internet and other information
then spent another five days checking them. The technology, the availability and accessibility
report from the pilot exercise demonstrated that of data for use in hazard and risk assessment
the process is feasible; however, it would require has greatly improved in the last two decades.
sustained commitment of time and resources by A number of portals facilitate locating
countries and other interested parties. relevant data (Wexler et al. 2016) relevant for
classification and labelling, as well as results
In view of the resources needed to develop a already obtained and documented in countries
global list of chemicals with harmonized and by intergovernmental organizations. While
classifications, agreement has not yet been the databases include a wealth of information,
reached on whether to begin this initiative. Such users may still need to interpret the data and
a list of classified substances would not only derive the resulting hazard characterisations
create consistency, but would significantly benefit and hazard classifications. The eChemPortal
countries with few resources. In the absence of (Box 1.1) is an example of a portal featuring full
such a list, the work of the International Labour hazard assessments and/or classifications with
Organization (ILO) and the WHO to produce the underlying data and justifications.
International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSC) in line
with the GHS is very useful (WHO 2019). To date, An example of a more specialized portal
more than 1,700 of these cards are available in developed by the ECHA and the OECD is the
English, while national institutions translate them International Uniform Chemical Information
392
Part III
Box 1.1 The eChemPortal (OECD n.d.)
The eChemPortal (www.echemportal.org) is a global portal providing information on chemical

substances. Managed by the OECD, it is an example of the recently developed internet portals that
provide easy access to information relevant for chemical safety and regulatory decision-making.
eChem allows users to search for information on individual chemicals or to query by property
(e.g. chemicals on which a positive test result for carcinogenicity is available). As of 2017, 34 data
sources were participating in this initiative and 13 of them had GHS classification information.
Database (IUCLID). IUCLID is a software also maintains databases on the safe use of
application which allows users to record, store, chemicals including nanomaterials (“Search
maintain and exchange data on the intrinsic for Chemicals”: ECHA n.d. b). These databases
and hazard properties of chemical substances. combine information submitted by industry
It is an important software application for with that gathered and generated by the ECHA,
regulatory bodies and the chemical industry, competent authorities in EU Member States and
which use it to implement various regulatory other regulators. Information which is (or will be)
programmes (ECHA and OECD 2018). The ECHA available from the ECHA is described in Box 1.2.
Box 1.2 The European Chemicals Agency’s longer-term vision for improving access to information
(ECHA 2016b)
In years to come the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) will be taking on new tasks, such as
establishing a new central database, by the end of 2019, with information available to waste
treatment operators and consumers about substances of concern (ECHA 2018). It may also host
the European Chemicals Legislation Finder (EUCLEF), bringing together information on European
Community legislation regulating chemicals. This will further increase the volume of data held by
the ECHA in its databases.
In this context, the ECHA has a long-term vision of increasing and simplifying access to the vast
scientific data collections it holds and encouraging the reuse of these data (ECHA 2016b). As part
of that effort, it is currently preparing an initiative to explore opportunities for a common data
platform, together with the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and with the support of the
European Parliament. This initiative aims to include a registry of toxicological studies for chemical
substances and regulated products performed by industry (which could also be fed by third
parties such as academic institutions) in order to serve as an open repository for research and
scientific data. Such a platform could provide data analytics, predictive toxicology (which could
avoid animal testing), better environmental monitoring, better study design, the development of
artificial intelligence, and machine learning applications.
Opportunities for mutual acceptance of hazard information) to support national decision-

assessments making could use results generated in several
other countries if the hazard assessments have
The elaboration of chemical hazard assessments similar outcomes. In light of these opportunities,
is resource-intensive. While there is a system wider acceptance of hazard assessments could
in place for countries’ acceptance of test be a topic to examine in the context of sound
results generated in other countries, there is management of chemicals and waste beyond
currently no agreed international understanding 2020.
on acceptance of the outcome of a hazard
assessment performed in other countries. Such a
system could greatly reduce the resources needed
by national regulators (e.g. for classification and 1.6 Potential measures to further
labelling). Companies and government agencies, advance hazard assessment
especially in countries with limited resources,
would benefit from the public availability of Harmonized methodologies for mutual
these assessments, particularly if they were well- acceptance of chemical hazard test data,
documented (ECHA n.d. c). standardization in regard to accepting test
results, and a global list of hazard classifications
The Industrial Chemicals Bill introduced in would result in major efficiencies for all actors
Australia in 2017 allows regulatory decisions to concerned. This harmonization would benefit,
be taken based on the hazard assessment of a in particular, countries with limited resources.
“trusted international body”. Hazard assessment Taking into account the preceding analysis,
schemes in Canada and the EU are listed explicitly, stakeholders may wish to consider the following
while other bodies could potentially be added measures to further advance hazard assessment:
(Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia
2017). The development of internationally ›› Accelerate the generation of more
harmonized criteria for what constitutes a comprehensive information about the
“trusted international body” or a “trusted intrinsic hazards and properties of chemical
body” would increase the reuse of existing substances and make this information publicly
assessments. Alternatively, countries that need available.
a hazard assessment (combined with exposure
394
Part III
›› Continue to work towards achieving wider facilitate the availability and accessibility of
international acceptance of chemical hazard hazard data.
test data, particularly with a view to animal
welfare. ›› Accelerate development of the concept of
Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs) to support
›› Continue to work towards global agreement hazard assessment.
on standardization and validation efforts in
regard to accepting chemical hazard data ›› Develop new GHS criteria (e.g. for further
estimation results, as well as with a view to environmental hazards, endocrine disruption).
animal welfare.
›› Continue to explore possibilities to develop a
›› Further explore new approaches to fill data globally harmonized list of classified chemicals
gaps and scale up the use of portals to based on the GHS hazard classification criteria.
2/ Exposure assessment: benefiting from

internationally available resources
Chapter Highlights
Modelling-based approaches have greatly enhanced knowledge about the

distribution of chemicals in the environment and exposure situations.
National, regional and other contexts can play a role in determining levels of
exposure.
Exposure scenarios and models are available for a range of situations. They can
provide a generic basis for human and environmental exposure assessments,
thus saving resources.
Wider awareness of available generic exposure assessment methods and models

will help obtain insights into local human and environmental chemical exposure.
Advances are being made with respect to methods to quantify exposures from
products. However, more data on product ingredients and more research are
needed in this field.
Further work is needed to elucidate aggregate exposures to the same chemical,

across sources, and cumulative exposures across chemicals.
E
xposure assessment is context-specific, 2.1 Understanding exposure to
yet it may benefit from work done in chemicals has greatly improved
other contexts or countries. This chapter
summarizes state-of-the-art knowledge, methods Exposure of workers, consumers and the
and resources relevant for determining levels of environment
exposure of humans and environmental media.
While the national and regional specificities of Exposure to chemicals takes place in many
the exposure context are recognized, generic situations. It may occur through food
exposure scenarios which could be useful in consumption, product use, uptakes indoors and
exposure assessment are highlighted. These outdoors, and at the workplace. The magnitude,
scenarios may be particularly useful in countries frequency and duration of exposure to a chemical
that have limited resources to devote to chemicals – or to several chemicals – can be measured
management. or estimated, along with the number and
characteristics of the individuals or population
exposed. For certain categories of chemicals
(e.g. pharmaceutical active ingredients, food
additives, cosmetics, and pesticides, including
biocides) the doses recommended to be applied
in their normal use are often determined and
known in advance. Therefore, the assessment
396
Part III
information available is usually more precise different environmental pathways. Besides

than for industrial chemicals. In the case of a exposure via environmental pathways, the
pesticide active ingredient, for example, it is human population can be exposed through
possible to examine the frequency, timing and products and indoor air emissions. In exposure
levels of contact of workers under particular assessments special attention needs to be
conditions of use, assuming that recommended paid to vulnerable categories such as foetuses;
practices are followed (US EPA 2017a). In the case infants and children; women of childbearing
of industrial chemicals and chemicals in products, age; pregnant and lactating women; and older
lack of information on actual uses may impede adults (US EPA 2017a). The specific method used
drawing conclusions about the assessment of to measure or estimate exposure will depend on
priorities and risks. factors such as the purpose of the assessment
and the quality and quantity of the data required
Ideally, an exposure assessment should describe (US EPA 2017b). Exposure assessments will not
sources, routes, pathways, and the uncertainty in necessarily be relevant in all other countries or
the assessment (WHO 2004). In the assessment contexts. For example, conditions of pesticide
of human exposure many different aspects use differ between and within countries.
require specific consideration: the exposure
route (inhalation, ingestion, dermal); the subjects Measurement-based approaches are valuable,
of exposure (workers, the general population/ but not always possible
consumers, including vulnerable groups, and
ecosystems); and the media which can give rise Measuring and monitoring the presence of a
to exposure (air, water and sediment, soil and chemical in humans (human biomonitoring)
dust, food aquatic biota, consumer products). or in environmental media (environmental
monitoring) is one way to determine levels of
Exposure can also occur through a combination exposure. Environmental monitoring is usually
of routes and media. The figure in Box 2.1 carried out to define the current state of the
shows human exposure to chemicals through environment (e.g. when a problem related to a
Box 2.1 Human exposure to chemicals – environmental pathways (adapted from Faustman and
Omenn 2013, p. 138)
Deposition Inhalation and Deposition

to ground transpiration Air submersion to crops
Milk or meat
ingestion
Ingestion
Groundwater Water
ingestion ingestion Irrigation
Water immersion Shoreline Aquatic food Uptake by

and water surface exposure ingestion aquatic plants
Republished with permission of McGraw-Hill Education; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
In environmental exposure assessment, concentrations in water, sediment, soil and air are often determined
(measured or calculated) in order to obtain insights into exposures of environmental species. Photodegradation,
biodegradation and bioaccumulation are important factors that should also be taken into consideration.
Geographic variability caused by differences in abiotic conditions such as climate, hydrology, geology and
biotic conditions (e.g. differences in ecosystem structures and functions) can also influence the outcomes of
environmental exposure assessments.
Chapter 2. Exposure assessment: benefiting from internationally available resources 397
specific chemical is suspected) and/or to establish synthetic chemicals are measured in body fluids
trends in environmental concentrations (e.g. to (e.g. blood, urine and breast milk) or tissue
measure compliance with restrictions imposed (e.g. hair, nails, fat and bone) (Box 2.2). This
on releases). allows identification of the extent to which certain
chemicals have entered the body and, in the case
In order to determine environmental exposure, of regular measurements, how exposure may
many methods exist to measure concentrations change over time. Methods that use pooled blood
in air, water, soil and solid waste (US EPA 2017c). and urine samples to identify the most prevalent
Such chemical analyses are usually carried out on chemicals of concern in sub-populations at risk,
samples taken at specific locations and times. The such as children, also exist. Combining multiple
measured concentrations can therefore reflect individual specimens into a single sample can
variations in space and time. Measurements always be a cost-effective way to monitor exposures
need to be considered in the context of knowledge and trends and to identify highly exposed sub-
about the process leading to exposure, which populations (Aylward et al. 2014; Heffernan et al.
could mean complicated and resource-intensive 2014; Heffernan et al. 2015). Biomonitoring can
follow-up to obtain additional information. therefore provide precise information on the
Nevertheless, provided the monitoring conditions total internal exposure of an individual at a given
are well-documented, information obtained time, as it adds together exposure from multiple
through monitoring programmes can be helpful sources and routes (e.g. air, water, food), thus
in making environmental exposure assessments also providing information on inter-individual
(OECD 2013). variability and vulnerability.
Biomonitoring is a method by which In the occupational setting, according to the ILO

concentrations of naturally occurring and Code of Practice, employers should monitor and
Box 2.2 Programmes to monitor chemicals in humans and the environment
A number of biomonitoring programmes exist. In the United States, the National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) is a survey research programme which aims to assess the
health and nutritional status of adults and children in that country and track changes over time
(United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [US CDC] 2018a). Much information
on human exposure to environmental contaminants in the United States is made available by
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US CDC 2018b). As part of the Canadian Health
Measures Survey (CHMS), levels of certain chemicals in the blood and urine of the population
are measured (Government of Canada 2018). In the EU the Human Biomonitoring for Europe
(HBM4EU) programme coordinates, advances and harmonizes human biomonitoring in Europe
(Becker et al. 2014). This programme is expected to provide better evidence of the actual exposure
of citizens to chemicals, and possible health effects, than is currently available, with a view to
support policymaking (HBM4EU 2018).
The European Commission’s Information Platform for Chemical Monitoring (IPChem) is a reference
access point for searching, accessing and retrieving chemical occurrence data collected and
managed in Europe. It has been developed to fill the knowledge gap on chemical exposure and its
burden on health and the environment. IPChem is structured into four modules, according to the
chemical monitoring data categorization: Environmental Monitoring, Human Bio-Monitoring, Food
and Feed, and Products and Indoor Air (EC 2018). In addition, scientists and stakeholders from
35 institutions in 27 European countries are working within a human biomonitoring framework,
the Consortium to Perform Human Biomonitoring on a European Scale (COPHES) (COPHES 2016).
The Stockholm Convention has put in place sustainable, harmonized and comparable human
biomonitoring activities through collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) and the WHO. A report on the results of a global survey on concentrations in human milk
of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) was published in 2013 (UNEP and WHO 2013 and is being
updated to include newly listed POPs.).
398
Part III
record the exposure of workers to hazardous Representative and reliable monitoring data are
chemicals to ensure their health and safety (ILO available for only a small number of industrial
1993; ILO 2004). They should also ensure that chemicals. Lack of measured data therefore
workers are not exposed to chemicals to an does not mean there is a lack of exposure.
extent that exceeds exposure limits or other Alternatively, exposure modelling and release
exposure criteria for the evaluation and control of estimation methods are widely used to obtain
the working environment. Based on monitoring insights into exposure scenarios. Work process-
data, employers should assess workers’ exposure based approaches consider potential impacts
to hazardous chemicals and provide these data on worker health as a ratio of reported work-
to the workers. These ILO requirements have related morbidity and mortality to the output of
been implemented in many countries (ILO 2011). industrial processes (Scanlon et al. 2015). In using
This means many countries will have information these methods, it needs to be acknowledged
about levels of exposure to a number of chemicals that the conditions of use of a chemical can be
for a variety of occupations. The outcomes of vastly different and can be more dangerous in
these measurements of exposure can be of use in developing countries than in developed ones,
carrying out more generic exposure assessments. while developing countries usually lack the
resources to carry out full exposure assessments.
Measurements-based approaches may be used
to assess occupational exposures to chemicals National and regional specificities need to be
throughout the supply chain of products. Such recognized
research reveals that the main exposures may
occur at the intermediary stages of product While hazard is an intrinsic property of a
manufacturing (Kijko et al. 2015; Kijko, Jolliet chemical, exposure varies widely according to, for
and Margni 2016). For example, in a study example, process conditions, the formulation of
on occupational exposure associated with an the product used and socio-economic conditions.
office lounge seat, the greatest occupational With respect to environmental exposure, local
exposure occurred during production of the aspects such as climate, average temperatures
plastic materials and resin, rather than during or water conditions can be significant. Given the
manufacturing of the seat or in the chemical variety of specific situations, conditions and/
industry (Kijko, Jolliet and Margni 2016). or purposes for which exposure assessments
© Giles Clarke, Bhopal Medical Appeal CC BY-NC 2.0
may be carried out, the results of exposure Understanding aggregate and cumulative
assessments cannot be directly translated from exposure to chemicals is challenging
one country or region to another. If conditions are
similar, however, exposure scenarios produced In daily life humans are rarely exposed to a single
in some countries may provide generic insights pollutant from a single source. Instead, they
for the conduct of exposure assessments in are exposed to a multitude of distinct organic
similar contexts. and inorganic chemical substances found in
indoor and outdoor environments (UNEP
One tool for obtaining valuable information on 2017; Gligorovski and Abbatt 2018). Each of
local emissions of selected chemicals is a Pollutant these substances is associated with a variety of
Release and Transfer Register (PRTR). Under PRTR sources along product life cycles and following
systems, point source emitters such as industrial various exposure pathways, including those that
facilities are required to report the quantities of contribute to inhalation, ingestion and dermal
chemical releases. These are then made available exposures. Likewise, ecosystems around the
in publicly accessible databases or inventories. world are exposed to releases of numerous
Emissions can be measured or estimated with industrial and agricultural chemicals, either
the help of a wide array of available techniques intentionally (e.g. pesticides) or unintentionally
(e.g. use of emission factors). Such information, (e.g. pharmaceuticals). The cumulative exposure
in combination with effects indications, can help of ecosystems to the mixture of chemicals
identify possible exposures and risks. Companies entering the environment has been identified as
also use PRTR data to identify opportunities to one of the five main pressures negatively affecting
improve efficiencies and reduce waste (OECD biodiversity (Secretariat of the Convention on
2018a; UNECE 2018; United Nations Institute Biological Diversity 2010). How this chemical
for Training and Research [UNITAR] 2018). “cocktail” interferes with human health, and how
Some PRTRs cover non-point or diffuse sources it interacts with organisms and the environment,
(e.g. mobile sources). The possibility of including is still largely unknown.
chemical releases from products has been
studied, and these releases are included to a Single-chemical assessments may fail to
certain extent in some countries (Nordic Council adequately account for potential synergistic
of Ministers 2006; OECD 2017). or antagonistic effects of chemical mixtures in
humans and ecosystems. Aggregate exposure
Figure 2.1 Aggregate (left) and cumulative (right) exposure (adapted from US EPA 2017d)
Inhalation Inhalation
Brain
Oral
Heart Heart
Dermal
Liver
Aggregate exposure assessment considers combined exposures to a single stressor across multiple routes
and multiple pathways. Cumulative exposure assessment generally evaluates combined exposure to multiple
stressors via multiple exposure pathways that affect a single biological target.
400
Part III
across sources for the same chemical and ›› Obtain information about the different uses,
cumulative exposure across chemicals (Figure 2.1) and quantities thereof, within different
are therefore receiving increasing attention, regulatory contexts.
along with the assessment of associated
risks. Efforts to address the combined effect ›› Define chemical usage scenarios and the
of chemical mixtures, such as multi-substance masses emitted during manufacturing (that
effect indicators for freshwater ecosystems is, at the workplace) and other life cycle stages.
(Posthuma et al. 2016), are under way. However,
scientists are just beginning to derive principles ›› Identify the fate and exposure processes that
that allow broader consideration of cumulative result in transfers to biota and to humans.
exposures and related mixture toxicity effects in
humans and ecosystems (Altenburger et al. 2013). ›› Determine exposure to the chemicals in
consumer products.
To advance aggregate and cumulative exposure
assessment, a number of research advances Use of generic exposure scenarios is valuable
need to be made. First, systematic production for industrial chemicals
and use of high-throughput exposure data
(Cohen Hubal et al. 2010; Wambaugh et al. 2013) It is not always necessary to carry out resource-
are required in order to feed complex exposure intensive measurements to obtain insights
models. Second, consistent and mass balance- into exposure levels. To help countries with
based integration of exposure pathways and limited resources derive such insights, valuable
indoor-outdoor environments in frameworks information is available for understanding
based on strictly comparative metrics is essential exposure scenarios. An exposure scenario
to systematically identify exposure hotspots and has been defined as “a combination of facts,
focus higher-tier assessments (Fantke et al. 2016). assumptions, and interferences that define a
Third, mechanisms are required that support the discrete situation where potential exposures
integration of global data and tools to foster our may occur. These may include the source, the
understanding of the complexity of exposure exposed population, the time frame of exposure,
through exposome research, which takes into microenvironment(s), and the activities. Scenarios
account exposure to exogenous chemicals as well are often created to aid exposure assessors
as endogenous chemicals that may be affected in estimating exposure” (WHO 2004). In the
as a consequence of exogenous influences EU’s REACH Regulation an exposure scenario
(Escher et al. 2017). Finally, better linking of refers to an identified use, or group of similar
exposure outcomes to multi-stressor toxicity identified uses, such as formulation, processing
information is needed to capture important or production of an article (ECHA 2016). In
correlations between chemicals, pathways and the United States, EPA generic scenarios and
effects. emission scenarios are built into the ChemSTEER
tool, with ExpoCast allowing exposure estimates
to be made (US EPA 2016; US EPA 2018).
2.2 How can exposure be better Emission scenario tools available to assess
quantified? exposure
A stepwise process to cover exposure Predicting emissions of chemicals from

throughout the life cycle specific industrial processes, or from uses
for the purpose of exposure assessment, can
To better quantify the totality of exposures, be uncertain. To help address this challenge,
especially when resources are limited, it is useful the OECD has developed Emission Scenario
to focus on several steps in the assessment Documents (ESDs) that describe the sources,
process: production processes, pathways and use patterns
Box 2.3 OECD Emission Scenario Documents (ESDs) (OECD 2018b)
Emission Scenario Documents (ESDs) aim to quantify the emissions of a chemical into water, air,
soil and/or solid waste. An ideal ESD should include the following stages:
1. production 5. private and consumer use

2. formulation 6. service life of product/article
3. industrial use 7. recovery
4. professional use 8. waste disposal (incineration, landfill)
of (groups of) chemicals (Box 2.3). ESDs also information or modelling results. They also cover
offer the possibility of obtaining well-supported the general mechanisms of diffuse emissions, the
estimates of exposure. These estimates can be accumulation of long-life articles in society, and
used as default values in the assessment process the relationship between the service life and the
unless more specific information on the use and other stages in the life cycle chain (OECD 2008;
release of a chemical becomes available (e.g. OECD 2018b).
through industry data or as a result of further
research). Wider use of the ESDs concept could Guidance is available on the generic use of
be considered in the context of the sound exposure scenarios to better quantify exposures
management of chemicals and waste beyond (ECHA 2016). The main users of ESDs are
2020, as a potential tool to assist countries with expected to be those who need to estimate
limited resources to estimate exposure. emissions of chemicals to the environment
during production, use and disposal. This
In the development of the ESDs, 54 use categories includes regulatory agencies, chemical producers
and 16 industrial processes have been applied. assessing the potential impact of current and
ESDs aim to quantify, for the specific steps in the new products, and potential users of chemicals
life cycle, the emissions of a chemical into water, who are comparing alternatives. ESDs may also
air, soil and/or solid waste based on available be used in developing estimates of releases for
© UNEP/Oli Brown, Ladies carrying loads near Makeni - Sierra Leone
402
Part III
PRTRs. ESDs and similar tools, including a number Many models are undergoing continuous
of generic scenarios developed by the US EPA improvement and refinement over time. The
(US EPA 2017e), have been widely used in national evolution of models covers, for example: different
and regional contexts (ECHA 2016; ECHA 2018a). spatial and temporal scales; refined estimation
of chemical properties and emission data;
Computer modelling can help inform human incorporation of additional environmental media
and environmental exposure assessment and processes; and integration of sensitivity
and uncertainty analysis in the simulations
Insights into exposure levels can be obtained (Di Guardo et al. 2018; ECHA 2018b). For
through the use of computer models. Modelling methodologically challenging substances, first
helps to improve the understanding of natural generation models are now available to screen
systems and how they react to changing for exposure which take into account parameters
conditions (e.g. exposure to hazardous that are relevant, notably, to nanomaterials
substances, and the temporal and dose effects (e.g. dissolution, agglomeration, transformation)
from the exposure) (US EPA 2017c). Models are (Meesters et al. 2014).
used in risk assessment and risk management
to describe the relationship between emissions Such models enable the determination of
and concentrations and to predict the outcome of ecosystem exposure and the prediction of
management measures. An advantage of using environmental concentrations in freshwater,
models is that they allow the evaluation of results marine or terrestrial environments for ecological
of many processes that occur simultaneously, risk assessment. Wannaz et al. (2018) used a
which would otherwise be very difficult (van de model predicting the differentiation in freshwater
Meent and de Bruijn 2007). Models may therefore concentrations of a chemical (in this case triclosan
be valuable for regulatory decision-making [TCS], an antibacterial and antifungal agent used
and the development of policies. Wider use of in consumer products) across an entire continent.
models to replace costly analytical monitoring
programmes where appropriate – especially Several fate and exposure models allow the
in countries with limited resources – could be determination of human intake fractions
promoted through training and broader capacity via multiple exposure routes and pathways
development support projects. There are also (e.g. inhalation, ingestion of drinking water, fish,
models for very specific purposes, such as meat, dairy products, above and below ground
estimating the overall persistence (Pov) and long- produce, dermal uptake). An example is USEtox,
range transport potential of organic chemicals the consensus United Nations Environment
at a screening level (OECD 2018c). Programme-Society of Environmental Toxicology
and Chemistry (SETAC) toxicity model (Rosenbaum
Computer models are available for a et al. 2008; Rosenbaum et al. 2011).
number of parameters relevant to exposure
assessment. Modelling categories include mass The combination of stochastic prediction
balance modelling; modelling that estimates of chemical content and product usage
concentrations and dispersion in environmental with exposure models makes it possible to
media; and multimedia modelling that provides compare model estimates of internal doses
information about the distribution and transport with the biomonitoring data that are becoming
of released chemicals in environmental media. increasingly available at population level
The OECD has made available an overview of 21 (Wambaugh et al. 2013; Csiszar et al. 2017). The
modelling categories, which include 56 specific external concentration or dose can then be
models used in human and environmental compared with an external No Observed Adverse
exposure assessment (OECD 2012). Effects Level (NOAEL) (see Part III, Chapter 4)
or No Observed Adverse Effect Concentration
(NOAEC) determined from animal studies.
Estimating exposure from products is these cases, even though some databases that
challenging because of data gaps are based on product composition declarations
exist. An example is the Pharos building materials
To quantify exposure to chemicals in products, database (Pharos 2018) (see Part I, Ch. 4 for
the first step is to assess the chemical masses that other examples).
enter the consumer near-field environment where
products are located. Chemical composition and Chemical and product usage also depends on
content have been relatively well-characterized consumer behaviour. To characterize consumer
for certain classes of products (e.g. for personal behaviour, combined with the occurrence of
care and for cleaning). They are available in chemicals in and releases from products,
various databases (Goldsmith et al. 2014) or modelling of product and chemical usage is
can be estimated based on chemical function carried out at the population level. To cover these
(Isaacs et al. 2016). For other products such as parameters, stochastic databases have been
articles or building materials, the composition developed and applied that differentiate between
is often unknown. Much wider disclosure of the average population and given population groups
chemical composition of products is needed in such as children or high-end users (Isaacs et al.
Figure 2.2 Transfer fractions to near-field and far-field compartments and the corresponding
product intake fraction for phenoxyethanol used as a preservative at a concentration of
0.86 per cent in a hand lotion (based on from Fantke et al. 2016)
phenoxyethanol Volatilization
in hand lotion 30%
400 mglotion/d x 0.86% = 3.4

mg phenoxyethanol/d
Washed off to washed off : 4 min - 50% Direct dermal Indoor inhalation Ventilation
wastewater treatment plants left on : 3 hrs - 0.003% 20.3% 0.14% 29%
Population ingestion Population inhalation via
via environment environment
3.6 ppm 0.03 ppm
Total product intake fraction (PiF) 20.5%

Total intake 20.5% x 3.4 mg/d = 0.7 mg/d or 0.01 mg.kgbody/d
Note: All percentages refer to the amount of phenoxyethanol applied.
The Figure indicates the different transfer fractions to near-field and far-field compartments and the
corresponding product intake fraction for phenoxyethanol used as a preservative at a concentration of
0.86 per cent in a hand lotion. The 3.4 milligrams (mg) of phenoxyethanol applied on the hand is first
transferred to an outer layer of the user’s skin (epidermis) (20 per cent), to indoor air (30 per cent) and to the
wastewater treatment plant (50 per cent if the lotion is washed off after four minutes, but only 0.03 per cent
if is kept on for three hours). For this chemical the resulting total product intake fraction of 20.5 per cent
takes place primarily via dermal uptake (20.3 per cent) through the outmost layer of the user’s skin (the
stratum corneum), with limited user inhalation of 0.14 per cent and negligible population ingestion and
inhalation of less than 4 parts per million (ppm), resulting in an intake dose of 0.01 mg/kilogram body/day.
Such high-throughput product intake fractions (PiFs) are available for more than 500 chemical ingredients
in personal care products, with the PiFs varying from 0.001 per cent to 100 per cent depending on chemical
properties (Csiszar et al. 2016), and for more than 8,000 chemical exposures in various products (Shin et al.
2015; Ring et al. 2018).
404
Part III
2014). Once the composition of products is 2.3 Potential measures to further

better known, databases and high-throughput advance exposure assessment
modelling tools are better suited to determine
chemical releases from the product to the indoor Global action can be taken to promote wider
environment. Based on this, it is possible to awareness of available generic exposure
determine the product intake fraction (e.g. for assessment methods and models, so that all
personal care products, cleaning products, countries could use them to obtain insights
chemicals in articles and building materials, into local human and environmental chemical
or food contact materials) (Isaacs et al. 2014; exposure, keeping in mind that the conditions of
Fantke et al. 2016; Netherlands National Institute use of chemicals differ between countries. Taking
for Public Health and the Environment 2018). into account the preceding analysis, stakeholders
Chemicals released from products also undergo may wish to consider the following measures to
transport processes in the near-field before being further advance exposure assessment:
transferred to the natural environment. It is
therefore important to consistently combine ›› Compile exposure assessment methods in
near-field pathways (indoors and close-to-human order to allow a better overview of existing
environment) and far-field pathways (ambient tools.
air, soil, water environment). An example of
the outcomes of a predicted intake fraction ›› Scale up the estimation of chemical emissions
calculation is presented in Figure 2.2. and releases, as well as environmental and
human (bio)monitoring programmes, to
The life cycle of a given chemical or product may provide additional information for exposure
involve hundreds of different chemicals in its assessments.
manufacturing. To address this complexity, the
“environmental genome of industrial products” ›› Facilitate wider use of, and access to,
has been developed (Overcash 2016). This generic exposure assessment methods and
database for 1,600 industrial chemical products computer models, including through capacity
already contains manufacturing energy, process development.
mass intensity, multimedia emissions, modular
unit process flow diagrams, and by-products. ›› Continue developing methods to determine
This information makes it possible to assess releases from – and exposure to – chemicals
and optimize the environmental performance in products.
of chemical manufacturing, while minimizing
efforts to enter a new chemical due to its ›› Continue developing methods to determine
modular structure. Industry has also developed aggregate exposure across sources for the
a programme which can be used on a voluntary same chemical, and cumulative exposure
basis by companies to carry out human and across chemicals.
environmental risk assessments of ingredients in
household cleaning products. In this programme ›› Make additional efforts to increase
exposure models are developed based on data transparency about the determination of
and extrapolations which can provide useful parameters in chemical exposure models.
information for this kind of assessments (Human
and Environmental Risk Assessment n.d.).
3/ Risk assessment: opportunities to improve

and accelerate progress
Chapter Highlights
New approaches to risk assessment take into account new hazard assessment and
exposure assessment methods.
Regulatory frameworks are being strengthened in several countries to address

emerging challenges in risk assessment, as well as to incorporate new data and
approaches.
Large amounts of empirical data relevant for risk assessment have been
generated and increasingly disseminated publicly.
A framework for assessing combined exposures to multiple chemicals is being

further developed.
The use of screening-level, generic risk-based approaches and grouping of

chemicals which are less complicated, and less resource intensive, is advancing.
Toolkits to assist in the risk assessment process have been developed for human
health risks (WHO) and environmental risks (OECD).
C
hemical risk assessments provide decision- 3.1 The development of approaches
makers with predictive analysis concerning to risk assessment is moving
the human and environmental health forward
impacts of exposure to chemicals. Important
building blocks for the risk assessment process Different forms of risk assessment
were described in Part III, Ch. 1 (hazard
assessment) and Ch. 2 (exposure assessment). Risk assessment can be undertaken from two
This chapter features a broader discussion of different perspectives. A chemical-oriented,
risk assessment methods. Opportunities are prospective risk assessment mainly aims to
identified for future work, based on lessons define conditions for the safe use of chemicals.
learned. Attention is also drawn to the wealth of An environmental media-oriented, retrospective
relevant publications and services available from risk assessment is intended either to assess the
national governments and intergovernmental chemical load that is acceptable for a predefined
organizations. compartment (e.g. a particular river or a human
[sub] population). This approach also looks
at whether – and to what extent – chemicals
contribute to observed adverse human health
or environmental impacts. In both cases risks
to human health and the environment are
considered. With respect to human health,
assessments carried out by authorities often
406
Part III
distinguish between risks to workers, consumers data for dose/response calculations. They
(from many different types of products) and the may also occur in extrapolating from animal
general population. test data to humans and across species, or
in determining exposures across life cycles.
Risk assessments may take a number of Moreover, information relevant to assessing the
different forms, depending on the particular special risks to vulnerable populations is often
risk management problem being addressed. missing. These data gaps and uncertainties limit
Chiu (2017) identified the following levels of how the outcomes of risk assessments can be
risk assessment, which have increasing levels used in risk management.
of complexity:
Strengthening regulatory frameworks to
›› Screening and/or prioritization assessments accelerate risk assessment
identify potential areas for further
consideration or analysis. Criticism of chemical risk assessment approaches
used in the past includes the fact that conducting
›› Safety assessments determine whether them is resource-intensive, and that only a limited
existing or proposed exposure levels are number of chemicals have been assessed for
“acceptable”. the risks they pose. Several major regulatory
frameworks have therefore been adapted with
›› Population-level assessments evaluate the the objective of facilitating the risk assessment
impact of one or more risk management of more chemicals within shorter periods of
options on an overall population. time. Adaptions also cover new areas such as the
possible risks of nanomaterials (Laux et al. 2018).
In conducting risk assessments, reliable data and A specific framework for assessing manufactured
proven methodologies are needed. Uncertainties nanomaterials has been put in place under
may derive, for example, from lack of adequate REACH (Gottardo et al. 2017; EC 2018a), while the
© UN/Joydeep Mukherjee
Chapter 3. Risk assessment: opportunities to improve and accelerate progress 407
US EPA is pursuing a comprehensive regulatory to determine the future direction of chemicals

approach under TSCA to address nanoscale management in Canada (Box 3.1).
materials (US EPA 2017).
In the EU, REACH has been subject to a recent
The amendment of TSCA by the Lautenberg Act major review. Although the review concluded, in
of 2016 introduced a clear distinction between principle, that REACH is fit for purpose, several
risk assessment and risk management (United shortcomings were identified and measures
States Congress 2016). It also mandated risk for improvement were suggested. The issues
assessment for vulnerable populations and identified by the European Commission as most
required that priority chemicals currently on urgent were the non-compliance of many of
the market (existing chemicals) be explicitly the registration dossiers submitted by industry,
evaluated by the US EPA. For new chemicals, an and lack of updating of the data that form the
affirmative safety finding by the EPA is required basis for risk assessment. Further issues included
prior to market introduction. Current discussions the need to simplify the authorization process
revolve around implementation of the amended and to ensure a level playing field with non-EU
TSCA (American Chemistry Council 2018; Franklin companies (EC 2018b; EC 2018c).
2018). In Canada a recent parliamentary review
of the Canadian Environmental Protection Act of Improving empirical knowledge
1999 resulted in numerous recommendations
related to risk assessment, including on Efforts have been undertaken to better organize
vulnerable populations, endocrine-disrupting and systematize empirical knowledge for
chemicals, cumulative risk assessment and chemical risk assessment, as well as to increase
priority-setting. These recommendations the availability of exposure, hazard and risk data
inform ongoing engagement with stakeholders to regulatory authorities, the public and other
stakeholders. New Approach Methodologies
Box 3.1 Canada’s Chemicals Management Plan
The Canadian Chemicals Management Plan was launched in 2006 with the aim of reducing the
risks posed by chemical substances to human health and the environment (Government of
Canada 2016a). As of July 2018, over 80 per cent of the 4,300 substances identified in 2006 –
during the categorization process – had been assessed. The remaining substances are expected
to be addressed by 2021 (Government of Canada 2018a).
The Chemicals Management Plan Risk Assessment Toolbox offers a range of approaches to
address the remaining substances (or groups) effectively by selecting an appropriate and fit-for-
purpose approach in each case (Government of Canada 2016b). This ensures that efforts focus on
the substances of highest concern and that stakeholders are engaged as efficiently as possible.
Canada has also developed the Identification of Risk Assessment Priorities (IRAP) process, which
seeks to integrate new information from a wider range of sources to track emerging issues and
identify and prioritize substances that require further work (Government of Canada 2017a).
With the conclusion of the current Chemicals Management Plan nearing, Canada will be looking
at new directions and objectives for chemicals management after 2020. It will also work on
improving the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999, which is the country’s framework
law on pollution prevention and toxic chemicals (Government of Canada 2018b).
408
Part III
are beginning to be applied in risk assessment, occurrences and exposure are comparatively
as illustrated by a number of case studies limited. Recent efforts include the IPCHEM portal
(Shah and Greene 2014; Karmaus et al. 2016; of the European Commission (EC 2018d) and
Pham et al. 2016). Important progress has been the NHANES human biomonitoring data from
made in developing the concept of Adverse the National Health and Nutrition Examination
Outcome Pathways (AOPs) (Carusi et al. 2018) (see Survey of the Centers for Disease Control and
also Part III, Ch. 3) and in research on Aggregated Prevention in the United States (US CDC 2018).
Exposure Pathways (AEPs) (Teeguarden et al.
2016). Research is also advancing on the Over the last decade several large-scale
human exposome, a concept which includes programmes have been initiated in the United
examining the effects of exogenous chemicals States and internationally to incorporate
and endogenous chemicals produced (or altered) advances in molecular and cellular biology, -omics
in response to external stressors (Pleil 2015; technologies, analytical methods, bioinformatics,
Human Exposome Project 2019; EC 2015). Studies and computational tools and methods in the field
are exploring “if mechanistic understanding of of toxicology. As noted in the report Using 21st
the causal links between exposure and adverse Century Science to Improve Risk-Related Evaluations
effects on human health and the environment (United States National Academies of Sciences,
can be improved by integrating the exposome Engineering and Medicine [US NASEM] 2017),
approach with the [AOP] concept” (Escher et al. “similar efforts are being pursued in the field of
2017). For exposure-driven risk assessments exposure science with the goals of: obtaining
of chemicals, however, more information on more accurate and complete exposure data
exposure patterns would be useful. on individuals and populations for thousands
of chemicals over the lifespan; predicting
High-throughput screening generates exposures from use data and chemical-property
hazard data relevant to risk assessments for information; and translating exposures between
thousands of chemicals. An example of work test systems and humans”.
being carried out in this field is the US EPA’s
ToxCast programme, which includes publicly These efforts, separately and combined, help
available high-throughput toxicity data on a large enlarge the knowledge base for risk assessment.
number of chemicals (US EPA 2018a). The further However, they focus mainly on improving
development and use of AOPs is important in the empirical knowledge base for human
understanding the mechanisms of toxicity for health-oriented risk assessments. Improving
groups of chemicals. High-throughput screening the knowledge base for environmental risk
is particularly useful in priority-setting. While assessments has received comparatively little
these are all important steps with respect to attention – leading, for example, to a call to
limiting the use of test animals, in coming years establish landscape-level monitoring of pesticide
much of the information needed to determine impacts (pesticidovigilance) (Milner and Boyd
the (long-term) risk challenges of chemicals will 2017). Moreover, such initiatives are currently
still need to be derived through animal testing mainly restricted to a small number of countries
(ECHA 2017). which already have significant experience in the
field. Countries with limited resources for risk
Ongoing activities result in large collections of assessment often do not have widely available
empirical data, which are increasingly being data repositories (Wang et al. 2015).
made publicly available. Major data repositories
that contain data on hazardous properties and International support to assist countries with
classification, and inform risk assessment, risk assessments
include the US EPA’s ChemView (US EPA 2018b),
its CompTox Chemistry Dashboard (Williams et al. A number of resources are available from
2017; US EPA 2018c), REACH registration data at international organizations to provide assistance
ECHA (ECHA n.d. a) and the OECD’s eChemPortal with chemical risk assessments. The WHO, for
(OECD n.d.). Data repositories on chemical example has developed a Human Health Risk
Box 3.2 The WHO Human Health Risk Assessment Toolkit
The WHO Human Health Risk Assessment Toolkit (WHO 2010) (https://
www.who.int/ipcs/methods/harmonization/areas/ra_toolkit/en/)
provides users with guidance for identifying, acquiring and using the
information needed to assess chemical hazards, exposures and the
corresponding health risks in their given health risk assessment contexts
at local and/or national levels. The Toolkit contains roadmaps for
conducting a human health risk assessment; identifies information that
must be gathered to complete an assessment; and lists electronic links
to international resources where the user can obtain information and
methods essential for conducting the human health risk assessment.
The Toolkit has been developed for public health and environmental
professionals, regulators, industrial managers and other decision-
makers who have at least some training in the principles of risk
assessment, and who have a role in assessing and managing the human
health risks of chemicals.
Box 3.3 The OECD Environmental Risk Assessment Toolkit
The OECD’s internet-based Environmental Risk

Assessment Toolkit (OECD 2016) (http://www.oecd.
org/env/ehs/risk-assessment/environmental-risk-
assessment-toolkit.htm) provides access to practical
tools for the environmental risk assessment of
chemicals. It describes the general work flow of
environmental risk assessment and provides
examples of risk assessments. Links are provided
to relevant tools developed by the OECD and its
member countries that can be used in each step of
the work flow.
Assessment Toolkit (WHO 2010) (Box 3.2). The chemical risk assessment is included in a number
OECD has developed an Environmental Risk of regulatory frameworks, including in the EU
Assessment Toolkit (OECD 2016) (Box 3.3). (Ågerstrand and Beronius 2016). The weight given
to the available evidence depends on factors
such as data quality, consistency of results,
nature and severity of effects, and relevance of
3.2 Conceptual and methodological the information. Since WoE evaluations require
risk assessment solutions are the use of scientific judgement, it is essential to
emerging provide adequate and reliable documentation
(ECHA n.d. b).
Weight of evidence and systematic review
Canada applies WoE and precaution in risk
In weight of evidence (WoE) evaluations a assessment. Both WoE and precaution are
combination of information from several influenced by uncertainty, so that all three
independent sources is used to provide sufficient concepts – weight of evidence, precaution
evidence to meet an information requirement. and systematic review – should be considered
The possibility to apply a weight of evidence together in decision-making. As noted by the
evaluation, or a systematic review approach, in Government of Canada (2017b), “a limited
410
Part III
low quality data set will increase assessment Toxicology Program (US NTP) (US NTP 2018a). The
uncertainty, reduce the strength and likely handbook will be updated as methodological
consistency of the WoE, thereby increasing practices are refined and evaluated and strategies
the need to consider precaution. Conversely, a are identified that improve the reliability, ease
more robust data set will decrease uncertainty, and efficiency of conducting systematic reviews
resulting in the application of less precaution”. A A recently published US EPA document on
survey of frameworks for best practices in weight the application of systematic review in TSCA
of evidence analyzes provides a review of 50 evaluations provides an overview of the general
frameworks which have been used (Rhomberg principles used (US EPA 2018d). Both weight of
et al. 2013). evidence and systematic review are useful to
inform the risk management decision-making
Systematic review (SR) is a formal technique process and make it more evidence-based.
for reviewing existing evidence in order to
answer a specific research question. It uses a Defining better specific human and
predefined, multi-step process to identify, select, environmental protection goals
critically assess and synthesize evidence from
scientific studies to reach a conclusion. It does Protection goals in regulatory frameworks for
not replace scientific judgement; rather, it uses chemical risk assessment and management
a process to document the basis for scientific are typically formulated in general terms. They
judgements, minimizing the risk of bias and error demand, for example, avoidance of ‘‘harmful
and maximizing transparency (Roth and Wilks effects’’, “unreasonable risks” or ‘‘adverse
2014). A Navigation Guide for the Systematic impacts”. However, hazard evaluations, exposure
Review Methodology was published in 2014 assessments and risk characterizations provide
(Woodruff and Sutton 2014) (often detailed) technical information that does
not speak to broad protection goals. Therefore,
The SR method is described in detail in a it has been argued that specific protection goals
handbook published by the United States National should be better defined (“what to protect,
where and when”) to improve, in particular, the on biodiversity might be. It therefore allows
environmental risk assessment of chemicals the definition of appropriate risk management
(Brown et al. 2017; Maltby et al. 2017). Further options. However, this approach is extremely
work on Adverse Outcome Pathways and data-demanding and might be best suited to
integrated approaches to testing and assessment chemicals (e.g. plant protection products) for
would help advance the linking of traditional which rich data sets are available.
toxicity endpoints (which are studied for hazard
assessments) to impacts considered in regulatory Improving risk assessment for chemical
decision-making in regard to risk levels. Currently, mixtures and cumulative exposures
specific protection goals are mainly used in
frameworks for retrospective, site-specific risk Monitoring studies routinely show that humans,
assessments, as these allow the definition and as well as organisms in the environment, are
evaluation of “acceptable” versus “unacceptable” exposed to hundreds of individual chemicals
effects on species, populations and ecological from a variety of sources, resulting in cumulative
communities. exposures. Nevertheless, even modern regulatory
frameworks mainly focus on the assessment of
To move prospective risk assessment methods individual chemicals – disregarding the reality of
forward and better define environmental cumulative exposures from different chemicals
protection goals, the use of the ecosystem and products through different emission sources
services concept has been proposed by the via a multitude of exposure pathways. Given
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in the that the risk of chemical mixtures in most cases
risk assessment of plant protection products and exceeds the risks posed by individual chemicals,
other chemical products (EFSA 2010; EFSA 2016). toxicological or ecotoxicological thresholds may
This entails systematic evaluation of impacts not always be sufficiently protective (Kortenkamp,
on potentially vulnerable key populations of Backhaus and Faust 2009). There are GHS criteria
organisms (the “ecosystem service providing for the classification of mixtures in which any
units”) and covers various dimensions. These may impurities, additives or individual constituents
include biological entity, attribute, magnitude of a substance which have been identified are
of effect, temporal and geographical scale of considered if their properties exceed the cut-
the effect, and the degree of certainty that a off value/concentration limit for a given hazard
specified level of effect will not be exceeded. An class (UN 2017).
ecosystem protection approach, if successfully
implemented, provides a detailed map indicating The development and assessment of approaches
conditions under which certain species groups and methods for mixture toxicity assessment
might be at risk and what the overall impacts have been subject to extensive reviews
Box 3.4 Assessing exposure to chemical mixtures: WHO and EFSA activities
The WHO has been developing frameworks for human risk assessment of chemical mixtures
(OECD 2011; Meek et al. 2011; WHO 2017a; US ATSDR 2018). The key purpose of this work is to
provide an overview of available tools and practical recommendations to support the screening
and prioritization of mixtures for the assessment and management of risks to human health
associated with exposure to chemical mixtures from drinking water and its sources.
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has also carried out a number of activities in this
field related to pesticides and contaminants. As a first step prior to an assessment, the EFSA
considers the problem formulation, defining the relevant exposure, hazard and population to
be considered. The risk assessment itself is, in practice, conducted using a tiered approach for
exposure assessment, hazard assessment and risk characterization. The tiers can range from
tier 0 (a data-poor situation, default values) to 3 (full probabilistic models). Higher tiers require
increasing knowledge about the group of chemicals under assessment (Meek et al. 2011; EFSA
n.d.).
412
Part III
and guidance (OECD 2011; Meek et al. 2011; environment. The WHO One Health initiative
WHO 2017a; United States Agency for Toxic has been developed to address aspects of
Substances and Disease Registry [US ATSDR] this issue (Box 3.5). In the United States, the
2018). In the future new methods such as high- National Toxicology Program is engaged in the
throughput screening could play an increasing SEAZIT (Systematic Evaluation of the Application
role. In order for these methods to fulfil their of Zebrafish in Toxicology) initiative (US NTP
promise, they should have relevance for whole 2018b). Small aquarium fish species such as
animal models. Empirical knowledge of typical the zebrafish are used as model organisms to
exposure patterns and the underlying drivers of replicate human development, physiology and
mixture toxicity is still scarce and fragmented. disease processes while avoiding the limitations
They are the subject of ongoing research and of use of rodent-based models. Generating data
evaluation. Given the complexity of assessing on aquatic models could help evaluate biological
combined exposures temporally and spatially, processes related to both ecological receptors
the data demands compared with traditional and humans. Fully incorporating these aquatic
risk assessments increase exponentially. Yet model organisms into modern toxicological
simple, robust and sufficiently protective rules investigations could also yield significant scientific
of thumb are needed in order to allow at least and economic benefits (US NTP 2017).
semi-quantitative risk estimates to be conducted
in support of regulatory action. The concept of Better linking of risk assessment and risk
an additional safety factor is currently being management
addressed, for example, by KEMI in Sweden and
the National Institute for Public Health and the The role of a risk assessor is to assess whether
Environment in the Netherlands (Backhaus 2015; a risk of a certain chemical is “likely to arise”.
van Broekhuizen, Posthuma and Traas 2016). In The role of a risk manager is to assess the
the WHO and the EFSA work has been carried “acceptability” of that given risk and, if needed,
out to develop a framework for assessment recommend risk management options to ensure
of combined exposures to multiple chemicals an acceptable risk situation, taking into account
(Box 3.4). trade-offs between risks and benefits of the use
of the chemical concerned. In general, it would
Strengthening integrated risk assessments be useful for risk assessment to be better guided
covering human health and the environment by risk management options and objectives.
For example, risk assessors could be asked to
Human well-being is closely related to ecosystem provide certain levels of certainty or uncertainty
health and vice versa. It has become increasingly in their assessment with respect to various risk
clear that media- or sector-specific efforts are management options, which would be particularly
insufficient to tackle broad-scale problems such beneficial under multiple-risk conditions that
as antimicrobial resistance development in the require the evaluation of integrative response
Box 3.5 The WHO One Health initiative
The WHO One Health initiative is an approach to designing and implementing programmes,
policies, legislation and research in which multiple sectors communicate and work together to
achieve better public health outcomes (WHO 2018a; World Organization for Animal Health [OIE]
2018). The WHO works closely with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) and the World Organization for Animal Health to promote multi-sectoral responses to
food safety hazards, risks from zoonoses, and other public health threats at the human-animal-
ecosystem interface, and to provide guidance on how to reduce these risks. While One Health
currently targets a selected number of issues, mainly at the interface of veterinary and human
medicine, its approach could be extended to the development of truly integrated chemical risk
assessments, as envisaged by the WHO when this initiative began (FAO 2011; WHO 2017b; OIE
2018).
© Kekyalyaynen/Shutterstock, water recycling on sewage treatment station
options. This could be relevant, for example, management does not require the elimination
when assessing the consequences of exposures of uncertainty; rather, it requires that any such
to complex chemical mixtures or evaluating uncertainty is made visible and has been taken
chemical alternatives. Detrimental risk-risk trade- into consideration.”
offs, which might occur as a result of different
amounts of hazard and exposure information Solution-oriented approaches in
being available for different chemicals, could be environmental risk assessment
reduced (Sahlin and Rundlöf 2016). Already in
2009, the National Research Council in the United Demand for solution-oriented approaches is
States published a report which recommended increasing not only in the context of chemical
that risk assessments be more closely linked to risk assessment, but also in that of global
problem formulation and problem solving, and environmental assessments generally (Jabbour
that the level of detail in a risk assessment match and Flachsland 2017). To foster tighter coupling of
the question that needed to be addressed (United chemical risk management with risk assessment
States National Research Council [US NRC] 2009). in identifying appropriate action, the concept
of solution-focused risk assessment has been
The WHO Guidance Document on Evaluating and proposed (Finkel 2011) (Box 3.6). van Wezel et al.
Expressing Uncertainty in Hazard Characterization (2017) used a solution-focused perspective for
(2017c) finds that “the process of evaluating chemicals in European water bodies. Instead of
human health effects as a function of (potential) another database on toxic effects and chemical
exposure […] necessarily involves uncertainties” exposures, they developed one that provides
associated with extrapolating results from hazard mitigation options for improving water quality. A
assessment. “Ignoring these uncertainties solution-focused and systems-oriented approach,
may lead to incomplete risk assessments as combined with such a mitigation database, offers
well as suboptimal decision-making and risk a common, action-oriented perspective among
communication.” Risk assessors therefore stakeholders on the effects on water quality
have to take uncertainty explicitly into account. of possible mitigation options throughout a
“Effective risk assessment and subsequent risk
414
Part III
Box 3.6 Solution-focused risk assessment (Finkel 2011)
Instead of beginning by asking “How bad is the problem?”, solution-focused risk assessment asks
“How good are the solutions that could be applied to the problem?” Rethinking risk assessment
this way could provide three types of benefits:
›› It could help to interrupt an endless cycle of analysis (sometimes referred to as “paralysis

by analysis”). When the goal is to know enough to decide, rather than to “know everything”,
natural stopping points may emerge.
›› It could lead sooner to decisions that succeed in reducing risk, rather than assessments of
how much risk reduction would be optimal.
›› It could highlight ways to resolve multiple risks and, simultaneously, avoid unnecessary and
poorly thought out risk-risk trade-offs.
›› Affected stakeholders might then be more easily involved in discussing what should be
done to address the problem.
chemical’s life cycle in various sectors and at to be taken before an accident occurs include
various locations in the water system. providing information to the public about
relevant chemical products (emphasizing the
Risk assessment, in its role of defining an difference between hazard and risk) (OECD 2002).
“acceptable operating space” for industry and
consumers (as a proactive tool to help avoid harm In recent years technological advances have
in the first place), might not be easily amenable improved many types of scientific risk information
to this approach, which seems best suited to dramatically. However, valuable information
media- and site-specific assessments in order can easily go to waste if not effectively
to provide options for taking action as early as communicated to the people who need it so they
possible. When it has been demonstrated that can make decisions. Effective communication
a river is polluted by untreated effluents, or that helps technical experts to develop and share
decreasing fertility in a community is due to data. It also enables professional users to
endocrine-disrupting chemicals, the application understand the data, while it influences how
of this approach might be most useful, depending many ordinary people take actions to reduce
on national practices. risk. Because communication is a process, it
should be considered throughout every stage
Risk communication of risk assessment (United Nations Office for
Disaster Risk Reduction [UNISDR] 2017). (See
Communicating risk information is a challenge also Part III, Ch. 4 and, in relation to chemical
within countries and internationally. In order accidents, Part III, Ch. 6)
to be effective, risk communication needs to
address psycho-social aspects of chemical
risk perception and management. Since it is
characterized by uncertainty, rapid changes and 3.3 How can risk assessment evolve?
developments, risk communication requires
flexible communication tools and channels. Grouping of chemicals
It should therefore, as appropriate, exploit
new technology including social media. Two- Currently, chemicals are most often assessed
way communication via interactive media also compound by compound. Risk assessments
allows feedback that can help improve future risk that evaluate whole chemical groups could
communication policies and practices. Groups substantially reduce the burden on the
with whom effective risk communication is regulatory system and increase efficiencies in
essential include workers, public authorities, public and environmental health protection.
health care providers and the media; the steps Group risk assessments are currently limited to
complex chemical mixtures such as petroleum data. However, its validity hinges on a valid
products. The OECD has developed guidance chemical grouping, sound estimation of the TTC
for the grouping of chemicals and read-across for each chemical group, and reliable exposure
approaches (OECD 2014; OECD 2018). Although assessment. Canada has experience with using
grouping is limited at this time to the hazard a TTC-based approach in a regulatory setting
assessment of data-poor chemicals, it might be (Environment and Climate Change Canada 2016;
a starting point for the development of similar Environment and Climate Change Canada and
approaches for risk assessments. Canada has Health Canada 2017)
already used grouping strategies to assess
nine key groupings of substances under the Better integration and harmonization
Chemicals Management Plan (Government of
Canada 2016b). The European Commission and Chemical risk assessment is largely anchored
the ECHA are also looking at possibilities for the in a national (regulatory) context, rather than
increased use of grouping of chemicals to speed being organized at the international level under
up the identification and management of those an overarching framework as is the case with,
of concern (KEMI 2018; ECHA n.d. c). for example, efforts to combat global climate
change and protect the ozone layer. Efforts to
Research suggests the promise of the grouping address certain priority hazardous chemicals are
methodology. The results of a recent study implemented in a complex set of intertwined,
show that a combination of bioactivity and legally independent treaties and programmes
chemical descriptors can accurately predict that address a small number of chemicals (Selin
a range of target organ toxicity outcomes in 2013). The lack of a holistic global strategy for
repeat-dose studies. Further experimental and chemical hazard and risk assessment and
methodological improvements may further management also hampers knowledge transfer
increase predictivity (Liu et al. 2017). Another and transparency. Ways to fill this gap could be
recent publication concludes that an in silico tool explored in the context of the sound management
which can predict toxicity values with uncertainty of chemicals and waste beyond 2020 (Backhaus,
of an order of magnitude or less can be used in Scheringer and Wang 2018).
combination with exposure assessment to assess
risks of environmental chemicals quickly and Improved integration and harmonization may also
quantitatively when traditional toxicity data or be valuable at the technical level (Wilks et al. 2015).
human health assessments are unavailable. This Human health-oriented and environmental risk
tool could fill a critical gap in the risk assessment assessments use similar techniques, sometimes
and management of data-poor chemicals (Wignall even employing identical (eco)toxicological test
et al. 2018). systems, chemical monitoring strategies and
data integration/evaluation approaches. Better
One proposed generic risk-based approach connecting human health and environmental
is the concept of Threshold of Toxicological perspectives in an integrated assessment by
Concern (TTC). TTC assumes that an exposure generating empirical data and models that
below a certain threshold concentration (which consider both human health and environmental
is specific for a defined group of chemicals) is protection would vastly improve the efficacy of
without adverse toxicological consequences the risk assessment process.
(EFSA 2012). It has been used to define such
exposure concentrations for the members of a The report Using 21st Century Science to Improve
given chemical class. This approach could also be Risk-Related Evaluations (US NASEM 2017) makes
particularly useful in deciding which chemicals recommendations for integrating new scientific
should not be given high priority for further approaches into risk-based evaluations. It
work. Full risk assessments would then only be proposes how best to integrate and use the
required if the exposure level exceeded the TTC. emerging results in evaluating chemical risk and
An advantage is that applying the TTC would considers whether a new paradigm is needed for
not require substance by substance hazard data validation; how to integrate the divergent
416
Part III
data streams; how uncertainty might need to be mutagenic and reprotoxic (CMR) chemicals in
characterized; and how best to communicate new consumer products and preparations.
approaches so that they are understandable to
various stakeholders. Methods which are only hazard-based are
sometimes used in voluntary approaches,
Generic risk-based approaches particularly when possibilities to substitute
hazardous chemicals with less problematic
Conducting an in-depth chemical risk assessment alternatives are being explored. An example is
can be resource-intensive. In certain cases, use of the SIN (Substitute It Now!) List approach
however, a generic and science-based, risk-based (International Chemical Secretariat n.d.). To a
approach – which is less costly, but fit for purpose certain extent, eco-labelling is also based on
– can be used (Hansen 2017). For example, this the consideration of hazards. High-throughput
approach could be used to identify: screening for hazards, accompanied by read-
across methods, can help to facilitate the
›› chemicals with low exposure that are unlikely prioritization of chemicals for a full traditional
to present unreasonable risks; risk assessment.
›› low-hazard chemicals (e.g. chemicals that do Chemical assessment in countries with limited

not need to be classified according to the GHS resources
criteria and therefore are unlikely to present
unreasonable risks); and In countries with limited resources, a number of
economic, technical and administrative obstacles
›› combinations of hazards, uses and exposures may impede the adaptation of elaborate risk
that are likely to present risks. assessment frameworks developed in countries
with greater resources. The lack of an applicable,
Several strategies have been developed so overarching international framework, and
that regulatory decisions can be taken (if prevailing difficulties in the implementation of
circumstances permit) without requiring the already existing instruments, pose additional
full suite of hazard and exposure assessments. problems. As it might not always be possible to
These approaches do not directly replace full risk make a full risk assessment, management on the
assessments; however, they provide decision- basis of hazard is practised by some countries
making criteria for determining whether there and is considered a legitimate approach to
is a case to answer and/or they often guide sound chemicals management in specific cases
prioritization efforts. Canada, for example, has – including, for example, chemicals that are
developed the Chemicals Management Plan Risk highly hazardous, that do not have thresholds,
Assessment Toolbox, which offers a range of that are persistent or bioaccumulative, or that
approaches to address substances (or groups) have non-monotonic dose responses, or where
effectively by selecting an appropriate and fit-for- conditions of use are such that generic exposure
purpose approach. Such examples include the assessments are not valid.
Rapid Screening Approach that may use either
qualitative or quantitative data for assessments Towards enhanced knowledge-sharing
and are typically applied to substances that have
lower potential for exposure and risk; or the In the beyond 2020 chemicals and waste
adoption of existing hazard characterizations strategy, consideration could be given to how
from international organizations (Government best to promote the best global use of the
of Canada 2016b). A generic risk-based rapidly increasing volume of publicly available
approach could also be to consider that there hazard and risk information. This could be
are combinations of hazards and uses for which achieved, for example, through continued
risk is inevitable because exposure cannot be technical harmonization of the scientific methods
controlled, such as in the case of carcinogenic, used in the generation and assessment of the
necessary data, including harmonization of data
formats. The WHO Chemical Risk Assessment ›› Develop and adapt chemical risk assessment
Network supports global efforts to assess and methods in order to facilitate their use in
manage the risks associated with exposures countries with limited risk assessment
to hazardous chemicals. Established in 2013, capacity.
it involves institutions with chemical risk
assessment activities (WHO 2018b). The use of ›› Improve the knowledge base for
existing OECD products in this respect could be environmental risk assessment (e.g. through
considered. Countries with limited resources chemicals release data).
would then be better placed to benefit from
the results, including priority-setting and in- ›› Further develop risk assessment methods for
depth assessments (generated and made chemical mixtures and chemicals in products,
publicly available through national and regional as well as integrated risk assessment
programmes), and to apply them in their national approaches covering human health and the
contexts. environment.
›› Explore further how screening-level, generic

risk-based approaches can be used, where
3.4 Potential measures to further these approaches are fit for purpose.
advance risk assessment
›› Take steps to facilitate, where appropriate, the
Taking into account the preceding analysis, use of risk assessment methods in developing
stakeholders may wish to consider the following countries, in order to further develop and
measures to further advance risk assessment: harmonize methods for the risk assessment of
chemical mixtures and chemicals in products,
›› Facilitate global use of the increasing volume and consider developing more specific
of publicly available risk-related information, protection goals for use in risk assessment.
particularly by countries with limited
resources.
418
Part III
4/ Risk management decision-making:

making it work in all countries
Chapter Highlights
Safety data sheets and labelling, based on the GHS, provide the foundation for
risk management. However, globally there are important implementation and
knowledge gaps.
Regulatory decision-making can stimulate frontrunner companies to undertake

sustainable innovations.
Government regulatory actions, non-regulatory strategies and voluntary

initiatives may be mutually supportive when used in a concerted way.
Socio-economic analysis that addresses the costs and benefits of action and
non-action is useful to inform decision-making. Nevertheless, caution in the
interpretation of results is required.
The IOMC Toolbox for Decision-Making in Chemicals Management can assist

countries in identifying the most appropriate risk management instruments and
approaches.
R
isk assessment is a scientific approach of action to ensure that human health and the
which provides decision-makers with robust environment are protected. In most cases a
assessments of the actual or potential chemical risk assessment is a solid basis for
impacts of exposure. It is an approach that takes chemical risk management. The interface of
socio-economic considerations into account. the risk assessment and the risk management
This chapter addresses important aspects of process is referred to as “risk characterization”.
the chemical risk management decision-making In risk characterization, exposure and hazard are
process: information needs; the available support compared in order to determine a No Observed
tools; how regulatory and voluntary actions can Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) – that is, the greatest
be complementary; and how countries with concentration or amount of a substance found
limited resources can engage in risk management in a test to cause no adverse reactions by the
(e.g. on the basis of the GHS). target organism for a specific endpoint (further
described in Duffus, Nordberg and Templeton
2007). Since the NOAEL is usually determined
through animal testing, assessment factors are
4.1 From chemical risk assessment used to convert NOAELs to a reference dose that
to risk management may be applied in human risk assessment and
risk management.
Risk management decision-making is a process
whereby risk managers, policymakers and The outcome of risk characterization is often
scientists work together closely to find innovative presented in the form of a risk quotient that
ways to select the best option(s) for a course compares the (expected) concentration of a
Chapter 4. Risk management decision-making: making it work in all countries 419
chemical in the medium of interest (e.g. the risk management, can at times make the risk
human body, ambient air, an aquatic ecosystem) management process complex. While chemicals’
with the maximum concentration deemed safe hazards cannot be changed, exposures can be
under normal circumstances. Certain population controlled to eliminate or minimize harm to
groups are more vulnerable to exposure to human health and the environment, a hierarchy
chemicals due to biological, social, economic can be used in applying controls. In the field of
or other factors. These groups include, among occupational health, for example, elimination/
others, the elderly, children, pregnant women substitution of the hazard is a preferred
and the poor. The possible risks for these approach and is at the top of the hierarchy.
vulnerable groups require special consideration This is followed by subsequent steps, among
in risk management decision-making, especially which are engineering controls, administrative
during the risk characterization process. controls (including changes in work practices)
and, finally, use of personal protective equipment
How much information is needed for risk (PPE) (US CDC 2015).
management decision-making?
In controlling exposure, a number of information
Risk assessment and risk management processes uncertainties also exist and must be taken into
that aim at preventing harm to human health and account. Reliable measurements of exposure
the environment require a significant amount of are often scarce and limited to the workplace.
scientific information. This information is, at times, While monitoring data could be used in exposure
characterized by uncertainty. In decision-making assessment, they are available for only 1 to
to protect human health and the environment, 2 per cent of the chemicals on which there are
where there is incomplete knowledge or lack of some toxicity data (Egeghy et al. 2012). A further
scientific certainty, precautionary actions are challenge in determining the risk of chemical
often considered, in accordance with Principle 15 exposure to human health or the environment
of the Rio Declaration on Environment and is that information describing how chemicals are
Development used does not always cover the whole life cycle.
Fortunately, even when uncertainties exist and
Principe 15 states that “In order to protect the not all the desired information is available, the
environment, the precautionary approach shall use of Emission Scenario Documents (ESDs) and
be widely applied by States according to their models can in most cases help to provide the
capabilities. Where there are threats of serious necessary insights (OECD 2018a; ECHA n.d. a). In
or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific the case of pesticides, surveillance programmes
certainty shall not be used as a reason for are also an important basis for risk management.
postponing cost-effective measures to prevent Activities in these programmes include the
environmental degradation” (UN 1992). A logical investigation and evaluation of adverse health
framework for using the precautionary principle effects related to acute pesticide exposure and
in chemicals regulation has been developed the analysis of pesticide exposure data.
to help regulators in the EU work through the
process of considering whether a combination
of concerns and uncertainties justifies taking
precautionary measures of control (Milieu, T.M.C. 4.2 Safety data sheets and labelling:
Asser Institute and PACE 2011). This framework implementation and gaps
underlines the importance of documenting the
evidence of concerns and uncertainties, so that Safety data sheets and labels: important tools
the decision-maker can be confident that applying for risk management
the precautionary principle is appropriate.
An important first step in risk management is to
Addressing data uncertainties concerning the ensure good access by workers and consumers
exact magnitude of the risk, as well as carefully to chemical hazard and risk information. Such
considering options for the implementation of information is often made available in the form
420
Part III
of product labels, pictograms and safety data

sheets (SDS) (Ta et al. 2010; Sathar, Dalvie and
Rother 2016; ECHA n.d. b). SDS and labels are the
basic hazard communication tools for hazardous
chemicals as regards their manufacture, storage,
transport and other handling interactions
(Lee et al. 2012; Dalvie, Rother and London 2014).
International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSC) are
information tools prepared through a peer-
reviewed process in order to provide safety
and health information on chemicals in a clear
and concise way (ILO 2018; WHO 2018a). By
promoting safe use of chemicals in the workplace,
these cards also support implementation of the
ILO Chemicals Convention (ILO 2017).
Hazard and safety communication elements such

as pictograms, hazard statements, precautionary © UNITAR/Andrea Carao, Labelling of containers in a leather chromium tanning
statements and guidance, and a harmonized factory
format for the preparation of SDS are the key

constituents of the Globally Harmonized System
of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals the implications of GHS, and to ensure that its
(GHS) described in Part II, Ch. 2.4 (UNECE provisions are reflected in legal instruments
2017; UNECE n.d. a; UNECE n.d. b). The GHS (Dalvie, Rother and London 2014).
is a common starting point that can help risk
managers ensure the appropriate handling While labels provide important first information
and safe use of chemicals (Dalvie, Rother to anyone who handles, uses, stores and/or
and London 2014). Effective implementation transports hazardous chemicals, SDS provide
of classification and labelling is an initial risk more comprehensive information. They are
management measure that can, in principle, be product-related and enable the employer to
implemented consistently in all countries even develop and implement worker protection
when limited resources are available. National or measures specific to the workplace (United States
regional legislation on classification and labelling, Occupational Safety and Health Administration
based on the GHS, is necessary to ensure solid [US OSHA] 2012; US OSHA 2013; UNECE 2017).
implementation and enforcement. There are, however, several gaps in the way
SDS are prepared and applied in the workplace,
The GHS is (partly) in force in 72 countries. In meaning that workers may not be correctly
some countries a transitional period is in effect informed and may be at risk. For example, studies
before the GHS becomes mandatory. In other show that many products contain chemicals that
countries it has not yet been implemented are not declared on the SDS, or that chemicals
(UNECE n.d. a) (see Part II, Ch. 3). Obstacles may be found at higher concentrations than
to fully harmonized implementation of the indicated on the SDS (Nicol et al. 2008).
GHS include discrepancies in the classification
process, and in the different information sources Where there is a mixture of chemicals, most SDS
across countries and regions, mainly due to combine the hazards from all the components
varying selections made from hazard testing and of the mixture, which may result in understating
estimation results (Morita and Morikawa 2011) the actual risk in the event that synergistic
and legal implementation gaps (Persson et al. effects result from the interaction between the
2017). Continuous training on classification and components (ChemSafetyPro 2018; ECHA n.d.
awareness-raising in a global or regional setting c). Similarly, an SDS may not address possible
would help governments to build expertise on synergistic effects with other chemicals to
which workers may be exposed. Since chemical methods and the target audience. Figure 4.1
suppliers could be unaware of all possible shows some frequently used pictograms.
applications of their chemical(s), precautions for
use cited in the SDS may not be appropriate for Several studies have investigated the level of
all situations. It should also be noted that while comprehensiveness of information on chemical
SDS often reach the first producer of an article, hazards among workers and consumers. They
in most cases they do not reach the next levels in have identified demographic characteristics,
the supply chain and are normally not provided gender, level of education and cultural differences
to retailers and consumers, who will therefore be as some of the key factors that influence
unaware of the information in the SDS (Massey understanding of information on a label or an
2008). A study by Safe Work Australia found SDS (Sathar, Dalvie and Rother 2016) (see also
that for nanomaterials only 18 per cent of SDS Part III, Ch. 6). A study carried out in South Africa
contained reliable information to appropriately concerning the comprehensibility of chemical
inform an occupational risk assessment (Frangos hazard communication elements revealed that
et al. 2010). understanding of hazard communication labels
and safety data sheets was generally low. Symbols
Are hazard and risk communication tools well- such as the skull and crossbones (98 per cent)
understood? and flames (93 per cent) were relatively well-
understood (either correct or partly correct
Chemical risk communication is of vital responses), but the majority of hazard symbols
importance to make sure workers and the were of moderate to poor comprehensibility.
general population are well-informed and take There were significant levels of critical confusion
protective measures in the use and handling (5 per cent or above) in the case of symbols for
of chemicals. In developing and evaluating the corrosive and compressed gases (Dalvie, Rother
effectiveness of chemical risk communication and London 2014).
tools, multidisciplinary expertise is required to
ensure comprehensibility of chemical hazard Rother (2018) has identified a range of factors
information. Effective risk communication needs to ensure that information on pesticides’ hazard
to take into account a range of aspects, including and risk, as well as related safety measures, are
information sources, delivery channels, training effective, particularly in low- and middle-income
Figure 4.1 Hazard pictograms according to the GHS (UNECE n.d. b.)
Explosive Flammable Oxidizing Compressed gas Acute toxicity
Health hazard Harmful Corrosive Environmental hazard
422
Part III
countries. These factors include: a correct label Safety data sheets for nanomaterials remain a
must be on the pesticide container or packet; challenge
the label must be in the language of the end
user; the end user must be literate and able Engineered nanomaterials are a growing class of
to read the label language; the end user must materials being manufactured and introduced
be able to understand the content of the label into multiple business sectors (Eastlake et al.
(e.g. symptoms of poisoning); and the end 2012). An evaluation of 97 nanomaterial-related
user must have the means to implement the SDS, according to the criteria set by the GHS, found
instructions (e.g. correct measuring and mixing that most of these SDS did not include sufficient
instruments) as well as to apply safety precautions. information on the safety of nanomaterials such
Safety precautions include the use of correct PPE as their toxicity and physicochemical properties
for the acute and chronic toxicity levels of the (Lee et al. 2012). It was concluded that this
product, according to the relevant WHO and lack of information in the nanomaterial SDS
GHS hazard classification system (Rother 2014; could mainly be attributed to lack of toxicity
Rother 2018). Consumers often assume that and physicochemical property information on
products with an eco-label or without hazard nanomaterials; unawareness of the effectiveness
pictograms do not contain harmful substances of conventional exposure controls, such as local
(Hartmann and Klaschka 2017). These outcomes exhaust ventilation and encapsulation or PPE, in
point to the need for well-considered information protecting against nanomaterial exposure; lack
strategies to communicate chemical risks in of information on emergency and firefighting
consumer products. measures; and lack of knowledge on how existing
regulations apply to nanomaterials (Eastlake et al. The OECD has developed a table of regulations
2012; Lee et al. 2012). and restrictions which includes substances/
chemicals that are legally or voluntarily restricted
Guidelines published by the WHO offer several or recommended for restriction by a number of
recommendations for protecting workers from stakeholders due to their hazards, or have been
the potential risks of manufactured nanomaterials examined by jurisdictions based on potential
(MNMs). The guidelines address assessment of concerns of a similar nature (OECD n.d.). It
MNM health hazards and exposure, controls, includes 55 lists of “chemicals of interest” from 12
health surveillance, and training of workers. One categories of national or international legislation
of the 11 recommendations is to assign hazard and programmes. These lists of substances/
classes to MNMs on safety data sheets according chemicals can be of general interest for voluntary
to the GHS (WHO 2017). substitution activities.
Advancing voluntary action beyond compliance

can be an advantage
4.3 Government action and proactive
voluntary industry initiatives can A growing number of industry-based voluntary
complement each other initiatives that are led by individual enterprises
or industry associations support, and in some
Government action and regulatory substitution cases go beyond, regulatory measures. These
goals can encourage voluntary initiatives initiatives are based on, among others, the idea
that voluntary action may in some cases be more
Governments are responsible, in the first flexible and cost-effective than regulations.
place, for promulgating regulatory measures. Factors driving voluntary action of companies may
They can also play an important role in include, for example: appealing to consumers
fostering voluntary action in industry, for who demand “green” products; pre-empting
example by developing or promoting codes of government regulations; seeking regulatory relief
practice, environmental quality objectives or from regulatory action; or gaining a competitive
guidelines, environmental release guidelines, advantage (Videras and Alberini 2007). Similarly,
or environmental performance agreements. the importance of building confidence and trust
The Canadian Chemicals Management Plan, for in society and obtaining a “social licence to
example, includes provisions for encouraging operate” encourages companies to take voluntary
such non-regulatory initiatives (Government of action and behave in a legitimate, transparent,
Canada 2012). accountable and socially acceptable way to lower
risk for business (World Business Council for
Substitution goals set by public authorities can be Sustainable Development [WBCSD] 2015).
a driver through facilitating voluntary frontrunner
action. In Europe, the listing of substances of very Frontrunner companies can be found among
high concern (SVHC) and the Candidate List for the chemical industry, downstream sectors and
inclusion of substances for authorization under retailers. Leading companies in the chemical
Annex XIV of REACH convey the intention of the industry, in downstream industries and in retail
regulator to take risk management action (ECHA sectors have recognized the benefits and have
2011). In anticipation of such action, Hoffman- initiated voluntary action, often ahead of potential
La Roche, for example, implemented a detailed regulatory action. These frontrunner companies
global substitution action programme, which can be considered as key drivers accelerating a
not only incorporates the necessary elements transition to greener and sustainable chemicals
to comply with REACH in advance of regulatory alternatives in their sectors, at the same
timelines, but also uses business considerations time addressing improvements in economic
and innovation practices to evaluate and test performance as well as the ecological footprint
alternatives (Buxton 2016). and potential health impacts of their products
and production.
424
Part III
In the chemical industry a number of 2018). Large retailers like Walmart in the United
companies (e.g. BASF) have introduced portfolio States, for example, stopped selling flooring
sustainability assessments so as to act in a timely products containing phthalates ahead of any
manner and make necessary changes prior to future regulatory restrictions on these chemicals
possible regulatory changes or new mandatory (Franklin 2015; Franklin 2016). Similarly, in
environmental or health requirements, in Europe concerns about consumer safety and
order to proactively steer their overall product possible regulatory action triggered action by
portfolios towards improved sustainability Coop Denmark to proactively replace certain
outcomes (Consultancy.uk 2017). An example fluorinated chemicals in food packaging products
of proactive action in a downstream sector, with a sustainable alternative (Green Science
the electronics industry, is the commitment by Policy Institute 2013). Many more examples of
Apple to phase out brominated flame retardants such actions have been described (Geiser 2015)
and polyvinyl chloride in all its products, while (see also Part III, Ch. 4).
other electronics companies have made partial
progress by eliminating those substances in Ensuring the effectiveness of voluntary action
selected devices (Cook and Jardim 2017). S.C.
Johnson, a formulator of chemical-intensive While voluntary initiatives can be useful, it is critical
products widely used in households, launched a for governments to monitor the effectiveness
successful chemical classification process to rate of these initiatives, especially if they precede
raw materials based on their impact on human intended regulatory action. A certification and/
health and the environment (further explained or accreditation mechanism can help verify
in Part IV, Ch. 7). voluntary standards. Similarly, in certain cases
conformity assessment of products by a public
In the retail sector major companies see “the or private auditor could provide a check on
value of getting ahead of the curve on enacting the implementation of voluntary initiatives
rules ahead of governments” and have (Henson and Humphrey 2009). Depending on
therefore made significant progress in adopting the outcomes of such monitoring, governments
safer chemicals policies. These policies drive may need to reserve the position that regulatory
reductions and substitutions of toxic chemicals follow-up can be put in place when envisaged
in products and represent a commitment to policy objectives are not met or not met fast
publicly disclose all product ingredients in order enough.
to respect consumers’ right-to-know (GreenBiz
Responsible procurement as a vehicle for risk care sector in the United States, has developed
management and creation of markets for safer a chemical score card and works with suppliers
chemicals to eliminate or reduce the purchase of products
that expose its workers and patients to toxic
It is well-recognized that responsible procurement chemicals (Perlmutter 2015b). Organizations
and supply chain management (further discussed that offer products with safer chemistries need
in Part IV) provide opportunities for public (and to know about potentially harmful substances
private) organizations to support practices that in the intermediate products they purchase,
are likely to improve health and labour conditions, and therefore have to engage on safety aspects
for example in those developing countries where with their suppliers and strengthen supply chain
production and processing often take place management in this respect. Eco-labelling can
(Boström et al. 2011). An analysis of a global play an important role in this context, including
transition towards public spending on goods by helping customers from both the public
and services which maximizes environmental and private sector identify greener and more
and social benefits indicates that commitment sustainable products, as further explored in
to implementation has increased (UNEP 2013). Part IV, Ch. 7.
It describes the widespread use and recognition
of public procurement as a key element driving
innovation and sustainable development in
all policy arenas. Similarly, demand for safer 4.4 The potential of private standard-
chemicals offers opportunities for private setting in international chemicals
organizations to shift the marketplace towards and waste management
more sustainable products and services.
International private standards and
A review based on case studies from several harmonization initiatives
organizations, and their approaches to
identifying and purchasing safer alternatives, The increasing complexity of global supply
describes the benefits and lessons learned chains, and addressing risks across the supply
from their sustainable purchasing programmes chain, create challenges for traditional regulatory
(Perlmutter 2015a). The Danish supermarket approaches and international policymaking. In
chain Coop, for example, works with suppliers a number of international policy arenas private
to eliminate endocrine-disrupting chemicals and sector standards have emerged as a complement,
other chemicals of concern in products sold in its and a response to, deadlocks in global public
stores; Kaiser Permanente, active in the health action (Humphrey 2017). Prominent examples
Table 4.1 Forms of standards (adapted from Henson and Humphrey 2009) complemented with
international examples relevant to chemicals and waste management
Public Private
Mandatory Regulations Legally (or policy) mandated private standards
Annexes A and B of the Stockholm Convention on International standards for flammable low global
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) warming potential (GWP) refrigerants recognized by
Parties to the Montreal Protocol
OECD Council Decision on Mutual Acceptance of Data
(MAD)
Voluntary Public voluntary standards Private voluntary standards
Globally Harmonized System for the Classification and Responsible Care®

Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)
Manufacturing Restricted Substance List (MRSL) of
Codex Alimentarius Commission the Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC)
Programme
426
Part III
include the Forest Stewardship Council, the chemical distribution industry officially joined
Marine Stewardship Council (Humphrey 2017), the programme (International Chemical Trade
and private governance in international forest Association n.d.). The Responsible Care Charter
regulations (Bernstein and Cashore 2007). has been signed by CEOs representing more than
96 per cent of the world’s largest companies.
Public and private standards can operate and In the United States, a Responsible Care®
interact in different ways. Four forms of public Management System has been established that
and private standards can be identified, as shown includes independent third-party certification and
in Table 4.1 (Henson and Humphrey 2009). transparent reporting and performance metrics
While public standards are developed though (ICCA 2015). This approach has the potential
a formalized process, and adopted by public to serve as the benchmark for monitoring and
bodies, private standards can be more broadly assessing implementation in other countries.
conceived as “written documents adopted by a
non-governmental entity which lays down rules,
guidelines and/or characteristics, for common or
repeated use, for products or related processes
and production methods, including transport”
(Scott et al. 2017).
Private standard-setting relevant to chemicals

and waste management
Several types of private standards can be

distinguished: individual company standards,
collective national standards, and collective
international standards (Henson and Humphrey
2009). Concerning international private
standards, a number of initiatives in recent
years have sought to advance harmonization
for specific aspects of the sound management
chemicals and waste that are not addressed
through treaty law or international (public)
bodies. Initiatives are driven by the chemical
industry or specific downstream industry sectors,
or include initiatives cutting across industry
sectors. They have been advanced through
a range of fora, raising the question of how
linkages with relevant private standing-setting A more recent example of an international
may be established under a future approach on harmonization initiative in the chemical industry
chemicals and waste management beyond 2020. is the cooperation of leading chemical companies
in the World Business Council for Sustainable
An example of private governance and standard- Development to publish a common approach for
setting in the chemical industry dating back to conducting Portfolio Sustainability Assessments
1985 (and currently covering 68 countries) is (PSA). Companies engaged in developing
Responsible Care®, which is supported by the the standard expect that harmonizing PSA
International Council of Chemical Associations approaches will increase the robustness and
(ICCA) (ICCA 2015). Responsible Care® is a credibility of company efforts, building on leading
voluntary commitment by the global chemical best practices. Harmonization is also expected
industry to drive continuous improvement and to reduce complexity for external stakeholders
achieve excellence in environmental, health and and enable consistency in communicating
safety and security performance. In 1995 the results, including the use of shared language
on sustainability-related benefits and concerns 4.5 Regulatory decision-making

throughout value chains and industries (WBCSD drives innovation
2018). An example of private standard-setting
in a downstream sector (the textile, leather and Lessons from international initiatives
footwear industry sector) is the ZDHC initiative
(see Part IV, Ch. 7). The Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer, which came into force
A private sector harmonization initiative that in 1989, is generally considered a very successful
cuts across industry sectors is the Proactive example of international environmental
Alliance, which seeks to develop a common leadership (Canan et al. 2015). The prospect
approach for collecting and sharing material of international regulation of ozone-depleting
data for articles (including their chemical substances offered DuPont, the world’s dominant
composition) across sectors (Stringer 2018). This producer of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) up to
initiative addresses the fact that many sectors the 1980s, the possibility of new and more
have their own material declaration systems, profitable markets at a time when the production
but currently do not communicate or share of CFCs was losing its profitability and promising
information between companies in different alternatives had already been identified (Maxwell
sectors despite many suppliers selling the same and Briscoe 1997). The company invested more
articles and components to multiple sectors. than US dollars 500 million in developing and
The automotive, chemicals, furniture, childcare commercializing CFC alternatives and rapidly
products, electronics, mechanical, metalworking implemented new technologies (Rotman 2007;
and metal articles, home textiles, textiles, sporting DuPont 2015).
goods and medical devices sectors are among
those engaged in the initiative. Response to the Montreal Protocol illustrates
the potential benefits of global policies that
Opportunities to recognize and strengthen address the sound management of chemicals
private standards under a beyond 2020 and waste by stimulating innovation, investment
approach in research and development, awareness-raising
and technology transfer. Since it entered into
Since stakeholders are negotiating an approach force, countries have continuously made efforts
for chemicals and management beyond 2020, to take further steps and to address more ozone-
there may be value in exploring the extent to depleting substances. International activities are
which private sector standard-setting could be being carried out to meet remaining challenges
encouraged, as well as how relevant initiatives by in reducing emissions of ozone-depleting
the chemical industry, or downstream industry substances while, at the same time, reducing
sectors, could be recognized under a global emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Replacing
approach, including monitoring of the progress hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which are not ozone-
made. If, as may be anticipated, a future global depleting chemicals but have high global warming
beyond 2020 approach continues to have a potential (GWP) values, will have additional
multi-sectoral and multi-stakeholder orientation, benefits with respect to combating climate
dialogue and consultation with civil society change (United States National Aeronautics and
organizations have the potential to improve Space Administration 2015; UNEP 2016; US EPA
the robustness of the initiative and increase 2016).
legitimacy. Of equal interest may be the question
of how to scale up participation by stakeholders Innovative approaches adopted by governments
and industry in all regions of the world, with the and industry within the framework of the
goal that common and harmonized approaches Montreal Protocol have resulted not only in a high
will ultimately enjoy universal participation. rate of replacement of ozone-depleting GHGs by
more environmentally friendly alternatives, but
also in increased product efficiency (Eklund et al.
2013). Moreover, the regional networks of
428
Part III
National Ozone Units (government units in Law 2013). On the other hand, very prescriptive,
developing countries that are responsible for rigid regulation can hamper innovative activity by
managing national programmes to comply with reducing the attractiveness of engaging in R&D,
the Montreal Protocol) continue to strengthen constraining modes of commercialization, and
regulatory action through fruitful collaboration creating lock-in effects that require adherence
among stakeholders (UNEP 2018). to suboptimal standards (Pelkmans and Renda
2014).
Lessons learned from national initiatives
Decision-making which foreshadows a transition

towards the substitution of hazardous chemicals 4.6 What are the opportunities
by safer chemical and non-chemical alternatives for moving forward on risk
is a driving force for academia and industry to management decision-making?
initiate research to develop such alternatives.
In the EU and the United States (in states such Recent developments concerning the burden
as Washington, Maine and California) chemical of proof of chemical safety
management regulations require assessments of
chemicals that are classified as being of priority In a significant number of countries chemicals
or of very high concern in order to evaluate management legislation has been established
the potential for safe and feasible substitutions that requires industry to provide a certain amount
(Jacobs et al. 2015). of safety information about a chemical that has
been (or is planned to be) placed on the market.
One study (EC 2015) has suggested that REACH Based on a judgement about whether there is
registration requirements were a main driver unacceptable or unreasonable risk, authorities
behind an increasing focus on safer and more then determine whether the chemical is safe for
environmentally friendly chemicals in research the intended use, or whether more information
and innovation. Other forms of innovation or regulatory action is needed. Information gaps
identified by private enterprises have included and uncertainties can, however, make it difficult
increased knowledge of chemical safety; for authorities to perform a complete science-
awareness of needs upstream and downstream based risk assessment (Lofstedt 2011).
in value chains; and improved risk management
procedures. Another study (Berrone et al. 2013) A number of regulations have been updated. A
found that institutional pressures can trigger recent comparative study of regulatory reforms
innovation, especially in companies which are in the EU and the United States (Botos, Graham
relatively more polluting. These studies suggest and Illés 2018) describes the main drivers
that governments can stimulate innovation, leading to updates in the regulation of industrial
leading to environmental improvements, by chemicals. In the EU, changes in the regulation
discussing their regulatory intentions at an early of hazardous substances under REACH have
stage with stakeholders. focused on remedying the problems of lack of
data on the safety of chemicals; the need to
The Center for International Environmental Law speed up prioritization and risk assessment/
examined the impacts in the EU and the United management tasks; and the need to implement
States of laws concerning hazardous chemicals in the polluter pays principle. As early as 1997,
terms of innovation. It found that the prospect of discussions began on whether the burden of
stricter laws significantly sparked the invention, proof of safety could be reversed (Hansson
development and adoption of alternatives. For 1997). This has occurred, for example, in the
example, exponential growth in the number of EU under REACH, which places the burden of
patented inventions for alternatives to phthalates proof on companies, requiring them to identify
was identified from 1999 onwards, coinciding and manage the risks linked to the substances
with the adoption of stricter measures concerning they manufacture and market in the EU. They
their use (Center for International Environmental must demonstrate how the substance can be
safely used and communicate risk management The classification of chemicals in GHS categories
measures to users (ECHA n.d. d). This type is based on hazardous properties. It is an example
of approach reduces the resource burden of hazard-based management. If a substance
for authorities by placing responsibility on itself, or one in a mixture, has a specific hazard,
companies. In particular, countries with limited the hazard should be communicated to users in
resources may consider the option of developing order to alert them to the possible risks arising
or updating chemicals legislation, taking into from its use. This helps to manage risks: for
account burden of proof considerations. example, gloves might be worn in the case of
substances that are skin irritants. It can also be
Risk management decision-making based on argued that management action could be taken
generic considerations, hazard properties and based on endocrine disruption or carcinogenic,
impacts mutagenic or reprotoxic (CMR) properties. A
cancer hazard identified by the International
Regulators often prefer to use risk assessments Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) gives
as the basis for developing, analyzing and regulators strong indications of necessary
comparing regulatory options, and for selecting management action (IARC 2018).
and implementing the optimal decisions;
thus, they can identify the instrument or mix A close look at chemicals legislation in which both
of instruments that is best suited to help hazard- and risk-based practices are considered
achieve the risk management objectives on a (e.g. REACH) suggests that these approaches
sustained basis (Government of Canada 2016; do not necessarily conflict. Instead, they can
ECHA n.d. e). However, management decisions be seen as complementary means of informed
can also be based on the hazard and generic decision-making (Hansen 2017). For example,
risk considerations discussed earlier, which guidelines for toxicity testing and the criteria
may be simpler given that hazard information for classification set an upper dose limit above
is an intrinsic chemical property about which which exposure can no longer be assumed to
information is globally accessible. be reasonable and no testing is done; animal
welfare is also a factor in this regard. This is
described in the guidelines as the application
of the “limit test”. In addition, this information
is used when deciding on whether to classify a
substance. Within the EU chemicals management
framework (for industrial chemicals, plant
protection products, biocides, and classification,
labelling and packaging [CLP]) “hazard-based”
and “risk-based” approaches can be seen as
based on the same principles.
Alternatively, there are also approaches for

exposure-based priority-setting (Egeghy et al.
2011). In this context very persistent and very
bioaccumulative properties can be drivers to
consider action. In light of the often limited
resources available for risk management, it
might be useful to consider the extent to which
less resource-intensive approaches (e.g. hazard-
based ones) could accelerate decision-making
regarding the sound management of chemicals.
In this respect, it might be helpful to bring together
the combined expertise of the Inter-Organization
Programme for the Sound Management of
430
Part III
Chemicals (IOMC) (WHO 2018b) participating pollution prevention can be calculated, and when
organizations and develop globally applicable the risk assessment includes specific exposure
guidance. data as well as explicit conclusions from hazard
identification and dose-response assessments
Risk management based on hazard assessment (Chiu 2017) (Figure 4.2). The outcomes of an
is advancing in the retail sector. Consumers SEA can also be helpful in the communication
increasingly demand safe and healthy products, and justification of actions, and in facilitating
as well as transparent information (e.g. about transparency in the decision-making process
“food miles”). This has led many large retailers to (OECD 2016). The ECHA and the US EPA have
consider offering “toxic-free” consumer products developed guidance for use in SEA (ECHA 2017;
as being good for business. To that end, leading US EPA 2018).
companies are initiating (and requiring from
their suppliers) the use of hazard assessment In recent years significant methodological
approaches as a means to differentiate products progress has been made in assessing the
and ingredients with lower versus higher hazards, costs and benefits of managing the risks of
or to certify “greener” chemical ingredients in chemicals. Further work is required, particularly
their consumer products (Box 4.1). Hazard is concerning the need to obtain better information
therefore used as a basis to address consumer to evaluate the benefits for human health and
concerns about chemical safety and to manage the environment of possible regulatory action.
the safety of products offered for sale by the For example, when information is available,
retailers concerned. opportunities to better support SEA include
providing population variability estimates
Using socio-economic assessment in decision- in exposure assessment; using more formal
making approaches in evaluating the evidence for causal
relations between exposure and specific effects;
Socio-economic assessment (SEA) is used in a and applying probabilistic methodologies to
number of risk management decision-making make predictions of dose-response (Chiu 2017).
processes. Many legislative frameworks for
chemicals management request that it be used For environmental policy decision-making,
as an established method of weighing the pros cost-benefit analysis can be used to consider
and cons of an action for society as a whole when the case for the (social) efficiency of decisions
decisions are taken on management options. An within the broader policy process. This would
SEA should be carried out in a transparent way, involve understanding what the decision
using distinct analytical parameters. It can add options provide in terms of benefits (defined
particular value when the benefits of regulation or as increases of human well-being) and costs
Box 4.1 Tools used by retailers to identify hazardous chemicals in their products and to select safer
and greener alternatives
Many tools exist to assist companies in finding safer and greener chemicals to use in their supply
chains. One example is the much-used GreenScreen®, a globally recognized tool that identifies
hazardous chemicals and safer alternatives (GreenScreen 2018). The Chemical Footprint Project
(CFP) is an initiative of investors, retailers, government agencies, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) and health care organizations that aspire to support healthy lives, clean water and air,
and sustainable consumption and production through the effective management of chemicals
in products and supply chains (Rossi et al. 2017). The Green Chemistry and Commerce Council
(GC3) is a multi-stakeholder collaborative that drives the commercial adoption of green chemistry
through catalysing and guiding actions across all industries, sectors and supply chains (GC3
n.d.). Various organizations, including retailers and business groups, often use a suite of tools to
evaluate chemicals in products These have been listed and reviewed by Gauthier et al. (2014) and
Panko et al. (2017).
Figure 4.2 Risk assessment and socio-economic assessment (SEA) (adapted from Chiu 2017, p. 11)
Risk-based decision-making: developing “fit for purpose” risk assessments supporting

socio-economic analyses
Problem formulation Feedback

Risk management
and scoping
Identify need
for socio- Make risk
economic assessment
Risk assessment decisions
analysis
Hazard Exposure
identification assessment
Design risk Design of risk Information Conduct

assessment that Dose-response assessment socio-economic
assessment to evaluate
fulfils needs options analysis
Risk characterization
(defined as reductions of human well-being) was applied in China in the phase-out of

(Atkinson et al. 2018). Such cost-benefit analysis hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), a brominated
could be improved when countries have clear flame retardant, under the Stockholm Convention
legislative requirements for its use and its role on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) (Zhu et al.
in the decision-making context, and when clear 2016).
decision-making rules are in place that are
transparently communicated. Proposals for Use of market-based instruments in chemical
marketing restriction usually need to contain a risk management
description of the risks, as well as information on
health and environmental benefits, associated An analysis of pesticide tax schemes in several
costs, and other socio-economic impacts. Such European countries examined the importance
analysis is also important for policymakers in of applying market-based instruments to reduce
justifying the value of investing public funds in risks in agricultural systems (Böcker and Finger
a chemical management system. There is an 2016). For the countries being compared it was
ongoing OECD project on the Socio-economic found that even if the effectiveness of pesticide
Analysis of Chemicals by Allowing a better taxes appeared to be limited, a high enough
quantification and monetization of Morbidity and tax on a specific pesticide would significantly
Environmental impacts (SACAME). Several case reduce its application and the associated
studies and analyses have been developed to risks. In Sweden, for example, a simple, fixed
help counties advance in this field (OECD 2018b). tax scheme has been used since the 1980s. A
Cooperative action by countries would allow tax on the use of pesticides was introduced in
mutual learning about the practical application Denmark in 1965; since 2013 this tax has been
of SEA methodologies and enable their further based on environmental load (Pedersen 2016).
development from an applied perspective (OECD A number of other European countries have also
2016). implemented pesticide levies or taxes. When
there are adequate economic, political and
SEA can also be important in decision-making on environmental conditions, a highly differentiated
the risk management of chemicals in developing tax scheme is potentially an effective instrument
countries. A holistic and quantitative SEA case in the long term to reduce the load of hazardous
study, using a developing country-specific pesticides and contribute to Integrated Pest
SEA framework and similar methodology,
432
Part III
Management (IPM) (see also Part IV, Ch. 5 for implementation of these Conventions led to a
fiscal incentives and market-based instruments). number of concrete global risk management
actions. They have also been instrumental
Market-based instruments can be used in in strengthening national capacities for risk
combination with command and control management. Implementation of the Minamata
regulatory measures (e.g. prohibitions or Convention is expected to provide additional
restrictions) by accelerating the phase-in of benefits (see Part I, Ch. 8).
alternatives during a transition phase until a
substance is prohibited. While the use of market- Countries with limited resources for risk
based instruments in advancing the management management may consider starting with the
of hazardous chemicals and waste is still limited, it implementation of the GHS and then making
has the potential to increase. Financial institutions this part of an overall national chemicals
can also help advance chemical safety. With strategy, rather than a stand-alone project.
respect to financing, the International Finance The development of the legislation needed for
Corporation has a Sustainability Framework GHS implementation involves many sectors.
which includes performance standards applied Therefore, the multi-stakeholder platform created
to all investments and clients whose projects could serve as a basis for further discussions on
undergo a credit review process (International chemical risk management. Concretely linking
Finance Corporation 2012). In another context, GHS implementation to the 2030 Agenda for
a particular challenge emerges in reforming Sustainable Development could also increase
subsidy programmes that are creating incentives political support for chemical management at
to use chemicals (e.g. increasing use of fertilizers the national level (SEI 2017).
to boost agricultural production) (Tan 2005;
Bartelings et al. 2016). UNEP’s Guidance on the Development of Legal
and Institutional Infrastructures and Measures
What are the challenges and opportunities for for Recovering Costs of National Administration
countries with limited resources? for Sound Management of Chemicals (known
as the LIRA Guidance) aims to provide practical
Effective implementation of risk management support to policymakers to strengthen national
instruments and measures differs among legislation and institutional arrangements for
countries, depending to a large extent on the achieving sound management of chemicals.
amount of resources that can be made available The main objective of LIRA is to support
to put the necessary structures in place (OECD countries in the process of developing national
2015). Countries with limited capacities and plans for strengthening legal and institutional
resources face important challenges in setting up infrastructures to govern the placing of chemicals
chemicals management programmes (Wang et al. on the market as part of a life cycle chemicals
2016). For example, a study carried out in management policy. It includes proposals for
Tanzania (Stockholm Environment Institute [SEI] measures to finance necessary administrative
2014) found that significant problems related to activities in this regard (UNEP 2015).
misuse of chemicals in the agricultural sector,
wood preservation and small-scale mining The IOMC Toolbox for Decision-making in
persisted. It reported that an institutional issue to Chemicals Management, which is internet-based,
be tackled was improving national coordination. enables countries to identify the most appropriate
and efficient actions to solve specific national
In addition to the success story of the Montreal problems related to chemicals management
Protocol, the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm (Box 4.2). The Toolbox guides users towards
Conventions have provided important support cost-effective solutions which can be adapted to
to national governments and other stakeholders a particular country. It presents relevant IOMC
through scientific and technical guidance to resources, guidance documents and training
address certain industrial chemicals, pesticides material, all of which are available online and
and their associated wastes. Not only has the free of charge. In the Toolbox there are currently
Box 4.2 Decision-making for industrial chemicals: the IOMC Toolbox
The IOMC Toolbox (https://iomctoolbox.oecd.org/) identifies

appropriate actions and guidance for the following:
›› a national management scheme for pesticides;

›› an occupational health and safety system;
›› a chemical accident prevention, preparedness, and
response system for major hazards;
›› an industrial chemicals management system;
›› a classification and labelling system;
›› a system to support health authorities in the public
health management of chemicals; and
›› Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers.
The Toolbox also provides links to the following five new

online toolkits:
›› the OECD Environmental Risk Assessment Toolkit;

›› the WHO Human Health Risk Assessment Toolkit;
›› the FAO Toolkit for Pesticides Registration Decision
Making;
›› the UNIDO Toolkit on Chemical Leasing; and
›› the UNIDO Toolkit on Innovative, Safe and Resource
Efficient Application of Chemicals in Industry.
seven management objectives that can be ›› Improve access to (and understanding

selected (OECD 2018c). For each management of) chemical hazard, exposure and risk
objective, options requiring limited, medium information by relevant stakeholders,
and high levels of resources are included. The including workers and consumers.
Toolbox also provides interactive features
allowing governments to use it as a platform ›› Increase international cooperation in order
for collaboration among ministries, agencies, to facilitate worldwide implementation of
and other stakeholders such as industry. the GHS, and explore the importance of GHS
implementation for relevant SDG targets.
›› Refine and scale up the use of socio-economic

4.7 Potential measures to further analysis in risk management decision-making,
advance risk management including for application in developing
decision-making countries.
Countries could cooperate further to facilitate the ›› Promote voluntary risk management initiatives
use of more efficient chemical risk management to complement regulatory measures.
approaches in countries that have limited
resources, including through full implementation ›› Evaluate the need to strengthen risk
of the GHS, which would provide a basis for risk management approaches in line with national
management decision-making in all countries. priorities.
stakeholders may wish to consider the following ›› Further develop innovative regulatory
measures to further advance risk management approaches to drive innovation to design
decision-making: safer chemicals.
434
Part III
5/ Assessment of chemical and non-chemical

alternatives: focusing on solutions
Chapter Highlights
Regulatory actions, public pressure and voluntary initiatives drive the

identification, evaluation and adoption of safer alternatives to chemicals of
concern, in both products and processes.
Conventional approaches focus on reducing exposure to an acceptable level and

evaluating drop-in replacements. Replacements often are of the same chemical
class and have the same hazards.
Informed substitution aims to provide a safer functional match, including non-

chemical alternatives, either through chemical replacement or through a process
or technological change.
Alternatives assessments aim to focus on solutions and provide information

to avoid regrettable substitutions, as well as to transition to more sustainable
chemicals, materials, products and practices, often incorporating holistic
sustainability assessment and life cycle thinking.
Challenges to robust assessment of alternatives, and the adoption of substitutes,

include a lack of supportive policies, insufficiently mature methodologies, data
gaps and limited experience
C
hemical alternatives assessment has 5.1 What are the drivers for
emerged as an important dimension evaluating and adopting safer
of chemical risk management. It is a alternatives?
forward-looking and problem-solving means
of identifying, evaluating and adopting safer Momentum is increasing to remove chemicals
alternatives to hazardous chemicals in products of concern from processes and products
and processes. Safer alternatives can include
safer chemicals and non-chemical alternatives, Both regulatory and non-regulatory drivers
as well as changes in process, design and are providing momentum for the removal of
systems that lead to the informed substitution chemicals of concern from manufacturing
of chemicals of concern. This chapter introduces processes and from products. Non-regulatory
the latest developments in chemical alternatives drivers, such as consumer concerns, and
assessment approaches; discusses how informed pressures from NGOs (e.g. Greenpeace’s global
substitution of hazardous chemicals by safer campaign focusing on toxic chemicals in the
alternatives can be an efficient and effective textile industry) have stimulated market demand
means of managing chemical risks; and identifies for the removal of toxic chemicals in a wide variety
opportunities for future action. of consumer product sectors (Grappi, Romani
and Barbarossa 2017; Hartmann and Klaschka
2017; Greenpeace International 2018). A number
Chapter 5. Assessment of chemical and non-chemical alternatives: focusing on solutions 435
of large retailers, including Walmart, Target and 5.2 Informed substitution: a critical
The Home Depot in the United States, have chemical risk management
announced strategies to reduce the presence approach
of chemicals of concern in the products they sell
(Brown-West 2017; MacCarthy 2017; Sturcken From conventional risk management to
2017; United States Natural Resources Defense informed and functional substitution
Council 2018; Walmart 2018). How government
action and regulatory substitution goals can In conventional chemical risk management
encourage voluntary initiatives is addressed in strategies, it is typically assumed that use of a
Part III, Ch. 4. toxic chemical is a given. Consequently, these
strategies often focus on controlling exposure
A number of regulatory programmes, including to an acceptable level, as informed by risk
in the EU and the State of California in the United assessments. Many chemical substitutions to date
States, require that manufacturers conduct have focused primarily on individual chemicals,
alternatives assessments for chemicals of high chemical classes or product types rather than on
concern (EC 2006; State of California Department the functional uses of chemicals (e.g. as solvents,
of Toxic Substances Control [California DTSC] preservatives, surfactants or flame retardants).
2009; California DTSC 2017). At the international Although policies focused on substitution may
level, treaties such as the Montreal Protocol on consider chemical function, or functional use,
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and in order to frame the technical evaluation of
the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic alternatives, the concept of functional use has
Pollutants have specific provisions for the analysis not traditionally been used as a basis for policy
of alternatives that could be substituted. These (US NRC 2014).
treaties provide critical stimuli for substitution
by countries and global corporations (see also The goal of informed substitution is to replace a
section 5.4 below). chemical with a functional match (one which is
© USAID/John Healey, Ruth Mushinge prepares her mosquito net in her home near Mundabi, Zambia
436
Part III
Table 5.1 A functional substitution approach for chemicals in products and processes (Tickner et al.
2015, p. 744)
Functional Chemical in product Chemical in process

substitution level Bisphenol A in thermal paper Methylene chloride in degreasing metal parts
Chemical function Is there a functionally equivalent chemical Is there a functionally equivalent chemical
(Chemical change) substitute (i.e. chemical developer)? substitute (i.e. chlorinated solvent degreaser)?
Result: Drop-in chemical replacement Result: Drop-in chemical replacement
End Use function Is there another means to achieve the function of Is there another means to achieve the function of
(Material, product, the chemical in the product (i.e. creation of printed the process (i.e. degreasing)?
process change) image)? Result: Redesign of the process
Result: Redesign of thermal paper, material (e.g. ultrasonic, aqueous)
changes
Function as service Are cash register receipts necessary? Are there Is degreasing metal parts necessary? Are there
(System change) alternatives that could achieve the same purpose alternatives that could achieve the same purpose
(i.e. providing a record of sale to a consumer)? (i.e. providing metal parts free of contaminants for
Result: Alternative printing systems other end uses)?
(e.g. electronic receipts) Result: Alternative metal cutting methods
safer for humans and the environment) through function is needed or whether the technical
chemical replacement, or through a process or requirements for a function are too stringent.
technological change that can eliminate the use An example is the current debate about flame
of that chemical. Informed substitution employs retardancy standards, and whether those
a systematic process that uses the best available standards that require the addition of chemical
information to make choices about substitutes flame retardants are necessary to meet fire
(Lavoie et al. 2010; US NRC 2014). It assumes that protection goals (Babrauskas et al. 2012;
the function of a toxic chemical can be carried out Israel 2013; State of California Department of
using a safer option, which could be a different Consumer Affairs 2014; Baker 2018). Special
chemical or a completely different technology. considerations might apply to pesticides. Social
In a given application it is the function provided and cultural characteristics and long-term
by a chemical that is needed, not necessarily the economic and environmental sustainability are
chemical itself. Considering chemical function, important aspects of alternatives assessment
rather than simply comparing the risks of drop- in this case. Here it is not just a question of
in chemical alternatives, offers a means of replacing one chemical with another, as it might
identifying a broad range of options to meet a be in an industrial process. The consideration
particular functional need: this is referred to as of agroecology-based alternatives for highly
“functional substitution” (Table 5.1). hazardous pesticides was emphasized at the
fourth session of the International Conference
When safer options are not available, research on Chemicals Management (Secretariat of the
can be undertaken to investigate the use of safer Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
chemistries (e.g. green or sustainable chemistry; Management 2015).
see Part IV, Ch. 1) or to develop engineering
or design solutions. This is consistent with the Alternatives assessment
precautionary principle, the source reduction
approach inherent in cleaner production and Alternatives assessment has emerged as
in the industrial hygiene hierarchy of controls a preferred process to support informed
– concepts that evolved in the 1990s (O’Brien substitution. It is an iterative, step-defined
2000; Ashford 2013). and solutions-oriented process for identifying
and comparing potential chemical and non-
A functional substitution approach also makes chemical alternatives that could replace
it possible to open up to broader societal chemicals of concern on the basis of their
considerations, including whether a given hazards, performance and economic viability
Table 5.2 Components of an alternatives assessment (US NRC 2014; Geiser et al. 2015)
Component What it involves
Scoping, problem formulation, Establishes the scope of (and plan for) the assessment; identifies stakeholders to be engaged
identifying alternatives for and decision rules that will guide the assessment; gathers data on the chemical of concern,
consideration its function and application; determines assessment methods and identifies alternatives to be
considered.
Hazard/comparative exposure Evaluates human health and environmental hazards and assesses comparative exposures.
assessment
Hazard/comparative exposure Assesses the performance of alternatives against the requirements established during the
assessment problem formulation step above.
Economic feasibility Assesses the economic feasibility of alternatives against the requirements established during
assessment the problem formulation step above.
Other life cycle considerations Addresses additional factors critical for determining risks to human health and the environment
beyond those included in the hazard/exposure assessment component to avoid risk trade-offs
(e.g. energy, climate change impacts).
Decision-making Identifies acceptable alternatives based on information compiled in previous steps. Addresses
situations where no alternatives are currently viable by initiating R&D to develop new
alternatives, or improve existing ones, and establishes an implementation and adoption plan to
identify potential trade-offs during adoption.
(US NRC 2014; Geiser et al. 2015) (Table 5.2). informed decisions and understand potential
Alternatives assessment is used to provide critical trade-offs in choices (US OSHA n.d.).
information, in a systematic and continuous-
improvement manner, that informs the choice There is little documentation
of alternatives, guiding the transition to safer on policy experience with
chemicals, materials and processes and reducing alternatives assessment
the potential for regrettable substitutions. This is or with substitution. This
similar to the planning approach that is central to makes drawing general
cleaner production and pollution prevention. The conclusions on best
six general steps for alternatives assessments practices a challenge, and
are shown in Table 5.2. Alternatives assessments may reflect hesitation by corporations to share
may include modifications to how a product is potentially proprietary chemical information
engineered or used or explore non-chemical (Tickner and Jacobs 2016). The EU Substitution
alternatives, thereby shifting the focus from Portal SUBSPORT (SUBSPORT n.d.) and the
problem analysis to innovations and solutions OECD Substitution and Alternatives Assessment
(Geiser et al. 2015). Toolbox (OECD n.d.) present experiences with
chemical substitutions that are publicly available.
Alternatives assessment can be less or more These initiatives are a good basis for the collection
complex, depending on the technical capacity of of further experiences.
the user. For example, the United States
Occupational Safety and Health Administration Frameworks for alternatives assessment
created a “Transitioning to Safer Chemicals”
website and capacity training to support small How potential alternatives are identified, screened
and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in making for and evaluated in an alternatives assessment is
informed choices about chemical alternatives. guided by the choice of the framework followed.
The goal was to instil systematic thinking about In this context a framework can be considered
alternatives at the firm level in a relatively simple as the linear – and sometimes iterative – steps
manner, providing resources for firms to make recommended to guide the implementation of an
alternatives assessment. As discussed in a recent
438
Part III
review of alternatives assessment frameworks capacity (Geiser et al. 2015). However, increased

published during the last two decades (Jacobs consistency and standardization are necessary
et al. 2015; OECD n.d.), some frameworks are in the alternatives assessment field (Jacobs et al.
issued by regulatory authorities, such as the 2015; Tickner et al. 2018). At the international
ECHA and the State of California, and need to level governments and other stakeholders could
be followed if the alternatives assessment is establish clearer, consistent criteria for safer
being conducted for compliance purposes. Other and less-safe chemicals and provide guidance
frameworks are primarily guidance documents on minimum and preferred components and
developed to better inform voluntary or attributes to be included in an alternatives
regulatory assessment efforts. Some frameworks assessment, creating a means to evaluate the
are more comprehensive than others regarding comprehensiveness and quality of assessments.
suggested methods and the attributes included In addition, criteria for efficacy testing of non-
(including toxicological endpoints and life cycle chemical alternatives would be important in
considerations); however, the majority follow the regard to substituting harmful chemicals by non-
basic structure outlined in Table 5.2 (Jacobs et al. chemical alternatives. Such criteria still need to
2015). be developed.
All the alternatives assessment frameworks Data gaps (e.g. on chemical identity in a
identified share a common purpose, namely formulation, toxicity, end-of-life) are a persistent
to identify a safer alternative based on a challenge for alternatives assessment (Tickner
comparative assessment of hazard characteristics et al. 2018). Rather than ignoring data gaps, some
as well as technical and economic feasibility alternatives assessment methods make data gaps
(Geiser et al. 2015; Jacobs et al. 2015). These explicit or eliminate data-poor alternatives from
frameworks require greater consistency in consideration, which allows more transparent
the methods used, as well as in the minimum decisions and helps identify research needs. For
steps and the level of types of data required. example, in the hazard assessment component
Consistent methods and data requirements will of an alternatives assessment, the GreenScreen®
help support transferability of assessments from hazard assessment method that is used in
one region to another; they will also strengthen multiple alternatives assessment frameworks
alternatives assessment as a preferred approach has a “data gap” classification for endpoints
to addressing problem chemicals (Jacobs et al. where there is insufficient information to assess
2015). However, the field of alternatives the hazard (Clean Production Action 2017). This
assessment is young. Gaps in methodologies, classification is considered in the overall gradings
and a lack of consistent standardization and (“benchmarks” in the GreenScreen® method),
understanding of best practices across regions, often resulting in a lower overall score (i.e. more
can hinder global actions towards effective cautious about hazard).
substitution (Tickner et al. 2018). To understand
challenges and success factors, capacity building As in risk assessment, transparency in the
needs and best practices, there is an urgent need assumptions made and how data gaps are
for case studies of alternatives assessment, and addressed is essential to alternatives assessment,
of informed substitution/adoption experiences allowing stakeholder discussion about the best
in a variety of contexts (e.g. small businesses, means to address a particular chemical function.
agriculture, institutional settings and large The iterative process and the continuous
manufacturing companies). improvement nature of alternatives assessment
require periodic updating of assessments as new
Common principles and criteria information becomes available.
Experts have noted that flexibility in the choice of Despite the number of alternatives assessment
an alternatives assessment framework is useful, frameworks available, the variety of decision
as the substitution context can vary greatly, for contexts under which alternatives assessments
example depending on toxicological assessment occur and the ever-present issue of data gaps,
the process can ultimately be guided by the of substitution. The case of dental amalgam
Commons Principles for Alternatives Assessment illustrates the challenges associated with the
(Toxics Use Reduction Institute [TURI] 2013). dimensions to be considered in substitution
These Principles (to which the names of a diverse (Box 5.1).
group of over 100 signatories from academia,
industry and the NGO community are attached) Life cycle thinking (LCT) and, where needed,
have been designed to guide a process for well- life cycle assessment (LCA) can be important
informed decision-making that supports the components of risk management, particularly
successful phase-out of hazardous products, the for chemical-to-process or material substitutions
phase-in of safer substitutes, and the elimination in alternatives assessment. LCA is a valuable
of hazardous chemicals where possible. The tool to accompany alternatives assessment. Its
Commons Principles are: reduce hazard; minimize efficient and effective implementation can drive
exposure; use the best available information; innovation and diffusion of safer alternatives
require disclosure and transparency; resolve (Sinsheimer 2010) and identify potential trade-
trade-offs; and take action. offs to be addressed. A life cycle approach
identifies the stages of a product over its entire
The need to consider all three dimensions of life cycle and potential environmental, social
sustainable development and life cycle aspects and economic impacts. These include raw
material extraction and energy transformation
A yet broader approach is essential when carrying through production, packaging, distribution, use,
out alternatives assessments, thereby giving maintenance, and eventually recycling, reuse,
attention to all three dimensions of sustainable recovery or final disposal at the end of life. LCT
development. Taking holistic account of social, enables product designers, service providers,
environmental and economic considerations government agencies and individuals to make
when evaluating potential alternatives can help choices for the longer term with consideration
identify trade-offs that might occur during the of all environmental impacts. UN Environment
life cycle of a chemical or product as a result hosts a Life Cycle Initiative (UNEP 2017).
Box 5.1 Dental amalgam – informed substitution in developing countries (UNEP and WHO 2014;
UNEP 2016; Fisher et al. 2018)
Dental amalgam is a combination of metals with around 50 per cent mercury. It has been used
for dental restoration during the last 150 years because of its mechanical properties and dentists’
long-term familiarity with its use. Amalgam can also be a source of mercury pollution, particularly
in municipal wastewater. Nevertheless, it is cheaper than other solutions for patients in many
countries and has advantages compared with some alternatives (e.g. composite, glass ionomer,
compomer and ceramic). Insufficient systematic studies have been undertaken regarding
the ecotoxicity, as well as broader social and economic issues, related to various alternatives.
Adding to this complexity, local conditions in developing countries may make the replacement of
amalgam challenging, for example due to lack of a reliable water and electricity supply, which is
needed when using resin-based composites (Fisher et al. 2018).
Many countries are phasing down (rather than phasing out) the use of amalgam, applying a stepwise
and gradual approach as called for by the Minamata Convention on Mercury. This approach was
taken during the East Africa Dental Amalgam Phase Down Project, which was implemented in
Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. That project included the involvement of (and consultations with)
dentists and dental associations, implementation of awareness-raising activities for patients and
doctors, modification of existing regulations, and improvement of dental insurance schemes. As
foreseen in the Minamata Convention, measures to phase down the use of amalgam need to be
multi-faceted, including setting national objectives aimed at dental caries prevention to reduce
the need for dental restoration; training of dental professionals; and encouraging insurance
policies that favour the use of alternatives.
440
Part III
© David DeKunder, Department head and research dentist, demonstrates how an amalgam separator is attached to a dental chair and how it works in removing
amalgam waste to prevent it from going into the wastewater system.
In California, the Department of Toxic Substances represent research needs for the scientific LCA
Control requires that LCA tools be taken into community that could inspire further progress
account in evaluating potential alternatives. In this in method development (Finkbeiner et al. 2014).
context, it is suggested that such an evaluation When conducting alternatives assessment,
would build on an alternatives assessment and experts have recommended targeting those
include identification of the life cycle attributes life cycle stages and impact categories that
of potential concern (California DTSC 2009). are comparatively different for the chemical of
These could include critical trade-offs between concern and the alternatives being considered
various alternatives and weighing the importance in order to streamline and target LCA needs in
of different chemical attributes (e.g. cancer vs. the assessment (Tickner et al. 2018).
endocrine disruption) and criteria (e.g. health vs.
cost) as considerations in determining the best
alternatives (Sinsheimer 2010).
5.3 Strengths and weaknesses of
There are a number of practical challenges related existing alternatives assessment
to the full application of LCA in alternatives approaches
assessment, (e.g. concerning data availability),
while a number of methodological issues require Informed substitution is an efficient and
attention (Fantke and Ernstoff 2018). The robust, effective means of managing chemical risks
sustainable and credible use of LCA needs to
avoid over-interpretation of LCA results without The process of “functional substitution” also
proper consideration of its gaps and limitations. reorients chemicals management approaches
Challenges and gaps in the methodology from time-intensive risk assessment, and
risk management based on single chemical protective equipment, and collection and
substances, to comparative evaluations of the monitoring schemes that can be costly and
best options to fulfil a specific function. This have the potential to fail. However, despite
includes considering the necessity (or technical the fact that informed substitution supports
requirements) for the function in the first place. efficient risk management strategies, an
While the concept of function may not be a key alternatives assessment is not often included
consideration in chemicals assessment and within the structure of typical governmental risk
management today, chemists and designers management programmes (Tickner et al. 2013).
regularly focus on function when identifying
cost-effective, high-performing options for a Substitution as an innovation driver
particular product or manufacturing process
(Tickner et al. 2015). Framing substitution as an issue of innovation,
rather than compliance, could help to scale up the
Substituting hazardous chemicals with safer application of substitution (ECHA 2018). Chemical
alternatives reduces the need for complex substitution efforts often focus on removing the
engineering controls, safety systems, personal chemical of concern, but not on the transition
Box 5.2 Proactive substitution by frontrunners: safer alternatives for brominated flame retardants
in the electronics sector (Wendschlag 2015)
Hewlett Packard (HP) is among the companies in the electronics sector that face continued
regulatory and consumer pressure to remove hazardous substances of concern from electronic
and electrical products. Brominated flame retardants are one class of toxic chemicals in electronics
that carries risk across all product life cycle stages: during production, use and disposal. They
are among the six substances restricted under the EU RoHS (Restriction of the Use of Certain
Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment) Directive, and also regulated under
the Stockholm Convention. The increasing number of regulations and standards around the world
that cover the electronics industry stimulated HP to evolve its chemical substitution approach.
To identify safer alternatives, HP created its Integrated Alternatives Assessment Protocol, which
uses tools such as GreenScreen® to comprehensively assess the hazard profile of potential
alternatives, as well as life cycle assessment tools to address the broader range of potential life
cycle impacts. In its evaluation of 45 potential substitutes, HP identified roughly a dozen safer
alternatives and subsequently worked with its suppliers to incorporate these substitutes into its
products.
© Hteink.min, BPA-Free Bottle CC BY-SA 3.0
442
Part III
Table 5.3 Examples in the literature referring to potential regrettable substitution (Siddiqi, Laessig
and Reed 2003; US CDC 2008; Birnbaum and Bergman 2010; US NTP 2011; Ichihara
et al. 2012; ECHA 2013; Tomar, Budroe and Cendak 2013; Eladak et al. 2015; Rochester
and Bolden 2015; Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety 2017; Anastas,
Constable and Jiménez-González 2018; Jamarani et al. 2018; Sackmann et al. 2018)
Chemical of concern Hazard of chemical of Substitute Hazard of substitute

(function) concern
BPA Endocrine disruption BPS, Bisphenol F Endocrine activity

(used in production of
plastics)
DEHP Endocrine disruption Diisononyl phthalate Carcinogenicity,
(plasticizer) possible endocrine disruption
Methylene chloride Acute toxicity, carcinogenicity 1-Bromopropane (nPB) Carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity
(solvent carrier in adhesives)
Methylene chloride Acute toxicity, carcinogenicity n-Hexane Neurotoxicity
(brake cleaners)
Polybrominated diphenyl Persistence, neurotoxicity, Tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) Carcinogenicity,
ethers reproductive toxicity, phosphate aquatic toxicity
(flame retardant) carcinogenicity
(penta and deca)
TCE (metal degreasing) Carcinogenicity nPB Neurotoxicity, carcinogenicity
to safer chemistry or technologies. Redefining and cost (Hogue 2013). Substitution should
substitution as potential for innovation – rather clearly take place when safer alternatives
than as a tool for removing and replacing exist; it could also be the case, however, that
problem chemicals – is therefore critical to alternatives are not totally harmless. A shift can
the development of technologies that will help be made to a safer alternative at the same time
mitigate the current problem of toxic chemicals that research continues to find an even safer
in the global chemical supply chain (Box 5.2). alternative solution.
Insufficient evaluation of potential alternatives Examples of regrettable substitutes include

may result in regrettable substitutions the replacement of polybrominated diphenyl
ethers with tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate
Chemical substitution without adequate (TDBPP or brominated “Tris”) (Siddiqi, Laessig
consideration of the function of the chemical, and Reed 2003; Birnbaum and Bergman 2010);
and the advantages and disadvantages of the replacement of bisphenol A with bisphenol S
alternatives for meeting that function, can (Eladak et al. 2015; Harney et al. 2003; Rochester
result in a regrettable substitution. A regrettable and Bolden 2015); and the replacement of
substitution is one in which the alternative trichloroethylene and methylene chloride with
turns out either to have an unexpected hazard 1-bromopropane (Chao and Henshaw 2003; US
that results in similar or worse toxicity than CDC 2008; US NTP 2011; Ichihara et al. 2012)
the chemical of concern, or to involve shifting (Table 5.3).
the burden of a hazard to another entity. For
example, an alternative may no longer be Conducting an alternatives assessment will not
carcinogenic compared to the chemical of completely eliminate the potential for adopting
concern, but be toxic to aquatic organisms. alternatives that could negatively affect human
Alternatives assessments are an attempt to health or the environment. However, concerns
reduce the likelihood of regrettable substitutions about problematic substitutions or missing data
by ensuring that hazards and exposure potential – or fear of “paralysis by analysis” – should not
are considered alongside issues of performance be used as a reason not to substitute. Taking
Box 5.3 Replacing highly hazardous pesticides through Integrated Pest Management and non-
chemical alternatives
© Simon Kovacic/Shutterstock, Gardening with circular planting beds, a typical feature of permaculture
A number of countries have undertaken successful initiatives to reduce the use of highly hazardous
pesticides (HHPs) by relying on Integrated Pest Management (IPM), an ecosystem approach to
crop production and protection that combines different management strategies and practices to
grow healthy crops and minimize the use of pesticides, including through the use of non-chemical
alternatives.
One success story is Cuba. Eliminating the use of a pesticide was not seen as a simple substitution
of inputs; instead changes in the management of agroecosystems have been introduced. This
has included the use of biological agents, cultural changes, and focused application of other
pesticides to phase out endosulfan (González 2016). The case of Cuba illustrates the concept
of a broader functional approach where a non-chemical alternative as part of a broader IPM
approach provides an alternative. Endosulfan has been used as insecticide on a global scale for
vegetable and fruit crops, vineyards, cereals, coffee, tea, tobacco and cotton, among others. This
HHP has caused fatal poisonings, accumulates in the fatty tissues of humans and animals and in
breast milk, and is a possible endocrine disruptor. Endosulfan is included in Annex A (Elimination)
of the Stockholm Convention and in the Rotterdam Convention. When endosulfan was listed
under the Stockholm Convention in 2011, the Conference of the Parties (COP) asked the POPs
Review Committee to assess both chemical and non-chemical alternatives. On the basis of this
assessment, the Committee recommended, and the following (sixth) COP in 2013 endorsed, the
recommendation that when replacing endosulfan, priority should be given to ecosystem-based
approaches to pest control (Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee 2012; Secretariat of
the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 2013).
IPM also provided the basis for a successful effort in the context of a SAICM Quick Start Programme
project to phase out HHPs in Costa Rica and replace it with alternative pest management options,
with a preference for non-chemical methods. Among others, the project found that there was no
significant difference in roundworms infestation in pineapple production when using safer, non-
chemical methods (such as commercial biopesticides and “wood vinegar”) as opposed to HHPs,
while at the same time harmful side effects were reduced. As regards coffee production, trials
found the combination of one or more non-chemical alternatives with reduced-rate application
of non-HHP fungicides to be a feasible and affordable option (Pesticide Action Network UK 2017).
444
Part III
a broader functional substitution approach databases including the OECD’s Substitution and
by considering non-chemical alternatives can Alternatives Assessment Toolbox (OECD n.d.), the
provide effective means of avoiding regrettable United States Occupational Safety and Health
substitutions that could occur as a result of Administration’s Transitioning to Safer Chemicals
chemical-by-chemical drop-in substitution Database (US OSHA n.d.) and the SUBSPORT
approaches (Table 5.3). database (SUBSPORT n.d.).
The conventional pesticide industry and While it is acknowledged that alternatives

market have undergone major changes in assessment and substitution processes imply a
recent decades, resulting in greater efficiency certain complexity, it should also be noted that
of pesticide use than in the past through major the level of complexity of the assessment and
improvements to pest management technology the attributes addressed need to fit the purpose
and practices in the context of IPM programmes. of the assessment (Geiser et al. 2015; Tickner
In this context, biopesticides (natural materials et al. 2018). Providing flexible guidance and best
derived from animals, plants, bacteria and certain practices to help manage the complexity and
minerals) are used in pest control. Currently, uncertainties in the process will support the
biopesticides account for 5 per cent of the total engagement of companies, particularly SMEs,
crop protection market globally with a value in this field. Driven by government policies
of about US dollars 3 billion (Damalas and and market demands, over the past decade
Koutroubas 2018). An extensive overview of researchers and practitioners have developed
the specific uses of biopesticides can be found a variety of methods and tools to assist in
in the publication Integrated Pest Management: evaluating chemical hazards and identifying safer
Working with Nature (International Organisation substitutes. Government authorities, academic
for Biological Control, International Biocontrol institutions and NGOs have developed different
Manufacturers Association and Pesticide Action alternatives assessment frameworks and tools to
Network 2015). aid in identifying, evaluating and implementing
safer substitutes (Jacobs et al. 2015).
Data gaps and limited experience continue to

present challenges
5.4 Both regulatory and non-
There are a number of challenges to both the regulatory policies are needed
robust assessment of alternatives and informed
substitution. They include gaps in chemical toxicity Policies with provisions for alternatives
data, especially for mixtures such as formulated assessment or substitution
products; in data on potential exposure trade-
offs; and in data on the performance of A review of national and international policies
alternatives (Tickner et al. 2018). Furthermore, identified over 20 policies that include provisions
there is a need for more efficient methods and for substitution (Tickner et al. 2013). According
tools to assess economic and technical feasibility, to available information, however, few such
as well as life cycle considerations of substitutes policies exist outside the EU and North America
(Jacobs et al. 2015; Tickner et al. 2018). Toxicity (Table 5.4). Three policy contexts are addressed
and exposure gaps can be filled to some degree in Table 5.4: international treaties (including
through the development of databases and tools consideration of alternatives evaluation);
that provide easy-to-access, actionable data and national or regional regulatory actions (including
allow users to model missing data. Examples regulatory provisions specific to alternatives
include the OECD’s eChemPortal (OECD 2018), assessment); and non-regulatory initiatives which
the US EPA’s Chemistry Dashboard (US EPA address substitution.
2018) and the Chemical Hazard Data Commons
(Data Commons n.d.). Information on tools and In Australia, New Zealand, and many countries
potential alternatives can be accessed through in Asia and South America the implementation
Table 5.4 Examples of treaties, regulatory actions and non-regulatory initiatives with provisions for
alternatives assessment or substitution (Tickner et al. 2013; SUBSPORT n.d.)
Component What it involves
International treaties ›› 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (and amendments)
which include consideration of ›› 1998 Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
alternatives evaluation Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade
›› 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (and amendments) (includes
substitution requirements but no details on alternatives evaluation)
›› 2013 Minamata Convention on Mercury
Regulatory actions ›› China: 2002 Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Promotion of Clean Production
which include regulatory ›› China: 2006 Management Methods for Controlling Pollution Caused by Electronic Information
provisions specific to Products Regulation
alternatives assessment ›› European Commission: 2002 Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive
›› European Commission: 2004 Carcinogens or Mutagens at Work Directive
›› European Commission: 2006 Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of
Chemicals
›› European Commission: 2008 Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and
Mixtures (CLP Regulation) (requirements for use of safer alternatives in procurement)
›› European Commission: 2008 Integrated Pollution Prevention Control Directive
›› European Commission: 2000 End-of-Life Vehicles Directive
›› EU: Biocidal Products Regulation [(EU)528/2012] (classification-based substitution
requirements)
›› Japan: 1991 Law for Promotion of Effective Utilization of Resources in Japan, and 2008
mandatory industry standard (JIS C 0950, “marking for presence” of specific chemical
substances for electrical and electronic equipment)
›› Norway: Norwegian Environmental Agency’s 1976 Norwegian Product Control Act, Section 3A
(pollution prevention)
›› Republic of Korea: 2007 Act for Resource Recycling of Electrical and Electronic Equipment
and Vehicles (known as Korea RoHS)
›› United States: Federal Executive Order 13514, 2009: Federal Leadership in Environmental,
Energy, and Economic Performance (single or multiple chemical restrictions with
alternatives assessment requirements)
Non-regulatory initiatives ›› China: State Recommended Catalogue of Alternatives Materials for Toxic and Hazardous
which address substitution Substances and Products
›› European Commission: DG Environment’s Non-Toxic Environment Initiative – 7th
Environmental Action Programme
›› Sweden: Swedish Chemicals Agency (KEMI) Environmental Quality Objectives, “A Non-Toxic
Environment”
›› United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Safer Choice Program
›› United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Transitioning to Safer
Chemicals
of international treaties drives national Although many firms may substitute in response
programmes to use substitution as a chemical to regulations, technical or institutional
management option. Although these policies barriers can inhibit the adoption of safer
demonstrate the inclusion of substitution in technologies. Experience suggests that a multi-
various chemical management approaches, only pronged approach consisting of incentives and
a small fraction include specific provisions related disincentives is needed to achieve the goals
to alternatives assessment (Tickner et al. 2013). of informed substitution (Tickner and Jacobs
Notable examples include the authorization and 2016). This approach includes requirements for
restriction requirements under REACH in the EU, alternatives assessment of chemicals of concern,
and Safer Consumer Products regulation in the as well as support structures that facilitate
State of California (ECHA 2011; California DTSC adoption of safer alternatives. Regulation is
2012; ECHA 2014). necessary, but insufficient on its own to drive
446
Part III
Box 5.4 The mix of regulatory and non-regulatory policies to support informed substitution (Ashford
2013)
Regulatory:
›› restrictions/limits on chemicals and chemical classes of concern;

›› requirements for alternatives assessment with clear guidance and enforcement; and
›› information collection requirements on chemical toxicity, uses/functions, and classification.
Supportive:
›› training for government and industry on alternatives assessment processes and informed
substitution;
›› technical support networks and funding for evaluation/testing of alternatives and adoption
support;
›› databases of alternatives, chemical toxicity;
›› demonstration sites, supply chain convening, and case examples of successful
implementation; and
›› recognition of safer substitutes.
informed substitution and the use of alternatives Evaluations of past efforts suggest that
assessment (Ashford 2013; Tickner et al. 2013). institutional capacity within firms, to more
Regulations that restrict the use or trade of effectively evaluate and adopt safer alternatives
certain chemicals (or make those chemicals to hazardous chemicals, can be enhanced
unacceptable in the marketplace) can lead to through incentives-based government
chemical de-selection (eliminating the chemical initiatives that include research and evaluation
from a product or process without consideration support, guidance, information on alternatives,
of alternatives). The right mix of regulatory and demonstration projects, technical assistance,
non-regulatory (supportive) policies is essential databases, training, and assistance for supply
to support innovation and substitution (Box 5.4). chain networking of firms (Ashford 2013; Tickner
© Office of Technical Assistance and Technology, Kevin Souza with obsolete carbon adsorbers
Box 5.5 The importance of policies that include technical support structures: chlorinated solvent
substitution (Jacobs et al. 2014; US NRC 2014; Office of Technical Assistance and Technology
2015; TURI 2017)
Trichlorethylene (TCE) is a commonly used chlorinated solvent that is carcinogenic to humans

(Group 1) according to the IARC and one of the most common contaminants found in hazardous
waste sites in the United States. In the State of Massachusetts, under the Toxics Use Reduction
Act, companies using listed toxic substances are required to annually quantify the use and
emissions/waste of these chemicals and conduct an assessment of alternatives to reduce the use
of the chemical every two years. With technical and research support from the Massachusetts
Toxics Use Reduction Institute (TURI), funded by a small fee on chemicals, manufacturers using
TCE in degreasing metal parts and other applications were able to evaluate and implement safer,
water-based alternatives, reducing use of this chemical by some 95 per cent in the state and
saving companies money. The TCE case in Massachusetts demonstrates the critical importance
of research and technical support in overcoming technical barriers to substitution. To avoid
potentially problematic solvent substitutes, a functional substitution approach to solvents as a
class would be helpful.
and Jacobs 2016). For example, experience in the manufacturing and use conditions, performance
United States shows that toxics use reduction and cost. Informed substitution is focused
policies which promote substitution are more on the practical adoption of solutions.
effective when supplemented with technical Experience indicates that companies and
support structures to facilitate adoption (Box 5.5). those using chemicals subject to alternatives
Allowing companies degrees of flexibility in assessment are often better situated to evaluate
how they evaluate and adopt alternatives may alternatives for their particular application
lead to better outcomes and therefore more in ways that can most effectively lead to the
substitution. If incentive-based approaches are implementation of safer substitutes in their
not successful in achieving stakeholder buy-in processes and products (EC 2017). Companies
and cooperation, regulatory frameworks can be and users of chemicals are responsible for
explored and implemented. understanding the chemicals they are using
(function/uses, toxicity, potential exposures);
The roles of governments and industry establishing processes to systematically and
thoughtfully evaluate and adopt alternatives,
Policies can help clarify the appropriate roles of involving workers, communities and supply
government, industry and other stakeholders chain stakeholders as necessary; evaluating
in alternatives assessment and substitution implementation for potential trade-offs and
processes. In developing and implementing improvement opportunities; and transparently
actions, balancing the appropriate roles of presenting results and decisions. Companies
government, industry and other stakeholders may have to reach out to their supply chains to
(given their various resources, skills and strengths) better understand ingredients in an article or
is essential. Providing certainty regarding existing formulation and use conditions.
and potential future regulatory requirements for
chemicals is a critical element in the decision- Governments have an important role to play
making process of companies. in establishing the mandates for alternatives
assessment and substitution; developing
Similarly to risk assessment, alternatives criteria for chemicals and materials to avoid in
assessment and substitution can be time- and substitution processes (e.g. less-safe and safer
resource- intensive and context/application- chemicals); establishing clear guidance and
dependent. Unlike risk assessment, which requirements for the alternatives assessment
relies primarily on hazard and exposure data, process; and developing metrics and the means of
alternatives assessment requires information enforcement to monitor the substitution process.
on functional and application requirements, Governments can also establish non-regulatory
448
Part III
mechanisms that help achieve programme goals practices and success stories; and make the
and accountability by: providing actionable data business case for substitution. An example
on hazard and exposure trade-offs to inform is a recent report developed by the Regional
alternatives assessment; providing guidance, Activity Centre for Sustainable Consumption
technical and research support and incentives for and Production (Weber et al. 2018), which
substitution; providing clear, consistent signals provides a number of case studies illustrating
to the marketplace so that early actions can take the replacement of toxic chemicals with safe and
place; and convening societal stakeholders. When innovative alternatives. In a Canadian “combined
a chemical is identified as being of concern, both government discussion paper and science
industry and government are responsible for committee report on informed substitution” a
ensuring that adequate processes are in place to review is provided of opportunities to support
support the transition to safer alternatives. They informed substitution, comparative chemical
may need to convene representatives across hazard evaluation tools which are available,
sometimes very deep and complicated supply and the use that can be made of existing data
chains and users. (Government of Canada 2018).
There may be instances where government- Stakeholder engagement and harmonized

conducted alternatives assessments can methodologies are needed
support industry actions (e.g. in the case of
priority chemicals or sectors where there is Stakeholder engagement and collaboration are
societal demand for policy changes, or existing critical to address gaps in alternatives assessment
debate around the availability of alternatives methods and support the ultimate adoption of
for a particular substance). For example, safer alternatives. For example, workers often
the US EPA’s Design for the Environment have important information on a production
programmes (US EPA 2017) have undertaken process or potential exposures. They are also
alternatives assessments for several high-profile the ones who will be implementing an alternative
chemicals and applications, such as various (which may include changes in work processes).
flame retardants. The assessments required Adoption will be more effective if those using
significant time, resources and stakeholder an alternative are involved. Actors along the
engagement. This experience suggests that while supply chain, from chemical suppliers to product
only a small number of such government-led manufacturers to retailers, can share important
assessments could be undertaken, they might information on customer needs, options that
have a large impact in driving the transition to might be available and how an alternative might
safer alternatives by providing baseline analysis impact product quality, as well as information that
to inform industry decision-making. Greater would help to understand potential trade-offs.
certainty with respect to existing and potential Stakeholder engagement helps ensure critical
future regulatory requirements on chemicals is questions are asked during the assessment
a critical element in the decision-making process process to ensure the assessment is sufficiently
of companies. complete and that implementation of substitutes
occurs in an efficient manner, guaranteeing
Given the variety of approaches that countries greater adoption.
and businesses have used to implement
alternatives assessment, a growing amount of During the assessment process, capacity building
expertise and experience is being generated from and greater coordination among stakeholders
past and present alternatives assessments and would help build the consistent application of
substitution cases. Governments can play an alternatives assessment globally and to maintain
important role in establishing systematic efforts some degree of flexibility in the methods used to
to collect and compile relevant case examples support different substitution contexts. Capacity
and lessons learned that can serve as a critical building programmes, such as the UNIDO and
source of knowledge to identify and address UNEP National Cleaner Production Centres and
common challenges; identify and share good Networks, which can enhance working knowledge
Box 5.6 Substitution of methyl bromide: the importance of having a range of alternatives and
stakeholder engagement (UNEP 2014)
Under the Montreal Protocol there has been a global phase-out of the use of controlled methyl
bromide (MeBr), a powerful ozone depleter and human health toxicant linked to prostate and
other cancers. For decades methyl bromide was the preferred soil fumigant for controlling a
range of pests and pathogens in soil, among other uses. The search for suitable alternatives
revealed that no single alternative was effective for all uses. Identification of alternatives needed
to be addressed on a case-by-case basis, depending on the specific needs of the end user, regional
or climactic differences, and economic feasibility. In many cases a combination of different
alternatives, including chemical pesticides and non-chemical options such as steam sterilization
and IPM techniques, was identified as the best approach for substitution.
There is a need for support and enforcement structures to accompany substitution programmes.
Many alternatives to the use of methyl bromide, such as IPM, are knowledge-intensive. They
require a broad understanding of alternative agricultural practices, as well as access to information
on technological developments and improved farming techniques. Engagement and training of
stakeholders, provision of technical assistance, and adaption of alternative technologies to local
conditions are therefore crucial to successful substitution.
of alternatives assessment and substitution, are Transitioning to safer chemicals in countries

available to all interested parties (UNIDO 2018). with limited resources requires action on
Stakeholder engagement is equally important in several fronts
some contexts in understanding the availability
and functionality of the range of alternatives Developing countries and countries with
which can be used, depending on the specific economies in transition are confronted by
circumstances (Box 5.6). several barriers with respect to supporting the
informed substitution of chemicals. Even when
regulatory efforts such as the implementation
of international treaties are in place to guide
© HCWH Asia/Faye Ferrer, Nurses from Various Hospitals in the Philippines supporting the Launch of the “Mercury-Free Health Care 2010” Campaign
450
Part III
substitution efforts, there are often limited (Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety
resources to collect and properly dispose of 2008).
the toxic materials that were replaced. Technical
resources to evaluate chemical hazards, or to The private sector has a critical role to play
identify alternatives and enforce substitution in building capacity for informed substitution
requirements under international treaties, are in developing countries and countries
also limited. To remove these barriers, there is a with economies in transition. This includes
need for technical support, capacity building and requirements by multinational companies
case examples of successful substitutions (UNEP that are engaged in manufacturing (or that
and WHO 2014) (Box 5.7). This does not mean contract manufacturing), which their suppliers
that informed substitution cannot and does not implement sustainable substitution policies.
happen in developing countries. However, it These companies also need to provide technical
often requires collaboration between research support to regional companies and government
institutions, governments and employers to agencies so they can undertake similar activities.
address gaps in capacity and information. Thus, Start-up companies can also play an important
evaluating both successful and unsuccessful role in developing safer substitutes in developing
substitutions, and factors that lead to success countries, as many of them are associated with
or failure, and making the results publicly university research resources. Strong chemicals
available are critical to ensure effective informed management foundations in developing
substitution and improve capacity in developing countries remain a priority and can contribute
countries and those with economies in transition to the success of substitution programmes.
Box 5.7 Mercury-free hospitals: the importance of participatory substitution programmes and
alternative technology replacements (Burgos-Hernandez 2009; WHO 2015; Health Care
Without Harm 2018)
Mercury is a persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic chemical. Its global phase-out is covered under
the 2013 Minamata Convention. The Minamata Convention bans new mercury mining and calls
for increased controls on mercury emissions and phasing out of mercury use in many products
and processes. Hospital use of mercury-containing products is significant. The World Medical
Association has urged regional and national medical associations to work within their institutions
to reduce their mercury use.
In 2009 a joint project led by the University of Massachusetts Lowell, in the United States,
implemented mercury replacement programmes in hospitals in Mexico and Ecuador. This
programme used a participatory format that vertically engaged and trained all stakeholders on the
dangers of mercury. Working groups in each hospital identified mercury thermometers, which are
made of glass and easily break, and mercury sphygmomanometers (blood pressure cuffs which
must be filled manually with liquid mercury) as significant sources of exposure and ideal candidates
for replacement. Mercury thermometers were replaced with digital fever thermometers, and
mercury sphygmomanometers were replaced with aneroid sphygmomanometers which use
pressurized air.
These replacements illustrate the importance of technology substitutions, where equipment that
uses a toxic chemical is replaced with a non-chemical option. Relying on hospital staff to identify
problem areas and implement solutions resulted in greater ownership of preventative practices,
strengthened networks, and provided a structure for continued training efforts.
5.5 Potential measures to advance including their economic and technical

assessment of chemical and non- feasibility.
chemical alternatives
›› Scale up the use of (and refine) both regulatory
To avoid regrettable substitutions, it is important and non-regulatory supportive instruments,
to further refine and harmonize alternatives including clear criteria and guidance for
assessment methods, based on functional alternatives assessments.
substitution as well as on the exchange of lessons
learned in developing and deploying alternatives. ›› Identify case studies on (and ensure wide
Taking into account the preceding analysis, availability of information about) successful
stakeholders may wish to consider the following and unsuccessful substitutions, as well as on
measures to further advance assessment of factors that lead to success or failure.
chemical and non-chemical alternatives:
›› Strengthen the applicability to alternatives
›› Focusing on functional substitution, further assessment of existing databases of
develop and harmonize efficient methods information on chemical functions, hazards,
and tools for the comparative assessment potential exposures and life cycle impacts.
of options to replace a chemical of concern,
452
Part III
6/ Chemical risk management in facilities and

during production
Chapter Highlights
International efforts are under way to facilitate a paradigm shift from managing
disasters to preventing them – and to better integrate chemical accidents into
broader emergency planning.
Guidance on preventing, preparing for and responding to chemical accidents is

available from various bodies.
Stakeholders are often not sufficiently engaged and/or informed.
To avoid future accidents, awareness-raising, sharing of lessons learned from

regulatory oversight, and promotion of good practices are essential.
While SMEs face particular challenges in managing risk, they often lack
knowledge and capacity. There is a need for increased oversight and
collaboration in this regard.
Workers in the informal sector are particularly at risk.
P
revious chapters largely focused on risk as a result of transport, the use of pipelines and
assessment and risk management decision- exploration activities (e.g. operation of offshore
making, along with opportunities to oil platforms). The continuing occurrence of
accelerate these processes. This chapter provides chemical accidents and their negative impacts on
further insights into risk management challenges human health and the environment (as discussed
during chemical production, particularly with in Part I Ch. 5, 7) point to the need for stakeholders
respect to the risk of chemical accidents. It also around the world, particularly industry, to scale
addresses risk management in SMEs and in the up actions to prevent, prepare for and respond
informal sector. This type of risk management to chemical accidents. To support these actions,
presents specific challenges in many developing policy frameworks and support programmes
countries. have been put in place internationally. The Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-
2030, recently adopted by UN Member States,
provides an overarching context and seeks to
6.1 Understanding and addressing foster a paradigm shift – from managing disasters
the risks of chemical accidents to preventing them – through a greater focus
on managing disaster risk in an integrated way.
A chemical accident can be defined as the Addressing risks from chemical accidents is an
unintentional release of one or more hazardous important dimension of the Sendai Framework
substances that could harm human health or the (United Nations Research Institute for Social
environment. Chemical accidents may occur at Development [UNRISD] 2015).
fixed locations (e.g. factories or warehouses) or
Chapter 6. Chemical risk management in facilities and during production 453
Table 6.1 Selected activities of organizations engaged in addressing chemical accidents (Inter-
Agency Coordination Group for Industrial and Chemical Accidents 2017, p. 7.)
Organization Prevention Preparedness Response Post-accident Learning
OECD Guiding Principles for Chemical Accidents, Prevention, Preparedness and Response Major Accident
Reporting System
UNECE Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents Convention (eMARS)
EU Seveso III Directive, Civil Protection Mechanism Environment eMARS
Liability Directive
JEU UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination
Mechanism, Flash Environmental
Assessment Tool
UN Environment Flexible Framework, Awareness and
Preparedness for Emergencies at Local
Level (APELL), Responsible Production
toolkit
UNISDR Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030
WHO International Health Regulations Event Management
System (EMS)
Public health management of chemical incidents
EPSC Member network Member network

Policy, no intervention
Intervention based Regulation/legislation/convention
EPSC: European Political Strategy Centre; JEU: Joint UN Environment/UN Office for the Consideration of
Humanitarian Affairs Environment Unit; UNISDR: UN Office for Disaster Relief Reduction.
Several specialized international programmes (Table 6.1) (Inter-Agency Coordination Group for

provide targeted analysis and guidance to Industrial and Chemical Accidents 2017).
address various aspects of addressing chemical
accidents. For example, in the UNEP Flexible The importance of identifying chemical
Framework for Addressing Chemical Accident hazards
Prevention and Preparedness governments
are encouraged to develop, improve or review Effective management of chemical accident risks
Chemical Accident Prevention and Preparedness requires knowledge about the presence and
(CAPP) programmes at the national level, which location of chemical hazards. Any operator whose
would include reviewing laws, regulations, activities involve the production, handling or
policies, guidance and other instruments storage of dangerous substances should identify
(UNEP 2010). Other important international the specific accident risks associated with the
initiatives include the OECD Chemical Accidents types of substances used and handled, the
Programme; the UNECE Convention on the volumes present, and the processes in which they
Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents are used. This knowledge should be incorporated
(TEIA); the WHO International Health Regulations in practices that prevent exposure to dangerous
and related activities concerning the public substances and help to ensure preparedness
health management of chemical incidents and should such exposure occur.
emergencies; and the Organisation for the
Prohibition of Chemical Weapons chemical Government efforts to reduce chemical accident
safety and security programmes. An overview risks generally require the establishment of a
of selected programmes and guidance of chemical hazard inventory in which industrial
international relevance was recently compiled activities associated with the use of dangerous
through an activity involving several agencies substances (including sites, pipelines and
454
Part III
transport routes) are identified, stored in a In some regions and industries, however, public
database and located, ideally on a map. Some databases that contain chemical accident
countries develop hazard rating systems that information have been established. These include,
allow prioritization of different activities by level notably, the EU eMARS database and various
of hazard on the basis of other information, country and industry databases (e.g. ARIA, ZEMA,
including volumes and types of dangerous CSC, RIHAD) as well as the published results of
substances; types of activities; distance from investigations and studies concerning chemical
populated areas; compliance records; and past accidents. eMARS is a public database containing
accident information. Several national hazard over 900 reports of chemical accidents and near
rating schemes are described in the European misses reported by EU, EEA, OECD and UNECE
Commission Joint Research Centre (EC JRC) and countries. Reporting major accidents to eMARS
UNECE publication on hazard rating systems in EU is compulsory for EU Member States when the
Member States, European Economic Area (EEA) event meets the criteria defined in Annex VI of
countries and national competent authorities the Seveso Directive. In the case of non-EU OECD
under the UNECE Convention on TEIA (EC JRC and UNECE countries, reporting accidents to the
and UNECE 2016). eMARS database is voluntary but is regularly
carried out (Inter-Agency Coordination Group
Existing CAPP legislation (e.g. the EU Seveso for Industrial and Chemical Accidents 2017).
Directive and the United States Risk Management Accident databases only provide information on
Plan Rule) provide useful models for the chemical accidents that have already happened.
identification of hazardous operations (EC 2017;
US EPA 2018). This legislation includes lists and The probability that serious chemical accidents
categories of dangerous substances and the will occur in highly industrialized countries is
threshold quantities that indicate a certain level generally low. In these countries only some
of hazard. UNEP’s Flexible Framework and the risks are manifested as accidents during a given
OECD Guiding Principles for Chemical Accident time period, while in other countries accidents
Prevention, Preparedness and Response (OECD take place more frequently (see Part I, Ch. 5).
2003) also provide implementation guidance to Additional research on the national and regional
support countries as they begin to identify the dimensions of chemical accidents has been
kinds of dangerous substances present, as well as carried out, including in China (He et al. 2011;
companies that might be using these substances. UNEP 2011), India (Sengupta et al. 2015) and
Africa (UNEP 2017). It suggests that when facilities
Enhanced sharing of knowledge and lessons that process hazardous materials are transferred
learned from developed to developing countries, the
process safety standards for such facilities which
Sharing lessons learned begins with establishing applied in the former should not be lowered,
mechanisms for accident reporting. Each irrespective of local regulations.
company engaged in hazardous activities should
maintain a register of accidents and near misses, Exchange networks of practitioners can be
as well as a programme for systematic analysis valuable sources of information on chemical
and implementation of recommendations accident risks, particularly for identifying ways
resulting from an accident. Lessons learned from to prevent accidents. Depending on the topic,
the most serious accidents and near misses these networks can consist of groups of experts
should be made available to other operators in the same industry or the same profession;
engaged in hazardous activities. Data are still not government regulators; and cross sections
available on chemical accidents in many parts of of experts from government, industry and
the world: companies may not be investigating academia. Such information exchange helps
them, or results from accident investigations may operators engaged in hazardous activities assess
not be shared. Furthermore, there may be no risks in order to improve their risk management
government or industry mechanism encouraging strategies, while it also helps authorities prioritize
them to do so. hazard sources and topics for inspections. Along
with information from accidents, expert exchange in the chemical processing industry, together
can substantiate the need for modifications with the damage they cause. Such analysis of
to technical standards, improvements to major chemical accidents, and the determination
regulations, and enforcement policy regarding of required measures and communication of
safety performance at installations. There are results, should be carried out by independent
many examples of such groups in developed authorities. This can provide “wisdom of
countries and in multinational industries, hindsight” to help prevent accidents or mitigate
including the Center for Chemical Process Safety the impacts of those which nevertheless still
(CCPS), the Energy Institute, the International occur (Tauseef, Abbasi and Abbasi 2011). To avoid
Association of Oil and Gas Producers, the EU future accidents, it is essential to share good
Seveso Expert Group, and the OECD Working practices and implement the recommendations
Group on Chemical Accidents. There are also in these analyses. There are ongoing efforts
many examples of exchange networks that guide to improve analytical methods and to identify
the establishment of new networks in regions more effective approaches to the prevention of
and industries where they are needed. accidents and their consequences.
Understanding the causes of chemical It has been shown that accidents occurring
accidents today frequently result from well-known and
well-understood failures which had already been
Past accidents cannot directly provide information identified in the case of past accidents. Abu Bakar
on accidents that might happen. Hence other et al. (2017) reviewed 770 major accidents using
types of information are needed in order to four summary categories associated with the
identify activities and practices that are likely risk-based process safety (RBPS) framework.
sources of future accidents, so that measures They concluded that the most common accident
can be taken to reduce risks before accidents contributors were linked to process hazards
occur. The information in chemical accident (19 per cent), operating procedures (17 per cent)
databases, together with the publication of the and lack of employee participation in process
results of investigations and studies concerning safety management (12 per cent). Gyenes and
these accidents, have facilitated a proliferation of Wood (2014) used the seven elements of a
studies whose purpose is to identify their causes. safety management system from the 2012 EU
Seveso Directive to review the causes of 86 major
Analysis of past accidents is valuable for accidents notified to the eMARS database. They
developing insights into why accidents occur concluded that the major cause of accidents was
© Claudia Cabal, an electrical station storing PCB equipment in Paraguay following a large fire
456
Part III
related to deficiencies in operational control a single cause; most accidents involve multiple,
(28 per cent). Other studies have examined, for inter-related causal factors. This complexity
example, the roles of maintenance (Okoh and should be reflected in the accident investigation
Haugen 2014) and of equipment failure (Kidam process. Various analytical techniques are
and Hurme 2013). available to support investigators in structuring
information and focusing on the most important
The study of accidents can also reveal new features.
sources of risks associated with changing
technologies and with business practices. Emerging topics of interest
Taylor et al. (2017) looked at findings from 12
industrial catastrophes, including four chemical Lessons emerging from recent accidents cover a
events. They found that increasing engineered spectrum of actions to ensure improved chemical
complexity, technical specialization, fragmented accident prevention, preparedness and response.
contractual arrangements and other factors These actions range from strong engagement
make it increasingly difficult for individuals by senior leaders (in public authorities and
and organizations to recognize weaknesses companies) (OECD 2012) to addressing emerging
in risk control. Often problems arise because risks associated with growing production and use
current approaches to risk analysis are not of clean fuels, cybersecurity, and technological
able to consider adequately the influence of a accidents caused by natural disasters.
vast array of relevant inputs such as leadership
issues, operational attitudes and behaviours, One issue being discussed by the international
commercial and budgetary pressures, and community concerns possible risks that result
communication issues. when ownership changes. At hazardous facilities
such changes of ownership are very common
In addition, accident analysis can identify complex and can potentially affect key aspects of safety
causality and systemic vulnerabilities resulting management (OECD 2018a) (Figure 6.1). Current
from the way an organization operates. As Sklet and new owners may be specialist companies
(2004) observed, experience with accidents has with a significant industry background, or they
shown that major accidents almost never have may be “non-specialist” companies with a more
Figure 6.1 Stakeholders in the change of ownership of hazardous facilities (adapted from OECD
2018a, p. 14)
Neighbourhood and environment
Regulators, local authorities, civil emergency response
Third parties; plant certifiers, process safety experts, due diligence consultants
Insurance
companies
Original owner New owner
Original contract operator New contract operator

Workforce
Original maintenance contractor New maintenance contractor
diverse business portfolio. In certain cases, in the United States and the surrounding area)
poorly managed change of ownership (including in August 2017, resulting in extensive flooding,
oversight responsibilities) could potentially have loss of life, high economic costs, and impacts
detrimental consequences for safety at a facility. on critical infrastructure, airports and industry
(Sebastian et al. 2017; van Oldenborgh et al. 2017;
The death of many private and public firefighters Jonkman et al. 2018; Gori et al. 2018) (Box 6.1).
during chemical accidents is another cause
of concern. Efforts to develop emergency To address Natech accidents and manage their
planning – with strong specialized training for consequences when they do occur, targeted
first responders and direct cooperation with prevention, preparedness and response are
companies – should continue (OECD 2018b). needed (Krausmann and Salzano 2017). However,
Other topics emerging from recent accidents disaster risk reduction frameworks do not
include the safety of underground gas storage; always consider technological hazards, while
the safety of pipes and (long distance) pipelines; chemical accident prevention and preparedness
risks of chemical accidents in harbours; risks programmes often overlook specific aspects
posed by facilities where highly active substances of Natech risks. Natech risk assessment tools
are handled (including high potency active and guidance for industry and government
pharmaceutical Ingredients and agrochemicals); authorities are therefore needed to support
the management of ageing facilities; improving better Natech risk management at the national
clean-up and recovery and, more generally, and local levels (UNISDR 2018). In addition, Natech
ensuring proper safety maintenance risk assessment is an important instrument for
programmes; and addressing risks arising from determining where Natech risk spots exist within
natural hazard triggered technological (Natech) a region and where detailed risk assessment is
accidents. required. Although the potential consequences
of such accidents are understood, the cost of
Natural hazard triggered technological additional safety measures to reduce Natech risk
(Natech) accidents can result in reluctance to accept that these risks
exist and to act to reduce them (Girgin, Necci
Natural hazards can trigger fires, explosions and Krausmann 2017). Guidance for prevention,
and toxic releases at hazardous installations preparedness and response to address natural
and in critical infrastructure (e.g. at fixed hazards triggering technological accidents is
chemical installations, in oil and gas pipelines available from the OECD (OECD 2015).
and on offshore platforms). “Natech accidents”
frequently occur in the wake of natural disasters. Commitment by senior company leaders,
They often have severe long-term consequences effective governance, and capacity
for the population, the environment and the development
economy. The risk of Natech accidents is
expected to grow as a result of climate change Systematic data on the economic cost of chemical
and increasing industrialization. In particular, accidents are lacking, and it is often difficult to
climate change is likely to increase the frequency prove to senior officials that the resources spent
and severity of hydro-meteorological hazards, on accident prevention pay off (OECD 2018c). If
raising concerns about an increase in the number no accidents occur, less attention may continue
of Natech accidents due to storms. Preliminary to be paid to prevention. Yet the costs of chemical
studies indicate the extent of the damage severe accidents, which may be significant, can affect
storms can cause (Krausmann and Salzano 2017). the stock value of an affected company (Makino
There are currently no systematic analyses of 2016). Efforts are ongoing to substantiate the
storm-triggered Natech accidents. Nevertheless, risks and costs of chemical accidents and raise
lessons can be learned from the impact of awareness about accident prevention at higher
extreme weather and climate events such policy levels (OECD 2018c). The engagement of
as Hurricane Harvey, which caused extreme senior leaders of companies in understanding the
precipitation (particularly over Houston, Texas risks posed by their facilities, and the importance
458
Part III
Box 6.1 Lessons learned from Natech accidents triggered by Hurricane Harvey (Necci, Krausmann
and Girgin 2018)
Hurricane Harvey made landfall on the Gulf coast of Texas in August 2017. The lessons to be
learned from the Natech accidents triggered by this storm include:
›› Preparation for past levels of storm severity is not sufficient. In view of ongoing climate
change, storm frequencies and intensities could change and, with them, the associated
Natech risk.
›› Although natural hazards and vulnerabilities may be known, industry does not always
adequately protect its equipment from impacts. In areas where there is a known flood
hazard, use of protection measures should be enforced to prevent equipment damage and
the subsequent release of hazardous materials.
›› Floodwaters are a transport vector for released toxic or flammable substances, distributing
them over potentially wide areas. Where there is an ignition source, devastating fires can
occur which are also transported with the flood. This risk is as yet inadequately considered.
›› Current and former waste sites are vulnerable to flooding, but little has been done to
mitigate the risks they pose. Such sites should be protected from flooding, and investment
should be allocated to completing remediation activities as quickly as possible.
›› Significant airborne emissions can be created by flaring during facility shutdown and restart
operations before and after a storm. Areas with a high density of industrial facilities should
have plans to schedule restart operations in a way that does not affect air quality.
of investing in process safety, is critical in this coordination mechanisms; and establishing

process. a central information management system
(i.e. a database) (UNEP 2015). Given the role
Integrating chemical accidents in emergency played by human factors in causing chemical
planning at several levels of governance helps accidents, training concerned individuals is a
ensure that the risks and management of chemical key aspect of capacity development for chemical
accidents are addressed at the community, accident prevention, preparedness and response.
municipal, regional and national levels in an To better measure these and other capacity
integrated way (UNRISD 2018). Effective land development efforts, a capacity development
use planning policy is an essential part of this framework has been proposed to assess progress
integrated approach, as is the engagement of and help compare capacity levels for prevention
the health sector in prevention, preparedness, of and preparation for chemical accidents in
response and recovery (WHO 2018). Coordination countries (Baranzini et al. 2018).
across borders may be relevant in order to
address the risk of transboundary accidents.
The activities described above require the 6.2 Chemical risks in developing
development of effective risk management country SMEs
systems and the scaling up of capacity
development efforts. At the national level, 6.2.1 Challenges in developing
Cambodia, Mali, the Philippines, Senegal, Sri Lanka country SMEs
and Tanzania have prepared national roadmaps
to develop CAPP programmes with support from Use of safety data sheets
the United Nations Environment Programme
and the SAICM Quick Start Programme Trust Many SMEs in developing countries routinely
Fund. Common priorities identified through use and handle chemicals. When they do so,
these projects include adequate enforcement attention needs to be paid to accompanying
of existing regulations; drafting new legal texts labels and safety data sheets (SDS). Often,
to implement CAPP; establishing ongoing however, developing country SMEs carry out
their activities without having proper on-site manufacturers to comply with regulations may
list of hazardous substances, accompanied by not meet the needs of the people exposed to
corresponding SDS. Moreover, employees receive the chemicals; an example would be SDS in
only limited training and re-training to help them a language that workers and others who are
understand and apply the information found on supposed to read them cannot understand.
labels and SDS (Massey 2008). To be effective, On the other hand, SMEs that use chemicals,
communication of risks to employees needs to but have a poor understanding of the SDS, are
be simple and practical, taking into account the unlikely to have much interest in trying to benefit
context and their level of education. A study in from them.
China that assessed a behaviour-based safety
management approach showed that workers Process safety
identified safe and unsafe practices and took
part in addressing them (Yuan and Wang 2012). The Risk Based Process Safety (RBPS) approach
recognizes that all hazards and risks in
In developing country SMEs a number of quality an operation or at a facility are not equal.
insufficiencies in the SDS system can be observed. Consequently, safety-related resources are
These include the SDS frequently being incomplete attributed in a way that focuses on estimated
or inaccurate; lacking important information greater hazards and higher risks. According to
about guidelines for controlling exposure; and the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS)
having been created by the manufacturer and (2017), “using the same high-intensity practices
therefore possibly not having been subject to to manage every hazard is an inefficient use of
significant scrutiny by government authorities. limited resources. A risk-based approach reduces
SDS may also be inconsistent; for example, in the potential for attributing an undue amount
some cases several firms sell the same chemical of resources to managing lower-risk activities,
but the corresponding SDS are different (Massey thereby freeing up resources to address higher-
2008). risk activities.”
There are several possible reasons for the Commitment to process safety addresses a
underuse or inadequacy of SDS in the SME number of key elements, including the importance
sector. For example, those prepared by chemical of a process safety culture; strict compliance
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
460
Part III
with standards; promotion of process safety Access to finance for occupational health and
competencies; total workforce involvement; and a safety management systems
strong stakeholder outreach programme. Process
knowledge management, coupled with hazard The level of financial performance can be
identification and risk analysis capability, are associated with occupational health and
key elements for understanding process safety. safety management (OHSM) practices, as
Without risk-based process safety prioritization, demonstrated in a Swedish study on companies’
it would be difficult and unaffordable for most credit worthiness. According to this study,
developing country SMEs to fully address hazards better financial performance and better OHSM
and risks (Verbano, Venturini and Venturini 2013; practices can reinforce one another in a positive
CCPS 2017). Developing country SMEs also need and cyclical spiral (Nordlöf et al. 2017). In some
more technical assistance with the design and countries the government provides important
implementation of process safety management financial and technical assistance to support
systems. OHS implementation in SMEs. Such is the case
with support provided in Malaysia by SMECorp,
Occupational health and safety an agency under the Ministry of International
Trade and Industry in charge of overall policies
Many work environments in developing country and strategies for SMEs (Hong, Surienty and
SMEs are dangerous. Not only do a large share Kee 2011). Similar specialized agencies are
of occupational accidents in these countries found in other countries. Sometimes National
occur in SMEs (Nyirendaavwil, Chinniah and Cleaner Production Centres assume this role. An
Agard 2015), but chemical accidents in SMEs interesting approach in some countries includes
are seriously under-reported because of poor partial subsidization of occupational health and
data and analysis capabilities. Risks therefore safety activities. For example, in Japan and Finland
need to be systematically assessed, analyzed and, half the cost is subsidized (Mizoue et al. 1999).
where necessary, reduced to improve safety at
work (Nordlöf et al. 2017). 6.2.2 Improving chemical safety in
developing country SMEs
The adoption of a functional occupational health
and safety management system (OHSMS) by Further steps in the transfer of safety
an SME is an important measure that can lead technology
to fewer occupational accidents. Regularly
measuring and keeping track of a company’s The incidence of occupational injuries and
safety culture, and openly discussing occupational diseases associated with industrialization has
health and safety (OHS) values, are priorities declined markedly in highly industrialized
in this context. Factors such as the company’s countries as a result of the adoption of engineering
size, its safety culture, the extent of high-level controls, strict use of protective equipment,
company commitment, lack of relevant skills, reliance on safer machinery and processes, and
lack of technical know-how, lack of formalized greater adherence to applicable regulations and
routines, and financial affordability need to be labour inspections (Kim, Park and Park 2016). To
understood and addressed (Nordlöf et al. 2017). In improve OHS in all countries, modern legislation
Malaysia, for example, although OHS regulations and consequent interventions to help improve
exist, 80 per cent of facilities investigated failed work environments increasingly need to take
to fully comply with them (Hong, Surienty and account of the specific characteristics and needs
Kee 2011). Where OHS takes a back seat to of SMEs (Legg et al. 2015). In this respect, it is also
productivity, competitiveness and profitability, important for advanced safety technology to be
(complete) adoption of an OHSMS is prevented used in developing country SMEs.
in developing country SMEs.
Developing country SMEs need assistance
in making technological changes. Facilitating
transfers of safer technologies to these SMEs
would be of great importance in preventing will need to be taken into account (Yuan and
accidents at the workplace. A crucial first step Wang 2012).
would be for these SMEs, if feasible, to replace
dangerous old equipment (Yuan and Wang 2012). Guidance provided in the ILO Convention
Besides improving OHS conditions, technology concerning the Promotional Framework for
transfers could promote the sustainable Occupational Safety and Health (ILO 2009) calls for
development concepts of recovery, reuse and an occupational safety and health management
recycling. Universities and research centres system approach. The main purpose of such a
can be an important source of knowledge system is to pursue continual improvement in
and experience to share with SMEs in order occupational safety and health performance
to support their transition to better and safer through the use of the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle.
technologies and practices. Bhandubanyong and The Convention sets out how national policy,
Pearce (2017) identified the need for foundries in national systems and national programmes
Thailand, especially in the SME sector, to receive should be designed in order to promote
more encouragement, guidance and support continuous improvements in occupational safety
in seeking to make technical improvements in and health (Kim, Park and Park 2016).
their operations, for example through better
cooperation and interaction with university/ Linkages and the interaction of companies with
government R&D centres such as the National other players in the field (e.g. through value chain
Metals and Materials Technology Center. Similar linkages with global markets or through being
opportunities exist in other developing countries part of a multinational company) are encouraging
with respect to many types of SMEs and activities. the introduction of voluntary standards, global
environmental management and corporate
Promoting a more proactive safety culture in social responsibility systems; sustainability
SMEs reporting initiatives; and advanced product
quality programmes – all of which contribute
A key element of occupational safety and health to improved environmental performance at
management is the promotion of a culture of chemical production facilities, including SMEs
prevention within an enterprise (ILO 2014). (He and Yang 2012).
Lessons from past disasters underline that it is
of the highest importance to create a corporate Promotion of investments in chemical industry
culture in which safety is fully understood and parks
treated as the number one priority in any business.
It is clear that an occupational safety and health Clustering companies creates synergies and
management system is not effective unless there economic benefits by providing shared access
is a positive safety culture in the workplace (Kim, to networks, suppliers, distributors, markets,
Park and Park 2016). The characteristics of a resources and support systems (Heikkilä et al.
positive safety culture include proper leadership 2010; Reniers and Amyotte 2012). Since 2006
that is highly visible and committed to safety, as China has adopted a policy of relocating SMEs to
well as clear communication of safety as a priority chemical industry parks, rather than leaving them
value that cannot be traded off against cost and dispersed throughout the country. Clustering
schedule (International Atomic Energy Agency is considered to facilitate the safety and
2006; Unnikrishnan et al. 2015). In a developing environmental supervision activities of chemical
country setting it is important to remember companies by park management authorities and
that many SMEs start as family businesses. relevant government agencies (Zhao et al. 2013).
In such cases, management may fail to fully It is clear that collaboration between adjacent
understand concerns about chemical risks and plants to prevent (internal and external) domino
occupational safety. Initiating a safety culture will effects in a chemical industrial cluster can help
therefore need to start with the engagement of save lives and avoid considerable costs that might
management and various behavioural aspects arise as a result of chemical accidents (Reniers,
Cuypers and Pavlova 2012)
462
Part III
Clustering can facilitate/incentivize materials and significant activities in developing countries,

exchange. For example, waste from one facility such as brick production and foundries (Paul
may be input for another. Simple practices such et al. 2013).
as materials exchange can prevent significant
volumes of hazardous waste or effluents reaching 6.2.3 Further research on (and
waterways or soils (Massey 2005). However, knowledge about) chemical
realizing the OHS benefits of what are sometimes safety in SMEs is needed
referred to as “eco-industrial parks” is proving
difficult in developing countries and could be Most occupational health and safety research,
strengthened (Kultida et al. 2015). policy and legislation have been – and still are –
skewed in favour of large enterprises (defined
Clustering companies characterized by substantial as those with more than 250 employees) that
use of chemicals in a special area that provides have the resources to influence, interact with
the right infrastructure is desirable. For example, and contribute to policy development and
the Government of Bangladesh has decided to research (Legg et al. 2015). Often SMEs do not
implement this approach with tannery SMEs in have the necessary resources (in the form of
Dhaka City. Tanneries had been functioning in an human capacity and finance) to contribute to the
unplanned manner, scattered and surrounded by research, development and demonstration of the
populated areas and with no effluent treatment. OHS practices needed to address this problem
The government therefore proposed a new (Legg et al. 2015). Some characteristics of SMEs
location, with land dedicated to industrial plots make it extremely difficult for them to create and
and to a central effluent treatment plant, disposal maintain a safe and healthy work environment,
yard, electricity sub-station and other necessary or to manage effectively with respect to safety
infrastructure. All tannery operations are being issues (Targoutzidis et al. 2014).
moved to this area. Similar initiatives could be
implemented with respect to other traditional The OHS challenges of developing country SMEs
need to be researched more thoroughly so as
to provide better inputs for SME policy design The production, consumption and disposal of
and legislative review. Limited information about chemicals can have external negative (spillover)
these SMEs already shows that workers are more impacts on individuals and firms outside these
routinely exposed to hazardous situations and activities when they are not well managed. While
suffer more work-related injuries and illnesses informal and/or illegal behavior is often the
than those in larger companies (Targoutzidis source of chemicals pollution, by their nature it is
et al. 2014). Further research on the relation unlikely that firms involved in these undertakings
between injuries, accidents and the sizes of will take steps to internalize costs. Many such
enterprises could help show how size matters externalities can be reduced through responsible
in OHS management (Micheli and Cagno 2010). chemicals management (Hassan 2012; UNEP
2013).
A challenge for risk management in the informal

6.3 Chemical risk management in the sector is the lack of a clear overview of the
informal sector nature, extent and location of informal activities/
operations in countries. By definition, some or
6.3.1 Risk management challenges in all aspects of informal economic activity are not
the informal sector included in the formal record and hence there
is an information and statistics gap regarding
The informal sector presents unique these activities (Benjamin et al. 2014). This means
management challenges the informal sector remains outside the scope
of planned development and health and safety
The informal sector is usually characterized by policies, as there is little information available
small-scale activities that are not registered, to prioritize areas of prevention (Mukim 2011).
taxed or monitored by any form of government
authority, while the hundreds of millions of Limited knowledge about chemicals in the
women and men who work in this sector often are informal sector
poorly paid and carry out dangerous work (OECD
2002; Maiguashca 2016). More than 60 per cent Chemicals are used and handled in many
the total global labour force is employed in the informal activities in addition to agricultural ones,
informal sector, and 93 per cent of informal including cleaning, welding, construction, and
employment is in emerging and developing employment in garages/workshops (Zock 2005;
countries (ILO 2018a). Despite a lack of detailed Ahmad et al. 2016). Informal workers are highly
data on informal enterprises worldwide – and vulnerable to the health risks presented by the
variations in the definitions of “informality” – it chemicals to which they are exposed daily due
is clear that the number of these enterprises is to poor working conditions, limited knowledge
very high and that a large share of all SMEs are in about chemical risks, high levels of exposure
the informal sector (Charmes 2012; ILO 2015a). In and lack of access to health care, among other
Africa almost 86 per cent of employment is factors (ILO 2018a; ILO 2018b; International
informal; the share is around 68 per cent in Institute for Environment and Development
Asia and the Pacific, almost 69 per cent in the 2018). Workers’ level of education is important.
Arab States, 40 per cent in the Americas and Globally, when the level of education increases,
about 25 per cent in Europe and Central Asia (ILO the level of informality decreases; comparing
2018a). People in rural areas are almost twice as national data on informal employment as a share
likely to be in informal employment as those in of total employment with Human Development
urban areas: agriculture, where pesticides and Index (HDI) values shows that countries with
other chemicals are widely and heavily used, higher informality have a lower HDI value (ILO
has the highest level of informal employment, 2018a). The health impacts of working in informal
estimated at more than 90 per cent globally enterprises range from skin irritation, respiratory
(ILO 2018a). allergies and asthma to acute poisonings, cancers
464
Part III
and reproductive disorders (Rongo et al. 2004; A study on female horticulture workers in

Rockefeller Foundation 2013). Poor practices, Tanzania illustrates the chemical risk situation
such as failure to use personal protective in informal agriculture. Women often bring
measures or smoking at the workplace, are their children to the fields because they lack
common in the informal sector and exacerbate access to or cannot afford day care services.
the risks associated with chemical use (Rongo The elder children help with work on the farm.
2005). Women and children often work in fields where
pesticides are being applied. Further exposure
Workers in the informal sector lack knowledge (and that of other family members) can occur
about chemical labelling and how to understand when contaminated clothes are washed in the
it. Furthermore, labels may be absent (Lajini 2014; household or even through pesticides stored
Makhonge 2014). Actors in the informal sector in the kitchen or bedroom (Mrema et al. 2017).
are, however, obviously not exempt from legal
requirements in a country and could be targeted Informal e-waste recycling
by governments for information provision and
inspections. Recycling of metals found in waste (secondary
production of metals) is growing rapidly
Lack of a safety and health culture worldwide. Metals such as aluminium, copper
and gold can be recovered from e-waste (or
Since low-skilled and labour-intensive work electronic and electrical equipment waste). This
in the informal sector is performed by people activity is mainly carried out in the informal sector
with low socio-economic status, they usually in developing and emerging countries such as
show greater readiness to accept dangerous China, Ghana, Brazil and India (e.g. 95 per cent
working conditions. For example, waste pickers of e-waste in India is treated and processed in
interviewed at the Mbeuebeuss waste dump in the informal e-waste recycling sector) (Zheng
Senegal – some of whom were women, although et al. 2016; Chakraborty et al. 2018).
many more were men – indicated that they had
little choice but to undertake this type of work 6.3.2 Policy challenges and
to survive despite the health risks to which they opportunities
were exposed and the difficulty of obtaining
health care (Vasina 2018) Formalization
Gender inequalities ILO Recommendation No. 204 on transition from

the informal to the formal economy acknowledges
Gender inequalities and child labour are common that most people enter the informal economy not
in informal activities (UNRISD 2010; ILO 2018a). by choice, but because of a lack of opportunities
In a globalized economy, women and children in the formal economy and an absence of any
increasingly participate as wage earners. Among other means of livelihood. It provides strategies
men, a higher share is employed in the informal and practical guidance on policies and measures
sector than among women, both in developing to facilitate the transition from the informal to the
and developed countries as well as in the formal economy (ILO 2015b). The formalization
agricultural and non-agricultural sector (ILO of informal activities can contribute to better
2018a). However, the picture is heavily influenced conditions for workers and achieve more
by a few highly populous countries, as in low inclusive and more sustainable development. In
and lower-middle income countries the share support of formalization, government regulations
of women informally employed exceeds that for licensing and registration may need to be
of men. Moreover, as the ILO concluded in its made simpler and more practical. Measures also
2018 report, women in the informal economy need to be tailored to specific circumstances in
are more vulnerable. countries and to specific economic activities. An
example related to chemicals is artisanal and
small-scale gold mining (Box 6.2).
Box 6.2 Formalizing artisanal and small-scale gold mining
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has

been estimated to provide direct employment for over
16 million people (approximately one-third are women)
and accounts for up to 20 per cent of the world’s gold
production (Seccatore et al. 2014; Veiga, Angeloci-Santos
and Meech 2014). Despite this sector’s importance for
socio-economic development, it has negative health and
environmental impacts. For example, many ASGM miners
use mercury to separate gold from sediment and ore. The
resulting mixture of mercury and gold, or amalgam, is
heated to vaporize the mercury and leave the gold behind,
harming miners and their communities and contaminating
the surrounding environment.
Many of these challenges stem from the sector’s typically

informal nature, which deprives ASGM miners of access
to financial and technical assistance, thereby perpetuating
precarious working conditions and hindering the miners
from adopting more sustainable mining practices. In
recognition of this, the Minamata Convention on Mercury
requires Parties with “more than insignificant ASGM
activity” to develop National Action Plans (NAPs) for
reducing mercury use in the sector, which should include
“steps to facilitate the formalization or regulation” of the
ASGM sector. Formalization is a process that seeks to
integrate the ASGM sector into the formal economy, society
and regulatory systems (UNEP 2012). If it is undertaken in
a comprehensive and inclusive manner, formalization can
help to address health and environmental impacts and
unlock the sector’s full development potential.
To support countries in undertaking such formalization

efforts, the United Nations Institute for Training and
Research and (UNITAR) and UNEP have prepared the
Handbook for Developing National ASGM Formalization
Strategies within National Action Plans (de Haan and
Turner 2018). The Formalization Handbook provides
a comprehensive introduction to ASGM formalization,
including key concepts and terminology, key components
of the formalization process, possible approaches and best
practices. This is followed by step-by-step guidance for
creating an enabling environment for ASGM formalization
and developing a national strategy for formalizing
the ASGM sector. Various issues and approaches are
illustrated with case studies from developing countries.
The Figure below shows the key components of the
formalization process, which are discussed in detail in the © UNITAR/Jordan De Haan, artisanal and small scale gold miner
Formalization Handbook.
Engage local stakeholder throughout the formalization process
Facilitate
Geoprospect Facilitate access to Monitor and
License and Organize the
and allocate miners’ finance, enforce ASGM
regulate ASGM supply chain
land for ASGM organization markets and regulations
services
Provide continuous support to ASGM actors
466
Part III
Extension of health insurance and other social 6.4 Potential measures to further
services to workers in the informal sector advance risk management in
facilities and during production
Despite the high risks they face, most Informal
workers are not covered by social insurance. Leadership by decision-makers, industry
A number of countries have been looking at responsibility, collaboration of actors in the
extending some form of social insurance to supply chain, and increasing awareness and
informal workers (ILO 1997; Thornton et al. understanding among workers are crucial
2010; Alfers 2013). With a few exceptions, most to prevent chemicals-related accidents and
social protection policies remain gender-blind. to facilitate sound chemicals and waste
Gender-responsive reforms could help ensure management, particularly in SMEs and in the
increased coverage of women, including informal informal sector. Taking into account the preceding
workers. Not only do experiences of poverty analysis, stakeholders may wish to consider
and vulnerability differ for women and men, but the following measures to further advance risk
women face life cycle risks that require particular management in facilities and during production:
attention and coverage from social insurance
schemes (e.g. to reduce risks associated with ›› Better integrate chemical accident prevention,
childbirth). In addition, women may accept work preparedness and response into disaster risk
in the informal sector while also performing paid management at all levels.
or unpaid domestic and care work (Holmes and
Scott 2016; Alfers, Lund and Moussié 2018). ›› Improve the understanding of risks and
process safety in facilities, and strengthen
Multi-stakeholder engagement to promote information and knowledge-sharing on
occupational health and safety chemical accidents globally.
The involvement of a number of different ›› Step up efforts to enhance access, awareness

stakeholders is valuable for promoting and understanding of relevant chemical
occupational health and safety (OHS) among hazard and safety information among
informal workers. For example, NGOs previously workers, particularly in SMEs and in the
involved in communities of informal workers informal sector.
are likely to be well aware of the context of
those communities and of needs in a specific ›› Encourage larger companies to work with
sector. Moreover, personnel from NGOs, who SMEs in sharing knowledge about chemical
may be seen as leaders by certain groups, can risk management.
influence behavioural change to safer practices.
The media are another group that could promote ›› Scale up capacity development measures
awareness and sensitize workers. Clear and through the supply chain in order to
correct messages should be designed with the strengthen risk management capacity in the
media, so that they can be delivered to informal informal sector.
workers in an adequate and comprehensible way
(Singh et al. 2011).
7/ Approaches to sustainability assessment

Chapter Highlights
Approaches that assess broader sustainability issues and potential trade-offs

provide important complementary tools beyond assessing and managing the
risks of chemicals.
Life cycle management is an approach increasingly used by companies to

support more sustainability-focused supply chain risk management.
A host of life cycle assessment methods are available which allow wider
sustainability assessment, and more such methods are under development.
Choices about when and how to use these methods need to be made, taking into
account available capacities and resources, supply chain requirements and the
regulatory context while avoiding “paralysis by analysis”.
I
n chemicals management the entire product it possible to avoid shifting the burden from one
life cycle has to be considered in order not aspect of sustainability to another, or from the
only to take the human and environmental present to the future. Related requirements
safety aspects of a chemical into account, but for policies, and for enabling relevant actors in
also to assess the wider sustainability parameters the sustainable chemistry field, are addressed
that can play a role. This chapter discusses the in Part IV. When chemicals are managed along
possible trade-offs that need to be made in this entire product life cycles, attention needs to be
context by decision-makers and describes the paid to other factors which can have an impact
tools which are available to assist them in this on sustainability. These factors include materials
respect. extraction; energy and water use during chemical
synthesis and product manufacturing; chemicals’
occurrence and behaviour in waste streams; and
the prospects of recycling chemicals for renewed
7.1 A holistic approach to assessing use. Types of assessment frameworks that can
sustainability be applied in chemical management are shown
in Figure 7.1 (Fantke and Ernstoff 2018).
A holistic life cycle approach allows comprehensive
chemicals management with respect to various
dimensions of sustainability. Not only does
such an approach involve the assessment 7.2 Assessing trade-offs between
and management of the direct consumer and different impacts, locations and
occupational risks of (groups of) chemicals. It also life cycle stages
combines these risks with those from chemical
exposure mediated via the environment. As a complement to assessing and managing
Considering all sustainability aspects at the design chemical risks in a regulatory or substitution
stage of a chemical or related product can make context (discussed in previous chapters of
it possible to avoid overlooking certain trade-offs Part III), there is a growing need for approaches
between sustainability impacts. It can also make and tools that allow the assessment of trade-
468
Part III
Figure 7.1 Conceptual relationships of the main chemical management tools (adapted from Fantke
and Ernstoff 2018, p. 787)
Chemical-related criteria Other environmental criteria

(hazard, exposure, toxicity, ...) (energy and resources efficiency, ...)
Product material and design
Environmental life cycle assessment of chemicals, products and services
Green and sustainable chemistry
Sustainability
Chemical alternatives assessment
assessment tools
Regulatory chemicals Chemical risk assessment

management tools
Other criteria (technical feasibility, socio-economics,…)
offs in the wider context of sustainability. An been addressed, for example, in the US EPA
overview of such approaches is given in this Climate Change Adaptation Implementation Plan,
chapter. They include assessing the direct human which acknowledges the need to integrate the
health and environmental risks of chemical impacts of climate change into assessments
exposures consistently with the full range of insofar as these impacts could affect chemical
impacts – on humans and the environment while safety (US EPA 2014).
considering social aspects – which are related
to the production and use of chemicals during Accounting for impacts in a wider sustainability
their life cycle, from raw material extraction, via context is key to progress in meeting the
synthesis and manufacturing, to final use and Sustainable Development Goals. Often certain
end-of-life handling. types of impacts cannot be reduced without
introducing trade-offs with others (this type of
Such impacts include (but are not limited trade-off is sometimes referred to as “burden-
to) climate change impacts associated with shifting”). An example of burden-shifting is the
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during oil move from petroleum-derived to bio-based
refining; the formation of fine particulate matter polymers, which in most cases reduces GHG
and ozone from fuel combustion; the impacts emissions but also results in soil degradation,
on ecosystems of acidifying and eutrophying toxicity and eutrophication if pesticides and
substances from agricultural emissions; energy fertilizers are not applied correctly in bio-
use and emissions of harmful processing feedstock production (Hottle, Biilec and Landis
chemicals during chemical synthesis; and 2013). Burden-shifting may also occur between
land and water use impacts of manufacturing chemical life cycle stages. An example is the
and waste handling processes (Hauschild and reduction of sourcing of virgin raw materials
Huijbregts 2015). The case for integrating through increased recycling, which can result
the potential impacts of climate change as a in exposure to harmful residues in recyclates
consideration in assessments in general has (Pivnenko and Astrup 2016). It is important to
Chapter 7. Approaches to sustainability assessment 469

look beyond impacts on, for example, workers, 7.3 Sustainability assessment tools
consumers or particular ecosystems and to for chemicals
assess all relevant impacts on humans and
the environment during the entire chemical or While certain sustainability assessment tools,
product life cycle. At the same time, it is important such as carbon footprints and water footprints,
to keep assessments practical – that is, focused adequately represent a company’s environmental
on the most relevant impacts associated with the sustainability performance up to a point, these
chemical-product combination being considered. tools are restricted to particular areas of concern.
They do not consider all relevant sustainability
An adequate and sound assessment of chemicals- impacts in order to ensure overall minimized
related sustainability will benefit from meeting impacts on humans and the environment
the following criteria: (Ridoutt et al. 2015). A change of perspective is
therefore needed when looking at chemicals-
›› The assessment offers a consistent basis for related impacts.
comparing human health and environmental
risks with other types of impacts. To address the entire chemical or product
life cycles in a wider sustainability context,
›› It identifies relevant impact categories several types of tools and methods exist that
and sustainability metrics adapted to the build on life cycle thinking. They range from
application being considered, in order to limit political instruments, international agreements
effort and avoid being distracted by minor and international standards to procedural and
issues or negligible impacts. analytical tools. Political instruments include
regulations on supply chain and waste/end-of-
›› It covers all product and chemical life cycle life management or on integrated environmental
stages. management interventions. An example is the
EU’s Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
›› It is able to screen exposures and impacts Directive 2010/75/EU (EC 2010).
of a large number of chemical-product
combinations, considering chemical International standards refer mainly to the
properties and product properties as well International Organization for Standardization
as people who will be exposed (e.g. workers, (ISO) 14000 family of environmental management
consumers and the general population). standards (ISO 2018). Several of these standards
are directly concerned with procedural and
Figure 7.2 General structure of the life cycle assessment (LCA) framework
Comparison bases
Chemical and Resource extraction

product life cycle Chemicals supply chain
Emissions and resource extraction
Water use
Impact categories Resource use Land use impacts Eutrophication Acidification
impacts
Damages Natural resources
470
Part III
analytical life cycle management (LCM) tools. LCM design (defined in ISO 14006), environmental
encourages a holistic management perspective. labels and declarations (defined in the ISO 14020-
It covers the entire chemical or product life 14025 series) and environmental performance
cycle and calls for managerial decisions that evaluation (defined in ISO 14030 and 14031).
consider health and environmental impacts. A method for assessing the economic, social
LCM provides an opportunity to promote long- and environmental sustainability performance
term achievements in order to minimize the of agricultural production at the farm level is
environmental and socio-economic burden the Response-Inducing Sustainability Evaluation
while maximizing economic and social value (Bey (RISE) (Bern University of Applied Sciences 2017).
2018). Applying a life cycle perspective is even
more relevant in regard to advancing a circular The most relevant analytical tool with a focus on
economy, closing material loops along entire the entire life cycle of chemicals and products is
chemical and product life cycles and creating life cycle assessment (LCA), which is defined in
self-sustaining production systems. More specific the ISO 14040-14049 series (ISO 2018). The use of
procedural tools include, among others, eco- LCA to evaluate the environmental performance
(Fantke et al. 2019, submitted)
Product function of services
Product supply chain Product use Product disposal
Mass chemicals emitted Mass chemicals in product
Stratospheric
Photochemical
Ecotoxicity Human toxicity Fine particulate ozone Climate change
ozone formation
formulation
Ecosystem quality Human health

of products, services and technologies across ›› quantifying during the product life cycle – to
sectors and countries has received increasing the extent possible – the chemical use and
attention in the last two decades. Not only is LCA the mass emitted to the far-field environment
applied by individual companies. It is also being within the supply chain, or the chemical mass
used as a method to evaluate 25 industry sectors that enters a defined compartment of entry
in the context of the European pilot project series in the consumer’s near-field environment;
on the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF)
and the Organization Environmental Footprint ›› capturing fate and exposure processes that
(OEF) (EC 2013). result in transfers of chemicals between any
near-field compartments (e.g. indoor air, the
LCA consists of four phases: goal and scope inside of objects) and far-field compartments
definition; life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis; (e.g. freshwater, ambient air) until finally
life cycle impact assessment (LCIA); and reaching biota or humans;
interpretation. The LCI determines resources
use, and chemical or pollutant emissions, based ›› combining human intake via all relevant
on a common product function. The LCIA phase exposure pathways with dose-response,
focuses on characterizing the impacts of these severity or other hazard information to assess
LCI flows in several impact categories, such as risk or impact levels; and
global warming, human toxicity, ecotoxicity and
water use (Figure 7.2). These impact categories ›› combining environmental concentrations
cover three major areas of protection: human with concentration-response information
health; ecosystem quality; and natural resources to assess related fractions of species that
(Verones et al. 2017). This allows not only assessing have disappeared or are affected due to
and comparing the different life cycle stages of a chemical exposure in different environmental
product or service, but also consistently assessing compartments (Verones et al. 2017).
trade-offs between different impacts based on
their relative damage (Hauschild 2005; Hellweg In addition, for chemicals-based assessment
and Milà i Canals 2014). not all impact categories are equally important.
There is a need for a screening-level assessment
of alternatives, which (where possible) is
quantitative, life cycle-based, and able to serve
7.4 Assessing chemicals’ impacts in both life cycle assessment (LCA) and chemical
a life cycle-based comparative alternatives assessment (CAA). Such a life cycle-
framework based alternatives assessment needs to quantify
exposure and life cycle impacts consistently and
When focusing on chemicals, it is important efficiently over the main life cycle stages, avoiding
to assess their risks consistently with other “paralysis by analysis” in order to meet the time
types of impacts on human health and the constraints of a screening assessment while
environment. Several approaches, such as ensuring scientific rigour (Fantke et al. 2019).
USEtox (Henderson et al. 2011; Rosenbaum et al.
2011), have been developed at the interface Strategic life cycle assessment: also
between risk assessment and LCA to adapt considering socio-ecological sustainability
exposure and dose-response information for use
within a comparative life cycle-based framework Tools such as The Natural Step’s Strategic Life
(Fantke et al. 2016). Cycle Assessment (SLCA) can be used to provide
an overview of the full scope of sustainability at
Figure 7.3 shows the elements of such a the product level. SLCA is an effective approach
comprehensive framework for evaluating for assessment, capacity building and innovation
chemicals and products in the global supply within and beyond individual organizations
chain and their potential impacts on humans and (The Natural Step [TNS] 2018). It goes beyond
the environment. Key elements include: inherent chemical or product properties and
472
Part III
Figure 7.3 Elements of a comprehensive framework to evaluate global chemical supply chain
impacts on humans and the environment (based on Fantke et al. 2016, p. 510)
Chemical usage and releases Chemicals in supply chain Chemicals in product
Chemical emitted Chemical in product
Far-field environment Near-field environment

Fate and exposure Intakes
Biota Humans
Ecosystem Human
risk levels risk levels
Risk and impact
Disappeared species Loss of healthy lifetime
their potential exposures, which are commonly and how to use these methodologies. Taking into
looked at, by connecting the product to science- account the preceding analysis, stakeholders
based conditions for social and ecological may wish to consider the following measures
sustainability (Ny et al. 2006). The principles to further advance approaches to sustainability
and qualitative approach of SLCA encourage assessment:
thinking strategically about the management of
chemicals and waste in a broader context. They ›› During the chemical risk management
can stimulate innovation to prevent regrettable decision-making process, consider the need
substitutions and burden-shifting in a circular to identify potential trade-offs in a wider
economy (TNS 2018). sustainability context.
›› In considering the benefits of sustainability

assessment methods, take into account
7.5 Potential measures to further regulatory priorities and resource
advance approaches to considerations, while avoiding “paralysis
sustainability assessment by analysis” through focusing on the most
relevant sustainability aspects.
Stakeholders may find value in the further
development and use of wider sustainability ›› Scale up the further development and use
assessment methods, including life cycle of life cycle assessment tools and life cycle
assessment tools, while acknowledging that management practices across sectors.
informed choices have to be made about when

References
Chapter 1 Colaianna, M., Ilmjärv, S., Peterson, H., Kern, I., Julien,
S., Baquié, M., Pallocca, G., Bosgra, S., Sachinidis, A.,
American Chemical Society (2018). Definitions of Hengstler, J.G., Leist, M. and Krause, K.-H. (2017).
hazard assessment. https://www.acs.org/content/acs/ Fingerprinting of neurotoxic compounds using a
en/about/governance/committees/chemicalsafety/ mouse embryonic stem cell dual luminescence
hazard-assessment/tools/definitions.html. Accessed reporter assay. Archives of Toxicology 91(1), 365-391.
31 May 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1690-2.
Berggren, E., Amcoff, P., Benigni, R., Blackburn, K., Cynober, T. (2018). Could stem cells replace animal
Carney, E., Cronin, M., Deluyker, H., Gautier, F., Judson, testing in drug development? 14 May. https://labiotech.
R.S., Kass, G.E.N., Keller, D., Knight, D., Lilienblum, eu/animal-testing-stem-cells/. Accessed 9 June 2018.
W., Mahony, C., Rusyn, I., Schultz, T., Schwarz, M.,
Schüürmann, G., White, A., Burton, J., Lostia, A.M., Munn, Delrue, N., Sachana, M., Sakuratani, Y., Gourmelon,
S. and Worth, A. (2015). Chemical safety assessment A., Leinala, E. and Diderich, R. (2016). The adverse
using read-across: assessing the use of novel testing outcome pathway concept: a basis for developing
methods to strengthen the evidence base for decision regulatory decision-making tools. Alternatives to
making. Environmental Health Perspectives 123(12), Laboratory Animals 44(5), 417-429. http://www.ncbi.
1232-1240. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409342. nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27805824.
Beronius, A., Hanberg, A., Zilliacus, J. and Rudén, Dimitrov, S.D., Diderich, R., Sobanski, T., Pavlov, T.S.,
C. (2014). Bridging the gap between academic Chankov, G. V., Chapkanov, A.S., Karakolev, Y.H.,
research and regulatory health risk assessment of Temelkov, S.G., Vasilev, R.A., Gerova, K.D., Kuseva,
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals. Current Opinion in C.D., Todorova, N.D., Mehmed, A.M., Rasenberg, M. and
Pharmacology 19, 99-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. Mekenyan, O.G. (2016). QSAR Toolbox – workflow and
COPH.2014.08.005. major functionalities. SAR and QSAR in Environmental
Research 27(3), 203-219. https://doi.org/10.1080/106
Chemical Inspection and Regulation Service (2012a). 2936X.2015.1136680.
Korea Toxic Chemicals Control Act (TCCA). http://www.
cirs-reach.com/KoreaTCCA/Korea_Toxic_Chemicals_ Environment and Climate Change Canada (2016).
Control_Act_TCCA.html. Accessed 31 May 2018. Chemicals Management Plan (CMP) Science Committee
Objectives Paper: Meeting No. 5; 16-17 November
Chemical Inspection and Regulation Service (2012b). 2016. Integrating New Approach Methodologies within
Turkish REACH-like chemical regulation. http://www. the CMP: Identifying Priorities for Risk Assessment,
cirs-reach.com/Turkey/Turkey_Chemical_Regulation_ Existing Substances Risk Assessment Program. http://
Inventory_and_Control_of_Chemicals.html. Accessed www.ec.gc.ca/ese-ees/172614CE-D9F6-43DA-
31 May 2018. A528-B8175438210F/Objectives%20Paper%20
November%202016_EN.pdf.
Chemical Inspection and Regulation Service (2017).
MEP revised the data requirements under guidance European Chemical Industry Council Long-Range
documents for new chemical substance notification Research Initiative (2017). AMBIT. http://cefic-lri.org/
in China, 8 July. http://www.cirs-reach.com/news-and- toolbox/ambit/. Accessed 4 August 2018.
articles/MEP-Revised-the-Data-Requirements-under-
Guidance-Documents-for-New-Chemical-Substance- European Chemicals Agency (2016a). Chemicals
Notification-in-China.html. Accessed 30 December Presenting Priority Setting Challenges (2016) Presentation
2018. by M. Rasenberg at the OECD Working Party on Hazard
Assessment. Paris.
ChemSafetyPro (2017). How to comply with
Chemicals Control Act (CCA) in Korea. https://www. European Chemicals Agency (2016b). ECHA’s Ambition
chemsafetypro.com/Topics/Korea/Introduction_to_ Towards 2025. Helsinki. https://echa.europa.eu/
Korean_Chemicals_Control_Act.html. Accessed 23 documents/10162/2200151/mb_46_2016_echa_
August 2018. ambition_towards_2025_incl_annex_en.pdf/45c509e5-
5ed3-bdb7-7515-3a6dbca9d727
ChemSafetyPro (2018). How to Comply with Amended
K-REACH Regulation 2018. https://www.chemsafetypro. European Chemicals Agency (2017a). Endpoint specific
com/Topics/Korea/Korea_REACH.html. Accessed guidance. In Guidance on information requirements
30 December 2018. and chemical safety assessment. Chapter T. 7a. 1-610.
https://doi.org/10.2823/337352.
474
Part III
European Chemicals Agency (2017b). Non-Animal European Commission (2006). Regulation (EC) No.
Approaches – Current Status of Regulatory Applicability 1907/2006 of the European parliament and of
Under the REACH, CLP and Biocidal Products Regulations. the council of 18 December 2006 concerning the
https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/22931011/ registration, evaluation, authorisation and restriction
non_animal_approcches_en.pdf/87ebb68f-2038-f597- of chemicals (REACH), establishing a European
fc33-f4003e9e7d7d. chemicals agency, amending directive 1999. Official
Journal of the European Union L 396, 3-280. https://
European Chemicals Agency (2017c) Guidance doi.org/10.04.2014.
on Information Requirements and Chemical Safety
Assessment. Appendix R.6-1 for Nanomaterials European Commission (2018). Nanomaterials in REACH
Applicable to the Guidance on QSARs and Grouping and CLP. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/
of Chemicals. Version 1.0. https://echa.europa. nanotech/reach-clp/index_en.htm. Accessed 1 January
eu/documents/10162/23036412/appendix_r6_ 2019.
nanomaterials_en.pdf/71ad76f0-ab4c-fb04-acba-
074cf045eaaa. Gottardo, S., Alessandrelli, M., Amenta, V., Atluri,
R., Barberio, G., Bekker, C., Bergonzo, P., Bleeker,
European Chemicals Agency (2017d). The Use of E., Booth, A.M., Borges, T., Buttol, P., Carlander, D.,
Alternatives to Testing on Animals for the REACH Regulation. Castelli, S., Chevillard, S., Clavaguera, S., Dekkers,
https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13639/ S., Delpivo, C., Di Prospero Fanghella, P., Dusinska,
alternatives_test_animals_2017_en.pdf. M., Einola, J., Ekokoski, E., Fito, C., Gouveia, H., Grall,
R., Hoehener, K., Johanson, G., Laux, P., Lehmann,
European Chemicals Agency (2017e). Guest column: are Hans Christian. Leinonen, R., Mech, A., Micheletti,
REACH data appropriate for hazard identification and Christian. Noorlander, C., Olof-Mattsson, M., Oomen,
risk assessment? ECHA Newsletter No. 4, November. A., Quiros Pesudo, L., Polci, M.L. and Prina-Mello,
https://newsletter.echa.europa.eu/home/-/newsletter/ Adriele., Rasmussen, K., Rauscher, H., Sanchez Jimenez,
entry/guest-column-are-reach-data-appropriate-for- A., Riego Sintes, J., Scalbi, S., Sergent, J.-A., Stockmann-
hazard-identification-and-risk-assessment-. Accessed Juvala, H., Simko, M., Sips, A., Suarez, B., Sumrein,
1 January 2019. A., van Tongeren, M., Vazquez, S., Vital, N., Walser,
T., Wijnhoven, S. and Crutzen, H. (2017). NANoREG
European Chemicals Agency (2018). New database Framework for the Safety Assessment of Nanomaterials.
on Candidate List substances in articles by 2021, Gottardo, S., Crutzen, H. and Jantunen, P. (eds.). Ispra:
11 July. https://echa.europa.eu/nl/-/new-database- Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.
on-candidate-list-substances-in-articles-by-2021. org/10.2760/245972.
Accessed 30 December 2018.
Government of Canada (2016a). Chemicals
European Chemicals Agency (n.d. a). REACH legislation. management plan, 2 June. https://www.canada.ca/
https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/reach/legislation. en/health-canada/services/chemical-substances/
Accessed 4 August 2018. chemicals-management-plan.html. Accessed 1 January
2019.
European Chemicals Agency (n.d. b). Search for
chemicals. https://echa.europa.eu/information-on- Government of Canada (2016b). Substance groupings
chemicals. Accessed 30 December 2018. initiative, 8 October. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-
canada/services/chemical-substances/substance-
European Chemicals Agency (n.d. c). Chesar: Chemical groupings-initiative.html. Accessed 1 January 2019.
safety assessment and reporting tool. https://chesar.
echa.europa.eu/. Accessed 24 August 2018. Government of Canada (2017). Chemicals management
plan science committee: Mid-term progress report
European Chemicals Agency and Organisation for February 2014 – June 2015, 13 October. https://www.
Economic Co-operation and Development (2018). ec.gc.ca/ese-ees/default.asp?lang=En&n=8823FEF0-
IUCLID 6. https://iuclid6.echa.europa.eu/. Accessed 1#toc7b. Accessed 1 January 2019.
1 August 2018.
He, N. (2019). South Korea issues 364 CMR substances
European Chemicals Agency and United States for reporting by 2021, 1 January. Chemlinked. https://
Environmental Protection Agency (2016). ECHA-EPA chemlinked.com/news/chemical-news/south-korea-
Workshop: Accelerating the Pace for (Chemical) Risk issues-364-cmr-substances-registration-2021.
Assessment (APCRA). https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/ Accessed 3 January 2019.
about_ntp/bsc/2017/december/meetingmaterials/
bucher_echa_508.pdf. International Labour Organization (2018). International
chemical safety cards. http://www.ilo.org/safework/
info/publications/WCMS_113134/lang--en/index.htm.
475
Japan Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (2016). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
What is CSCL (Chemical Substances Control Law), Development (2014b). New Guidance Document on
4 March. http://www.meti.go.jp/policy/chemical_ an Integrated Approach on Testing and Assessment (IATA)
management/english/cscl/about.html. Accessed for Skin Corrosion and Irritation. http://www.oecd.org/
1 January 2019. officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=
env/jm/mono(2014)19&doclanguage=en.
Jeliazkova, N., Koch, V., Li, Q., Jensch, U., Reigl, J.S.,
Kreiling, R., Georgiev, I. and Hubesch, B. (2016). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Linking LRI AMBIT chemoinformatic system with Development (2016). Report on the Pilot Project on
the IUCLID substance database to support read- Assessing the Potential Development of a Global List of
across of substance endpoint data and category Classified Chemicals. https://one.oecd.org/document/
formation. Toxicology Letters 258, 114-115. https:// ENV/JM/MONO(2016)43/en/pdf.
doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.06.1469.
Krewski, D., Acosta, D., Andersen, M., Anderson, H., Development (2017). Guidance Document for the Use
Bailar, J.C., Boekelheide, K., Brent, R., Charnley, G., of Adverse Outcome Pathways in Developing Integrated
Cheung, V.G., Green, S., Kelsey, K.T., Kerkvliet, N.I., Li, Approaches to Testing and Assessment (IATA). https://
A.A., McCray, L., Meyer, O., Patterson, R.D., Pennie, issuu.com/oecd.publishing/docs/guidance_document_
W., Scala, R.A., Solomon, G.M., Stephens, M., Yager, for_the_use_of_ad.
J. and Zeise, L. (2010). Toxicity testing in the 21st
century: a vision and a strategy. Journal of Toxicology Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
and Environmental Health. Part B, Critical Reviews 13, 51- Development (2018a). Safety of manufactured
138. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2010.483176. nanomaterials. http://www.oecd.org/science/
nanosafety/. Accessed 1 January 2019.
Lexology (2018). What’s new with China’s chemical
import and export regulatory programs, 21 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
February. https://www.lexology.com/library/detail. Development (2018b). OECD guidelines for the testing
aspx?g=a1ebde22-4b14-4d09-8ca3-c9878028a444. of chemicals, section 1: physical-chemical properties.
Accessed 1 January 2019. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/oecd-
guidelines-for-the-testing-of-chemicals-section-1-
Maertens, A., Anastas, N., Spencer, P.J., Stephens, M., physical-chemical-properties_20745753. Accessed
Goldberg, A. and Hartung, T. (2014). Green toxicology. 1 January 2019
Alternatives to Animal Experimentation 31(3), 243-249.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25061898. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (2018c). OECD guidelines for the testing
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and of chemicals, section 2: effects on biotic systems.
Development (2003). Descriptions of Selected https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/oecd-
Key Generic Terms Used in Chemical Hazard/Risk guidelines-for-the-testing-of-chemicals-section-
Assessment. http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/ 2-effects-on-biotic-systems_20745761. Accessed
publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=ENV/JM/ 1 January 2019
MONO(2003)15&docLanguage=En.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2018d). OECD guidelines for the testing of
Development (2005). Guidance Document on the chemicals, section 3: environmental fate and behaviour.
Validation and International Acceptance of New or https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/oecd-
Updated Test Methods for Hazard Assessment. http:// guidelines-for-the-testing-of-chemicals-section-3-
www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplay degradation-and-accumulation_2074577x. Accessed
documentpdf/?doclanguage=en&cote=env/jm/ 1 January 2019.
mono(2005)14.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2018e). OECD guidelines for the testing
Development (2007). Guidance Document on the of chemicals, section 4: health effects. https://www.
Validation of (Quantitative) Structure-Activity Relationships. oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/oecd-guidelines-
http://www.oecd.org/fr/securitechimique/ for-the-testing-of-chemicals-section-4-health-
risques/38130292.pdf. effects_20745788. Accessed 1 January 2019.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (2010). Cutting Costs in Chemicals Development (2018f). Good laboratory practice (GLP).
Management: How OECD Helps Governments and http://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/testing/good-
Industry. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264085930-en. laboratory-practiceglp.htm. Accessed 1 January 2019.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (2014a). Guidance on Grouping Development (2018g). OECD test guidelines for the
of Chemicals. 2nd edn. http://www.oecd.org/ chemicals. http://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/
officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote testing/oecdguidelinesforthetestingofchemicals.htm.
=env/jm/mono(2014)4&doclanguage=en. Accessed 1 January 2019.
476
Part III
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and United States Environmental Protection Agency (2016).
Development (2018h). Mutual acceptance of data Research on nanomaterials, 18 October. https://www.
(MAD). http://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/testing/ epa.gov/chemical-research/research-nanomaterials.
mutualacceptanceofdatamad.htm. Accessed 1 January Accessed 1 January 2019.
2019.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and (2017). Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program
Development (2018i). Animal welfare: OECD considers (EDSP) Overview, 22 February. https://www.epa.gov/
animal welfare in the development of test guidelines. endocrine-disruption/endocrine-disruptor-screening-
http://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/testing/animal- program-edsp-overview. Accessed 1 January 2019.
welfare.htm. Accessed 1 January 2019.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and (2018a). Legislative and regulatory authority for
Development (2018j). The OECD QSAR toolbox. http:// reviewing new chemicals under TSCA, 15 November.
www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/risk-assessment/oecd- https://www.epa.gov/reviewing-new-chemicals-under-
qsar-toolbox.htm. Accessed 1 January 2019. toxic-substances-control-act-tsca/legislative-and-
regulatory-authority. Accessed 1 January 2019.
Development (n.d.). The global portal to information United States Environmental Protection Agency
on chemical substances. eChemPortal. https://www. (2018b). The Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety
echemportal.org/echemportal/index.action. Accessed for the 21st Century Act. https://www.epa.gov/
1 January 2019 assessing-and-managing-chemicals-under-tsca/
frank-r-lautenberg-chemical-safety-21st-century-act.
Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia (2017). Accessed 1 January 2019.
Industrial Chemicals Bill 2017. https://www.aph.gov.
au/Parliamentary_Business/Bills_Legislation/Bills_ United States Environmental Protection Agency
Search_Results/Result?bId=r5885. Accessed 1 January (2018c). Exploring ToxCast data: downloadable data.
2019. https://www.epa.gov/chemical-research/toxicity-
forecaster-toxcasttm-data. Accessed 1 January 2019.
Persson, L., Karlsson-Vinkhuyzen, S., Lai, A., Persson,
Å. and Fick, S. (2017). The globally harmonized system Unites States Environmental Protection Agency
of classification and labelling of chemicals: explaining (2018d) Strategic Plan to Promote the Development and
the legal implementation gap. Sustainability 9(12), 1-21. Implementation of Alternative Test Methods Within the
https://doi.org/10.3390/su9122176. TSCA Program. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/
files/2018-06/documents/epa_alt_strat_plan_6-20-
SGS (2017). Turkey publishes EU REACH-like regulation, 18_clean_final.pdf.
7 July. https://www.sgs.com/en/news/2017/07/
safeguards-10217-turkey-publishes-eu-reach-like- United States Environmental Protection Agency
regulation. Accessed 1 January 2019 (2018e). Alternative test methods and strategies to
reduce vertebrate animal testing. https://www.epa.
Swedish Chemicals Agency (2018). PRIO – a tool for risk gov/assessing-and-managing-chemicals-under-tsca/
reduction of chemicals. Hazard assessment. https:// alternative-test-methods-and-strategies-reduce.
www.kemi.se/en/prio-start/chemicals-in-practical-use/ Accessed 1 January 2019.
hazard-assessment. Accessed 1 January 2019.
United States Interagency Coordinating Committee
United Nations (2017). Globally Harmonised System on the Validation of Alternative Methods (2018). A
for Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). 7th Strategic Roadmap for Establishing New Approaches to
revised edn. New York and Geneva. ST/SG/AC.10/30/ Evaluate the Safety of Chemicals and Medical Products
Rev.7. https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/ in the United States. https://dx.doi.org/10.22427/NTP-
danger/publi/ghs/ghs_rev07/English/ST_SG_AC10_30_ ICCVAM-ROADMAP2018.
Rev7e.pdf. Accessed 31 May 2018.
United States National Academy of Sciences (2007).
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy.
(n.d.). GHS implementation. https://www.unece.org/ https://www.nap.edu/catalog/11970/toxicity-testing-
trans/danger/publi/ghs/implementation_e.html. in-the-21st-century-a-vision-and-a.
United States National Library of Medicine (2018).
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2010). Hazard identification. ToxTutor. https://toxtutor.nlm.
TSCA New Chemicals Program (NCP) Chemical Categories. nih.gov/06-002.html. Accessed 1 January 2019.
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-10/
documents/ncp_chemical_categories_august_2010_ Vinken, M., Knapen, D., Vergauwen, L., Hengstler, J.G.,
version_0.pdf. Angrish, M. and Whelan, M. (2017). Adverse outcome
pathways: a concise introduction for toxicologists.
Archives of Toxicology 91(11), 3697-3707. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s00204-017-2020-z.
477
Wexler, P., Judson, R., de Marcellus, S., de Knecht, Di Guardo, A., Gouin, T., MacLeod, M. and Scheringer,
J. and Leinala, E. (2016). Health effects of toxicants: M. (2018). Environmental fate and exposure models:
online knowledge support. Life Sciences 145, 284-293. advances and challenges in 21st century chemical risk
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LFS.2015.10.002. assessment. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts
20(1), 58-71. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EM00568G.
World Health Organization (2019). International
programme on chemical safety: international chemical Escher, B.I., Hackermüller, J., Polte, T., Scholz, S.,
safety cards. http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/ Aigner, A., Altenburger, R., Böhme, A., Bopp, S.K.,
icsc/en/. Accessed 3 January 2019. Brack, W., Busch, W., Chadeau-Hyam, M., Covaci,
A., Eisenträger, A., Galligan, J.J., Garcia-Reyero, N.,
Hartung, T., Hein, M., Herberth, G., Jahnke, A., Kleinjans,
J., Klüver, N., Krauss, M., Lamoree, M., Lehmann, I.,
Chapter 2 Luckenbach, T., Miller, G.W., Müller, A., Phillips, D.H.,
Reemtsma, T., Rolle-Kampczyk, U., Schüürmann, G.,
Altenburger, R., Backhaus, T., Boedeker, W., Faust, M. Schwikowski, B., Tan, Y.-M., Trump, S., Walter-Rohde,
and Scholze, M. (2013). Simplifying complexity: mixture S. and Wambaugh, J.F. (2017). From the exposome
toxicity assessment in the last 20 years. Environmental to mechanistic understanding of chemical-induced
Toxicology and Chemistry 32(8), 1685-1687. https://doi. adverse effects. Environment International 99, 97-106.
org/10.1002/etc.2294. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVINT.2016.11.029.
Aylward, L.L., Green, E., Porta, M., Toms, L.-M., Den European Chemicals Agency (2016). Environmental
Hond, E., Schulz, C., Gasull, M., Pumarega, J., Conrad, exposure assessment. In Guidance on Information
A., Kolossa-Gehring, M., Schoeters, G. and Mueller, J.F. Requiremets and Chemical Safety Assessment.
(2014). Population variation in biomonitoring data for Chapter R.16. 1-178. https://echa.europa.eu/
persistent organic pollutants (POPs): an examination documents/10162/13632/information_requirements_
of multiple population-based datasets for application r16_en.pdf.
to Australian pooled biomonitoring data. Environment
International 68, 127-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. European Chemicals Agency (2018a). Chesar: chemical
ENVINT.2014.03.026. safety assessment and reporting tool. https://chesar.
echa.europa.eu/. Accessed 30 December 2018.
Becker, K., Seiwert, M., Casteleyn, L., Joas, R., Joas, A.,
Biot, P., Aerts, D., Castaño, A., Esteban, M., Angerer, European Chemicals Agency (2018b). Workshop
J., Koch, H.M., Schoeters, G., Hond, E. Den, Sepai, O., on EUSES update needs. https://echa.europa.eu/
Exley, K., Knudsen, L.E., Horvat, M., Bloemen, L. and nl/-/workshop-on-euses-update-needs. Accessed
Kolossa-Gehring, M. (2014). A systematic approach for 30 December 2018.
designing a HBM pilot study for Europe. International
Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 217(2-3), European Commission (2018) Information platform for
312-322. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHEH.2013.07.004. chemical monitoring: enhancing access to chemical
data, 10 March. https://ipchem.jrc.ec.europa.
Cohen Hubal, E.A., Richard, A., Aylward, L., Edwards, S., eu/RDSIdiscovery/ipchem/index.html. Accessed
Gallagher, J., Goldsmith, M.-R., Isukapalli, S., Tornero- 30 December 2018.
Velez, R., Weber, E. and Kavlock, R. (2010). Advancing
exposure characterization for chemical evaluation and Fantke, P., Ernstoff, A.S., Huang, L., Csiszar, S.A. and
risk assessment. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Jolliet, O. (2016). Coupled near-field and far-field
Health, Part B 13(2-4), 299-313. https://doi.org/10.108 exposure assessment framework for chemicals in
0/10937404.2010.483947. consumer products. Environment International 94,
508-518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.06.010.
Consortium to Perform Human Biomonitoring on a
European Scale (2016). Human biomonitoring. http:// Faustman, E.M. and Omenn, G.S. (2013). Risk
www.eu-hbm.info/cophes/human-biomonitoring. assessment. In Casarett and Doull’s Toxicology: The
Accessed 2 January 2019. Basic Science of Poisons. 8th edn. Klaassen, C.D. (ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education. Chapter 4. 123-149. https://
Csiszar, S.A., Ernstoff, A.S, Fantke, P. and Jolliet, O. accesspharmacy.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?secti
(2017). Stochastic modeling of near-field exposure to onid=53483723&bookid=958.
parabens in personal care products. Journal of Exposure
Science and Environmental Epidemiology 27(2), 152-159. Gligorovski, S. and Abbatt, J.P.D. (2018). An indoor
http://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2015.85. chemical cocktail. Science 359(6376), 632-633. https://
doi.org/10.1126/science.aar6837.
Csiszar, S.A., Ernstoff, A.S., Fantke, P., Meyer, D.E. and
Jolliet, O. (2016). High-throughput exposure modeling
to support prioritization of chemicals in personal
care products. Chemosphere 163, 490-498. https://doi.
org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2016.07.065.
478
Part III
Goldsmith, M.-R., Grulke, C.M., Brooks, R.D., Transue, Isaacs, K.K., Goldsmith, M.-R., Egeghy, P., Phillips,
T.R., Tan, Y.M., Frame, A., Egeghy, P.P., Edwards, R., K., Brooks, R., Hong, T. and Wambaugh, J.F. (2016).
Chang, D.T., Tornero-Velez, R., Isaacs, K., Wang, A., Characterization and prediction of chemical functions
Johnson, J., Holm, K., Reich, M., Mitchell, J., Vallero, and weight fractions in consumer products. Toxicology
D.A., Phillips, L., Phillips, M., Wambaugh, J.F., Judson, Reports 3, 723-732. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
R.S., Buckley, T.J. and Dary, C.C. (2014). Development TOXREP.2016.08.011.
of a consumer product ingredient database for
chemical exposure screening and prioritization. Kijko, G., Jolliet, O. and Margni, M. (2016). Occupational
Food and Chemical Toxicology 65, 269-279. https:// health impacts due to exposure to organic chemicals
doi.org/10.1016/J.FCT.2013.12.029. over an entire product life cycle. Environmental
Science & Technology 50(23), 13105-13114. https://
Government of Canada (2018). Canadian health doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04434.
measures survey, 23 August. https://www.statcan.
gc.ca/eng/survey/household/5071. Accessed 24 August Kijko, G., Margni, M., Partovi-Nia, V., Doudrich, G. and
2018. Jolliet, O. (2015). Impact of occupational exposure
to organic chemicals in life cycle assessment: a new
Heffernan, A.L., Aylward, L.L., Toms, L.-M.L., Sly, P.D., framework based on measured concentrations and
Macleod, M. and Mueller, J.F. (2014). Pooled biological labor hours. Environmental Science & Technology 49(14),
specimens for human biomonitoring of environmental 8741-8750. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00078.
chemicals: opportunities and limitations. Journal of
Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 24(3), Meesters, J.A., Koelmans, A.A., Quik, J.T., Hendriks, A.J.
225-232. https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2013.76. and van de Meent, D. (2014). Multimedia modeling
of engineered nanoparticles with SimpleBox4nano:
Heffernan, A.L., Baduel, C., Toms, L.M.L., Calafat, model definition and evaluation. Environmental Science
A.M., Ye, X., Hobson, P., Broomhall, S. and Mueller, & Technology 48(10). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
J.F. (2015). Use of pooled samples to assess human pubmed/24766433.
exposure to parabens, benzophenone-3 and triclosan
in Queensland, Australia. Environment International 85, Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and
77-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVINT.2015.09.001. the Environment (2018). ConsExpo, 20 November.
https://www.rivm.nl/en/Topics/C/ConsExpo. Accessed
Human and Environmental Risk Assessment (n.d.). 30 December 2018.
HERA Initiative. https://www.heraproject.com/
Initiative.cfm. Accessed 30 December 2018. Nordic Council of Ministers (2006). Scoping Study on
Releases from Products with a Proposal of the Next Steps.
Human Biomonitoring for Europe (2018). About https:/dx./doi.org/10.6027/tn2006-597.
HBM4EU. https://www.hbm4eu.eu/about-hbm4eu/.
Accessed 30 December 2018. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (2008). Complementing Guideline for
International Labour Organization (1993). Safety in the Writing Emission Scenario Documents: The Life-cycle Step
Use of Chemicals at work: An ILO Code of Practice. https:// “Service-Life”. http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/
www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/--- publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=env/jm/
protrav/---safework/documents/normativeinstrument/ mono(2008)41/rev1&doclanguage=en.
wcms_107823.pdf.
International Labour Organization (2004). Monitoring Development (2012). Description of Existing Models
in the workplace, 30 November. https://www.ilo.org/ and Tools Used for Exposure Assessment: Results of
legacy/english/protection/safework/cis/products/ OECD Survey. http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/
safetytm/chemcode/12.htm. Accessed 24 August 2018. publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=ENV/JM/
MONO(2012)37&doclanguage=en.
International Labour Organization (2011). Chemical
exposure limits, 16 February. https://www.ilo.org/ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
safework/info/publications/WCMS_151534/lang--en/ Development (2013). Guidance Document for Exposure
index.htm. Accessed 24 August 2018. Assessment Based on Environmental Monitoring. http://
www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocum
Isaacs, K.K., Glen, W.G., Egeghy, P., Goldsmith, M.- entpdf/?cote=env/jm/mono(2013)7&doclanguage=en.
R., Smith, L., Vallero, D., Brooks, R., Grulke, C.M.
and Özkaynak, H. (2014). SHEDS-HT: an integrated Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
probabilistic exposure model for prioritizing exposures Development (2017). Resource Compendium of PRTR
to chemicals with near-field and dietary sources. Release Estimation Techniques, Part 4: Summary of
Environmental Science & Technology 48(21), 12750- Techniques for Releases from Products. http://www.
12759. https://doi.org/10.1021/es502513w. oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentp
df/?cote=env/jm/mono(2017)2/ann&doclanguage=en.
479
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Scanlon, K.A., Lloyd, S.M., Gray, G.M., Francis, R.A.
Development (2018a). Publications in the series on and LaPuma, P. (2015). An approach to integrating
pollutant release and transfer registers. http://www.oecd. occupational safety and health into life cycle
org/chemicalsafety/pollutant-release-transfer-register/ assessment: development and application of work
publicationsintheseriesonpollutantreleaseandtransfer environment characterization factors. Journal of
registers.htm. Accessed 31 May 2018. Industrial Ecology 19(1), 27-37. https://doi.org/10.1111/
jiec.12146.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (2018b). Introduction Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity
to emission scenario documents. http:// (2010). Global Biodiversity Outlook 3. https://www.cbd.
www.oecd.org/env/ehs/risk-assessment/ int/doc/publications/gbo/gbo3-final-en.pdf.
introductiontoemissionscenariodocuments.htm.
Accessed 31 May 2018. Shin, H.-M., Ernstoff, A., Arnot, J.A., Wetmore, B.A.,
Csiszar, S.A., Fantke, P., Zhang, X., McKone, T.E.,
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Jolliet, O. and Bennett, D.H. (2015). Risk-based high-
Development (2018c). OECD Pov and LRTP screening throughput chemical screening and prioritization
tool. http://www.oecd.org/env/ehs/risk-assessment/ using exposure models and in vitro bioactivity assays.
oecdpovandlrtpscreeningtool.htm. Accessed 31 May Environmental Science & Technology 49(11), 6760-6771.
2018. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00498.
Overcash, M. (2016). Environmental genome of United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
industrial products (EGIP): the missing link for human (2018). Introduction: Kyiv Protocol on Pollutant Release
health. Green Chemistry 18(12), 3600-3606. https://doi. and Transfer Registers. https://www.unece.org/env/
org/10.1039/C6GC00182C. pp/prtr.html. Accessed 30 December 2018.
Pharos (2018). Pharos Project. https://www. United Nations Environment Programme (2017).
pharosproject.net/. Accessed 5 June 2018. Towards a Pollution-free Planet: Background
Report. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/
Posthuma, L., Dyer, S.D., de Zwart, D., Kapo, handle/20.500.11822/21800/UNEA_towardspollution_
K., Holmes, C.M. and Burton, G.A. (2016). Eco- long%20version_Web.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
epidemiology of aquatic ecosystems: separating
chemicals from multiple stressors. Science of The Total United Nations Environment Programme and World
Environment 573, 1303-1319. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. Health Organization (2013) Results of the Global Survey
SCITOTENV.2016.06.242. on Concentrations in Human Milk of Persistent Organic
Pollutants by the United Nations Environment Programme
Ring, C.L., Arnot, J., Bennett, D.H., Egeghy, P.P., Fantke, and the World Health Organization. Geneva: Secretariat
P., Huang, L., Isaacs, K.K., Jolliet, O., Phillips, K.A., Price, of the Stockholm Convention. http://wedocs.
P.S., Shin, H.M., Westgate, J.N., W, S.R. and F, W.J. (2018). unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/19392/
Chemical exposure pathway prediction for screening UNEPPOPSCOP6INF33English_%281%29.
and priority-setting. Submitted to Environmental Science pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
& Technology.
United Nations Institute for Training and Research
Rosenbaum, R.K., Bachmann, T.M., Gold, L.S., (2018). UNITAR PRTR Platform. http://prtr.unitar.org/
Huijbregts, M.A.J., Jolliet, O., Juraske, R., Koehler, A., site/resources. Accessed 31 May 2018.
Larsen, H.F., MacLeod, M., Margni, M., McKone, T.E.,
Payet, J., Schuhmacher, M., van de Meent, D. and United States Centers for Disease Control and
Hauschild, M.Z. (2008). USEtox – the UNEP-SETAC Prevention (2018a). National health and nutrition
toxicity model: recommended characterisation factors examination survey. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/
for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life nhanes/index.htm. Accessed 1 June 2018.
cycle impact assessment. The International Journal
of Life Cycle Assessment 13(7), 532-546. https://doi. United States Centers for Disease Control and
org/10.1007/s11367-008-0038-4. Prevention (2018b). National Report on Human
Exposure to Environmental Chemicals, March. https://
Rosenbaum, R.K., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Henderson, A.D., www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/index.html. Accessed
Margni, M., McKone, T.E., van de Meent, D., Hauschild, 17 August 2018.
M.Z., Shaked, S., Li, D.S., Gold, L.S. and Jolliet, O.
(2011). USEtox human exposure and toxicity factors United States Environmental Protection Agency (2016)
for comparative assessment of toxic emissions in life ChemSTEER-chemical screening tool for exposures and
cycle analysis: sensitivity to key chemical properties. environmental releases, 7 September. https://www.
The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 16(8), epa.gov/tsca-screening-tools/chemsteer-chemical-
710-727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-011-0316-4. screening-tool-exposures-and-environmental-
releases. Accessed 30 December 2018.
480
Part III

(2017a). Assessing human health risk from pesticides,
31 August. https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-science-and- Chapter 3
assessing-pesticide-risks/assessing-human-health-
risk-pesticides. Accessed 3 June 2018. Ågerstrand, M. and Beronius, A. (2016). Weight of
evidence evaluation and systematic review in EU
United States Environmental Protection Agency chemical risk assessment: foundation is laid but
(2017b). Predictive models and tools for assessing guidance is needed. Environment International 92-93,
chemicals under the Toxic Substances Control Act 590-596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.10.008.
(TSCA), 18 December. https://www.epa.gov/tsca-
screening-tools. Accessed 30 December 2018. American Chemistry Council (2018). Another milestone
for the succesful implementation of TSCA, 17 August.
United States Environmental Protection Agency https://blog.americanchemistry.com/2018/08/
(2017c). Environmental measurements and modeling: another-milestone-for-the-successful-implementation-
collection of methods, 3 October. https://www.epa. of-tsca/. Accessed 4 January 2019.
gov/measurements-modeling/collection-methods.
Accessed 1 June 2018. Backhaus, T. (2015). An Additional Assessment Factor
(MAF) – A Suitable Approach for Improving the Regulatory
United States Environmental Protection Agency Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures? Stockholm:
(2017d). Exposure assessment tools by tiers and types: Swedish Chemicals Agency. https://www.kemi.se/
aggregate and cumulative, 29 November. https:// global/rapporter/2015/rapport-5-15.pdf.
www.epa.gov/expobox/exposure-assessment-tools-
tiers-and-types-aggregate-and-cumulative. Accessed Backhaus, T., Scheringer, M. and Wang, Z. (2018).
3 June 2018. Developing SAICM into a framework for the international
governance of chemicals throughout their lifecycle:
United States Environmental Protection Agency Looking beyond 2020. In Integrated Environmental
(2017e). Exposure assessment tools by chemical Assessment and Management. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH
classes, 1 December. https://www.epa.gov/expobox/ & Co. KGaA. https://doi.org/10.1002/3527607463.
exposure-assessment-tools-chemical-classes.
Accessed 1 June 2018. Brown, A.R., Whale, G., Jackson, M., Marshall, S.,
Hamer, M., Solga, A., Kabouw, P., Galay-Burgos,
United States Environmental Protecrtion Agency M., Woods, R., Nadzialek, S. and Maltby, L. (2017).
(2018). Rapid chemical exposure and dose research, Toward the definition of specific protection goals for
9 October. https://www.epa.gov/chemical-research/ the environmental risk assessment of chemicals: a
rapid-chemical-exposure-and-dose-research. Accessed perspective on environmental regulation in Europe.
30 December 2018. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management
13(1), 17-37. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.1797.
van de Meent, D. and de Bruijn, J.H.M. (2007).
Environmental exposure assessment. In Risk Carusi, A., Davies, M.R., De Grandis, G., Escher, B.I.,
assessment of chemicals: An introduction. 2nd edn. Hodges, G., Leung, K.M.Y., Whelan, M., Willett, C. and
van Leeuwen, C.J. and Vermeire, T. (eds). Dordrecht: Ankley, G.T. (2018). Harvesting the promise of AOPs:
Springer. Chapter 4. 159-194. https://www.springer. an assessment and recommendations. Science of The
com/gp/book/9781402061011. Total Environment 628-629, 1542-1556. https://doi.
org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2018.02.015.
Wambaugh, J.F., Setzer, R.W., Reif, D.M., Gangwal, S.,
Mitchell-Blackwood, J., Arnot, J.A., Joliet, O., Frame, Chiu, W.A. (2017). Chemical Risk Assessment and
A., Rabinowitz, J., Knudsen, T.B., Judson, R.S., Egeghy, Translation to Socio-economic Assessments. Paris:
P., Vallero, D. and Cohen Hubal, E.A. (2013). High- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
throughput models for exposure-based chemical Development. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/a930054b-en.
prioritization in the ExpoCast project. Environmental
Science & Technology 47(15), 8479-8488. https://doi. Environment and Climate Change Canada (2016).
org/10.1021/es400482g. Chemicals Management Plan (CMP) Science Committee
Objectives Paper: Meeting No. 5; 16-17 November
Wannaz, C., Franco, A., Kilgallon, J., Hodges, J. and 2016. Integrating New Approach Methodologies within
Jolliet, O. (2018). A global framework to model spatial the CMP: Identifying Priorities for Risk Assessment,
ecosystems exposure to home and personal care Existing Substances Risk Assessment Program. http://
chemicals in Asia. Science of The Total Environment www.ec.gc.ca/ese-ees/172614CE-D9F6-43DA-
622-623, 410-420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. A528-B8175438210F/Objectives%20Paper%20
scitotenv.2017.11.315. November%202016_EN.pdf.
World Health Organization (2004). IPCS Harmonization

Project – IPCS Risk Assessment Terminology. http://
www.inchem.org/documents/harmproj/harmproj/
harmproj1.pdf.
481
Environment and Climate Change Canada and European Commission (2018c). The REACH REFIT
Health Canada (2017). Draft screening assessment evaluation (REACH review). https://ec.europa.eu/
substances identified as being of low concern using growth/sectors/chemicals/reach/review_en. Accessed
the ecological risk classification of organic substances 29 August 2018.
and the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC)-based
approach for certain substances, June. http://www. European Commission (2018d). Information platform
ec.gc.ca/ese-ees/default.asp?lang=En&n=8A598C49-1. for chemical monitoring: enhancing access to chemical
Accessed 4 January 2019. data. Environmental Sciences Europe. https://ipchem.
jrc.ec.europa.eu. Accessed 30 December 2018.
Escher, B.I., Hackermüller, J., Polte, T., Scholz, S.,
Aigner, A., Altenburger, R., Böhme, A., Bopp, S.K., European Food Safety Authority (2010). Scientific
Brack, W., Busch, W., Chadeau-Hyam, M., Covaci, Opinion on the development of specific protection
A., Eisenträger, A., Galligan, J.J., Garcia-Reyero, N., goal options for environmental risk assessment of
Hartung, T., Hein, M., Herberth, G., Jahnke, A., Kleinjans, pesticides, in particular in relation to the revision
J., Klüver, N., Krauss, M., Lamoree, M., Lehmann, I., of the guidance documents on aquatic and
Luckenbach, T., Miller, G.W., Müller, A., Phillips, D.H., terrestrial ecotoxicology (SANCO/3268/2001 and
Reemtsma, T., Rolle-Kampczyk, U., Schüürmann, G., SANCO/10329/2002. European Food Safety Authority
Schwikowski, B., Tan, Y.-M., Trump, S., Walter-Rohde, Journal 8(10), 1821-1876. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.
S. and Wambaugh, J.F. (2017). From the exposome efsa.2010.1821.
to mechanistic understanding of chemical-induced
adverse effects. Environment International 99, 97-106. European Food Safety Authority (2012). Scientific
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVINT.2016.11.029. Opinion on exploring options for providing advice
about possible human health risks based on the
European Chemicals Agency (2017) Non-animal concept of threshold of toxicological concern (TTC).
Approaches - Current Status of Regulatory Applicability European Food Safety Authority Journal 10(7), 2750-2853.
Under the REACH, CLP and Biocidal Products Regulations https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2750.
https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/22931011/
non_animal_approcches_en.pdf/87ebb68f-2038-f597- European Food Safety Authority (2016). Guidance
fc33-f4003e9e7d7d. to develop specific protection goals options for
environmental risk assessment at EFSA, in relation
European Chemicals Agency (n.d. a). Search for to biodiversity and ecosystem services. European Food
chemicals. https://www.echa.europa.eu/information- Safety Authority Journal 14(6), 4499-4549. https://doi.
on-chemicals. Accessed 30 December 2018. org/10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4499.
European Chemicals Agency (n.d. b). How to avoid European Food Safety Authority (n.d.). Chemical
unnecessary testing on animals: weight of evidence. mixtures. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/
https://echa.europa.eu/support/registration/how- topic/chemical-mixtures. Accessed 29 August 2018.
to-avoid-unnecessary-testing-on-animals/weight-of-
evidence. Accessed 4 January 2019. Finkel, A.M. (2011). “Solution-focused risk assessment”:
a proposal for the fusion of environmental analysis
European Chemicals Agency (n.d. c). How to avoid and action. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An
unnecessary testing on animals: grouping of International Journal 17(4), 754-787. https://doi.org/1
substances and read-across. https://echa.europa. 0.1080/10807039.2011.588142.
eu/support/registration/how-to-avoid-unnecessary-
testing-on-animals/grouping-of-substances-and-read- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
across. Accessed 29 August 2018. Nations (2011). One Health: Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations Strategic Plan. http://
European Commission (2015). Exposing the exposome, www.fao.org/docrep/014/al868e/al868e00.pdf.
22 September. Horizon 2020. https://ec.europa.eu/
programmes/horizon2020/en/news/exposing- Franklin, K. (2018). EPA lays out TSCA implementation
exposome. Accessed 1 January 2019. priorities, 1 November. https://chemicalwatch.
com/71532/epa-lays-out-tsca-implementation-
European Commission (2018a). Nanomaterials in priorities. Accessed 4 January 2019.
REACH and CLP. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/
chemicals/nanotech/reach-clp/index_en.htm. Gottardo, S., Alessandrelli, M., Amenta, V., Atluri,
Accessed 23 August 2018. R., Barberio, G., Bekker, C., Bergonzo, P., Bleeker,
E., Booth, A.M., Borges, T., Buttol, P., Carlander, D.,
European Commission (2018b). Communication from Castelli, S., Chevillard, S., Clavaguera, S., Dekkers, S.,
the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council Delpivo, C., Di Prospero Fanghella, P., Dusinska, M.,
and the European Economic and Social Committee: Einola, J., Ekokoski, E., Fito, C., Gouveia, H., Grall, R.,
General Report on the Operation of REACH and Review Hoehener, K. and Joh, H. (2017). NANoREG Framework
of Certain Elements. Conclusions and Actions. https:// for the Safety Assessment of Nanomaterials. Gottardo, S.,
eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=C Crutzen, H. and Jantunen, P. (eds.). Ispra: Joint Research
ELEX:52018DC0116&from=EN. Centre. https://doi.org/10.2760/245972.
482
Part III
Government of Canada (2016a). Chemicals Kortenkamp, A., Backhaus, T. and Faust, M. (2009).
management plan, 2 June. https://www.canada.ca/ State of the Art Report on Mixture Toxicity: Final Report.
en/health-canada/services/chemical-substances/ Executive Summary. European Commission, DG
chemicals-management-plan.html. Accessed 1 January Environment. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/
2019. chemicals/effects/pdf/report_mixture_toxicity.pdf.
Government of Canada (2016b). Chemicals Laux, P., Tentschert, J., Riebeling, C., Braeuning, A.,
management plan risk assessment toolbox, 30 Creutzenberg, O., Epp, A., Fessard, V., Haas, K.-H.,
May. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/ Haase, A., Hund-Rinke, K., Jakubowski, N., Kearns, P.,
services/chemical-substances/fact-sheets/chemicals- Lampen, A., Rauscher, H., Schoonjans, R., Störmer,
management-plan-risk-assessment-toolbox.html. A., Thielmann, A., Mühle, U. and Luch, A. (2018).
Accessed 1 January 2019. Nanomaterials: certain aspects of application, risk
assessment and risk communication. Archives of
Government of Canada (2017a). The identification Technology 92(1) 121-141. https://doi.org/10.1007/
of risk assessment priorities, 15 June. https://www. s00204-017-2144-1.
canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/chemical-
substances/fact-sheets/identification-risk-assessment- Liu, J., Patlewicz, G., Williams A.J., Thomas R.S., and
priorities.html. Accessed 4 Janaury 2019. Shah I. (2017). Predicting organ toxicity using in vitro
bioactivity data and chemical structure. Chemical
Government of Canada (2017b). Application of weight Research in Toxicology 30(11), 2046-2059. https://doi.
of evidence and precaution in risk assessment, 15 org/10.1021/acs.chemrestox.7b00084.
June. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/
services/chemical-substances/fact-sheets/application- Maltby, L., Jackson, M., Whale, G., Brown, A.R., Hamer,
weight-of-evidence-precaution-risk-assessments.html. M., Solga, A., Kabouw, P., Woods, R. and Marshall,
Accessed 4 January 2019. S. (2017). Is an ecosystem services-based approach
developed for setting specific protection goals for plant
Government of Canada (2018a). Chemicals Management protection products applicable to other chemicals?
Plan Progress Report: Summer 2018. https://www. Science of The Total Environment 580, 1222-1236.
canada.ca/content/dam/eccc/documents/pdf/pded/ https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2016.12.083.
chemicals-management-plan-(cmp)-progress-report/
cmp-progress-report-summer-2018.pdf. Meek, B., Boobis, A.R., Crofton, K.M., Heinemeyer, G.,
Raaij, M. Van and Vickers, C. (2011). Risk assessment
Government of Canada (2018b). Follow-Up Report of combined exposure to multiple chemicals: a
to the House of Commons Standing Committee on WHO/IPCS framework. Regulatory Toxicology and
Environment and Sustainable Development on the Pharmacology 60(2), S1-S14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999. Ottawa. yrtph.2011.03.010.
https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/eccc/documents/
pdf/cepa/FollowUpCepaReport-eng.pdf Milner, A.M. and Boyd, I.L. (2017). Toward
pesticidovigilance. Science 357(6357), 1232-1234.
Hansen, B.G. (2017). Hazard versus risk, Chemical https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan2683.
Watch, October. https://chemicalwatch.com/60340/
hazard-versus-risk. Accessed 1 June 2018 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (2002) OECD Guidance Document on Risk
Human Exposome Project (2019) The exposome’s 10th Communication for Chemical Risk Management. http://
year in review https://humanexposomeproject.com/ www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocum
news/the-exposomes-10th-year-in-review/. Accessed entpdf/?cote=env/jm/mono(2002)18&doclanguage=en
4 January 2019.
International Chemical Secretariat (n.d.). Sin list. http:// Development (2011). WHO OECD ILSI/HESI International
chemsec.org/sin-list/. Accessed 1 June 2018. Workshop on Risk Assessment of Combined Exposures
to Multiple Chemicals. Workshop Report. http://www.
Jabbour, J. and Flachsland, C. (2017). 40 years of global oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocument
environmental assessments: a retrospective analysis. pdf/?cote=env/jm/mono(2011)10&doclanguage=en.
Environmental Science & Policy 77, 193-202. https://doi.
org/10.1016/J.ENVSCI.2017.05.001. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (2014). Guidance on Grouping
Karmaus, A.L., Filer, D.L., Martin, M.T. and Houck, of Chemicals. 2nd edn. http://www.oecd.org/
K.A. (2016). Evaluation of food-relevant chemicals officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote
in the ToxCast high-throughput screening program. =env/jm/mono(2014)4&doclanguage=en.
Food and Chemical Toxicology 92, 188-196. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.fct.2016.04.012. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (2016). OECD environmental risk
assessment toolkit. https://envriskassessmenttoolkit.
oecd.org/Default.aspx?idExec=c024b15b-9573-433c-
a8a1-f100951a0686. Accessed 1 January 2019.
483
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Teeguarden, J.G., Tan, Y.-M., Edwards, S.W., Leonard,
Development (2018). Grouping of chemicals: chemical J.A., Anderson, K.A., Corley, R.A., Kile, M.L., Simonich,
categories and read-across. http://www.oecd.org/ S.M., Stone, D., Tanguay, R.L., Waters, K.M., Harper,
chemicalsafety/risk-assessment/groupingofchemica S.L. and Williams, D.E. (2016). Completing the link
lschemicalcategoriesandread-across.htm. Accessed between exposure science and toxicology for improved
1 January 2019. environmental health decision making: the aggregate
exposure pathway framework. Environmental Science &
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Technology 50(9), 4579-4586. https://doi.org/10.1021/
Development (n.d.). The global portal to information acs.est.5b05311.
on chemical substances. eChemPortal. https://www.
echemportal.org/echemportal/index.action. Accessed United Nations (2017). Globally Harmonized System of
1 January 2019. Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS): Health
and Environmental Hazards - Classification Criteria
Pham, N., Iyer, S., Hackett, E., Lock, B.H., Sandy, M., for Substances and Mixtures. https://www.unece.
Zeise, L., Solomon, G. and Marty, M. (2016). Using org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/danger/publi/ghs/GHS_
ToxCast to explore chemical activities and hazard presentations/English/health_env_e.pdf.
traits: a case study with ortho- phthalates. Toxicological
Sciences 151(2), 286-301. https://doi.org/10.1093/ United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
toxsci/kfw049. (2017). Words into Action Guidelines: National Disaster
Risk Assessment. Special Topics A. Public Communication
Pleil, J. (2015). The human exposome and systems for Disaster Risk Reduction. https://www.preventionweb.
biology: ongoing empirical measurement studies net/files/52828_apubliccommunication[1].pdf.
and biomarker interpretation, 57 May. https://
cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report. United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
cfm?dirEntryId=311388&Lab=NERL. Accessed 3 Registry (2018) Framework for Assessing Health Impacts
January 2019. of Multiple Chemicals and Other Stressors (Update).
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/interactionprofiles/ip-ga/
Rhomberg, L.R., Goodman , J.E., Bailey , L.A., Prueitt, ipga-p.pdf.
R.L., Beck, N.B., Bevan, C., Honeycutt, M., Kaminski,
N.E., Paoli, G., Pottenger, L.H., Scherer, R.W., Wise, K.C. United States Centers for Disease Control and
and Becker, R.A. (2013). A survey of frameworks for Prevention (2018). National Health and Nutrition
best practices in weight-of-evidence analyses. Critical Examination Survey. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/
Reviews in Toxicology 43(9), 753-784. https://doi.org/1 nhanes/index.htm. Accessed 1 June 2018.
0.3109/10408444.2013.832727.
United States Congress (2016). The Frank R. Lautenberg
Roth, N. and Wilks, M.F. (2014). Neurodevelopmental Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act. Public Law 114-
and neurobehavioural effects of polybrominated and 182 - 114th Congress. https://www.congress.gov/114/
perfluorinated chemicals: a systematic review of the plaws/publ182/PLAW-114publ182.pdf.
epidemiological literature using a quality assessment
scheme. Toxicology Letters 230(2), 271-281. https://doi. United States Environmental Protection Agency
org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.02.015. (2017). Control of nanoscale materials under the
Toxic Substances Control Act, 30 November. https://
Sahlin, U. and Rundlöf, M. (2016). Differences in the www.epa.gov/reviewing-new-chemicals-under-toxic-
strengths of evidence matters in risk-risk trade-offs. substances-control-act-tsca/control-nanoscale-
Journal of Risk Research 20(8), 988-994. https://doi.or materials-under. Accessed 14 August 2018.
g/10.1080/13669877.2016.1178662.
Selin, H. (2013). Global chemicals politics and (2018a). Exploring ToxCast data: downloadable data.
policy. In The Handbook of Global Climate and https://www.epa.gov/chemical-research/exploring-
Environment Policy. Oxford: Wiley. 107-123. https:// toxcast-data-downloadable-data. Accessed 1 January
doi.org/10.1002/9781118326213.ch7. 2019.
Shah, F. and Greene, N. (2014). Analysis of Pfizer United States Environmental Protection Agency
compounds in EPA’s ToxCast chemicals-assay space. (2018b). ChemView. https://chemview.epa.gov/
Chemical Research in Toxicology 27(1), 86-98. https:// chemview. Accessed 1 June 2018.
doi.org/10.1021/tx400343t.
Swedish Chemicals Agency (2018). Grouping of Chemical (2018c). CompTox chemicals dashboard: what is the
Substances in the REACH and CLP Regulations. https:// comptox chemicals dashboard? 13 December. https://
www.kemi.se/global/pm/2018/pm-2-18-grouping- www.epa.gov/chemical-research/comptox-chemicals-
of-chemical-substances-in-the-reach-and-clp- dashboard. Accessed 1 January 2019.
regulations1.pdf.
484
Part III
United States Environmental Protection Agency Wilks, M.F., Roth, N., Aicher, L., Faust, M., Papadaki,
(2018d). Application of Systematic Review in TSCA P., Marchis, A., Calliera, M., Ginebreda, A., Andres, S.,
Evaluations. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/ Kühne, R., Schüürmann, G. and HEROIC consortium.
files/2018-06/documents/final_application_of_sr_in_ (2015). White paper on the promotion of an
tsca_05-31-18.pdf. integrated risk assessment concept in European
regulatory frameworks for chemicals. Science of
United States National Academies of Sciences, The Total Environment 521-522, 211-218. https://doi.
Engineering and Medicine (2017). Using 21st Century org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.065.
Science to Improve Risk-related Evaluations. https://www.
nap.edu/catalog/24635/using-21st-century-science- Williams, A.J., Grulke, C.M., Edwards, J., McEachran,
to-improve-risk-related-evaluations. A.D., Mansouri, K., Baker, N.C., Patlewicz, G., Shah, I.,
Wambaugh, J.F., Judson, R.S. and Richard, A.M. (2017).
United States National Research Council (2009). Science The CompTox chemistry dashboard: a community
and Decision: Advancing Risk Assessment. https://doi. data resource for environmental chemistry. Journal of
org/10.17226/12209. Cheminformatics 9(61), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1186/
s13321-017-0247-6.
United States National Toxicology Program (2017).
Collaborative workshop on aquatic models and 21st Woodruff, T.J. and Sutton, P. (2014). The navigation
century toxicology, 12 December. https://ntp.niehs.nih. guide systematic review methodology: a rigorous and
gov/pubhealth/evalatm/3rs-meetings/past-meetings/ transparent method for translating environmental
aquatic-models-wksp-2014/index.html. Accessed 1 health science into better health outcomes.
January 2019. Environmental Health Perspectives 122(10), 1007-1014.
https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307175.
United States National Toxicology Program (2018a).
OHAT systematic review, 29 January. https://ntp.niehs. World Health Organization (2010). WHO
nih.gov/pubhealth/hat/review/index-2.html. Accessed Human Health Risk Assessment Toolkit: Chemical
1 January 2019. Hazards. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/
handle/10665/44458/9789241548076_eng.pdf;jses
United States National Toxicology Program (2018b). sionid=13EE48B03B976863804FF725EE3AC471?seq
SEAZIT: systematic evaluation of the application of uence=1.
zebrafish in toxicology, 30 August. https://ntp.niehs.
nih.gov/pubhealth/evalatm/test-method-evaluations/ World Health Organization (2017a). Chemical Mixtures
dev-tox/seazit/index.html. Accessed 1 January 2019. in Source Water and Drinking-water. http://apps.who.int/
van Broekhuizen, F.A., Posthuma L. and Traas T.P. eng.pdf;jsessionid=945450215FE5D872A33483300F7
(2016). Addressing Combined Effects of Chemicals in FD600?sequence=1.
Environmental Safety Assessment Under REACH – A
Thought Starter. Bilthoven: Netherlands National World Health Organization (2017b). One health. http://
Institute for Public Health and the Environment. www.who.int/features/qa/one-health/en/. Accessed
https://www.rivm.nl/en/Documents_and_publications/ 29 August 2018.
Scientific/Reports/2017/February/Addressing_
combined_effects_of_chemicals_in_environmental_ World Health Organization (2017c). Guidance Document
safety_assessment_under_REACH_A_thought_starter. on Evaluating and Expressing Uncertenty in Hazard
Characterization. 2nd edn. http://apps.who.int/iris/
van Wezel, A.P., Laak, T.L. ter, Fischer, A., Bäuerlein, P.S., bitstream/handle/10665/259858/9789241513548-eng.
Munthe, J. and Posthuma, L. (2017). Mitigation options pdf;jsessionid=68396397355FA003FCBB5E3A8096AA
for chemicals of emerging concern in surface waters; 2C?sequence=1.
operationalising solutions-focused risk assessment.
Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology World Health Organization (2018a). Integrated risk
3(3), 403-414. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EW00077D. assessment. http://www.who.int/ipcs/methods/risk_
assessment/en/. Accessed 1 June 2018.
Wang, J.C., Zhao, N.N., Chen, Y. and Li, J.H. (2015).
A comparative review on chemical registration World Health Organization (2018b). International
management regulations. Applied Mechanics and programme on chemical safety: chemical risk
Materials 768, 820-827. https://doi.org/10.4028/www. assessment network. http://www.who.int/ipcs/
scientific.net/AMM.768.820. network/en/. Accessed 1 June 2018.
Wignall, J.A., Muratov, E., Sedykh, A., Guyton, K.Z., World Organization for Animal Health (2018). One
Tropsha, A., Rusyn, I. and Chiu, W.A. (2018). Conditional health “at a glance”. http://www.oie.int/en/for-the-
toxicity value (CTV) predictor: an in silico approach for media/onehealth/. Accessed 29 August 2018.
generating quantitative risk estimates for chemicals.
Environmental Health Perspectives 126(5), 057008-1-13.
https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2998.
485
ChemSafetyPro (2018) GHS Classification of mixture,

17 October. https://www.chemsafetypro.com/Topics/
Chapter 4 GHS/GHS_classification_mixture.html. Accessed 2
January 2019.
Atkinson, G., Braathen, N.A., Groom, B. and Mourato,
S. (2018). Cost-Benefit Analysis and the Environment: Chiu, W.A. (2017). Chemical Risk Assessment and
Further Developments and Policy Use. Paris: Organisation Translation to Socio-economic Assessments. Paris:
for Economic Development and Co-operation. https:// Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
doi.org/10.1787/9789264085169-en. Development. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/a930054b-en.
Bartelings, H., Kavallari, A., van Meijl, H. and Von Lampe, Consultancy.uk (2017). Portfolio Sustainability
M. (2016). Estimating the Impact of Fertilizer Support Assessment gaining momentum in chemicals
Policies: A CGE approach. Washington, D.C.: Global Trade industry, 28 March. https://www.consultancy.uk/
Analysis Project. https://www.gtap.agecon.purdue. news/13241/portfolio-sustainability-assessment-
edu/resources/res_display.asp?RecordID=4901. gaining-momentum-in-chemicals-industry. Accessed
1 January 2019.
Bernstein, S. and Cashore, B. (2007). Can non-state
global governance be legitimate? An analytical Cook, G. and Jardim, E. (2017). Guide to Greener
framework. Regulation & Governance 1(4), 347-371. Electronics 2017. Bach, N. (ed.). Washington, D.C.:
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5991.2007.00021.x. Greenpeace. https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/
wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Guide-to-Greener-
Berrone, P., Fosfuri, A., Gelabert, L. and Gomez- Electronics-2017.pdf.
Mejia, L.R. (2013). Necessity as the mother of ‘green’
inventions: institutional pressures and environmental Dalvie, M.A., Rother, H.A. and London, L. (2014).
innovations. Strategic Management Journal 34(8), 891- Chemical hazard communication comprehensibility
909. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2041. in South Africa: safety implications for the adoption
of the globally harmonised system of classification
Böcker, T. and Finger, R. (2016). European pesticide and labelling of chemicals. Safety Science 61, 51-58.
tax schemes in comparison: an analysis of experiences https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2013.07.013.
and developments. Sustainability 8(4), 1-22. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su8040378. Duffus, J.H., Nordberg, M. and Templeton, D.M. (2007).
Glossary of terms used in toxicology, 2nd edition
Boström, M., Börjeson, N., Gilek, M., Jönsson, A.M. and (IUPAC Recommendations 2007). Pure and Applied
Karlsson, M. (2011). Towards Responsible Procurement Chemistry. The Journal of the International Union of Pure
in Relation to Chemical Risks in Textiles? Findings from and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) 79(7), 1153-1344. https://
an Interview Study. Huddinge: Södertörn University. doi.org/10.1351/pac200779071153.
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f878/613c306f2c4
e44bca438c8af423bedfdb3c0.pdf. DuPont (2015). DuPont position statement: Montreal
Protocol, 15 September. http://www.dupont.com/
Botos, Á., Graham, J.D. and Illés, Z. (2018). Industrial corporate-functions/our-company/insights/articles/
chemical regulation in the European Union and position-statements/articles/montreal-protocol.html.
the United States: a comparison of REACH and the Accessed 1 June 2018.
amended TSCA. Journal of Risk Research 1-18. https://
doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2018.1454495. Eastlake, A., Hodson, L., Geraci, C. and Crawford, C.
(2012). A critical evaluation of material safety data
Buxton, L. (2016). Hoffmann-La Roche´s goal to sheets (MSDSs) for engineered nanomaterials. Chemical
phase out SVHCs, December. Chemical Watch. https:// Health & Safety 19(5), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
chemicalwatch.com/51621/hoffmann-la-roches-goal- jchas.2012.02.002.
to-phase-out-svhcs. Accessed 2 January 2019.
Egeghy, P.P., Judson, R., Gangwal, S., Mosher, S., Smith,
Canan, P., Andersen, S.O., Reichman, N. and Gareau, D., Vail, J. and Cohen Hubal, E.A. (2012). The exposure
B. (2015). Introduction to the special issue on ozone data landscape for manufactured chemicals. Science
layer protection and climate change: the extraordinary of The Total Environment 414, 159-166. https://doi.
experience of building the Montreal Protocol, lessons org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.10.046.
learned, and hopes for future climate change efforts.
Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences 5(2), 111- Egeghy, P.P., Vallero, D.A. and Cohen Hubal, E.A. (2011).
121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-015-0224-1. Exposure-based prioritization of chemicals for risk
assessment. Environmental Science & Policy 14(8), 950-
Center for International Environmental Law (2013). 964. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVSCI.2011.07.010.
Driving Innovation: How Stronger Laws Help Bring
Safer Chemicals to the Market. http://www.ciel.org/
Publications/Innovation_Chemical_Feb2013.pdf.
486
Part III
Eklund, A.G., Altshuler, S.L., Altshuler, P.C., Chow, J.C., Gauthier, A.M., Fung, M., Panko, J., Kingsbury, T.,
Hidy, G.M., Lloyd, A.C., Prather, M.J., Watson, J.G., Zalzal, Perez, A.L., Hitchcock, K., Ferracini, T., Sahmel, J.,
P., Andersen, S.O., Halberstadt, M.L. and Borgford- Banducci, A., Jacobsen, M., Abelmann, A. and Shay,
Parnell, N. (2013). Stratospheric ozone, global warming, E. (2014). Chemical assessment state of the science:
and the principle of unintended consequences – an evaluation of 32 decision-support tools used to screen
ongoing science and policy story. Journal of the Air and prioritize chemicals. Integrated Environmental
& Waste Management Association 63(11), 1235-1244. Assessment and Management 11(2), 242-255. https://
https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2013.847317. doi.org/10.1002/ieam.1605.
European Chemicals Agency (2011). Guidance on the Geiser, K. (2015) Chemicals Without Harm: Policies
Preparation of an Application for Authorisation. Version for a Sustainable World. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
1. https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13643/ http://mitpress.universitypressscholarship.com/
authorisation_application_en.pdf. view/10.7551/mitpress/9780262012522.001.0001/
upso-9780262012522.
European Chemicals Agency (2017). Socio-economic
Impacts of REACH Authorisations: A Meta-Analysis of Government of Canada (2012). Chemicals Management
the First 100 Applications for Authorisation. https://doi. Plan implementation table at a glance – 2016 to
org/10.2823/794664. 2021, 26 July. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-
canada/services/chemical-substances/chemicals-
European Chemicals Agency (n.d. a). Emission scenario management-plan/implementation-table-at-a-
documents. https://echa.europa.eu/guidance- glance-2016-2021.html. Accessed 22 August 2018.
documents/guidance-on-biocides-legislation/
emission-scenario-documents. Accessed 23 August Government of Canada (2016). Risk management of
2018. chemical substances: what is risk management? 4 July.
https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/
European Chemicals Agency (n.d. b). Extended safety chemical-substances/canada-approach-chemicals/
data sheets. https://echa.europa.eu/safety-data- risk-management.html. Accessed 22 August 2018.
sheets. Accessed 9 September 2018.
GreenBiz (2018). The right chemistry. https://www.
European Chemicals Agency (n.d. c) Classification of greenbiz.com/blogs/enterprise/right-chemistry.
substances and mixtures https://echa.europa.eu/ Accessed 1 January 2019.
regulations/clp/classification. Accessed 2 January 2019.
Green Chemistry and Commerce Council (n.d.).
European Chemicals Agency (n.d. d). Understanding Advancing Green Chemistry across sectors and supply
REACH. https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/reach/ chains. https://www.greenchemistryandcommerce.
understanding-reach. Accessed 1 June 2018. org/. Accessed 2 January 2019.
European Chemicals Agency (n.d. e). Regulatory Green Science Policy Institute (2013). Pop Stop:
management option analysis. https://echa.europa. Denmark retailer stops sale of microwave popcorn
eu/rmoa. Accessed 1 June 2018. amid health fears, 3 June. http://greensciencepolicy.
org/pop-stop/. Accessed 1 June 2018.
European Commission (2015). Monitoring the Impacts
of REACH on Innovation, Competitiveness and SMEs. GreenScreen (2018) GreenScreen for safer chemicals.
http://ec.europa.eu/DocsRoom/documents/14581/ https://www.greenscreenchemicals.org/. Accessed 9
attachments/1/translations. September 2018.
Frangos, J., D’Costa, G., Hagen, T. and Drew, R. Hansen, B.G. (2017). Hazard versus risk: the difference
(2010). An Evaluation of MSDS and Labels Associated between alternative ways of managing chemicals
with the Use of Engineered Nanomaterials. Canberra: is actually not that large, October. Chemical Watch.
Safe Work Australia. https://www.safeworkaustralia. https://chemicalwatch.com/60340/hazard-versus-risk.
gov.au/system/files/documents/1702/ Accessed 1 January 2019.
anevaluationofmsdsandlabelsassociatedwiththeuseof
engineerednanomaterials.doc. Hansson, S.O. (1997). Can we reverse the burden of
proof? Toxicology Letters 90(2-3), 223-228. https://doi.
Franklin, K. (2015). Trend in retailers removing org/10.1016/S0378-4274(96)03851-9.
phthalates from flooring continues, 16 July. Chemical
Watch. https://chemicalwatch.com/24489/trend- Hartmann, S. and Klaschka, U. (2017). Interested
in-retailers-removing-phthalates-from-flooring- consumers’ awareness of harmful chemicals in
continues. Accessed 1 June 2018. everyday products. Environmental sciences Europe
29(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-017-0127-8.
Franklin, K. (2016). Walmart releases high priority
chemical list: substances include formaldehyde,
parabens, triclosan, NPEs, phthalates, 21 July. Chemical
Watch. https://chemicalwatch.com/48724/walmart-
releases-high-priority-chemical-list. Accessed 9
September 2018.
487
Henson, S. and Humphrey, J. (2009). The Impacts of Massey, R. (2008). Sharing knowledge about chemicals:
Private Food Safety Standards on the Food Chain and on policy options for facilitating information flow. In
Public Standard-setting Processes. Rome and Geneva: Options for State Chemicals Policy Reform – A Resource
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Guide. Coffin, M. and Dunn, M.L. (eds.). Lowell, MA:
Nations and World Health Organization. http://www. Lowell Center for Sustainable Production. Chapter 2.
fao.org/3/a-i1132e.pdf. 69–96. http://sustainableproduction.org/downloads/
OptionsforStateChemicalsPolicyReform.pdf.
Humphrey, J. (2017). Regulation, standards and
risk management in the context of globalization. In Maxwell, J. and Briscoe, F. (1997). There’s money
Regulations and International Trade: New Sustainability in the air: the CFC ban and DuPont’s regulatory
Challenges for East Asia. 21-58. Michida, E., Humphrey strategy. Business Strategy and the Environment
J. and Nabeshima K. (eds.). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. 6(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-
Chapter 2. 21-58. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319- 0836(199711)6:5<276::AID-BSE123>3.0.CO;2-A.
55041-1_2.
Milieu, T.M.C. Asser Institute and PACE (2011).
International Agency for Research on Cancer (2018). Considerations on the Application of the Precautionary
Agents classified by the IARC monographs. Volumes Principle in the Chemicals Sector: Final Report.
1-121. https://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/ Brussels: European Commission. http://ec.europa.
ClassificationsAlphaOrder.pdf. eu/environment/chemicals/reach/pdf/publications/
final_report_pp.pdf.
International Chemical Trade Association (n.d.).
Responsible care. https://www.icta-chem.org/explore- Morita, T. and Morikawa, K. (2011). Expert review
topics/responsible-care. Accessed 1 January 2019. for GHS classification of chemicals on health
effects. Industrial Health 49(5), 559-565. https://doi.
International Council of Chemical Associations (2015). org/10.2486/indhealth.MS1267.
Responsible Care® - the quest for performance
excellence. https://www.icca-chem.org/responsible- Nicol, A.-M., Hurrell, A.C., Wahyuni, D., McDowall, W.
care/. Accessed 22 August 2018. and Chu, W. (2008). Accuracy, comprehensibility, and
use of material safety data sheets: a review. American
International Finance Corporation (2012). 2012 Journal of Industrial Medicine 51(11), 861-876. https://
Performance Standards. https://www.ifc.org/wps/ doi.org/10.1002/ajim.20613.
wcm/connect/topics_ext_content/ifc_external_
corporate_site/sustainability-at-ifc/policies-standards/ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
performance-standards. Development (2015). Preliminary Analysis of Policy
Drivers Influencing Decision Making in Chemicals
International Labour Organization (2017). C170 - Management. http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/
Chemicals Convention, 1990 (No. 170). Convention publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=env/jm/
concerning Safety in the use of Chemicals at Work. mono(2015)21&doclanguage=en.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEX
PUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C170. Accessed Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
23 August 2018. Development (2016). Workshop Report: OECD
Workshop Report on Socioeconomic Impact Assessment
International Labour Organization (2018). International of Chemicals Management. https://echa.europa.eu/
chemical safety cards. https://www.ilo.org/safework/ documents/10162/22816069/sea_oecd_workshop_
info/publications/WCMS_113134/lang--en/index.htm. chem_man_en.pdf/4c94f130-f04b-2c3f-ebda-
Accessed 23 August 2018. 55c2df236e97.
Jacobs, M.M., Malloy, T.F., Tickner, J.A. and Edwards, S. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
(2015). Alternatives assessment frameworks: research Development (2018a). Emission scenario documents.
needs for the informed substitution of hazardous http://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/risk-assessment/
chemicals. Environmental Health Perspectives 124(3), emissionscenariodocuments.htm. Accessed 1 January
265-280. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409581. 2019.
Lee, J.H., Kuk, W.K., Kwon, M., Lee, J.H., Lee, K.S. and Yu, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
I.J. (2012). Evaluation of information in nanomaterial Development (2018b). The costs and benefits
safety data sheets and development of international of regulating chemicals. http://www.oecd.org/
standard for guidance on preparation of nanomaterial chemicalsafety/risk-management/sacame.htm.
safety data sheets. Nanotoxicology 7(3), 338-345. Accessed 1 January 2019.
https://doi.org/10.3109/17435390.2012.658095.
Lofstedt, R.E. (2011). Risk versus hazard – how to Development (2018c). IOMC toolbox for decision
regulate in the 21st century. European Journal of Risk making in chemicals management, 25 May. https://
Regulation (2), 149-168. http://risksummit.eu/wp- iomctoolbox.oecd.org/Default.aspx?idExec=d39e45a0-
content/uploads/2013/06/Risk-Versus-Hazard-Prof.- 70e0-47f4-9949-1ec46f320b1b. Accessed 1 June 2018.
Ragnar-Lofsted.pdf.
488
Part III
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Sathar, F., Dalvie, M. and Rother, H.-A. (2016). Review
Development (n.d.). Regulations and restrictions. of the literature on determinants of chemical hazard
http://www.oecdsaatoolbox.org/Home/Regulations. information recall among workers and consumers.
Accessed 1 January 2019. International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health 13(6), 546. https://doi.org/10.3390/
Panko, J., Hitchcock, K., Fung, M., Spencer, P., Kingsbury, ijerph13060546.
T. and Mason, A. (2017). A comparative evaluation of
five hazard screening tools. Integrated Environmental Scott, J., Smith, T., Rehmatulla, N. and Milligan, B.
Assessment and Management. 13(1), 139-154. https:// (2017). The promise and limits of private standards
doi.org/10.1002/ieam.1757. in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from shipping.
Journal of Environmental Law. 29(2), 231-262. https://
Pedersen, A.B., (2016) Pesticide Tax in Denmark. doi.org/10.1093/jel/eqw033.
Aarhus University and Institute for European
Environmental Policy. https://ieep.eu/uploads/ Stockholm Environment Institute (2014). How Far to
articles/attachments/504788d7-db01-4dd8-bece- the 2020 goal? The Strategic Approach to International
ee7b9e63979e/DK%20Pesticide%20Tax%20final. Chemicals Management in Tanzania. https://www.sei.
pdf?v=63680923242. org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/SEI-
PolicyBrief-Persson-Tanzania.pdf.
Pelkmans, J. and Renda, A. (2014). Does EU Regulation
Hinder or Stimulate Innovation? Brussels: Centre for Stockholm Environment Institute (2017). Reducing
European Policy Studies. https://www.ceps.eu/system/ Chemical Risks in Low-income Countries: Strategies for
files/No%2096%20EU%20Legislation%20and%20 Improved Coverage of Basic Chemicals-Management
Innovation.pdf. Legislation. https://f88973py3n24eoxbq1o3o0fz-
wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/
Perlmutter, A. (2015a). Advancing Safer Chemicals uploads/2018/03/180307c-brandon-persson-
in Products: The Key Role of Purchasing. Lowell, MA: chemicals-pb-1802g.pdf.
University of Massachusetts Lowell. https://www.epa.
gov/sites/production/files/2015-09/documents/uml- Stringer, L. (2018). Cross-sector initiative sets full
rpt_greenpurchasing_7_15_14-2_0.pdf. materials disclosure goal, 14 June. Chemical Watch.
https://chemicalwatch.com/67695/cross-sector-
Perlmutter, A. (2015b). The rise of the non-toxic buyer: initiative-sets-full-materials-disclosure-goal. Accessed
6 case studies on safer chemistry, 12 November. 1 January 2019.
GreenBiz. https://www.greenbiz.com/article/rise-non-
toxic-buyer-6-case-studies-safer-chemistry. Accessed Ta, G.C., Mokhtar, M. Bin, Mohd Mokhtar, H.A. Bin, Ismail,
1 January 2019. A. Bin and Abu Yazid, M.F.B.H. (2010). Analysis of the
comprehensibility of chemical hazard communication
Persson, L., Karlsson-Vinkhuyzen, S., Lai, A., Persson, tools at the industrial workplace. Industrial Health 48(6),
Å. and Fick, S. (2017). The globally harmonized system 835-844. https://doi.org/10.2486/indhealth.MS1153.
of classification and labelling of chemicals: explaining
the legal implementation gap. Sustainability 9(12), 2176. Tan, S.S. (2005). Decreasing environmental pollution
https://doi.org/10.3390/su9122176. through reducing environmentally damaging subsidies:
the case of agricultural input subsidies. Journal of
Rossi, M.S., Edwards, S., Peele, C. and Greiner, T. Administrative Science 3(2), 207-214. http://ybd.dergi.
(2017). The Chemical Footprint Project: 2017 Annual comu.edu.tr/dosyalar/Ybd/decreasing-environmental-
Report. Chemical Footprint Project. https://www. pollution-through-reducing-environmentally-
chemicalfootprint.org/info/cfp-report-2017. damagin-2017-02-13-212.pdf.
Rother, H.-A. (2014). Communicating pesticide United Nations (1992). Report of the United Nations
neurotoxicity research findings and risks to decision- Conference on Environment and Development - Annex
makers and the public. NeuroToxicology 45, 327-337. 1: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2014.03.001. 14 June. A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. I). https://www.un.org/
documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-1annex1.htm.
Rother, H.-A. (2018). Pesticide labels: protecting liability Accessed 1 January 2019.
or health? – unpacking ‘misuse’ of pesticides. Current
Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 4, 10-15. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2018.02.004. (2017). GHS presentations: Globally Harmonized
System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
Rotman, D. (2007). Remembering the Montreal (GHS). https://www.unece.org/trans/danger/publi/
Protocol, 1 January. MIT Technology Review. https:// ghs/presentation_e.html. Accessed 1 January 2019.
www.technologyreview.com/s/407083/remembering-
the-montreal-protocol/. Accessed 2 June 2018. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
(n.d. a). GHS implementation. https://www.unece.
org/trans/danger/publi/ghs/implementation_e.html.
489
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Videras, J. and Alberini, A. (2007). The appeal of voluntary
(n.d. b). GHS pictograms. https://www.unece.org/ environmental programs: which firms participate and
trans/danger/publi/ghs/pictograms.html. Accessed why? Contemporary Economic Policy. 18(4), 449-460.
2 June 2018. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7287.2000.tb00041.x.
United Nations Environment Programme (2013). Wang, Y., Wu, E., Gao, X. and Ding, Q. (2016). Global
Sustainable Public Procurement: A Global Review. https:// governance on chemical sound management and
globalecolabelling.net/assets/Documents/unep-spp- challenges in Asia-Pacific region. Procedia Environmental
report.pdf. Sciences 31, 911-916. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
PROENV.2016.02.109.
United Nations Environment Programme (2015)
LIRA Guidance: UNEP Guidance on the Development of World Business Council for Sustainable Development
Legal and Institutional Infrastructures and Measures for (2015). Towards a Social Capital Protocol: A Call for
Recovering Costs of National Administration for Sound Collaboration. https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/
Management of Chemicals. https://www.unenvironment. People/Social-Impact/Resources/Towards-a-Social-
org/resources/report/lira-guidance. Capital-Protocol-A-Call-for-Collaboration.
United Nations Environment Programme (2016). World Business Council for Sustainable Development
The Kigali amendment to the Montreal protocol: (2018). WBCSD launches first-of-its-kind guidance for
another global commitment to stop climate change, the chemical industry to assess sustainability across
8 December. https://www.unenvironment.org/ its product portfolio, 17 April. https://www.wbcsd.
news-and-stories/news/kigali-amendment-montreal- org/Programs/Circular-Economy/Factor-10/Sector-
protocol-another-global-commitment-stop-climate. Deep-Dives/News/guidance-for-the-chemical-industry-
Accessed 1 January 2019. to-assess-sustainability-across-its-product-portfolio.
OzonAction: national ozone unit contacts, November. World Health Organization (WHO) (2017). WHO
http://web.unep.org/ozonaction/resources/national- Guidelines on Protecting Workers from Potential Risks
ozone-unit-contacts. Accessed 1 January 2019. of Manufactured Nanomaterials. http://apps.who.int/
United States Centers for Disease Control and eng.pdf;jsessionid=2FD1722707BDE8E98B9B1D9F34
Prevention (2015). Hierarchy of controls, 13 January. 5DE46E?sequence=1.
https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/hierarchy/default.
html. Accessed 1 January 2019. World Health Organization (2018a). International
Programme on Chemical Safety: International Chemical
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2016). Safety Cards. http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/
Benefits of addressing HFCs under the Montreal icsc/en/. Accessed 3 January 2019.
Protocol, 20 July. https://www.epa.gov/ozone-layer-
protection/benefits-addressing-hfcs-under-montreal- World Health Organization (2018b). The Inter-
protocol. Accessed 1 January 2019. Organization Programme for the Sound Management
of Chemicals. http://www.who.int/iomc/en/. Accessed
United States Environmental Protection Agency 1 January 2019.
(2018). Guidelines for preparing economic analyses,
31 January. https://www.epa.gov/environmental- Zhu, J., Liu, J.G., Hu, J. And Yi, S. (2016). Socio-
economics/guidelines-preparing-economic-analyses. economic analysis of the risk management of
Accessed 1 January 2019. hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) in China
in the context of the Stockholm Convention.
United States National Aeronautics and Space Chemosphere 150, 520-527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Administration (2015). NASA study shows that common chemosphere.2015.11.007.
coolants contribute to ozone depletion, 22 October.
https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/goddard/nasa-
study-shows-that-common-coolants-contribute-to-
ozone-depletion. Accessed 1 January 2019. Chapter 5
United States Occupational Safety and Health Anastas, P.T., Constable, D.J.C. and Jiménez-González,
Administration (2012). Hazard communication C.C. (eds.) (2018). Green Metrics. Handbook of Green
standard: safety data sheets. https://www.osha.gov/ Chemistry series. Wiley-VCH. https://www.wiley.com/
Publications/OSHA3514.html. Accessed 1 January en-ch/Green+Metrics,+Volume+11-p-9783527695270.
2019.
Ashford, N.A. (2013). Reducing physical hazards:
United States Occupational Safety and Health encouraging inherently safer production. In Designing
Administration (2013). Hazard Communication Safer Chemicals. Handbook of Green Chemistry. Anastas,
Standard: Labels and Pictograms. https://www.osha. P. T., Boethling, R. and Votchkova, A. (eds). Weinheim:
gov/Publications/OSHA3636.pdf. John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 17. 485-500. https://doi.
org/10.1002/9783527628698.hgc111.
490
Part III
Babrauskas, V., Lucas, D., Eisenberg, D., Singla, V., European Chemicals Agency (2011). Guidance on the
Dedeo, M. and Blum, A. (2012). Flame retardants in Preparation of an Application for Authorisation. Version
building insulation: a case for re-evaluating building 1. https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13643/
codes. Building Research & Information 40(6), 738-755. authorisation_application_en.pdf.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2012.744533.
European Chemicals Agency (2013). Evaluation of New
Baker, M. (2018). Despite bans, toxic flame retardants Scientific Evidence concerning DINP and DIDP: In Relation
continue to show up in pregnant women’s blood, 5 to Entry 52 of Annex XVII to REACH Regulation (EC) No
February. University of California San Francisco News 1907/2006. Final Review Report. https://echa.europa.
Center. https://www.ucsf.edu/news/2018/02/409746/ eu/documents/10162/31b4067e-de40-4044-93e8-
toxic-flame-retardants-continue-show-up-pregnant- 9c9ff1960715.
women. Accessed 30 August 2018.
European Chemicals Agency (2014). Updated guidance
Birnbaum, L.S. and Bergman, A. (2010). Brominated on the preparation of an Annex XV dossier for the
and chlorinated flame retardants: the San Antonio identification of substances of very high concern,
statement. Environmental Health Perspectives 118(12), 12 February. https://echa.europa.eu/de/view-
A514-A515. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1003088. article/-/journal_content/title/updated-guidance-
on-the-preparation-of-an-annex-xv-dossier-for-the-
Brown-West, B. (2017). Walmart takes bold steps identification-of-substances-of-very-high-concern.
towards safer chemicals, 27 September. GreenBiz. Accessed 30 August 2018.
https://www.greenbiz.com/article/walmart-takes-bold-
steps-towards-safer-chemicals. Accessed 1 January European Chemicals Agency (2018). Strategy to Promote
2019. Substitution to Safer Chemicals through Innovation.
https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/2792271/
Burgos-Hernandez, M. (2009). Strategy for Mercury mb_58_2017_2_annex_strategy_substitution_safer_
Elimination in Public Hospitals of Sonora State, Mexico: alternatives_en.pdf/d1c31c63-4047-e7be-75d1-
Implementation of Two Research Projects for the 12320a4a8489.
Achievement of a Collaborative Agreement. Lowell,
MA: University of Massachusetts Lowell, ProQuest European Commission (2006). Regulation (EC) No
Dissertations Publishing. https://search.proquest. 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of
com/docview/304916652/fulltextPDF/28B244F47EA the Council of 18 December 2006 concerning the
84E42PQ/1?accountid=28970. registration, evaluation, authorization and restriction of
chemicals (REACH), establishing a European chemicals
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety agency, amending directive 1999/4. Official Journal
(2017). OHS answers fact sheets: trichloroethylene, 3 of the European Union L(136), 3-281. https://eur-lex.
January. https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/ europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2007:
chem_profiles/trichloroethylene.html. Accessed 136:0003:0280:en:PDF.
30 August 2018.
European Commission (2017). Impacts of REACH
Chao, E.L. and Henshaw, J.L. (2003). Methylene chloride. Authorisation – Final Report. http://ec.europa.eu/
https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3144.html. docsroom/documents/26847.
Fantke, P. and Ernstoff, A. (2018). LCA of chemicals
Clean Production Action (2017). GreenScreen® for Safer and chemical products. In Life Cycle Assessment.
Chemicals Hazard Assessment Guidance, Version 1.3. Hauschild, M.Z., Rosenbaum, R.K. and Olsen, S.I. (eds.).
2nd edn. https://www.greenscreenchemicals.org/ Cham: Springer. Chapter 31. 783-815. https://doi.
static/ee_images/uploads/resources/GreenScreen_ org/10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_31.
Guidance_v1.3(2e)_Feb_2017_final.pdf.
Finkbeiner, M., Ackermann, R., Bach, V., Berger, M.,
Damalas, C.A. and Koutroubas, S.D. (2018). Current Brankatschk, G., Chang, Y.-J., Grinberg, M., Lehmann,
status and recent developments in biopesticide A., Martínez-Blanco, J., Minkov, N., Neugebauer, S.,
use. Agriculture 8(1), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Scheumann, R., Schneider, L. and Wolf, K. (2014).
agriculture8010013. Challenges in life cycle assessment: an overview of
current gaps and research needs. In Background and
Data Commons (n.d.). Find healthier substances. Future Prospects in Life Cycle Assessment. Klöpffer, W.
https://commons.healthymaterials.net/. Accessed (ed.). Dordrecht: Springer. Chapter 7. 207-258. https://
17 November 2018. doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8697-3_7.
Eladak, S., Grisin, T., Moison, D., Guerquin, M.- Fisher, J., Varenne, B., Narvaez, D. and Vickers, C.
J., N’Tumba-Byn, T., Pozzi-Gaudin, S., Benachi, A., (2018). The Minamata Convention and the phase
Livera, G., Rouiller-Fabre, V. and Habert, R. (2015). down of dental amalgam. Bulletin of the World Health
A new chapter in the bisphenol A story: bisphenol S Organization 96(6), 436-438. https://doi.org/10.2471/
and bisphenol F are not safe alternatives to this BLT.17.203141.
compound. Fertility and Sterility 103(1), 11-21. https://
doi.org/10.1016/J.FERTNSTERT.2014.11.005.
491
Geiser, K., Tickner, J., Edwards, S. and Rossi, M. (2015). International Organisation for Biological Control,
The architecture of chemical alternatives assessment. International Biocontrol Manufacturers Association
Risk Analysis 35(12), 2152-2161. https://doi.org/10.1111/ and Pesticide Action Network (2015). Integrated Pest
risa.12507. Management: Working with Nature. https://www.
pan-europe.info/sites/pan-europe.info/files/public/
González, J.M.F. (2016). Análisis y Diagnóstico de Políticas resources/reports/integrated-pest-management-
Agroambientales en Cuba: Fortalecimiento de las Políticas working-with-nature.pdf.
Agroambientales en los Países de América Latina y el
Caribe Proyecto GCP/RLA/195/BRA. Havana: Food and Israel, B. (2013). California to unveil new flammability
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http:// standard to avoid chemicals in furniture: the new rules
www.fao.org/3/a-i5559s.pdf. would cut down on the use of flame retardants that
have been linked to human health effects, 8 February.
Government of Canada (2018). Combined government Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.
discussion paper and science committee report on com/article/california-to-unveil-new-flammability-
informed substitution, 28 August. https://www.canada. standard-to-avoid-chemicals-in-furniture/. Accessed
ca/en/health-canada/services/chemical-substances/ 1 January 2019.
chemicals-management-plan/science-committee/
meeting-records-reports/combined-government- Jacobs, M.M., Massey, R.I., Tenney, H. and Harriman,
discussion-paper-science-committee-report-informed- E. (2014). Reducing the use of carcinogens: the
substitution.html. Accessed 1 January 2019. Massachusetts experience. Reviews on Environmental
Health 29(4), 319-340. https://doi.org/10.1515/
Grappi, S., Romani, S. and Barbarossa, C. (2017). reveh-2014-0048.
Fashion without pollution: how consumers evaluate
brands after an NGO campaign aimed at reducing toxic Jacobs, M.M., Malloy, T.F., Tickner, J.A. and Edwards, S.
chemicals in the fashion industry. Journal of Cleaner (2015). Alternatives assessment frameworks: research
Production 149, 1164-1173. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. needs for the informed substitution of hazardous
JCLEPRO.2017.02.183. chemicals. Environmental Health Perspectives 124(3),
265-280. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409581.
Greenpeace International (2018). Destination zero:
seven years of detoxing the clothing industry, 12 Jamarani, R., Erythropel, H., Nicell, J., Leask, R. and
July. https://www.greenpeace.org/international/ Marić, M. (2018). How green is your plasticizer?
publication/17612/destination-zero/. Accessed Polymers 10(8), 834-851. https://doi.org/10.3390/
30 August 2018. polym10080834.
Harney, J., Nemhauser, J., Reh, C. and Trout, D. (2003). Lavoie, E.T., Heine, L.G., Holder, H., Rossi, M.S., Lee, R.E.,
NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report: HETA #99-0260- Connor, E.A., Vrabel, M.A., DiFiore, D.M. and Davies,
2906. Cincinnati: National Institute for Occupational C.L. (2010). Chemical alternatives assessment: enabling
Safety and Health. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/ substitution to safer chemicals. Environmental Science &
reports/pdfs/1999-0260-2906.pdf Technology 44(24), 9244-9249. https://doi.org/10.1021/
es1015789.
Hartmann, S. and Klaschka, U. (2017). Interested
consumers’ awareness of harmful chemicals in MacCarthy, L. (2017). Target to remove harmful
everyday products. Environmental Sciences Europe chemicals from products, invest in green chemistry, 26
29(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-017-0127-8. January. Sustainable Brands. https://sustainablebrands.
com/read/product-service-design-innovation/target-
Health Care Without Harm (2018). Switching to to-remove-harmful-chemicals-from-products-invest-
alternatives. https://noharm-global.org/issues/global/ in-green-chemistryhttps://www.sustainablebrands.
switching-alternatives. Accessed 1 January 2019. com/news_and_views/products_design/libby_
maccarthy/target_commits_remove_harmful_
Hogue, C. (2013). Assessing alternatives to toxic chemicals_products_inve. Accessed 1 January 2019.
chemicals: governments, businesses, and now the
National Academy of Sciences consider how to avoid O’Brien, M. (2000). Making Better Environmental
“regrettable substitution”. Chemical and Engineering Decisions: An Alternative to Risk Assessment. Cambridge,
News 91(50), 19-20. https://cen.acs.org/articles/91/i50/ MA: MIT Press. https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/
Assessing-Alternatives-Toxic-Chemicals.html. making-better-environmental-decisions.
Ichihara, G., Kitoh, J., Li, W., Ding, X., Ichihara, S. and Office of Technical Assistance and Technology (2015).
Takeuchi, Y. (2012). Neurotoxicity of 1-bromopropane: Shawmut Corporation Eliminating TCE Use by Switching
evidence from animal experiments and human studies. to a Hot-Melt Adhesive Process. https://www.turi.org/
Journal of Advanced Research 3(2), 91-98. https://doi. TURI_Publications/Case_Studies/Coatings/Shawmut_
org/10.1016/J.JARE.2011.04.005. Corporation_OTA_2015.
Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety

(2008). Sixth Session of the Intergovernmental Forum
on Chemical Safety – Final Report. http://www.who.int/
ifcs/documents/forums/forum6/f6_finalreport_en.pdf.
492
Part III
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and State of California Department of Consumer Affairs.
Development (2018). eChemPortal: global portal (2014). Technical Bulletin 117-2013: Requirements,
to information on chemical substances. http:// Test Procedure and Apparatus for Testing the Smolder
www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/risk-assessment/ Resistance of Materials Used in Upholstered Furniture.
echemportalglobalportaltoinformationonchemical https://myhfa.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/
substances.htm. Accessed 1 January 2019. TB117-2013-QA.pdf.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and State of California Department of Toxic Substances
Development (n.d). OECD substitution and alternatives Control (2009). Topic 4: Alternatives Assessment with Life
assessment toolbox. http://www.oecdsaatoolbox.org/. Cycle Thinking. https://dtsc.ca.gov/SCP/GRSP/upload/
Accessed 1 January 2019. Alternatives-Analysis.pdf.
Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (2012). State of California Department of Toxic Substances
Evaluation of Non-Chemical Alternatives to Endosulfan. Control (2012). Division 4.5, Title 22, California Code
Geneva: Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention. of Regulations Chapter 55: California Safer Consumer
http://synergies.pops.int/2013COPsExCOPs/ Products. http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/LawsRegsPolicies/
Documents/tabid/2915/language/en-US/Default.aspx. Regs/upload/Text-of-Final-Safer-Consumer-Products-
Regulations-2.pdf.
Pesticide Action Network UK (2017). Phasing out HHPs
in Costa Rica. http://www.pan-uk.org/phasing-out- State of California Department of Toxic
hhps-costa-rica/. Accessed 17 February 2019. Substances Control (2017). Alternatives analysis
guide, version 1.0. http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/SCP/
Rochester, J.R. and Bolden, A.L. (2015). Bisphenol S and AlternativesAnalysisGuidance.cfm. Accessed 4 June
F: a systematic review and comparison of the hormonal 2018
activity of bisphenol A substitutes. Environmental Health
Perspectives 123(7), 643-50. https://doi.org/10.1289/ Sturcken, E. (2017). Walmart effect: retailers lead the
ehp.1408989. way on chemical safety at a critical time, 10 October.
Environmental Defense Fund. https://www.edf.org/
Sackmann, K., Reemtsma, T., Rahmberg, M. and blog/2017/10/10/walmart-effect-retailers-lead-way-
Bunke, D. (2018). Impact of European chemicals chemical-safety-critical-time. Accessed 1 January 2019.
regulation on the industrial use of plasticizers and
patterns of substitution in Scandinavia. Environment SUBSPORT (n.d.). SUBSPORT: substitution support
International 119, 346-352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. portal. https://www.subsport.eu/. Accessed 1 January
envint.2018.06.037. 2019.
Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention (2013). Tickner, J.A., Geiser, K., Rudisill, C. and Schifano, J.N.
Sixth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to (2013). Alternatives assessment in regulatory policy:
the Stockholm Convention: decisions, 10 May. http:// history and future directions. In Chemical Alternatives
chm.pops.int/TheConvention/ConferenceoftheParties/ Assessments. Hester, R.E. and Harrison, R.M. (eds.).
Meetings/COP6/tabid/3074/mctl/ViewDetails/ Cambridge:Royal Society of Chemistry. Chapter 11.
EventModID/870/EventID/396/xmid/10240/Default. 256-295. https://doi.org/10.1039/9781849737234-
aspx. Accessed 1 January 2019. 00256.
Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International Tickner, J.A., Schifano, J.N., Blake, A., Rudisill, C. and
Chemicals Management (2015). Report of the Mulvihill, M.J. (2015). Advancing safer alternatives
International Conference on Chemicals Management through functional substitution. Environmental Science
on the Work of its Fourth Session. http://www.saicm. & Technology 49(2), 742-749. https://doi.org/10.1021/
org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/ICCM4/doc/ es503328m.
K1606013_e.pdf.
Tickner, J.A. and Jacobs, M. (2016). Improving the
Siddiqi, M.A., Laessig, R.H. and Reed, K.D. (2003). Identification, Evaluation, Adoption and Development
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): new of Safer Alternatives: Needs and Opportunities to Enhance
pollutants – old diseases. Clinical Medicine & Research Substitution Efforts within the Context of REACH. Lowell,
1(4), 281-90. https://doi.org/10.3121/cmr.1.4.281. MA. University of Massachusetts Lowell. https://echa.
europa.eu/documents/10162/13630/substitution_
Sinsheimer, P. (2010). Developing Regulatory Methods capacity_lcsp_en.pdf.
for Integrating Life Cycle Assessment into Alternatives
Analysis for Identifying Safer Substitutes for Hazardous Tickner, J.A., Jacobs, M., Malloy, T., Buck, T., Stone, A.,
Products. Oakland, CA: State of California Department Blake, A. and Edwards, S. (2018). Advancing alternatives
of Toxic Substances Control. https://www.dtsc.ca.gov/ assessment for safer chemical substitution: a research
upload/sinsheimer.pdf. and practice agenda. Integrated Environmental
Assessment and Management. https://doi.org/10.1002/
ieam.4094.
493
Tomar, R.S., Budroe, J.D. and Cendak, R. (2013). Evidence United States Environmental Protection Agency (2018)
on the Carcinogenicity of Diisonoyl Phthalate (DINP). CompTox chemicals dashboard: what is the comptox
Sacramento, CA: California Environmental Protection chemicals dashboard? 13 December. https://www.
Agency. https://oehha.ca.gov/media/downloads/ epa.gov/chemical-research/comptox-chemicals-
proposition-65/chemicals/dinphid100413.pdf. dashboard. Accessed 1 January 2019.
Toxics Use Reduction Institute (2013). The Commons United States National Research Council (2014). A
Principles for Alternatives Assessment: Addressing Framework to Guide Selection of Chemical Alternatives.
Chemicals of Concern to Human Health or the Washington, DC: National Academies Press. http://
Environment. https://www.turi.org/TURI_Publications/ www.nap.edu/catalog/18872.
TURI_Chemical_Fact_Sheets/Commons_Principles_for_
Alternatives_Assessment. United States National Toxicology Program (2011).
Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of 1-bromopropane
Toxics Use Reduction Institute (2017). Toxics Use in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies).
Reduction and Resource Conservation: Competitiveness Durham, NC: US Department of Health and Human
Impacts for Massachusetts Businesses. https:// Services. https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/results/pubs/
www.turi.org/TURI_Publications/TURI_Reports/ longterm/reports/longterm/tr500580/listedreports/
Competitiveness_Impacts_for_Massachusetts_ tr564/index.html.
Businesses/Toxics_Use_Reduction_and_Resource_
Conservation_Competitiveness_impacts_for_ United States Natural Resources Defense Council
Massachusetts_Businesses. (2018). The Home Depot to be third major U.S. retailer
to ban deadly paint strippers, 19 June. https://www.
United Nations Environment Programme (2014). nrdc.org/media/2018/180619. Accessed 30 August
Phasing-out Methyl Bromide in Developing Countries: A 2018.
Success Story and its Challenges. http://www.unep.fr/
ozonaction/information/mmcfiles/7674-e-Phasing_ United States Occupational Safety and Health
out_methyl_bromide_in_developing_countries.pdf. Administration (n.d.). Transitioning to safer chemicals:
a toolkit for employers and workers. https://www.
United Nations Environment Programme osha.gov/dsg/safer_chemicals/index.html. Accessed
(2016). Lessons from Countries Phasing Down 1 January 2019.
Dental Amalgam Use. https://wedocs.unep.
org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/11624/ Walmart (2018). Walmart commitment to sustainable
Dental.Amalgam.10mar2016.pages.WEB. chemistry. https://www.walmartsustainabilityhub.
pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. com/sustainable-chemistry/sustainable-chemistry-
policy. Accessed 1 January 2019.
United Nations Environment Programme (2017). Life
cycle initiative. https://www.lifecycleinitiative.org/. Weber, R., Fantke, P., Hamouda, A. Ben and Mahjoub,
Accessed 1 January 2019. B. (2018). 20 Case Studies on How to Prevent the Use of
Toxic Chemicals Frequently Found in the Mediterranean
United Nations Environment Programme and World Region. Barcelona: Regional Activity Centre for
Health Organization (2014). Promoting the Phase Down of Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP/RAC).
Dental Amalgam in Developing Countries. https://wedocs. http://www.cprac.org/en/news-archive/general/we-
unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/13865/ are-surrounded-by-toxic-chemicals-scp/rac-provides-
dental_mercury_phase_down_project_brochure_ 20-case-studies-to-preven.
FINAL_lr.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Wendschlag, H. (2015). Business Guide to Safer
United Nations Industrial Development Organization Chemicals in the Supply Chain Including Alternatives
(2018). National cleaner production centres (NCPCs) Assessment. Shrewsbury: Chemical Watch. https://
and networks. https://www.unido.org/our-focus/ www.greenscreenchemicals.org/static/ee_images/
cross-cutting-services/partnerships-prosperity/ uploads/resources/HP_GREEN_SCREEN_ARTICLE.pdf.
networks-centres-forums-and-platforms/national-
cleaner-production-centres-ncpcs-networks. Accessed World Health Organization (2015). Developing
31 August 2018. National Strategies for Phasing Out Mercury Containing
Thermometers and Sphygmomanometers in Health Care,
United States Centers for Disease Control and Including in the Context of the Minamata Convention
Prevention (2008). Neurologic illness associated with on Mercury: Key Considerations and Step-by-Step
occupational exposure to the solvent 1-bromopropane Guidance. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/hand
– New Jersey and Pennsylvania, 2007-2008. Morbidity le/10665/259448/9789241508339-eng.pdf;jsessionid=
and Mortality Weekly Report 57(48), 1300-1302. http:// A8006FEAC3880B70D81CA55703F711E1?sequence=1.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19052528.

Design for the environment programs, initiatives and
projects, 19 April. http://www.epa.gov/saferchoice/
design-environment-programs-initiatives-and-
projects. Accessed 1 January 2019.
494
Part III
Chakraborty, P., Selvaraj, S., Nakamura, M.,

Chapter 6 Balasubramanian, P., Cincinelli, A. and Bang, J. (2018).
PCBs and PCDD/Fs in soil from informal e-waste
Abu Bakar, H.T., Han Siong, P., Koy Yan, C., Kidam, K., recycling sites and open dumpsites in India: levels,
Wijayanuddin Ali, M., Hassim, M.H. and Kamarden, congener profiles and health risk assessment. Science
H. (2017). Analysis of main accident contributor of the Total Environment 621, 930-938. https://doi.
according to process safety management elements org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2017.11.083.
failure. Chemical Engineering Transactions 56, 991-996.
https://doi.org/10.3303/CET1756166. Charmes, J. (2012). The informal economy worldwide:
trends and characteristics. Margin: The Journal of
Ahmad, I., Rehan, M., Balkhyour, M., Abbas, M., Basahi, Applied Economic Research 6(2), 103-132. https://doi.
J., Balkhyour, M.A., Basahi, J.M., Almeelbi, T. and Ismail, org/10.1177/097380101200600202.
I.M.I. (2016). Review of environmental pollution and
health risks at motor vehicle repair workshops: de Haan, J. and Turner, B. (2018). Handbook: Developing
challenges and perspectives for Saudi Arabia. National ASGM Formalization Strategies within National
International Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Action Plans. Geneva: United Nations Institute for
Research 2(1), 1-23. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ Training and Research and United Nations Environment
f80b/9eaaa61f97b2f5320d9073050f838c575b03.pdf. Programme. https://unitar.org/cwm/sites/unitar.org.
cwm/files/uploads/formalization_handbook_e_web_
Alfers, L. (2013). The Ghana National Health Insurance final.pdf.
Scheme: Barriers to Access to Informal Workers. WIEGO
Working Paper (Social Protection) No. 30. Cambridge, European Commission (2017) Major accident hazards:
MA and London: Women in Employment Globalizing the Sevezo Directive – technological disaster reduction,
and Organizing. http://www.wiego.org/sites/default/ 24 August. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/seveso/
files/publications/files/Alfers-Ghana-Health-Insur- index.htm. Accessed 28 December 2018.
Informal-Workers-WIEGO-WP30.pdf.
European Commission Joint Research Centre and
Alfers, L., Lund, F. and Moussié (2018). Informal Workers United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
& The Future of Work: A Defence of Work-Related Social (2016). An Overview of Methodologies for Hazard Rating
Protection. WIEGO Working Paper No. 37. Manchester: of Industrial Sites. https://minerva.jrc.ec.europa.eu/en/
Women in Employment Globalizing and Organizing. shorturl/minerva/jrc101613engfinal_hazard_rating_
http://www.wiego.org/sites/default/files/publications/ guide3nov_2016onlinepdf.
files/Alfers_Informal_Workers_Social_Protection_
WIEGO_WP37.pdf. Girgin, S., Necci, A. and Krausmann, E. (2017). Natech
hazard and risk assessment. In Words into Action
Baranzini, D., Wood, M., Krausmann, E. and Van Wijk, Guidelines: National Disaster Risk Assessment Hazard
L. (2018). Capacity building measures for chemical Specific Risk Assessment. Geneva: United Nations Office
accident prevention and preparedness: benchmark for Disaster Risk Reduction. Chapter 9. 91-98. https://
of EU neighbourhood countries. International Journal www.unisdr.org/files/52828_09natechhazardandrisk
of Disaster Risk Reduction 31, 770-780. https://doi. assessment.pdf.
org/10.1016/J.IJDRR.2018.07.023.
Gori, A., Gidaris, I., Elliott,, J.R., Padgett, J., Loughran,
Benjamin, N., Beegle, K., Recanatini, F. and Santini, M. K., Bedient, P.B., Panakkal, P. and Juan, A. (2018).
(2014). Informal Economy and the World Bank. Policy NH33D-1038: investigating flood-induced cascading
Research Working Paper No. 6888. Washington, D.C.: impacts to Houston’s road network and emergency
The World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/ service accessibility during Hurricane Harvey. American
curated/en/416741468332060156/pdf/WPS6888.pdf. Geophysical Union Fall Meeting. https://agu.confex.com/
agu/fm18/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/438218. Accessed
Bhandubanyong, P. and Pearce, T.H. (2017). Appraisal 28 December 2018.
of SME casting industry in Thailand. International
Scientific Journal of Engineering and Technology 1(1), Gyenes, Z. and Wood, M.H. (2014). Lessons Learned
1-8. http://www.responsiblemines.org/wp-content/ from Major Accidents Having Significant Impact on the
uploads/2018/05/059_ASGM-Formalization.pdf. Environment. Symposium Series No 159, Hazards 24.
Edinburgh: Institute of Chemical Engineers. https://
Center for Chemical Process Safety (2017). Pre- doi.org/10.13140/2.1.2897.6005.
conference course: CCPS overview of risk based
process safety, 11 September. https://www.aiche. Hassan, S.A. (2012). Health, Safety and Environmental
org/ccps/conferences/ccps-global-summit-on-process- Practices in the Construction Sector of Pakistan. Uppsala:
safety/2017/events/ccps-overview-risk-based-process- Upsala University. http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/
safety. Accessed 2 June 2018. get/diva2:562426/FULLTEXT01.pdf.
He, G., Zhang, L., Lu, Y. and Mol, A.P.J. (2011). Managing
major chemical accidents in China: towards effective
risk information. Journal of Hazardous Materials
187(1-3), 171-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
JHAZMAT.2011.01.017.
495
He, Q.S. and Yang, Y.Y. (2012). Effect of EU environmental International Labour Organization (2015a).
directives on chemical industries in Zhejiang. Chemical Recommendation No. 204 concerning the Transition from
Industry Times 24, 75-77. https://www.researchgate.net/ the Informal to the Formal Economy. https://www.ilo.
publication/285686566_Effect_of_EU_environmental_ org/ilc/ILCSessions/104/texts-adopted/WCMS_377774/
directives_on_chemical_industries_in_Zhejiang. lang--en/index.htm.
Heikkilä, A.-M., Malmén, Y., Nissilä, M. and Kortelainen, International Labour Organization (2015b). Small and
H. (2010). Challenges in risk management in multi- Medium-sized Enterprises and Decent and Productive
company industrial parks. Safety Science 48(4), 430-435. Employment Creation. 1st edn. https://www.ilo.org/ilc/
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SSCI.2009.12.008. ILCSessions/104/reports/reports-to-the-conference/
WCMS_358294/lang--en/index.htm.
Holmes, R. and Scott, L. (2016). Extending Social
Insurance to Informal Workers: A Gender Analysis. ODI International Labour Organization (2018a). Women and
Working Paper 438. London: Overseas Development Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Picture. 3rd
Institute. https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/ edn. https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/
resource-documents/10620.pdf. WCMS_626831/lang--en/index.htm.
Hong, K.T., Surienty, L. and Hung, K.M. (2011). International Labour Organization (2018b). Informal
Occupational safety and health (OHS) in Malaysian economy: a hazardous activity. https://www.ilo.
Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) and effective org/safework/areasofwork/hazardous-work/
safety management practices. International Journal WCMS_110305/lang--en/index.htm. Accessed
of Business and Technopreneurship 1(2), 321-338. 28 December 2018.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315765815_
Occupational_Safety_and_Health_OSH_in_Malaysian_ Jonkman, S.N., Godfroy, M., Sebastian, A. and Kolen,
Small_and_Medium_Enterprise_SME_and_Effective_ B. (2018). Brief communication: loss of life due to
Safety_Management_Practices. Hurricane Harvey. Natural Hazards and Earth System
Sciences 18(4), 1073-1078. https://doi.org/10.5194/
Inter-Agency Coordination Group for Industrial nhess-18-1073-2018.
and Chemical Accidents (2017). International Efforts
for Industrial and Chemical Accidents Prevention, Kidam, K. and Hurme, M. (2013). Method for identifying
Preparedness and Response. https://www.oecd. contributors to chemical process accidents. Process
org/chemicalsafety/chemical-accidents/Brochure- Safety and Environmental Protection 91(5), 367-377.
International-efforts-for-industrial-and-chemical- https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PSEP.2012.08.002.
accidents.pdf.
Kim, Y., Park, J. and Park, M. (2016). Creating a culture of
International Atomic Energy Agency (2006). IAEA Safety prevention in occupational safety and health practice.
Standards for Protecting People and the Environment: Safety and Health at Work 7(2), 89-96. https://doi.
Application of the Management System for Facilities and org/10.1016/j.shaw.2016.02.002.
Activities. https://www-pub.iaea.org/mtcd/publications/
pdf/pub1253_web.pdf. Krausmann, E., Cruz, A.M. and Salzano, E. (2017).
Natech Risk Assessment and Management: Reducing
International Institute for Environment and the Risk of Natural-Hazard Impact on Hazardous
Development (2018). Addressing risks facing informal Installations. 1st edn. Amsterdam: Elsevier Inc. https://
workers, April. https://www.iied.org/addressing-risks- www.elsevier.com/books/natech-risk-assessment-
facing-informal-workers. Accessed 27 December 2018. and-management/krausmann/978-0-12-803807-9.
International Labour Organization (1997). Social Krausmann, E. and Salzano, E. (2017). Lessons learned
Security for the Informal Sector: Investigating the from Natech events. In Natech Risk Assessment and
Feasibility of Pilot Projects in Benin, India, El Salvador Management. Elsevier. Chapter 3. 33-52. https://doi.
and Tanzania. https://www.ilo.org/secsoc/information- org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803807-9.00003-6.
resources/publications-and-tools/Discussionpapers/
WCMS_207714/lang--en/index.htm. Kultida, B., Sunil, H., Cordia, C., Dung, T. and Jakkris,
S. (2015). The integration of occupational health and
International Labour Organization (2009). Convention safety into the development of eco-industrial parks.
C187 – promotional framework for occupational safety Health and the Environment Journal 6(1), 72-84. http://
and health convention, 2006 (no. 187). https://www.ilo. hej.kk.usm.my/pdf/HEJVol.6No.1/Article06.pdf.
org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO:
:P12100_ILO_CODE:C187. Accessed 27 December 2018. Lajini, P. (2014). Importance of workers understanding
of chemicals for safety – information, communication
International Labour Organization (2014). Tackling and safety culture. African Newsletter on Occupational
Informality in E-Waste Management: The Potential of Health and Safety 24(3), 60-61. https://issuu.com/
Cooperative Enterprises. https://www.ilo.org/sector/ tyoterveyslaitos/docs/african_newsletter_3-_2014_
Resources/publications/WCMS_315228/lang--en/ netti.
index.htm.
496
Part III
Legg, S., Olsen, K., Laird, I. and Hasle, P. (2015). Nordlöf, H., Wiitavaara, B., Högberg, H. and Westerling,
Managing safety in small and medium enterprises. R. (2017). A cross-sectional study of factors influencing
Safety Science 71, 189-196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. occupational health and safety management practices
ssci.2014.11.007. in companies. Safety Science 95, 92-103. https://doi.
org/10.1016/J.SSCI.2017.02.008.
Maiguashca, A.F. (2016). How can we save the poor
from Latin America’s informal economy? 29 April. Nyirendaavwil, V., Chinniah, Y. and Agard, B. (2015).
World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum. Identifying key factors for an occupational health
org/agenda/2016/04/how-can-we-save-the-poor- and safety risk estimation tool in small and medium-
from-latin-americas-informal-economy/. Accessed size enterprises. International Federation of Automatic
27 December 2018. Control 48(3), 541-546. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
IFACOL.2015.06.137.
Makhonge, P.W. (2014). Situation of chemical safety
in small-scale enterprises in Kenya. African Newsletter Okoh, P. and Haugen, S. (2014). A study of maintenance-
on Occupational Health and Safety 24(3), 54-55. http:// related major accident cases in the 21st century.
ihi.eprints.org/3022/1/Elikana_Lekei.pdf. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 92(4),
346-356. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PSEP.2014.03.001.
Makino, R. (2016). Stock market responses to chemical
accidents in Japan: an event study. Journal of Loss Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Prevention in the Process Industries 44, 453-458. https:// Development (2002). Measuring the Non-Observed
doi.org/10.1016/j.jlp.2016.10.019. Economy: A Handbook. http://www.oecd.org/sdd/
na/1963116.pdf.
Massey, R. (2005). Building a Healthy Economy: Chemicals
Risk Management as a Driver of Development. Stockholm: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Swedish Chemicals Agency. http://www.ase.tufts.edu/ Development (2003). Guiding Principles for Chemical
gdae/Pubs/rp/KemiReport_05.pdf. Accident Prevention, Preparedness and Response. http://
www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/chemical-accidents/
Massey, R. (2008). Sharing knowledge about chemicals: guiding-principles-chemical-accident-prevention-
policy options for facilitating information flow. In preparedness-and-response.htm.
Options for State Chemicals Policy Reform – A Resource
Guide. Coffin, M. and Dunn, M.L. (eds.). Lowell, MA: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Lowell Center for Sustainable Production. Chapter 2. Development (2012). Corporate Governance for Process
69-96. http://sustainableproduction.org/downloads/ Safety: OECD Guidance for Senior Leaders in High Hazard
OptionsforStateChemicalsPolicyReform.pdf. Industry. http://www.oecd.org/env/ehs/chemical-
accidents/corporategovernanceforprocesssafety.htm
Micheli, G.J.L. and Cagno, E. (2010). Dealing with SMEs
as a whole in OHS issues: warnings from empirical Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
evidence. Safety Science 48(6), 729-733. https://doi. Development (2015). Addendum Number 2 to the OECD
org/10.1016/J.SSCI.2010.02.010. Guiding Principles for Chemical Accident Prevention,
Preparedness and Response (2nd Edition) to Address
Mizoue, T., Huuskonen, M., Muto, T., Koskinen, K., Natural Hazards Triggering Technological Accidents
Husman, K. and Bergstrom, M. (1999). Analysis of (Natechs). http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/
Japanese occupational health services for small- and publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=env/jm/
medium-scale enterprises in comparison with the mono(2015)1&doclanguage=en.
Finnish system. Journal of Occupational Health 41,
115-120. http://joh.sanei.or.jp/pdf/E41/E41_2_11.pdf. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (2018a). Guidance on Change of
Mrema, E.J., Ngowi, A.V., Kishinhi, S.S. and Mamuya, Ownership in Hazardous Facilities. http://www.oecd.org/
S.H. (2017). Pesticide exposure and health chemicalsafety/chemical-accidents/oecd-guidance-
problems among female horticulture workers in on-change-of-ownership-in-hazardous-facilities.pdf.
Tanzania. Environmental Health Insights 11, 1-13.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1178630217715237. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (2018b). Towards an All-Hazards Approach
Mukim, M. (2011). Industry and the Urge to Cluster: A to Emergency Preparedness and Response: Lessons Learnt
Study of the Informal Sector in India. Spatial Economics from Non-Nuclear Events. https://www.oecd-nea.org/
Research Centre (SERC) Discussion Papers. London: rp/pubs/2018/7308-all-hazards-epr.pdf.
London School of Economics and Political Sciences.
http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/33592/. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (2018c). Developing a Methodology
Necci, A., Krausmann, E. and Girgin, S. (2018). to Quantify the Benefits of Regulations for Chemical
Understanding Natech Risk Due to Storms – Analysis, Accidents Prevention, Preparedness and Response. http://
Lessons Learned and Recommendations. Joint Research www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocum
Centre Technical Report JRC112987 (forthcoming). entpdf/?cote=env/jm/mono(2018)3&doclanguage=en.
European Commission.
497
Paul, H.L., Antunes, P., Covington, A.D., Evans, P. and Singh, T.S., Ratshikhopha, E., Zubaydah, K., Fourie, A.,
Phillips, P.S. (2013). Bangladeshi leather industry: an Dikeledi Matuka, O., Bartie, D. and Dayal, P. (2011).
overview of recent sustainable developments. Journal Biological and chemical risks in the informal sector.
Society of Leather Technologists and Chemists 91(1), 25-32. Occupational Health Southern Africa 18(6), 4-12. https://
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235609270_ www.researchgate.net/publication/278269654_Singh_
Bangladeshi_Leather_Industry_An_Overview_of_ et_al_Biological_and_chemical_risks_in_the_informal_
Recent_Sustainable_Developments. sector_OHSA_2012.
Reniers, G. and Amyotte, P. (2012). Prevention in the Sklet, S (2004). Comparison of some selected methods
chemical and process industries: future directions. for accident investigation. Journal of Hazardous
Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 25(1), Materials 111 (2004) 29-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
227-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JLP.2011.06.016. jhazmat.2004.02.005.
Reniers, G., Cuypers, S. and Pavlova, Y. (2012). A game- Targoutzidis, A., Koukoulaki, T., Schmitz-Felten, E.,
theory based Multi-plant Collaboration Model (MCM) Kuhl, K., Hengel, K.M.O., Rijken, E., Broek, K. Van den
for cross-plant prevention in a chemical cluster. Journal and Klüser, R. (2014). The Business Case for Safety and
of Hazardous Materials 209-210, 164-176. https://doi. Health at Work: Cost-benefit Analyses of Interventions
org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.01.004. in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises. European
Agency for Safety and Health at Work. https://doi.
Rockefeller Foundation (2013). Health Vulnerabilities of org/10.2802/32988.
Informal Workers. https://assets.rockefellerfoundation.
org/app/uploads/20130528214745/Health- Tauseef, S.M., Abbasi, T. and Abbasi, S.A. (2011).
Vulnerabilities-of-Informal-Workers.pdf. Development of a new chemical process-industry
accident database to assist in past accident analysis.
Rongo, L.M.B. (2005). Health risks related to chemicals Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 24(4),
used in small scale industries in the informal sector 426-431. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JLP.2011.03.005.
in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. East African Journal of
Public Health 2(2), 12-17. http://www.bioline.org.br/ Taylor, R., May, J., Weyman, A., and Carhart, N.
pdf?lp05011. (2017). Understanding organisational and cultural
precursors to events. Proceedings of the ICE -Forensic
Rongo, L.M.B., Barten, F., Msamanga, G.I., Heederik, D. Engineering, 170(3), 124-133. https://doi.org/10.1680/
and Dolmans, W.M.V. (2004). Occupational exposure jfoen.17.00006.
and health problems in small-scale industry workers
in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: a situation analysis. Thornton, R., Hatt, L., Field, E., Islam, M., Solís, F. and
Occupational Medicine 54, 42-46. https://www.ncbi. González, M.A. (2010). Social security health insurance
nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14963253. for the informal sector in Nicaragua: a randomized
evaluation. Health Economics 19(1), 181-206. https://
Sebastian, A., Lendering, K.T., Kothuis, B.L.M., doi.org/10.1002/hec.1635.
Brand, A.D., Jonkman, S.N., van Gelder, P.H.A.J.M.,
Godfroij, M., Kolen, B., Comes, M., Lhermitte, S.L.M., United Nations Environment Programme (2010). A
Meesters, K.J.M.G., van de Walle, B.A., Ebrahimi Flexible Framework for Addressing Chemical Accident
Fard, A., Cunningham, S., Khakzad Rostami, N. and Prevention and Preparedness: A Guidance Document.
Nespeca, V. (2017). Hurricane Harvey Report: A Fact- https://www.preventionweb.net/publications/
Finding Effort in the Direct Aftermath of Hurricane Harvey view/56412.
in the Greater Houston Region. Delft: Delft University
Publishers. https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/ United Nations Environment Programme (2011).
object/uuid%3A54c24519-c366-4f2f-a3b9-0807db26 Promoting Safer Operations and Emergency Preparedness
f69c?collection=research. in the Value Chain of the Chemical Sector: Case Study on
APELL Implementation in China. http://apell.eecentre.
Seccatore, J., Veiga, M.M., Origliasso, C., Marin, T. org/APELLCaseStudyChina.pdf.
and Tomi, G. (2014). An estimation of the artisanal
small-scale production of gold in the world. Science United Nations Environment Programme (2012). Analysis
of The Total Environment 496, 662-667. http://doi. of Formalization Approaches in the Artisanal and Small-
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.05.003. Scale Gold Mining Sector Based on Experiences in Ecuador,
Mongolia, Peru, Tanzania and Uganda. https://wedocs.
Sengupta, A., Bandyopadhyay, D., van Westen, C.J. unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/11357/
and van der Veen, A. (2015). An evaluation of risk Formalization_Document_Final_June_2012.
assessment framework for industrial accidents in India. pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 41,
295-302. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JLP.2015.12.012. United Nations Environment Programme (2013).
Global Chemicals Outlook: Towards Sound Management
of Chemicals. http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/
handle/20.500.11822/20200/unep_global_chemical.
498
Part III
United Nations Environment Programme (2015). Verbano, C., Venturini, K. and Venturini, K. (2013).
Chemical Accident Prevention and Preparedness: Managing risks in SMEs: a literature review and
Case Studies of Implementation. Paris. http://www. research agenda. Journal of Technology Management
capp.eecentre.org/Upload/files/Case_studies_of_ & Innovation 8(3), 33-34. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-
implementation-CAPP.pdf. 27242013000400017.
United Nations Environment Programme (2017). World Health Organization (2018). Chemical Releases
Promoting Chemical Safety Management in Ports Caused by Natural Hazard Events and Disasters:
and along Transport Routes of Dangerous Goods: Information for Public Health Authorities. https://www.
Case Studies from Africa. https://wedocs.unep.org/ who.int/ipcs/publications/natech/en/.
bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/20763/Promoting%20
Chemical%20Safety%20Management%20 Yuan, X. and Wang, K. (2012). Study on safety
in%20Ports%20and%20Transport%20Routes. management of small and medium-sized enterprises
pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. based on BBS. Procedia Engineering 45, 208-213. https://
doi.org/10.1016/J.PROENG.2012.08.145.
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
(2018). Words into Action Guidelines – Man-Made Zhao, J., Joas, R., Abel, J., Marques, T. and Suikkanen,
and Technological Hazards: Practical Considerations J. (2013). Process safety challenges for SMEs in China.
for Addressing Man-Made and Technological Hazards Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 26(5),
in Disaster Risk Reduction. https://www.unisdr.org/ 880-886. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JLP.2012.09.003.
files/54012_manmadetechhazards.pdf.
Zheng, X., Xu, X., Akangbe Yekeen, T., Zhang, Y.,
United Nations Research Institute for Social Chen, A., Kim, S.S., Dietrich, K.N., Ho, S.-M., Lee, S.-A.,
Development (2010). Gender inequalities at home Reponen, T. and Huo, X. (2016). Ambient air heavy
and in the market. In Combating Poverty and Inequality: metals in PM2.5 and potential human health risk
Structural Change, Social Policy and Politics. Chapter 4. assessment in an informal electronic-waste recycling
107-131. http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/ site of China. Aerosol and Air Quality Research 16, 388-
(httpAuxPages)/8BACF1B0908D70E1C125778900323 397. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2014.11.0292.
600/$file/PovRepCh4.pdf.
Zock, J.P. (2005). World at work: cleaners. Occupational
United Nations Research Institute for Social and Environmental Medicine 62, 581-584. https://doi.
Development (2015). Sendai Framework for Disaster org/10.1136/oem.2004.015032.
Risk Reduction 2015-2030. https://www.preventionweb.
net/files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2018) Chapter 7

Risk Management Plan (RMP) rule, 28 December.
https://www.epa.gov/rmp. Accessed 1 January 2019. Bern University of Applied Sciences (2017). Response-
Inducing Sustainability Evaluation (RISE). https://www.hafl.
Unnikrishnan, S., Iqbal, R., Singh, A. and Nimkar, bfh.ch/fileadmin/docs/Forschung_Dienstleistungen/
I.M. (2015). Safety management practices in small Agrarwissenschaften/Nachhaltigkeitsbeurteilung/RISE/
and medium enterprises in India. Safety and Health What_is_RISE.pdf.
at Work 6(1), 46-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
SHAW.2014.10.006. Bey, N. (2018). Life cycle management. In Life Cycle
Assessment: Theory and Practice. Hauschild, M.Z.,
van Oldenborgh, G.J., van der Wiel, K., Sebastian, Rosenbaum, R.K. and Olsen, S.I. (eds.). Cham: Springer.
A., Singh, R., Arrighi, J., Otto, F., Haustein, K., Li, S., Vecchi, 519-544. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56475-
G. and Cullen, H. (2017). Attribution of extreme rainfall 3_22.
from Hurricane Harvey, August 2017. Environmental
Research Letters 12, 12. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748- European Commission (2010). Directive 2010/75/EU
9326/aa9ef2. of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24
November 2010 on industrial emissions (integrated
Vasina, M. (2018). Health-related Practices and pollution prevention and control). Official Journal of the
Perceptions among Waste Pickers. The Case of Mbeubeuss European Union L (334), 17-119. http://eur-lex.europa.
Waste Dump in Senegal. Geneva: Graduate Institute eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32010L0075.
of International and Development Studies. http://
www.wiego.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/ European Commission (2013). Commission
VASINA_Marine_Dissertation_Compressed.pdf. Recommendation 2013/179/EU of 9 April 2013 on the
use of common methods to measure and communicate
Veiga, M,M., Angeloci-Santos, G. and and Meech, J.A. the life cycle environmental performance of products
(2014). Review of barriers to reduce mercury use and organisations. Official Journal of the European Union
in artisanal bold mining. The Extractive Industries L (124), 1-210. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/
and Society 1(2), 351-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32013H0179.
exis.2014.03.004.
499
Fantke, P., Ernstoff, A.S., Huang, L., Csiszar, S.A. and Ny, H., MacDonald, J.P., Broman, G., Ryoichi, Y. and
Jolliet, O. (2016). Coupled near-field and far-field Robert, K.-H. (2006). Sustainability constraints as
exposure assessment framework for chemicals in system boundaries: an approach to making life-cycle
consumer products. Environment International 94, management strategic. Journal of Industrial Ecology 10,
508-518. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.06.010. 61-77. http://doi.org/10.1162/108819806775545349.
Fantke, P. and Ernstoff, A. (2018). LCA of chemicals and Pivnenko, K. and Astrup, T.F. (2016). The challenge of
chemical products. In Life Cycle Assessment. Hauschild, chemicals in material lifecycles. Waste Management
M.Z., Rosenbaum, R.K. and Olsen, S.I. (eds.). Cham: 56, 1-2. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.08.016.
Springer International Publishing. 783-815. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_31 Ridoutt, B., Fantke, P., Pfister, S., Bare, J., Boulay, A.-M.,
Cherubini, F., Frischknecht, R., Hauschild, M., Hellweg,
Fantke, P., Huang, L., Overcash, M., Griffing, E. and S., Henderson, A., Jolliet, O., Levasseur, A., Margni,
Jolliet, O. (2019). Toward a life-cycle based alternatives M., McKone, T., Michelsen, O., Milà i Canals, L., Page,
assessment. In Green Chemistry (submitted). G., Pant, R., Raugei, M., Sala, S., Saouter, E., Verones,
F. and Wiedmann, T. ( 2015). Making sense of the
Hauschild, M.Z. (2005). Assessing environmental minefield of footprint indicators. Environmental Science
impacts in a life-cycle perspective. Environmental & Technology 49, 2601-2603. http://doi.org/10.1021/
Science and Technology 39, 81A-88A. http://doi. acs.est.5b00163.
org/10.1021/es053190s.
Rosenbaum, R.K., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Henderson, A.D.,
Hauschild, M., Huijbregts, M.A.J. (eds.) (2015). Life Cycle Margni, M., McKone, T.E., van de Meent, D., Hauschild,
Impact Assessment. Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi. M.Z., Shaked, S., Li, D.S., Gold, L.S. and Jolliet, O.
org/10.1007/978-94-017-9744-3. (2011). USEtox human exposure and toxicity factors
for comparative assessment of toxic emissions in life
Hellweg, S. and Milà i Canals, L. (2014). Emerging cycle analysis: sensitivity to key chemical properties.
approaches, challenges and opportunities in life cycle The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 16,
assessment. Science 344 (6188), 1109-1113. http://doi. 710-727. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-011-0316-4.
org/10.1126/science.1248361.
Henderson, A.D., Hauschild, M.Z., van de Meent, D., Climate Change Adaptation Implementation Plan. The
Huijbregts, M.A.J., Larsen, H.F., Margni, M., McKone, Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention
T.E., Payet, J., Rosenbaum, R.K. and Jolliet, O. (2011). (OCSPP). https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/
USEtox fate and ecotoxicity factors for comparative sites/production/files/2016-08/documents/ocspp-
assessment of toxic emissions in life cycle analysis: climate-change-adaptation-plan.pdf.
sensitivity to key chemical properties. International
Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 16, 701-709. http://doi. The Natural Step (2018). Bring strategic sustainability
org/10.1007/s11367-011-0294-6. into your product design and innovation. https://
thenaturalstep.org/slca. Accessed 1 January 2019.
Hottle, T.A., Bilec, M.M. and Landis, A.E. (2013).
Sustainability assessments of bio-based polymers. Verones, F., Bare, J., Bulle, C., Frischknecht, R.,
Polymer Degradation and Stability 98, 1898-1907. http:// Hauschild, M., Hellweg, S., Henderson, A., Jolliet, O.,
doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2013.06.016. Laurent, A., Liao, X., Lindner, J.P., Maia de Souza, D.,
Michelsen, O., Patouillard, L., Pfister, S., Posthuma, L.,
International Organization for Standardization (2018). Prado, V., Ridoutt, B., Rosenbaum, R.K., Sala, S., Ugaya,
ISO 14000 family – environmental management. C., Vieira, M. and Fantke, P. (2017). LCIA framework and
https://www.iso.org/iso-14001-environmental- cross-cutting issues guidance within the UNEP-SETAC
management.html. Accessed 28 December 2018. Life Cycle Initiative. Journal of Cleaner Production 161,
957-967. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.206.
500
Part III
501
IV. Enabling policies
and action to support
innovative solutions
Part IV of the Global Chemicals Outlook II
© Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock
Part IV
Enabling policies and action to support innovative solutions
About Part IV
Advancing a chemistry that is fully sustainable is dependent on scaling up innovative

solutions; engaging new actors; and putting in place enabling policies. Innovative
solutions complement long-standing measures to achieve the sound management of
chemicals and waste, as discussed in Part  III.They are an essential element in achieving
the sound management of chemicals and waste. While the topics discussed in Part IV
have been the subject of discussions and action taken at national and international
level to varying degrees, they have by and large not received the attention warranted
in the context of chemicals and waste. Opportunities therefore exist to explore their
role in a beyond 2020 framework.
Relevant enabling policies and actions include education reform; support for
technology innovation and financing; innovative business models; sustainable
supply chain management; private sector metrics and reporting; fiscal incentives;
and the empowerment of workers, consumers and citizens through information and
participation rights. In exploring these topics, Part IV thus also draws attention to the
contributions that can be made by a diverse range of actors, including entrepreneurs,
academics, retailers, policymakers and citizens.
Contents
1/ Envisioning and shaping the future of chemistry 504
2/ Green and sustainable chemistry education: nurturing a new

generation of chemists 515
3/ Strengthening sustainable chemistry technology innovation and

financing 524
4/ Evolving and new business models 542
5/ Fiscal incentives to advance sound chemicals management and

sustainable chemistry 555
6/ Sustainable supply chain management for chemicals and waste in

the life cycle 564
7/ Sustainability metrics and reporting: measuring progress,

strengthening accountability 575
8/ Empowering and protecting citizens, workers and consumers 586
References604
503
1/ Envisioning and shaping the future of

chemistry
Chapter Highlights
Innovations in chemistry, together with non-chemical alternatives, have

significant potential to address societal needs and sustainable development
challenges.
Sustainable chemistry is evolving as a holistic concept that embraces green

chemistry, and that may serve as a reference for innovations in (or related to)
chemistry.
The market for green and sustainable chemistry is growing in all regions, but is
still modest compared to the overall chemistry market.
The Fourth Industrial Revolution, and digitalization of the chemical industry,

provide opportunities to advance sustainability in the chemical industry.
A balance is needed between embracing the potential benefits of chemistry and

recognizing challenges (e.g. the importance of addressing legacies).
1.1 Solutions shaped by chemistry innovation (Sarathy, Gotpagar and Morawietz

are on the horizon 2017).
For more than a century the chemical industry Today this situation is evolving. Lower profits
has led innovations in areas including from bulk chemicals, recent innovations in
pharmaceuticals, plastics and consumer chemistry and advanced materials, and the
electronics that have transformed the way people challenge for the chemical industry to help meet
live around the world. In particular, the period the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are
from the 1950s through the 1970s witnessed a creating new opportunities for chemistry to help
wave of innovations in chemistry, with dozens meet society’s needs. Examples are numerous
of new chemicals and compounds discovered and include the following:
and commercialized. From 1980, however, new
product development slowed down and few ›› Revolutionizing energy storage and battery
new blockbuster chemicals entered the market. development: Fast-charging solid-state
During that time the global chemical industry batteries, based on chemistry innovations,
focused on expanding to new markets, often have the potential to revolutionize electric
selling chemicals invented long before such mobility. Not only can they be charged 10
as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (invented in 1913), times faster than traditional lithium-ion
polyethylene (1936) and polypropylene (1954). batteries, but they are safer as they cannot
Return on investments from growth in new catch fire, are more reliable and are longer
markets was more attractive than the return from lasting.
504
Part IV
using renewable energy not only reduces

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; it also
advances circularity in the chemical industry
by providing chemical feedstocks that are
not derived from oil or bio-based materials.
›› Developing “advanced materials”: This involves

developing materials and modifying existing
ones to obtain superior performance in regard
to one or more characteristics that are critical
to the application under consideration, such
as waterproofing textiles. These materials
can also have completely novel properties,
as seen, for example, in nanomaterials.
While such opportunities are promising, more

thorough assessments are needed to obtain a
full (or better) understanding of the sustainability
aspects of these innovations, taking into account
the criteria and tools discussed in Part III and in
the remainder of this chapter.
Research across the disciplines of chemistry,

biology and computer science is particularly
promising. The 2018 Nobel Prize in Chemistry,
for example, was awarded for path-breaking
research on how chemists produce new enzymes,
© NASA/Dimitri Gerondidakis, a thin solid-state battery leading to new pharmaceuticals and cancer
treatments and less waste. Another promising
development is the use of advanced software
›› Improving the biodegradability of bio-based and supercomputers to design molecules and
plastics: Biodegradable plastics, derived assess the properties of chemicals, including their
from agricultural or wood-based biomass, hazards. These developments have significant
are compatible with home and municipal potential to advance the sound management
composting systems, have less environmental of chemicals and waste, and to complement
impact and can be incorporated into other measures in order to achieve sustainable
composting infrastructure. They can also form production and consumption.
feedstocks for bioenergy and other circular
economy applications. Chemistry is at the core of future industry
sectors
›› Creating sustainable building materials:
Chemistry plays a key role in creating a The contribution of chemistry to a range of end
new generation of sustainable and high- markets was presented in Part I. Some of these
performing building materials. Examples markets are of particular relevance to shaping
include transparent wood, green concrete, the future of sustainable development – from
wood foam insulation, and earthquake the transportation industry, to the construction
resistant bricks. industry and urbanization, to food and packaging,
to waste management. For example, the
›› Turning carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and wastes into transportation and construction industries have
chemical feedstocks: Creating feedstocks a range of requirements that can be met through
that are not fossil fuel-based from CO2 chemistry and sustainable materials innovations.
Chapter 1. Envisioning and shaping the future of chemistry 505

Figure 1.1 Examples of how chemistry contributes to industries expected to play important roles in
the future (adapted from World Economic Forum [WEF] 2017, p. 7)
Examples of relevant products

Projected growth rates
from chemistry and advanced
for key innovations
materials
Annual sales of electric vehicles Plastics, composites and battery

Electric vehicles
2020: US dollars 4.9 million technologies
Mobility Market size for drones*
Plastics, composites and battery
Drones 2015: US dollars 10.1 billion
technologies
2020: US dollars 14.9 billion
Mobile devices in use Substrate, backplane, transparent

Smartphones and
2015: US dollars 8.6 billion conductor, barrier films and
tablets
2020: US dollars $12.1 billion photoresists
Mobile and
smart devices Flexible displays Market for AMOLED** displays Substrate, backplane, transparent
(e.g. wearable 2016: US dollars 2 billion conductor, barrier films and
devices, virtual reality,
TVs) 2020: US dollars 18 billion photoresists
Fixed broadband speed

High-speed internet 2015: 24.7 Mbps Chlorosilane for ultrapure glass
Connectivity and 2020: 47.7 Mbps
computing More efficient and Processor logic gate length Dielectrics, colloidal silica,
smaller integrated 2015: 14 mm photoresists, yield enhancers and edge
circuits 2020: 7 mm bead removers
* Defence, commercial and homeland security sectors ** Active-matrix organic LED
Figure 1.1 shows how chemistry contributes to sector, the well-known concept of Integrated
industries which are expected to play key roles Pest Management (IPM) promotes a range of
in the future. biological measures to eliminate or reduce the
use of pesticides.
Innovations also include non-chemical
alternatives
The concept of non-chemical alternatives 1.2 Green and sustainable chemistry:

is receiving wide attention, including by setting the standard
international policy bodies such as the United
Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA), in Lessons learned from innovations in chemistry
research and innovation, in the private sector,
and by non-governmental organizations Some chemistry innovations, acknowledged
(NGOs). Although a definition of the concept for their positive contributions to society, were
of non-chemical alternatives does not exist, recognized years later to have unexpected and
the connotation is that innovations can often undesirable effects when additional knowledge
produce a desired function or benefits without became available. For example, dichloro-
an alternative synthetic chemical. For example, a diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) was synthesized
retailer in Denmark launched a new fluorinated in 1874 and its use spread around the world once
chemicals-free microwave oven popcorn bag its insecticidal action was discovered in 1939.
made from cellulose that is impermeable to fat DDT helps fight diseases such as malaria, yellow
(Stieger 2015). The new product has become fever and West Nile virus. At the time it began
a commercial success. In the agriculture to be used, however, little was known about
506
Part IV
its detrimental impact on human health and support by the United States Environmental
the environment. Similarly, chlorofluorocarbons Protection Agency (US EPA) (Linthorst 2010).
(CFCs) enabled the use of refrigeration by At the end of the 1990s Anastas and Warner
large populations. It was only years later that defined green chemistry as “the utilization of
their damaging impact on the ozone layer was a set of principles that reduces or eliminates
understood. Again, when celluloid was invented the use or generation of hazardous substances
to replace ivory billiard balls in the 19th century in the design, manufacturing and application
(inspiring the development of further petroleum- of chemical products” (Anastas and Warner
based plastic products), it would have been 1998). They also proposed 12 Principles of Green
impossible to foresee the vast volumes of plastic Chemistry (Box 1.1). In a related development
that would be produced and eventually released in Europe, similar principles were included in
to the environment. the Council Directive on integrated pollution
prevention and control (European Commission
Green and sustainable chemistry as an [EC] 1996). Research related to green chemistry
evolving benchmark has made possible a wide range of developments
in the fields of bio-based chemicals, renewable
As discussed in Parts II and III, knowledge, feedstocks, safer solvents and reagents, atom
assessment tools and legislative instruments economy, green polymers, and less toxic chemical
are available and used in many countries, albeit formulations (Anastas and Warner 1998; Philp,
not globally, to ensure that new substances Ritchie and Allan 2013).
which may have adverse impacts on health
and the environment do not reach the market. As a spin-off from work on green chemistry, a set of
Furthermore, more detailed criteria are becoming nine Principles of Green Engineering, now known
available to assess the extent to which a chemistry as the Sandestin Declaration, were developed
innovation is fully compatible with the three in 2003 (Abraham and Nguyen 2003). Green
pillars of sustainable development (economic, engineering goes beyond baseline engineering
environmental and social). The concepts of green quality and safety specification to consider
chemistry and sustainable chemistry provide broader economic, environmental and social
promising guidance in this regard. factors (Anastas and Zimmerman 2003). Other
important developments compatible with green
The term “green chemistry” was first used in the chemistry took place in the same period. They
early 1990s. It gained momentum after it received include the European Communities Chemistry
© Suwit Ngaokaew/Shutterstock

Box 1.1 The 12 Principles of Green Chemistry (Anastas and Warner 1998)
1. Prevention: it is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has been created.
2. Atom economy: synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all
materials used in the process into the final product.
3. Less hazardous chemical syntheses: wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed
to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the
environment.
4. Designing safer chemicals: chemical products should be designed to affect their desired function
while minimizing their toxicity.
5. Safer solvents and auxiliaries: the use of auxiliary substances (e.g. solvents, separation agents)
should be made unnecessary wherever possible and innocuous when used.
6. Design for energy efficiency: energy requirements of chemical processes should be recognized
for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. if possible, synthetic
methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure.
7. Use of renewable feedstocks: a raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than
depleting whenever technically and economically practicable.
8. Reduce derivatives: unnecessary derivatisation (use of blocking groups, protection/de-

protection, temporary modification of physical/chemical processes) should be minimized or
avoided if possible, because such steps require additional reagents and can generate waste.
9. Catalysis: catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents.
10. Design for degradation: chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function
they break down into innocuous degradation products and do not persist in the environment.
11. Real-time analysis for pollution prevention: analytical methodologies need to be further
developed to allow for real-time, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of
hazardous substances.
12. Inherently safer chemistry for accident prevention: substances and the form of a substance used
in a chemical process should be chosen to minimize the potential for chemical accidents,
including releases, explosions, and fires.
Council 1993 report on “Chemistry for a Clean a chemical is green does not exist. Despite
World”, conferences on the concept of Benign by these challenges, a number of accounts are
Design (Linthorst 2010), and the development of available demonstrating how green chemistry
related concepts such as cleaner processes, safer has positively affected sustainability in several
products, and the use of renewable feedstocks sectors (American Chemical Society [ACS] 2019;
(Clark 2006; Mubofu 2016). Erythropel et al. 2018).
While the 12 Principles of Green Chemistry are Towards a more holistic approach: sustainable
widely used and cited, there is no agreement on chemistry
how many of these principles must be fulfilled for
a molecule or process to be qualified as “green” The notion of sustainable chemistry was also
or how the different principles are to be weighed developed in the 1990s, with the Organisation
against each other (Zuin 2016). Therefore, a for Economic Co-operation and Development
clear benchmark which determines whether (OECD) playing an important role in advancing
508
Part IV
this concept (OECD 2012). The OECD has defined it covers broader considerations including
sustainable chemistry as “a scientific concept (but not limited to) safe working conditions,
that seeks to improve the efficiency with which human rights, ethics, new business and service
natural resources are used to meet human models, and other related topics (Kümmerer
needs for chemical products and services” (OECD 2017). Sustainable chemistry also emphasizes
2018). According to this perspective, sustainable the role of chemistry in implementing the 2030
chemistry encompasses the design, manufacture Agenda for Sustainable Development (Blum et al.
and use of efficient, effective, safe and more 2017). A further development of the concept
environmentally benign chemical products and proposed by the German Environment Agency
processes. It also stimulates innovation across takes into account planetary boundaries (German
all sectors in order to design and discover new Environment Agency 2016).
chemicals, production processes and product
stewardship practices that provide increased Based on a review of the literature and stakeholder
performance and greater value, while meeting interviews, a recent study by the United States
the goals of protecting and enhancing human Government Accountability Office (US GAO) on
health and the environment. chemistry innovation “identified several common
themes underlying what sustainable chemistry
More recent discussions on sustainable chemistry strives to achieve, including:
have evolved beyond a focus on scientific and
technical considerations towards a more holistic ›› to improve the efficiency with which natural
interpretation that takes into account the resources […] are used to meet human
economic, environmental and social dimensions needs for chemical products, while avoiding
of sustainable development. For example, environmental harm;
renewable feedstocks promoted by green
chemistry may have sustainability trade-offs ›› reduce or eliminate the use or generation of
such as agricultural pollution. While sustainable hazardous substances […];
chemistry embraces green chemistry principles,
Figure 1.2 Dimensions of a chemical enterprise: towards sustainability (adapted from Hill, Kumar
and Verma 2013, p. 27)
Education,
research and
professional
Products and resources Feedstock
processes
Environmental
Safety and
management sustainability
metrics
Chemical enterprise
and sustainability
Reduce,
Water
reuse, recycle
consumption
strategies
Energy
Water disposal
Product consumption
handling and
use

Figure 1.3 Market size of the global green chemistry industry, 2015-2020 (US dollars billion) (based
on BCC Research 2016)
2015 51.7
2016 57.2
2017 63.2
2018 69.9
2019 77.4
2020 85.6
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
›› protect and benefit the economy, people and chemistry industry was reported to have a market
the environment using innovative chemical value of more than US dollars 50 billion in 2015,
transformations; with the potential to grow to US dollars 85 billion
by 2020 (Figure 1.3) (BCC Research 2016). It
›› consider all life cycle stages, including has been estimated that the global market for
manufacture, use and disposal […] when green chemistry (including bio-based chemicals,
evaluating the environmental impact of a renewable feedstocks, green polymers and less-
product; and toxic chemical formulations) will grow to nearly
US dollars 100 billion by 2020 (Bernick 2016).
›› minimize the use of non-renewable resources” While this amount is substantial, it is modest
(US GAO 2018). compared with total global chemical industry
sales of some US dollars 5.7 trillion (see Part I,
From a sustainability point of view, a chemical Ch. 1).
enterprise has many interconnected dimensions,
each of which needs to be considered (Hill, Kumar Green chemistry markets are expected to show
and Verma 2013). Some of these dimensions growth in all regions, with Asia and the Pacific,
are shown in Figure 1.2. An assessment of the Western Europe and North America the key
sustainability of a chemical enterprise would market growth regions (Pike Research 2011)
cover a range of factors and all three dimensions (Figure 1.4).
of sustainable development. It might raise
questions such as: under which circumstances Forecasts suggest that the growth rate for green
could the use of biomass for chemicals and and safer chemistry products is considerably
biofuel production be a viable alternative to higher than that for conventional products
the use of fossil sources, taking into account the (American Sustainable Business Council [ASBC]
potential economic, environmental and social and Green Chemistry & Commerce Council
consequences of its use? or, to what extent would [GC3] 2015). Tightening regulations, and growth
the reduction of vehicles’ CO2 emissions through in consumer demand for more sustainable
the use of composite materials outweigh the products – along with the rising costs of fossil
environmental impact of the production and/ fuels – all contribute to this trend (BCC Research
or future recycling of these materials? 2016). In light of these developments, many
chemical companies see benefits in developing
The market potential for green and sustainable sustainable products such as healthier food and
chemistry environmentally friendly detergents. Sustainable
products thus provide companies with new
While differences still exist in the characterization avenues of growth and establish a stronger
of green and sustainable chemistry, forecasts have connection with millennials, who are driving
been published which predict growing markets demand for these products (Bhattacharjee and
for green chemistry worldwide. The global green Swamynathan 2017).
510
Part IV
Figure 1.4 Global green chemicals market by region, 2011-2020 (Pike Research 2011, p. 432)
100
80
US dollars billion
60
40
20
0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
North America Latin America Western Europe Eastern and Central Europe Africa and Middle East Asia-Pacific
The publisher for this copyrighted material is Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. publishers.
International developments: towards a Given the interest of a number of stakeholders

common understanding of sustainable (including many from developing countries) in
chemistry understanding and developing the sustainable
chemistry concept further, the report suggests
In 2016, at the second session of the UNEA, in that practical guidance on sustainable chemistry
Resolution 2/7 Governments recognized the be developed. Such guidance could be
concept of sustainable chemistry and initiated complemented by, or include, a simple definition
further work by the United Nations Environment of sustainable chemistry or a more elaborate
Programme (UNEP), including the development definition if that is considered valuable. Such
of a report on how best practice in sustainable work might also further develop the compatibility
chemistry could help achieve the SDGs. of, and the relationship between, the green and
Sustainable chemistry has also been among the sustainable chemistry concepts explored already,
topics discussed under the intersessional process for example by Sheldon (2008), Kümmerer (2017)
on the Strategic Approach to International and Anastas and Zimmerman (2018). Together
Chemicals Management (SAICM) and the sound these concepts could be widely promoted,
management of chemicals and waste beyond inspiring research, policymaking and private
2020. sector action compatible with, and in support
of, the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda.
The 2019 report prepared by UNEP in response
to that UNEA mandate notes the wide use of
the sustainable chemistry concept by various
stakeholders around the world (UNEP 2019). 1.3 Digitalization and the chemical
However, taking into account an analysis of industry: opportunities to
submissions of sustainable chemistry cases advance sustainability
by stakeholders, and the results of a survey of
SAICM stakeholders, the report also notes that While in the past there was a focus on the
a common understanding of the sustainable invention of new molecules, future innovations
chemistry concept does not exist at the global in chemistry will likely be based on integrated
level. For example, one open question is the solutions which are based on digital technologies.
extent to which non-chemical alternatives are Industry 4.0 (Cisco 2017; EC 2017) and
within the scope of sustainable chemistry. digitalization will impact a range of (if not all)

© Suwin/Shutterstock, use of drones in agriculture
aspects of the chemical industry: how it innovates continuously generate an enormous amount
and produces; how it conducts businesses and of data, but discard most of them. Managers
engages with actors across supply and value could collect these data and interpret them in
chains; and its productivity and safety. order to find ways to achieve higher yields and
throughput, lower energy consumption, reduce
Chemical manufacturing operations, in particular, pollution and foster effective maintenance. For
are one of the largest and most readily accessible many companies these are potentially easy wins
areas of opportunity for digitalization, from that could be achieved using existing information
petrochemicals to pesticides. Most chemical plants technology (IT) and process control systems.
Figure 1.5 The four industrial revolutions (adapted from Cisco 2017)
1 Mechanization, 2 Mass production, 3 Computer and 4 Cyber-physical

water power, steam assembly line, automation systems
power electricity
The Fourth Industrial Revolution refers to a new era in the interface of industrial production,
digitalization and society which impacts a range of aspects of the chemical industry: how it
innovates and produces; how it conducts business; how it engages with actors across supply
and value chains; and its productivity and safety. While in the past there was a focus on the
invention of new molecules, future innovations in chemistry, chemical safety and resource
efficiency will likely be based on integrated solutions that are based on digital technologies. At
the same time, digitization may also be associated with risks such as possible cyberattacks.
512
Part IV
New integrated technologies are also on the rise. Advanced analytics, the internet of things,
For example, drones and robots have started to and artificial intelligence can combine
play an important role in agriculture to minimize information from millions of sensors to boost
pesticides application, using global positioning not only operational productivity, but also
system (GPS)-based systems. energy efficiency, emissions reductions, and
environmental and safety performance. For
While the chemical industry, according to a example, using drones and robots for certain
McKinsey & Company study (Jakobsen et al. 2017), operations could lower injury levels. Ultimately,
has been perceived to lag behind in digitalization, the use of automation across processes and
the potential economic benefits are enormous. supply chains reduces manual interventions
During the next decade or so, the digitalization and paper-based documentation, thereby
of operations and commercial functions in the accelerating productivity and safety. Digitalization
chemical industry has the potential for value also enables more rapid experimentation, the
creation of 4 to 6 per cent (Jakobsen et al. 2017). discovery of new materials at lower cost, and
There is potential for companies to achieve a better understanding of chemicals’ hazardous
3 to 5 percentage point improvement in sales properties (Figure 1.6). This means eventually
through employing digitalization in production exploring the enormous, and currently
operations (Klei et al. 2017). This could unlock up unexplored, chemical space (Kirkpatrick and
to US dollars 550 billion (WEF 2017) in value in Ellis 2004) of over 1,060 conceivable compounds
the next decades. Other important and related and filtering it to a manageable number that can
benefits include lower GHG emissions, reduced be synthesized, tested and assessed for meeting
accident and injury rates, and greater value chain sustainability criteria.
transparency (Cayuela and Hagan 2019).
Figure 1.6 Overview of the implications of digitalization in the chemical industry (adapted from
Deloitte and German Chemical Industry Association 2017, p. 14)
Paints,
varnishes,
adhesives, Crop protection; Maximum
Petrochemicals; Industrial sealants; fine consumer expected
inorganic, basic chemicals; and specialty chemicals; efficiency
chemicals polymers chemicals pharmaceuticals gain
Research and 30%

development
Purchasing 5%
Logistics 20%
Manufacturing 15%
Sales and 40%

marketing
Administration 40%
small impact big impact

Considering potential trade-offs in a position to help other sectors achieve their

most ambitious objectives, from food to energy
While the opportunities of Industry 4.0 and to resource security. Some leaders have already
digitalization for the chemical industry are emerged in these sectors. They see this potential,
significant, pervasive and will be long-lasting, and are ready and committed to help address
there are also challenges. These include, for sustainability challenges with and through
example, cybersecurity, possible data misuse and chemistry.
cybercrimes, as well as accountability challenges
associated with decentralized production and The direction in which chemistry develops
markets. Digitalization will also require resources, will depend on new leadership approaches
such as energy or metals for hardware. Ultimately, in industry, and on how societies can work
however, Industry 4.0 and digitalization are collaboratively with the chemical industry to
here to stay. They will change the shape of the support its transformation to sustainability. As
chemical industry from the current interplay the industry is subject to public scrutiny and
of energy, materials, molecules and atoms to demands for transparency and responsibility,
an interplay more focused on atoms and bits educating and engaging with the public and
(Cayuela and Hagan 2019). all others to discuss the risks and benefits of
the chemical industry and its opportunities for
sustainability will be of value. New metrics for
innovation, sustainability and accountability
1.4 Enabling the potential of are needed, as well as programmes to mobilize
sustainable chemistry innovation scientific talent to embrace green and sustainable
chemistry and scale up innovation. Furthermore,
Advances in chemistry are occurring in the an ethical, value-driven approach to technological
real world. They will continue to be one of the progress in the chemical industry is essential.
bases on which societies and economies are For all this to occur, it will be paramount to find
built. Chemical substances and materials, and a balance in creating a discourse around the
their properties, actions and performance, will opportunities provided by chemistry – while
be at the heart of the processes and products not ignoring its risks. Finding such a balance
that define our future. Innovation in chemistry will help to address the legacies of the past,
(particularly in the fields of biotechnologies, as well as sustainability, and to mobilize the
advanced materials, nanotechnologies, energy best and brightest minds in science to reap
and environment), and the growing global market potential rewards. The following chapters in
for sustainable goods and services, are shaping Part IV address these and related opportunities
the future of the chemical industry and creating to scale up innovative solutions.
new investment opportunities. The industry is
514
Part IV
2/ Green and sustainable chemistry

education: nurturing a new generation of
chemists
Chapter Highlights
Green and sustainable chemistry education (GSCE) is gaining momentum

through its integration into relevant curricula, scientific journals and academic
conferences.
Despite significant advances in mainstreaming GSCE, major gaps remain in all

regions.
Institutions and networks are developing an increasing number of relevant tools

and materials for use at the primary, secondary, tertiary and professional levels.
While green and sustainable chemistry is taught selectively in countries across

all regions, there is potential to scale up efforts, particularly in developing
countries.
Barriers to reform exist. They include professional and institutional resistance,

and a lack of awareness.
Mainstreaming GSCE in curricula at all levels includes disseminating best

practices, utilizing existing networks, and strengthening partnerships.
2.1 A new way to teach chemistry stated that “pollution should be prevented or
reduced at the source whenever feasible” (US EPA
From chemistry to green chemistry, and green 2017).
and sustainable chemistry education
Chemistry education has reflected this conceptual
Historically, toxicology and concerns about the transition during the last 20 years, and curricula
protection of human health and the environment in many countries have been revisited (Anastas
have received limited attention in chemistry 2015; Clark 2016). In 1997 a doctoral programme
classrooms. However, a paradigm shift towards on green chemistry was introduced at a
pollution prevention took place in the second university for the first time. The early 2000s saw
half of the 20th century, accompanied by growing a proliferation of these new ideas, mainly under
awareness of the adverse effects of certain the label of “green chemistry”, in the scientific
chemicals, as also reflected in regulatory action community (particularly in the United States)
taken. A major milestone that can be seen as (Cohn 2012). This was demonstrated, for example,
having accelerated the momentum towards by the Green Chemistry Institute becoming
green chemistry is the Pollution Prevention Act part of the ACS (ACS 2019a). Subsequently a
adopted in the United States (US) in 1990, which growing number of universities incorporated
Chapter 2. Green and sustainable chemistry education: nurturing a new generation of chemists 515
Table 2.1 Sustainable chemistry teaching: laboratory content (adapted from Aubrecht et al. 2015,
p. 632)
Theme Laboratory topic Primary chemistry concepts Connections to

sustainability
Environmental degradation Interaction of acid rain with Titrations, neutralization Sources and impacts of acid
minerals reactions, metal ion solubility rain, ocean acidification,
mitigation efforts
Energy production Preparation and use of dye- Semiconductors, doping, Solar energy, stabilization
sensitized solar cells silicon and dye-sensitized wedges approach to reduce
photovoltaic cells greenhouse gas emissions
Green chemistry Synthesis of a biodegradable Polymers, line-angle Renewable feedstocks,
polymer and recycling of functional groups, infrared (IR) biodegradability, “cradle
polyethylene terephthalate spectroscopy to cradle” design, green
(PETE) chemistry
Aubrecht et al. (2015) described the content of a series of day-long field trips by high school students to
a university where chemistry content was connected with sustainability issues. Experiments focused on
environmental degradation, energy production and green chemistry.
green chemistry in their curricula, mainly for and professional education. GSCE has been
organic synthesis, and gradually incorporated introduced at an increasing number of research
the 12 Principles of Green Chemistry (ACS 2019b) institutions and universities. Various institutions
in regular chemistry courses. Despite these have also developed tools and materials to allow
advances, the number of schools and universities the integration of green and sustainable chemistry
that have integrated green and sustainable at high school and even elementary levels
chemistry in relevant curricula remains limited. (e.g. ACS 2019a; Beyond Benign 2019) in order to
adequately address toxicology in the classroom
Today some elements of green chemistry (Cannon et al. 2017). For example, in the context
education have been solidly established in of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
many universities and are being promoted by Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Decade
companies, governments and NGOs worldwide. of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)
The expansion of the 12 Principles to wider (2005-2014) learning materials for secondary
dimensions with the label “sustainable chemistry education and universities were developed
education” in university and other curricula is a that addressed topics related to green and
more recent phenomenon (Kümmerer 2017). sustainable chemistry (Burmeister and Eilks 2012;
While an increasing number of academic UNESCO 2014; Zuin and Mammino 2015). There
institutions have now embraced the concept is hope that this development will continue in the
of green chemistry, the concept of sustainable framework of the Global Action Programme on
chemistry has been introduced less frequently Education for Sustainable Development, which
(e.g. at the Leuphana University of Lüneburg in is the follow-up programme to the Decade of
Germany). Thus there is still significant potential ESD (UNESCO 2018).
and need to further mainstream green and
sustainable chemistry education (GSCE). Eissen et al. (2008) reported the development of
a new lab course for higher organic chemistry
Green and sustainable chemistry education education. Aspects of the efficiency and
can be introduced in a wide range of sustainability of reactions, as well as toxicological
institutions and curricula and ecotoxicological knowledge, were added to
the teaching content. Students were encouraged
The concepts and principles of GSCE can feed to plan, set up and reflect on organic laboratory
into education at various levels and in different activities, while taking into account any effects
settings, including high schools, universities on people and the environment.
516
Part IV
There has been momentum in recent years to

2.2 Education reform is gaining mainstream GSCE in academia. International
momentum, but significant gaps conferences are also being organized on a
remain across regions regular basis, including in developing countries.
Examples include the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry’s (IUPAC) annual
International Conference on Green Chemistry,
the Annual Green Chemistry & Engineering
Conference, the International Conference [on]
Green and Sustainable Chemistry (the global
green chemistry community); Elsevier’s and
Leuphana University’s Green and Sustainable
Chemistry Conference; and the Asia-Oceania
Conference on Green and Sustainable Chemistry.
Yet major international chemistry education
conferences only incorporate green chemistry
to a limited extent.
A growing number of academic journals focus

The extent to which GSCE has reached the on green and sustainable chemistry, including
general public, or has had a large-scale impact the Royal Society of Chemistry’s (RSC) Green
on behaviour patterns, is still limited (Mammino Chemistry, the ACS’s Sustainable Chemistry and
2015; Beyond Benign 2019). Similarly, the Engineering, VCH-Wiley´s ChemSusChem, and
inclusion of green and sustainable chemistry Elsevier’s Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy
in university curricula has in many cases been and Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable
confined to events, summer schools, short Chemistry.
courses, one-off activities, and the inclusion of
specific elements of GSCE in existing courses In a number of countries the concept of green
(Leitner 2004; Collins 2017). – more than sustainable – chemistry has also
Box 2.1 Examples of universities offering courses in green and sustainable chemistry
City University of Hong Kong (China) Universidad de Cordoba (Spain)

Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) Universities of Porto and NOVA Lisbon
Federal University of São Carlos (Brazil) (Portugal)
Fudan University (China) University of Amsterdam (The Netherlands)
Ghent University (Belgium) University of Bath (UK)
King’s University College (Canada) University of Cape Town (South Africa)
Lomonosov Moscow State University (Russia) University of Delhi (India)
McGill University (Canada) University of Dodoma (Tanzania)
Mendeleyev University of Chemical Technology University of Massachusetts, Lowell (US)
(Russia) University of Nottingham (UK)
Monash University (Australia) University of Oregon (US)
Nankai University (China) University of Toronto (Canada)
National University of La Plata (Argentina) University of Valencia (Spain)
Queen´s University (Canada) University of Venice (Italy)
Queen´s University (UK) University of York (UK)
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León Yale University (US)
(Mexico)
Figure 2.1 Number of papers published on GSCE, 1998-July 2018, concerning green chemistry
education or sustainable chemistry education (adapted from Clarivate 2018)
50
40
Number of papers
30
20
10
0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Derived from Clarivate Analytics Web of Science Core Collection. © Copyright Clarivate Analytics 2018. All rights reserved.
been integrated in university curricula in the organic chemistry practically, based on ideas
form of research programmes, courses and of green and sustainable chemistry. Today this
master’s programmes. Universities offering course is available in more than 10 languages,
courses in green chemistry include those including English, Spanish and Russian (Network
listed in Box 2.1. Some of these courses are Operations Portal 2018).
undertaken in partnership with the private
sector. Green chemistry is also taught in regular Most such initiatives have been taken in developed
courses. Based on an initiative of the German countries (Gross 2013; Juntunen and Aksela 2014;
Federal Environmental Foundation, an entire Kennedy 2016), although gaps remain (Kitchens
laboratory course was developed to teach et al. 2006; Hamidah et al. 2017). Yet an increasing
Figure 2.2 Number of papers published on GSCE, 1998-July 2018 (adapted from Clarivate 2018)
141 20 11 8 7 6
USA Canada Spain France India Israel
14 10
China Sweden 6 4 3
Malaysia Mexico Cuba
25
Germany 5
9 3 3 3
12 Switzerland Australia
Portugal Greece Iran Japan
5
23 Italy
Brazil 11 8
England Finland 3 3
5 Netherlands Poland
Romania
Derived from Clarivate Analytics Web of Science Core Collection. © Copyright Clarivate Analytics 2018. All rights reserved.
518
Part IV
number are emerging in developing countries greening of universities, companies and informal
and countries with economies in transition in educational institutions) (Mammino 2015).
all regions. Green and sustainable chemistry
education appears to be gaining momentum A variety of educational materials have been
in China, in particular (Wang, Li and He 2018). developed to convey the principles of green
An analysis found that more than 1,200 papers and sustainable chemistry in school chemistry
published in the journal Green Chemistry between education and academia (Eilks and Rauch 2012;
1999 and 2016 originated in China (Shuang and Levy and Middlecamp 2015; Zuin and Mammino
Yanqi 2018). The Indian Ministry of Education is 2015; Welton et al. 2018). In view of the increasing
piloting a programme in which all chemists will attention being given to all three dimensions
take a one-year course in green chemistry. of sustainable development (economic, social
and environmental), academics have responded
The number of papers addressing GSCE has by adjusting course content and materials to
grown in recent years. More than 300 papers adequately consider the societal factors of
are available in the literature from 1998. sustainability (Burmeister and Eilks 2012;
Most address the development of curricular Armstrong et al. 2018). The case has been made
materials; the assessment of student learning, for reconceptualizing GSCE through adjusting
and attitudinal outcomes from these curricula; curricula and methodologies to “foster eco-
and the use of multidimensional green chemistry reflexive chemical thinking and action” (Sjöström,
metrics integrating broader societal factors and Eilks and Zuin 2016; Sjöström and Talanquer
new pedagogical approaches. A significant share 2018). Integrating this dimension could enable
of these papers were published by scholars from individuals to respond to complex challenges,
developing countries or those with economies in in line with the principles of sustainable
transition, such as Brazil, China, India, Malaysia development (Figure 2.3).
and Mexico (Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2).
In recent years momentum has been growing in
Diverse approaches and ongoing reforms the chemistry community to incorporate systems
thinking. A number of authors have underlined
Depending on the institutional context, green this need, stressing the opportunities it would
and sustainable chemistry has been taught offer by empowering chemistry students to
differently, with diverse approaches, materials innovate for a sustainable future (Mahaffy et al.
and focuses (Box 2.2). Specific initiatives have 2018). The IUPAC, which has a project on
also had an impact on behavioural patterns integrating systems thinking into chemistry
in a variety of communities (e.g. progressive education, notes that such an approach “draws
Box 2.2 Green chemistry and sustainability in professional education and training courses: a case
study from Brazil
The National Service of Industrial Training, organized and run by industrial entrepreneurs through
the National Confederation of Industry and state federations, was created to train qualified
workers for Brazilian industry. Together with the Ministry of External Relations, it operates in
Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Guatemala, Paraguay, East Timor, Mozambique, Peru, Jamaica, and
São Tomé and Príncipe. In 2015 the SENAI Green Chemistry Institute Brazil was launched. It is
committed to increasing general global awareness and capacities for deployable green chemistry
approaches, aiming
© Monkey at product
Business design and processes that will have global environmental benefits
Images/Shutterstock
throughout their life cycles. Under the umbrella of the UN Industrial Development Organizations
(UNIDO) Green Chemistry Initiative, a pilot project will demonstrate that green chemistry works
for applications on a large scale in the area of bio-based plastics production in Brazil. Other
studies will look at advancing green chemistry and green engineering technology applications in
developing countries and those with economies in transition (UNIDO 2018).
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
attention to a need to balance the benefits and Chemical societies and green and sustainable
impacts of chemical substances and the role they chemistry education networks are advancing
play in societal and environmental systems” the integration of green and sustainable
(IUPAC 2018). Incorporating systems thinking in chemistry in curricula
chemistry curricula would thus encourage
students to use chemistry as a tool to find Strengthening transnational, collective and multi-
solutions for global challenges. sectoral efforts towards a common agenda for
Figure 2.3 Steps to promote GSCE (adapted from Armstrong et al. 2018, p. 62 and Sjöström and
Talanquer 2018)
Benefits, costs and risks

1 What are the impacts of a chemical practice?
2
Learning to improve at
Green action least one chemical aspect
to make the process
greener
3
Progressive thinking
and action on green Structure-property relationships
and sustainable How do you predict properties of substances?
chemistry
4
Reaction analysis and control Learning to include other
Why and how do substances change? chemical and societal
How do you control this?
aspects in the analyses
5
Complex understanding of green and sustainable
chemistry, use of metrics and communication of
results to peers and the public
520
Part IV
GSCE – promoted by adequate pedagogical sustainability as a component. This makes it

approaches – requires the engagement of existing difficult to develop a consciousness of the
networks, putting together champions and implications of synthetizing chemicals with
innovators in the field (Collins 2001; International multiple applications, while also considering
Sustainable Chemistry Collaborative Centre [ISC3] the life cycle of chemicals and their final fate
2018; Yale University n.d.). Strategic partnerships in the environment (Barra and González 2018).
and the creation of networks of educators have
been identified as key determinants of success Currently a number of countries face
(Haack and Hutchison 2016; Zuin 2016). several challenges regarding the design and
implementation of GSCE, among which is a
A number of national, regional and global lack of scientists considering corresponding
networks have been established to advance approaches. This is a barrier to awareness-raising
the mainstreaming of GSCE in developed by new professionals and scientists sensitized
and developing countries, such as the Global to addressing the issue. The language barrier
Network of Chemistry Centres (2016) and the with respect to the international literature
GC3 (n.d.). The GC3 has a long-running project might be a further hurdle for implementation
to embed green chemistry in academic and of GSCE in certain countries. To date, few
professional education. It has also published universities are proactively addressing the issue.
a Policy Statement on Green Chemistry in Current curricula for chemists and engineers
Higher Education, featuring (among others) in many universities provide limited room for
a commitment to advance green chemistry green chemistry principles and practices or
education and research across disciplines. sustainability issues. For example, there is a need
to strengthen education in chemical synthesis
Many national chemical societies have founded and green chemistry principles to address
sections, committees or networks for green or molecular design and minimize impacts ab initio
sustainable chemistry, including the German (i.e. starting from the beginning), in addition to
Chemical Society (GDCh), the RSC and the ACS, a pursuit of material innovation including online
which is also implementing a Green Chemistry pedagogical platforms and virtual activities (Haley
Education Roadmap seeking to address prevailing et al. 2018).
gaps in integrating green chemistry in relevant
curricula (ACS 2019c). In 2017 the IUPAC formed Educating a new generation of chemists for
an Interdivisional Committee on Green chemistry the private sector
for sustainable development (Italian National
Committee for IUPAC of the National Research Embedding green and sustainable chemistry
Council of Italy 2016). in academic and professional education across
supply chains can contribute to building
communities with a strong understanding of
the chemistry, product design and sustainability
2.3 Overcoming barriers: key nexus. Many initiatives prioritize the education of
determinants of effective teachers and lecturers, as they can influence the
educational reform knowledge and opinions of present and future
generations (Karpudewan, Ismail and Roth 2012;
Implementing green and sustainable Beyond Benign 2019; GC3 n.d.).
chemistry education in developing countries
Mainstreaming GSCE not only into chemistry
Making current chemistry practice green and and engineering departments, but also into
sustainable is a relatively new concept in some business and law schools, public administration
countries, but one which is especially important and companies will be critical given these
to developing countries. The current curricula stakeholders’ role in establishing, assessing and
for the education of chemists and engineers in implementing technological, economic, financial
those countries barely considers environmental and fiscal activities and policies (Box 2.3). Some
Box 2.3 The CHEM21 online learning platform (CHEM21 n.d.)
Regarding continuing professional development,

the CHEM21 (n.d.) online platform established
by the EU IMI CHEM21 project (Chemical
Manufacturing Methods for the 21st Century
Chemical Industries) was designed to provide a
broad range of free, shareable and interactive
educational and training materials to promote the
uptake of green and sustainable methodologies
in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals. Interactive
elements include multiple choice quizzes with
instant feedback, and downloadable problem-
solving exercises (which can be carried out
individually, or in groups, in a workshop setting)
to encourage critical thinking on topics such as
metrics, solvent selection and process safety
(Summerton, Hurst and Clark 2018).
professional education programmes geared and metrics by academia and decision-makers

towards green management have been described, (Matus et al. 2012).
demonstrating that employees’ attitudes to
green management approaches became more Despite these challenges, a number of
positive and motivated through participating opportunities exist. Several stakeholders,
in new green management activities (including including industry, academia, NGOs and
education programmes for other partners) (Lee policymakers, can make an important
2009; University of Oregon 2018). contribution by facilitating a shift in focus
towards the design and use of safer chemicals
Overcoming professional and institutional and sustainable production processes. A number
resistance of local case studies have demonstrated the
successful integration of green and sustainable
The barriers to successful implementation of chemistry, including in the private sector. In
GSCE are significant and are quite similar globally. addition, a number of strategies, including
Lack of cultural and institutional openness to distance learning with both blended and face-
change, or professional conservatism, have to-face approaches, have shown that there are
been identified as critical obstacles (Vallée 2016). a range of opportunities to overcome identified
According to Matus et al. (2012), corroborated gaps, including transdisciplinary research and
by recent research conducted with leaders in teaching, Industry 4.0 and big data systems (Zuin
several sectors worldwide, a complex set of and Mammino 2015; Ellen MacArthur Foundation
interconnected issues act as barriers to the 2017). Moreover, tools have been developed to
effective implementation of GSCE and wider assist universities in assessing how well their
sustainability considerations. Most of these fall curricula address sustainable development,
into the categories of inertia and resistance as a means of identifying opportunities to
related to organizational and cultural change; capture sustainability issues in a more strategic
insufficient financial, social and economic manner (Lozano and Watson 2013). Holme and
support; and lack of knowledge about green Hutchison (2018) describe the establishment of
and sustainable chemistry among staff. Another an overarching learning outcome for chemistry
challenge identified in the literature is the absence courses, noting that both the benefits and
of the use of harmonized and clear definitions hazards of chemicals could trigger change.
522
Part IV
The need to bring together policymakers, practices and forging new and strengthened
scientists and the private sector partnerships. Taking into account the preceding
analysis, stakeholders may wish to consider the
Public support for green and sustainable following measures to further advance green
chemistry requires a broader societal education and sustainable chemistry education:
in which stakeholders should be considered,
including chemical producers, entrepreneurs, ›› Develop appropriate local and global
environmental justice groups, NGOs, programmes for GSCE, and define
downstream businesses, consumers, workers fundamental pedagogical content, objectives,
and professional associations. While motivated methods and evaluation processes.
educators are necessary for the process of
curriculum greening, they are not sufficient. ›› Gather and disseminate best practices for
It has been observed that this process can be integrating GSCE in chemistry and other
significantly influenced by other constituents curricula at secondary, higher (university)
which can support them, providing resources and technical educational levels.
such as educational materials and case studies
(Centi and Perathoner 2009; Vallée 2016). For ›› Scale up the training on GSCE of teachers and
example, the ACS has been identifying tools to lecturers across all educational levels.
support work carried out in teaching laboratories,
additional curricular materials for teachers, ›› Enhance funding and cooperation, including
local government resources, and links to online through existing GSC networks, to further
networks, essentially for the United States (ACS promote and implement GSCE in developed,
2019c). More recently, a new initiative to screen, developing and transition economies.
assess, develop and apply international study
programmes for sustainable chemistry education ›› Embed GSCE as a critical element of wider
has been launched: the ISC3-Research Hub education reform, including through strategic
aims to offer scientific courses on a global level collaboration with programmes such as
involving, for example, universities and public the UNESCO Education for Sustainable
authorities, especially in developing countries Development initiatives.
and countries with economies in transition, in
order to promote correlated programmes in ›› Engage stakeholders from all sectors in the
their institutions (ISC3 2018). development and implementation of effective
strategies for GCSE, in order to prepare
students to address global sustainability
challenges.
2.4 Potential measures to scale up
green and sustainable chemistry ›› Further mainstream GSCE in professional
education education, including through public-private
partnerships.
Building on existing initiatives, further efforts are
needed at all levels to mainstream green and ›› Further advance a common understanding
sustainable chemistry education into chemistry of green and sustainable chemistry concepts,
and other education curricula and teaching, including in the context of education.
including gathering and disseminating best
3/ Strengthening sustainable chemistry

technology innovation and financing
Chapter Highlights
Opportunities exist to scale up problem-solving oriented research and innovation

in chemistry and related disciplines to support implementation of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development.
Public research agendas, funding, and catalysing of support play important roles
during early stages of the innovation process, as does private sector support.
To achieve the potential of chemistry start-ups to accelerate green and

sustainable chemistry innovation, effective support mechanisms and innovative
funding are important.
Engaging the financial services industry is important, but so far this source has
not been fully tapped.
Collaborative innovation promises to focus research on problem solving by

bringing together research institutions, the private sector, government and civil
society.
An effective enabling environment for collaboration, including policies and

incentives that nurture and do not stifle innovation, improves chances for
successful outcomes.
S
ignificant opportunities exist for innovation 3.1 Opportunities and challenges
in chemistry to help achieve the development in strengthening sustainable
goals and targets in the 2030 Agenda for chemistry innovation
Sustainable Development. The problems are
diverse and challenging. To address climate From basic research to research that solves
change, energy supply and resource scarcity, societal challenges
for example, the functionality of chemicals and
new materials is crucial. Yet chemistry innovation Future research in chemistry, if undertaken
is complex and requires considerable resources to meet societal challenges, needs to be
and technical infrastructure, often more so than directed specifically towards that goal. This
in other sectors such as IT. Laboratory equipment type of research may be fostered through
is costly, as are staffing, safety measures, waste the development research agendas of public
treatment and other infrastructure needs. In the and private actors, ideally together, that
previous chapter the essential role of science and support implementation of the 2030 Agenda
chemistry education was underlined. But what for Sustainable Development. The European
else is needed to drive innovation? Technology Platform for Sustainable Chemistry
524
Part IV
Figure 3.1 Innovation ecosystem model (adapted from Ryzhonkov 2013)
Business
Media
infrastructure
Science and Economy
research Demand
Industry
Education
Regulations
Ideas
Capital
Corporations
Talent
Laws Taxes and Access to global Entrepreneurs

incentives value chain
Mentors
Government Service providers Culture, best

and consulting practices
(SusChem), for example, is a forum which brings The ecosystem for sustainable chemistry
together industry, academia, policymakers and research and innovation
wider society to establish research priorities
directly linked to the 2030 Agenda (SusChem Chemistry research and innovation take
2017). place in a broader innovation system. An
innovation ecosystem includes diverse actors
There are many examples of innovations and complex relationships. It also includes
in chemistry that have not led to green and institutions (e.g. research and educational
sustainable products. It is thus important for the institutions, businesses, investors, centres of
actors engaged in research and innovation to take excellence, funding agencies and policymakers).
into account the guiding principles associated This ecosystem requires material resources
with green and sustainable chemistry and life (e.g. funds, equipment and facilities), as well
cycle thinking. For example, start-up incubators as human resources including students,
and accelerators and funding mechanisms may faculty, staff, industry researchers and industry
integrate sustainability criteria in their selection representatives (Jackson 2011). Figure 3.1
process, in addition to economic viability criteria, introduces the elements of the innovation
especially if research is co-financed by public ecosystem.
entities. In this context all actors concerned
can benefit from interacting with end users and The technology innovation chain
communities before developing start-ups that
seek social use of new technologies or products, The technology innovation process consists of
especially in sectors such as agriculture or three basic stages: invention, innovation and
sustainable mining. diffusion (Schumpeter 1954). Invention refers
to the development of an idea; innovation is
the stage at which an invention is turned into
Chapter 3. Strengthening sustainable chemistry technology innovation and financing 525
© Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock
a new product or process and brought onto ecosystem. Within the system there are several
the market; and diffusion or dissemination is underlying forces at play. They include a push
the stage at which the new product or process force driving innovation through the research
obtains a larger market share. Figure 3.2 presents sector, and a pull force driving innovation
a slightly more detailed representation of through consumer preferences, market trends
the technology innovation process, including and government policies. As the research
five stages: basic research; research and and innovation process advances towards
development; demonstration; deployment; commercialization, the role of research bodies
and commercialization. This figure also features and public investment decreases while that of
elements and actors in the broader innovation the private sector increases.
Figure 3.2 Technology innovation chain and key enabling factors (adapted from International
Energy Agency 2008, p. 170)
Policy environment - tax incentives, subsidies, regulations
Policy interventions
Innovation chain
Deployment
Market pull
Supply Demand
›› Academia Research and Commercialization ›› Consumers
›› Research Basic research Demonstration Deployment ›› Energy
centres development (diffusion) sectors
›› Business ›› Government
Feedbacks ›› Exports
Investments
Government, firms, venture capital and equity markets
Framework conditions: macroeconomic stability, education and skills development, innovative business climate, IP protection, etc.
526
Part IV
Technology readiness measuring systems and gaps between stages 4 (technology validation)
the Valley of Death and 7 (demonstration in the real world)
include: 1) extending the availability of research
Throughout the innovation chain, decision resources to later stages of development,
moments (or gates) are built in to assess the e.g. by incentivizing academic champions;
status of the innovation and determine conditions 2) earlier commercial investment through
for next steps. A Technology Readiness Level reducing perceived risks, e.g. by prototyping,
(TRL) measuring system has been developed to or brainstorming dialogues with investors on
help measure the promise, maturity and usability nascent technologies and potential capabilities;
of a new technology. Created originally by the and 3) infrastructure investments designed to
National Aeronautics and Space Administration benefit the environment as a whole, e.g. through
(NASA) in the United States (NASA 2012), it consists rapid prototyping of infrastructure, lowering
of nine levels, starting with the idea and basic start-up entry costs, and increasing successful
principles and ending with successful mission attempt rates (Jackson 2011).
and commercial application. To address specific
needs, several institutions, venture capitalists
and companies have developed complementary
systems such as the Manufacturing Readiness 3.2 Key actors in advancing
Level, the Commercial Readiness Index and the sustainable chemistry innovation
Investment Readiness Level.
Universities/research institutions
Many technology innovation initiatives are
discontinued due to lack of resources, particularly Universities and other knowledge-generating
at the stage of technology demonstration and bodies advance fundamental research on
development. The “Valley of Death” is the gap chemistry. Universities mainly carry out chemical
between the “research economy” (a product science and engineering research from curiosity-
of academic research and industry-academia driven, problem-based, empirical, theoretical
cooperation) and the “commercial economy“, and (nowadays) also computational angles.
which transforms the research outcomes Sustainability chemistry research links the
into commercially viable products (Figure 3.3) chemistry and engineering sciences, bridges
Strategies and approaches to fill the resource curiosity-driven understanding and solving of
Figure 3.3 Stage of technology readiness and the Valley of Death (adapted from EC 2012, p. 18;
Coyle 2011, p. 11)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Technology Technology
Readiness Level Technology Experimental Technology validation Demonstration Demonstration System Successful
(TRL) Basic principles concept proof of validation in relevant in relevant in operational complete and mission
observed formulated concept in lab environment environment environment qualified operations
Government
Private sector, venture capital Funders
Small businesses
Large businesses
Resources
High growth entrepreneurs

Academia
Government labs Performers
Basic research Applied research Tech development Prototype and systems development
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
hard problems, and brings in perspectives from The chemical industry

other research disciplines such as toxicology,
sociology and business (Whitesides 2015). The chemical industry often carries out capital-
and engineering-intensive applied research and
Universities no longer confine themselves to development required for the commercialization
the traditional roles of teaching and research, of products or services (Whitesides 2015). It also
but are increasingly engaging in entrepreneurial fosters innovation contributing to sustainable
and business activities. They are expanding their development across sectors and regions (e.g. in
roles by leveraging from fundamental research the health and well-being, packaging, energy,
to entrepreneurial activities as “entrepreneurial mobility and other sectors) (International Council
universities” (Clark 1998; Etzkowitz 2002; of Chemical Associations [ICCA] 2017; WEF 2018).
Mirowski and Sent 2007; Etzkowitz et al. 2008)
or “third generation universities” (Wissema University-industry links are contributing
2009). In this case, universities are understood significantly to innovation. In the field of
to be nucleuses for problem-solvers, inventors chemistry several innovations have been
and entrepreneurs which are not only creating (co-)invented and/or developed, including
professionals (first generation universities), or heterogeneous catalysis, the synthesis of
professionals and scientists (second generation monomers and production of polymers,
universities), but professionals, scientists and small-molecule pharmaceutical chemistry,
entrepreneurs (EC and OECD 2012). Examples organometallic chemistry, electrochemistry and
of activities closely related to entrepreneurship energy storage, materials science and surface
are patenting, licensing and the establishment science (Whitesides 2015). Direct private sector
of start-up support systems, including spin-off support for universities may include, for example,
venture formation (Klofsten and Jones-Evans research funding, training partnerships and
2000). This development is attributed to the technical service contracts (Malairaja and Zawdie
pressure exerted on universities to commercialize 2008). Strong industry-university partnerships
their research findings in order to generate could generate complementary strategies for
revenue which will cover some operating costs, technology development and commercialization,
including those of research. thereby reducing the market risk and optimizing
Box 3.1 Recommended actions for universities in low- and middle-income countries facing the
challenge of transforming themselves into third generation universities
To strengthen universities in low- and middle-income countries in becoming “third generation

universities”, a number of actions have been identified by the UN Economic Commission for
Europe (UNECE) and the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)
(UNECE 2012). They include: 1) the preparation of plans to increase the contribution to innovation
made by top research universities, based on a detailed assessment of existing constraints and
possibilities; 2) the possible merging of existing research institutes with universities, as a result of
a rating exercise that would take into account potential and existing synergies, complementarities
between research programmes, and access to human and material resources; 3) the organization
of centres of scientific and educational excellence in leading research universities, which would be
appropriately equipped for the creation of high-level technology and encourage the involvement
of students, among other actions identified.
528
Part IV
resources for the creation of commercially viable programmes. These functions are in line with
product (Edmondson et al. 2012). the perceived role of government as a facilitator
providing enabling instruments and favourable
The financial services industry conditions, rather than making specific choices
and declarations (UNECE 2012; UNECA 2016a;
The financial services industry is of importance in UNECA 2016b).
shaping investments and innovation. Experience
in areas such as climate change has shown Other actors
that it plays a decisive role in accelerating (or
slowing) the transition towards sustainability. NGOs and the general public have traditionally
Actors in the financing sectors which affect the not been engaged in research or been recognized
sustainability of chemistry-related innovation as stakeholders in the innovation process.
include both public finance entities (e.g. national/ However, it is now recognized that these
regional or multilateral development banks, groups can make a significant contribution. For
export credit agencies, government enterprises/ example, innovation-focused dialogue among
utilities) and private finance entities (e.g. pension stakeholders may be undertaken in developing
funds, sovereign funds, mutual funds, insurance new regulatory frameworks or as a response
companies, hedge funds, banks, company capital to awareness-raising of NGOs. This approach
expenditure). requires new interaction channels, but may bring
in new sustainable chemistry considerations to
The insurance sector, one of the world’s largest implement the SDGs (WEF 2018).
investors, can endeavour to ensure that its direct
investments contribute to sustainable chemistry
innovation. In the banking sector lending decisions
can direct funding towards sustainable projects 3.3 Profiting from the potential of
and technologies. Similarly, cutting finance for sustainable chemistry start-up
destructive practices and companies can play an companies
important role in steering the chemical industry
and its downstream users towards sustainability. The importance of chemistry start-ups for
Institutional investors can exert influence by sustainable development
redirecting their investments towards more
sustainable practices and companies, and using Start-up companies, including those focusing
their influence as shareholders to demand that on sustainable chemistry, play an important
companies act sustainably. role in contributing to sustainable economic
development (US GAO 2018; WEF 2018).
Governments Where they attain their growth ambitions,
they contribute significantly to innovation and
Governments play an important enabling the creation of jobs and wealth in the larger
role in fostering chemical innovation (UNECE economy. Start-ups invest heavily in R&D and are
2012; United Nations Economic Commission more likely to export their goods and services
for Africa [UNECA] 2016a; UNECA 2016b) and (Storey 1994; Baldwin et al. 1995; Kirchhoff et al.
helping correct market failures to produce 2007; Wu and Atkinson 2017). If they are created
innovation. Governments may provide financial as international new ventures, they can also
incentives, finance infrastructure or directly act as catalysts for technology transfer across
finance innovation projects (Lopes da Silva, regions and value chains (Oviatt and McDougall
Baptista Narcizo and Cardoso 2012). They 2005). Similarly, they have the potential to apply
may also ensure that innovation barriers are specific local knowledge that is relevant in less
removed by stimulating the demand side (UNIDO developed parts of the world.
2017). Government can play a particular a role
in fostering sustainable chemistry innovation Sustainable chemistry start-ups play an
through national industrial policies or national important role in scaling up chemistry innovation.
They develop new, potentially disruptive ideas Challenges of chemistry start-ups

and attempt to put innovative products on
the market. Breakthrough technologies in Start-ups active in the area of chemistry, including
sustainable chemistry have significant market those working on sustainable chemistry, face
potential and could transform how the industry challenges. Difficulties may occur in regard
perceives performance, function and synthesis to securing access to finance, marketing,
(ASBC and GC3 2015). partnerships, commercialization, and access
to research infrastructure. Other difficulties
Sustainable chemistry start-ups are based in include high costs and logistical challenges in
many countries. An example of a collaborative feedstock supply, capital requirements to build a
start-up network is the GC3 Start-up Network in commercial scale plant, and technical challenges
North America (GC3 n.d.a). The winners of the in making cost-competitive products (Sworder,
2018 Elsevier Foundation Green and Sustainable Zhang and Matheson 2018). Access to finance is
Chemistry Challenge, for example, from Nepal challenging, as start-up firms are often built on
and Italy, developed novel approaches to sourcing intangible rather than tangible assets and face a
guava leaves and fish bones in order to create high risk of failure (Söderblom and Samuelsson
new preservatives and fertilizers (Elschami and 2014). Start-ups in developing and emerging
Kümmerer 2018). Other examples of sustainable economies face particular challenges (Sworder,
chemistry start-ups recognized internationally Salge and van Soest 2017), including lack of basic
include: laboratory infrastructure and of access to capital.
However, developing countries may also offer
›› an Indonesian start-up that uses seaweed opportunities, for example owing to their lower
in the production of plastic-free packaging market density and the opportunity to leapfrog
(Langenheim 2018); to advanced technologies. Box 3.2 describes
start-up challenges identified by sustainable
›› starts-ups from Peru and Singapore that chemistry entrepreneurs (UNEP 2017).
use nanotechnology-empowered water
purification filters (OECD 2016); and A range of stakeholders and organizations
engage in supporting sustainable chemistry start-
›› a Kenyan start-up that is providing alternative ups through various stages of the innovation
building materials and products made from chain, with complementary roles based on their
recycled plastics (Mbaka 2018). motives for collaboration (Wilson 2015). These
stakeholders include universities, research
© The Elsevier Foundation, First and second prize winners of the 2018 Elsevier Foundation Green and Sustainable Chemistry Challenge, Prajwal Rabhindari
and Dr. Alessio Adamiano
530
Part IV
© UNEP, Carlos Ocampo Lopez presenting on biological alternatives to mercury in artisanal and small-scale gold mining at a workshop on advancing entrepreneurship
and start-up initiatives for sustainable chemistry held in 2017
Box 3.2 Insights from entrepreneurs on challenges for sustainable chemistry start-ups (UNEP 2017)
Representatives of some 15 sustainable chemistry start-ups from around the world met in Berlin,
Germany, in 2017 to identify opportunities and challenges. They discussed, among others, the
following:
›› Innovation culture in universities: Few universities provide chemistry students with training in
business, marketing, and other relevant subjects; universities seldom encourage students to
create start-ups; co-operation across faculties can support interdisciplinary thinking; there is a
need for curriculum reform, as sustainability considerations are still not integrated in standard
chemistry courses.
›› Research infrastructure: More incubators are needed to facilitate sustainable chemistry
start-ups; barriers for spin-offs from universities are too high; there is a need to strengthen
partnerships between academia and industry/the private sector.
›› Intellectual property, patents and licensing: Patenting and licensing processes are often lengthy,
costly and complicated; where patents are in place, they are often not turned into a product
or service; licensing agreements with universities may sometimes hinder entrepreneurship.
›› Business planning and access to finance: Sustainable chemistry entrepreneurs often lack
business expertise (e.g. in developing a business plan); networks and partnerships are crucial
to establish a multi-disciplinary team and gain access to capital.
›› Upscaling, marketing, commercialization: The time it takes for a product/service to become
profitable is often lengthy; a thorough analysis of the market is a prerequisite for success
(e.g. innovation should be based on market demand); start-ups need realistic milestones and
targets.
›› Enabling environment/effective regulation: Regulations may sometimes create unnecessary
burdens for entrepreneurs; registration processes may be too costly and lengthy for start-ups
with little capital; an incentive system could help (e.g. tax reductions).
institutions, corporations, business associations, develop start-up solutions that address economic
NGOs, funding organizations and governmental and development challenges”. Through training,
institutions. competitions, resources and interactive online
programmes, the initiative supports innovators
Initial coaching and technical support services and entrepreneurs from more than a hundred
emerging economies in establishing successful
In the early development stages, start-ups need start-ups. This is done through competitions, start-
to have the right entrepreneurial skill sets. up trainings, and interactive online programmes.
These include: 1) technical skills (necessary to The first programme developed by GIST in Latin
produce the business’s product or service); America was in Medellín, Colombia in 2015. It
2) managerial skills (essential for the day-to-day provided training, an innovation competition,
management and administration of a company); and access to finance in the United States.
3) entrepreneurial skills (skills for recognizing
economic opportunities and acting effectively on Some entrepreneurially oriented universities
them); and 4) personal maturity skills (e.g. self- have set up infrastructure to attract investment
awareness, accountability, emotional and creative for the development of promising high-
skills) (Kutzhanova, Lyons and Lichtenstein 2009). tech projects (Lockett, Jack and Larty 2012).
A basic knowledge and skill set may include Dedicated staff provide coaching and technical
learning on topics such as entrepreneurship, assistance through technology transfer centres
scholarship, business modelling and business or innovation and commercialization offices
planning. There is an emerging market for online (Sergey, Alexandr and Sergey 2015). For example,
education platforms that provide full courses the Center for Sustainability at Aquinas College in
and certified modules of university lectures to the State Michigan in the United States operates
support start-ups (Yuan and Powell 2013). a “Proof of Concept Center” providing assistance
to green chemistry start-ups (e.g. in licensing
The United States Department of State’s Global and patenting processes).
Innovation through Science and Technology
(GIST) has supported the development of start- Obtaining recognition is important for start-
ups, including many initiatives in green chemistry ups early on in the process, in order to achieve
(GIST 2018). This initiative seeks to “empower market visibility and gain a reputation. Start-ups
young innovators through networking, skills may benefit from participating in award schemes
building, mentoring, and access to financing to and thematic challenges, early-stage start-up
Box 3.3 Selected sustainable chemistry awards and pitching events targeting start-up
Thematic challenges and awards

›› The Elsevier Foundation Green and Sustainable Chemistry Challenge, launched in 2015, is a
thematic challenge. Chemistry-related ideas with an impact on sustainable development can
be submitted.
›› The ISC3 Innovation Challenge, launched in 2018, calls for applications by start-ups pioneering
in thematic sustainable chemistry topics that change annually, such as sustainable buildings
and living. Its best practices awards are lighthouse examples of sustainable chemistry
innovation.
Start-up pitches and investor forums

›› The GC3 is a multi-stakeholder collaborative based in the United States which promotes
sustainable chemistry innovation. It selects start-ups every year to present their sustainable
chemicals, materials, products and manufacturing technologies to large companies at its
Annual Green & Bio-Based Chemistry Technology Showcase & Networking Event.
›› NIW Startups is part of the annual Nairobi Innovation Week in Kenya, where early-stage start-
ups (classified into categories such as clean tech, agriculture and food security) present their
ideas to an international jury.
532
Part IV
pitches and investor forums, and by seeking Organizations develop institutional support
media coverage as described in Box 3.3. mechanisms with various subsets of services
based on different venturing tools, all with distinct
Institutional support mechanism/venturing or similar observable characteristics (Dempwolf,
tools Auer and D’Ippolito 2014). Examples include:
When start-ups advance along the technology ›› the Center of Studies and Research in
innovation chain, more institutional support Biotechnology (CIBIOT) at Universidad
mechanisms and venturing tools become Pontificia Bolivariana, Medellín, Colombia,
available. Table 3.1 provides a broad overview. an initiative that contributes to sustainable
chemistry by building capacities in technology
Both incubator and accelerator type organizations transfer projects with technical novelty,
provide nascent firms with advice, business market-oriented, scalable and social
services, networking facilitation and, occasionally, innovation characteristics;
financial support to help them develop and
launch their companies (Bøllingtoft and Ulhøi ›› the John Warner Chemical Invention Factory of
2005; Hoffman and Radojevich-Kelley 2012; the Technical University of Berlin (Germany),
Dempwolf, Auer and D’Ippolito 2014). While an incubator-like start-up development centre
incubators “incubate” ideas and set up a business opened in 2018, which provides state-of-the-art
model and company, accelerators “accelerate” laboratories, research infrastructure, scientific
the growth of an existing company (Forrest 2018). mentors and networking opportunities;
Figure 3.4 shows key characteristics of these two
concepts and how they overlap. ›› the Think Beyond PlasticTM early-stage
innovation accelerator, an accelerator which
Table 3.1 Institutional venturing tools (adapted from OECD 2012; Dempwolf, Auer and D’Ippolito
2014; Root 2017)
Venturing tool Description
University technology innovation Universities help start-up projects turn first ideas into inventions and innovations, e.g.
offices by providing access to research infrastructure, technical equipment and support in
patenting.
Incubators Incubators take in young start-up companies and provide them with affordable space,
shared offices and other services. This helps narrow down the business idea and connect
to funders.
Accelerators Accelerators give developing companies access to mentorship, investors and other
support that help them become stable, self-sufficient businesses. This is usually cohort-
based and
fixed-term. Large enterprises organize start-up support, with a view to improving corporate
competitiveness following their own strategic or financial objectives. This can include
business incubation or acceleration. It usually addresses more mature start-ups at later
stages of development.
Corporate ventures Large enterprises organize start-up support, with a view to improving corporate
competitiveness following their own strategic or financial objectives. This can include
business incubation or acceleration. It usually addresses more mature start-ups at
later stages of development.
Governmental/NGO support Public or non-profit venture development organizations provide a portfolio of services
to start-ups, with the intention of creating positive economic, social or environmental
impacts.
Figure 3.4 Venn diagram of incubator and accelerator characteristics (adapted from Dempwolf,
Auer and D’Ippolito 2014, p. 14)
Incubator Accelerator
Mentoring
Targets local Education Fixed-term

start-ups and
technical Culminates in demo day
assistance
Office space at
reduced rent Cohort-based
Seed
funding
supports sustainable chemistry start-ups from others (e.g. corporate venture capital, strategic
different world regions; and partnerships and acquisitions) are more relevant
at later stages.
›› Accelerace (Denmark), a late-stage innovation
accelerator that is part of the Danish national Financing instruments and mechanisms
Scale-up Denmark initiative, which is scaling
up start-ups within tech, food tech, clean tech, In most cases, start-ups require funding from
life sciences and welfare technologies. investors because their own financial resources
are not sufficient to cover various costs at the
A wider range of venturing tools are shown in different development stages. For example, large
Figure 3.5. This figure highlights the relevance amounts of capital are often needed for technical
of venturing undertaken at various stages of equipment, laboratories, access to research
the innovation chain. Some tools are more infrastructure, patent fees and salaries. One of
relevant for start-up support early on, while the most important decisions entrepreneurs
Figure 3.5 Venturing tools supporting start-ups at different innovation phases (adapted from IESE
Business School 2017, p 21)
Intensity of Degree of
capital use Time to get results integration
High Long-term impact horizon Mid-term impact horizon
Acquisitions
Corporate venture capital (CVC) Internal
Accelerator Equity agreement
Incubator
Moderate Strategic partnership

Non-equity
Excubator Venture client agreement
Scouting mission
Hackathon Market
Low Challenge prize transaction
Sharing resources
Phases of Discovery Crafting Development

innovation Idea/technology Start-up Scale-up
534
Part IV
Table 3.2 Potential private investors for sustainable chemistry start-ups (adapted from OECD 2012
and Root 2017)
Investor Description Typical funding

instrument
Business angels/angel Individuals or networks with disposable income invest in start-ups. Usually Equity and
investor networks they invest cash, provide time for coaching/mentoring, and make business mezzanine
introductions.
Banks Bank loans are one of the most common tools for accessing finance. Banks request Debt
collateral or guarantees in exchange for loans.
Private equity (PE) Private equity firms invest directly in private companies. They tend to focus on Equity
firms more mature start-ups and to invest much larger amounts than do venture capital
firms.
Venture capital (VC) Venture capital refers to investments made in exchange for equity. VC focuses on Equity and
firms funding, developing and expanding start-ups which earn the investors return on mezzanine
their capital in a fairly short time.
Corporate ventures Corporate ventures are used by large firms to invest in innovative start-ups in order Equity and
to improve corporate competitiveness with either strategic or financial objectives. mezzanine
Impact investors (e.g. Impact or social investors refers to funds that invest with the intention of creating Grant, debt and
foundations or public/ a positive social or environmental impact. As an eclectic group, they include high equity
semi-public funders net worth individuals (HNWIs), family offices, foundations, banks, pension funds,
such as development impact-focused VCs and angels, and development finance institutions (DFIs).
finance institutions)
Crowd funding Crowd funding is the practice of raising money from a large group of individuals, Grant, debt and
platforms typically through an online portal. equity
Table 3.3 Examples of investments in sustainable chemistry start-ups by different investors
Public grants Individuals or networks with disposable income invest in start-ups. Usually they invest cash, provide
time for coaching/mentoring, and make business introductions.
Enerkem and the City of Edmonton (Canada): Enerkem formed a partnership with the City of Edmonton
for the construction of a facility that converts non-recyclable, non-compostable municipal solid waste
into liquid biofuels and chemicals. It has since secured several strategic partnerships to co-develop
additional plants. Enerkem Alberta Biofuels, a subsidiary of Enerkem Inc., has received a Canadian
dollars 3.5 million grant from the Government of Canada through the Western Innovation (WINN)
Initiative.
Public investors The Brabant Development Agency Capital (BOM Venture Capital) Fund (Netherlands), created by the
Dutch Government and the Province of Brabant, finances companies and start-ups by providing equity
capital and subordinated loans of up to euros 2.5 million. Another example is Innofund (China), an equity
fund developed by the Chinese government for which sustainable chemistry start-ups are eligible. The
European Investment Bank supports start-ups, including those active in sustainable chemistry, through
the European Investment Fund (EFSI), e.g. under the Early Stage Window of EFSI Equity (InnovFin Equity).
Private equity Capricorn (Belgium), a private venture capital firm with its own sustainable chemistry fund (CSCF),
achieved its first milestone capital, closing at euros 50 million in December 2016. The portfolio included
three start-ups from Belgium, Germany and the United States.
Mezzanine funding The Green Centre (Canada) helps commercialize academic and entrepreneurial discoveries. Formed
in 2009, it was funded by the Government of Ontario, the Government of Canada and various industry
partners, among other technical support. It provides 8,500 square feet of state-of-the-art laboratory
facilities for innovation and the advancement of chemistry technologies.
Impact investors (e.g. Impact or social investors refers to funds that invest with the intention of creating a positive social
foundations or public/ or environmental impact. As an eclectic group, they include high net worth individuals (HNWIs), family
semi-public funders offices, foundations, banks, pension funds, impact-focused VCs and angels, and development finance
such as development institutions (DFIs).
finance institutions)
Crowd funding Crowd funding is the practice of raising money from a large group of individuals, typically through an
platforms online portal.
need to make at some point is how to raise different strategic motives for providing seed
money (and whom to ask for it) (Root 2017). money (Root 2017). For example, a publicly
funded development finance institution usually
Four main types of funding instruments are invests with the intention of creating a positive
available for start-ups: grants, debt financing social or environmental impact while a corporate
(loans), equity financing, and mezzanine. A grant venture invests with a view to gaining competitive
typically does not obligate the recipient to repay advantage over other market players. The
the funds. Debt financing means accepting capital phenomenon of different investors investing
with the promise of repaying the principal with at different development stages is illustrated
interest. Equity financing means an investor in Figure 3.6.
puts money into a start-up in exchange for a
percentage of the company’s shares. Mezzanine Real-world examples of investments in
is a mix of debt and equity financing features sustainable chemistry start-ups demonstrate
(Wilson 2015; Root 2017). Potential private that different funding instruments are used by
investors in sustainable chemistry start-ups start-ups, and that start-ups have taken different
are shown in Table 3.2, which emphasizes that decisions on whom to partner with in order to
investors use different funding instruments. access finance (Table 3.3). Several public and
private stakeholders have established different
Research indicates that some investors may types of funding opportunities for sustainable
be more appropriate partners for start-ups in chemistry start-ups, including national grants,
earlier development stages, and others in later public investment agencies and equity-based
stages of a firm’s development (Söderblom Sustainable Chemistry Funds, as well as
and Samuelsson 2014; Wilson 2015). One of cooperative approaches involving public and
the main reasons for this is that investors have private partners.
Figure 3.6 Start-up development stages and typical investors along the innovation chain (adapted
from Söderblom and Samuelsson 2014, p. 10)
Invested amount (average per firm and year)
1,400
1,200
1 00
800
600
400
200
0 Seed Startup Early Expansion All
Others Venture capital Business angel Commercial debt Public debt Grant Family and friends Founder
Average invested amount in each phase. The mean in thousand Swedish krona for the respective
sources for all firms in the particular phase is reported.
536
Part IV
© Enerkem, manufacturing of biofuels and renewable chemical products from non-recyclable waste
Chemical companies’ engagement in start-ups expect “a much higher intensity of collaboration

with start-ups than today”; by 2022 they foresee
While many large chemical companies have collaboration with start-ups and venture funds
research departments, industry leaders surpassing in intensity collaborative approaches
increasingly recognize the potential of start- with suppliers, universities or end users (WEF
ups. In a recent survey, representatives of large 2018).
companies responded that in the future they
Figure 3.7 Chemical industry leaders´ view of the evolution of the intensity of collaboration with
other stakeholders (adapted from WEF 2018)
Intensity in five years
Relative
high
Start-ups Value chain Direct customers
focus
New
hopes
Suppliers Internal x-functional
collaboration
Venture funds
Universities or
research centres
End users
Companies at the same
value chain step
Regulatory bodies
Relative Intensity Relative

low today high
In taking a strategic approach to identifying and/or Solvay Ventures (and Aster Capital along with
supporting start-ups, and to obtaining a growing Alstom and Schneider Electric) and Evonik
portfolio of associated start-ups, a number of Venture Capital (Faulkner and Berenshteyn 2013).
large corporations have special programmes
and instruments dedicated to different sub-goals
associated with ultimately gaining competitive
advantage (Table 3.4). These can be distinguished 3.4 Creating an enabling framework
as corporate incubator, corporate accelerator, to support sustainable chemistry
corporate venture capital and corporate strategic innovation
partnerships. A Boston Consulting Group (BCG)
research study (Brigl et al. 2016) found, however, Promoting open and collaborative innovation
that the chemical industry mainly used corporate
venture capital to support start-ups although The open innovation paradigm envisages that
there are more recent examples of accelerators companies can no longer afford to innovate
and incubators. Examples of such ventures led by carrying out R&D activities single-handedly
by the chemical industry include BASF Venture (Şimşek and Yildirim 2016). Instead, they are
Capital, Dow Venture Capital, DuPont Ventures, engaging research and knowledge institutions,
Table 3.4 The corporate approach to start-up development (Brigl et al. 2014, p. 6)
Business incubation
Corporate strategic
Corporate incubator Corporate accelerator Corporate venture capital
partnerships
Objective ›› Support start-ups ›› Support start-ups ›› Support existing ›› Partner with existing
with an array with a structured companies with capital companies to drive joint
of business programme using in exchange for equity value creation
support resources fixed curricula shares
and services,
orchestrated by
incubator
Benefits ›› Office space, ›› Office space, ›› Financial support ›› Extend market potential
to start-up hardware hardware ›› In many cases, close ›› Close missing IP gap
partner ›› Skilled mentorship cooperation with ›› Limit investments in
and coaching corporate unit as equal non-core corporate
›› Start-up network partner capabilities
›› Technical support ›› Mentorship (in some ›› Create competitive
›› Potential funding cases) advantage
support
Benefits to ›› Outsourced R&D ›› Wider search field ›› Equity share in ›› Extend market potential
company function for corporate company with strong ›› Close missing IP gap
development and growth and profit ›› Save investments in
growth options potential non-core corporate
›› “First pick” potential ›› Portfolio extension, capabilities
in case of promising especially in advanced ›› Create competitive
start- up business technologies and advantage
products
Investment ›› Up to 25 per cent ›› Partly without equity; ›› 20 per cent or less ›› Possible equity
of equity in some cases up to exchange, depending on
5 per cent partnership format
Start-up ›› Early stage, ›› Start-ups technically ›› Small existing ›› Innovative companies,
stage without existing ready to "spread companies with high but not necessarily new
business wings" growth potential players
Time frame ›› 12-36 months ›› Typically 3 months ›› 5-7 years ›› Depends on product
cycle
538
Part IV
Box 3.4 Open collaborations in sustainable chemistry innovation
The Eco-Efficient Products and Process Laboratory (E2P2L) is a unique international research
entity dedicated to renewable and sustainable chemistry. Based in Shanghai, China, its purpose
is to develop innovative eco-efficient products and environmentally benign processes capable
of reducing dependence on oil and other fossil resources. E2P2L was set up in November 2011
by the French National Scientific Centre (CNRS), the Belgian chemical company Solvay, the Ecole
Normale Supérieure de Lyon in France, and the East China Normal University. In 2013 the Lille
University of Science and Technology in France and the University of Fudan in Shanghai joined
the consortium. Another example is the GC3, a multi-stakeholder collaborative that drives the
commercial adoption of green chemistry by catalysing and guiding action across all industries,
sectors and supply chains (GC3 n.d.b).
as well as chemical suppliers and users, financial communities. Partnerships are often driven
institutions, engineering companies and digital not only by science and technology, but also by
solution providers, in research and innovation SDG-related issues, and are implemented with
(Huizingh 2011). These efforts can also include cross-sectoral, global and diverse markets in
collaboration with competitors in seeking lower mind (WEF 2018).
operational costs and lower risks (Şimşek and
Yildirim 2016). Finally, sustainable innovations To manifest greater collaboration and partnership
need scaling up and sharing across sectors if among actors, a number of specific concepts and
they are to have the potential to shift the sector models may be introduced. For example, science
as a whole. and technology parks present opportunities to
innovate in open systems where technology
As shown in Figure 3.8, novel forms of developers and diffusers work at one location
collaboration are being created between to translate innovations from universities and
different internal entities of chemical companies, research institutes into markets (Şimşek and
as well as with external partners, customers and Yildirim 2016). Newly established research
consumers, regulators and other civil sector centres, technology promotion offices and
Figure 3.8 New collaboration approaches in the chemical industry (adapted from WEF 2018)
Chemical company: Chemical company: Customers Consumers

R&D department other departments
Traditional collaboration
›› Universities
›› Research institutes Regulatory bodies, civil sectors, communities
›› Direct customers
New collaboration
›› Science ›› New SDGs’ value proposition

Drivers
›› Technology ›› New SDGs’ requirements and applications

›› Product ›› New SDGs’ business models
performance
›› Concentrated ›› All territories

Markets
customers ›› All income groups

›› Regional ›› All ecosystems
customers
Expansion dimensions
Downstream players/Geographic scope/Economic circumstances/Need for sharing
Figure 3.9 Policy interventions that foster technology innovation (adapted from Elgie and Brownlee
2017, p. 15)
›› Academic
research support
›› Government research activities Push policies drive new ideas
›› Business R&D support
›› Carbon pricing
Pull policies stimulate markets ›› Procurement ›› Smart regulations
›› Infrastructure investments incentives
›› Reducing barriers
Grow policies: grow ideas into marketable products
Grants, loans, growth capital
Strengthen policies: make the system more effective and resilient
Clusters, incubators and exchanges
Vision Sectoral strategies Better data Building talent
Research Development Demonstration Deployment Diffusion
joint institutes use a similar approach of co- For stakeholders and policymakers interested in
creating value through increased collaboration advancing sustainable chemistry innovation, an
between stakeholders (Wissema 2009). Industry understanding of the national innovation system
is opening up to more collaborative innovation can help identify leverage points to identify policy
compared with some five years ago, although interventions.
a large majority of industry stakeholders still
face internal collaboration challenges (WEF Enabling policies and financing by governments
2018). Intermediaries play an important role in are an important dimension of the innovation
facilitating such collaboration innovation (WEF system. They are factors that can be used to
2018). correct inefficiency and distortions in innovations.
Elgie and Brownlee (2017) divide potential policy
Enabling policies to promote sustainable approaches or interventions related to innovation
chemistry innovation into four categories: 1) push policies driving new
ideas; 2) pull policies helping to stimulate market
The national innovation systems approach demand; 3) grow policies helping to grow ideas
(OECD 1997) stresses that flows of technology into marketable products; and 4) strengthen
and information among people, enterprises and policies that cut across the clean innovation
institutions are key to the innovation process. system, making it more effective and resilient.
Table 3.5 Examples of push and pull policies to advance sustainable chemistry innovation
Type of policy/intervention Example
Push policies (driving new ›› Tax incentives for start-up initiatives

ideas and innovation) ›› Co-financing or subsidization of science and technology parks (STPs) which include
sustainable chemistry components
›› Sllocating a specified percentage of gross domestic product to R&D and venture funds for
start-ups
›› Increasing the quality of physical infrastructure (academic and research institutions,
innovation and technology hubs, makerspaces and internet infrastructure)
›› Sdopting open and inclusive principles for innovation, with institutions mandated to
stimulate open, inclusive, social and collaborative innovation
Pull policies (creating market ›› consumer education and awareness-raising
demand for innovation) ›› financial incentives to consumers (e.g. subsidies for sustainable chemistry products)
›› government procurement to purchase eco-labelled products
540
Part IV
While these are general categorizations, this 3.5 Measures to strengthen

framing illustrates how public interventions may sustainable chemistry technology
be structured to shape different elements of the innovation and financing
innovation system in a direction which supports
sustainable chemistry innovation. From the point Accelerating research and innovation through
of view of effectiveness, in certain cases market- collaborative and enabling action, including
based policy instruments (e.g. taxes and tradable through start-up companies, is key to reaping
permits) tend to induce more innovation than the promise of green and sustainable chemistry
direct regulation. Other characteristics of policy to make a contribution to the 2030 Sustainable
instruments that play a role include stringency, Development Agenda. Taking into account the
predictability, flexibility, depth and incidence preceding analysis, stakeholders may wish to
(OECD 2011). consider the following measures to strengthen
sustainable chemistry technology innovation
Exploring opportunities for green bonds and financing.
Financial instruments and tools can play a role ›› Use green and sustainable chemistry criteria
in driving the transition towards sustainable to assess whether innovations in chemistry
chemistry innovation. Green bonds are an are compatible with the 2030 Sustainable
example. These bonds can be defined as “a debt Development Agenda.
security that is issued to raise capital specifically
to support climate related or environmental ›› Strengthen open and collaborative innovation
projects” (International Bank for Reconstruction mechanisms involving research organizations,
and Development and World Bank 2017). An the private sector, governments and civil
important dimension of setting up a green society.
bond is defining criteria, which include green
or sustainable chemistry considerations (Ernst ›› Strengthen support mechanisms for
& Young [EY] 2016). Green bonds designed to sustainable chemistry start-ups in universities,
encourage sustainability come with tax incentives research institutes, the private sector and all
such as tax exemption and tax credits. This levels of government.
makes them a more attractive investment than
a comparable taxable bond. While green bonds ›› Strengthen financial instruments for
are currently focused on climate change, their investment in sustainable chemistry
potential to advance sustainable chemistry innovation, for example through green bonds
investment and innovation could be explored. and venture capital or other multi-stakeholder
funding mechanisms.
›› Develop guiding policies and criteria for

financial resources to support green and
sustainable chemistry innovation.
›› Review and strengthen innovation policies to

ensure that they enable, and do not create,
barriers to sustainable chemistry innovation.

Chapter Highlights
New and evolving business models have significant potential to advance

sustainability in the chemical industry, if properly applied.
Business models of relevance include service-oriented models (e.g. Chemical

Leasing) and coordination benefits models (e.g. chemical parks).
Business models that decentralize production (e.g. 3-D printing) and distribution

(e.g. e-commerce) are on the rise, creating opportunities but also raising
concerns.
Social entrepreneurship business models are relevant for chemicals and waste,
and are emerging around the world.
A
business model defines how an organization and its value-network create, deliver
organization creates, delivers and value and capture value or change their value
captures value in economic, social, cultural propositions” (Bocken et al. 2014). Business
or other contexts. Business models are constantly models that have a strong focus on sustainability
evolving. While they may create opportunities, and circularity include green product- and
they can also create potential concerns from a process-based models, waste regeneration
chemicals and waste management perspective. systems, efficiency optimization, management
This chapter discusses several evolving and services, and industrial symbiosis models
new business models which are considered (Beltramello, Haie-Fayle and Pilat 2013). Other
relevant from a chemical and waste management emerging business models, such as consumer-
perspective. They range from service-oriented centric models and social enterprises, are directly
models, to social enterprises, to models in which driven by sustainability considerations but are
production and sales are decentralized. equally relevant to the sound management of
chemicals and waste.
4.1 Business models in a fast-

changing world 4.2 Service-based systems, including
Chemical Leasing
In a fast-changing world, new business models
with direct implications for the chemical industry Service-based business models, or “product-
are evolving rapidly – providing opportunities to service systems” (PSS), are an alternative to the
advance sustainability by increasing resource traditional sales concept of industrial production.
efficiency, and by reducing the use of hazardous PSS can be broadly defined as “a combination
chemicals and chemical pollution. Business model of products and services in a system that
innovations for sustainability may be defined as provides functionality for consumers and reduces
creating “significant positive and/or significantly environmental impact” (Hänsch Beuren, Gomes
reduced negative impacts for the environment Ferreira and Cauchick Miguel 2013). This means
and/or society, through changes in the way the goods continue to be owned by the provider(s).
542
Part IV
What a PSS customer actually purchases is the and storage. They can exist in the automotive,
functionality or performance of the goods in air transport, electronics, heavy equipment,
the form of a service. A business that offers a food and pharmaceutical, and steel industries,
service does not seek to maximize sales of a among others. Through technological solutions
chemical product, but to provide the service in a (e.g. material substitution, pollution prevention,
cost-effective and sustainable manner. Research and end-of-life management practices) CMS
suggests that service-based business models can help reduce the risks associated with the
incentivize industry to change product design; production and use of chemicals. They can also
advance life cycle thinking and stewardship; and stimulate sustainable production and a decrease
reduce environmental footprints throughout a in product consumption levels (Askar 2006).
product’s life cycle (Agrawal and Bellos 2015).
The market for chemical management services
Chemical management services: win-win is growing
opportunities
The CMS supplier community and market have
In the chemicals sector PSS are referred to as grown significantly in recent years. Annual
“chemical management services” (CMS). CMS growth in revenue for CMS providers exceeded
generally involve a strategic, long-term contract 7.28 per cent per year between 2011 and
between the service provider and the client. The 2016, from around US dollars 2,192 million to
service provider is compensated based on the US dollars 3,115 million. Revenue growth in 2016
quality and quantity of the services provided, is estimated to have been at the lower end of the
rather than on the volume of chemicals sold. 5-10 per cent range, but is expected to increase
Proponents of CMS note that the service provider to 9-14 per cent in 2017-2022. The profitability
and customer have the same objective: to outlook for 2017-2022 is projected to improve
reduce the overall life cycle costs of chemicals slightly. Companies using CMS include Haas
management (United Kingdom Chemicals TCM, PPG Industries, KMG Chemicals, Henkel,
Stakeholder Forum 2013). CMS services may ChemicoMays, BP, Quaker Chemical, EWIE Co,
encompass (and be provided at) all stages of the Intertek and Chemcept (Technical Progress 2018).
chemical life cycle, including production, transport
© UNIDO, 2018 Global Chemical Leasing award ceremony, 6 November in Vienna
Chapter 4. Evolving and new business models 543

Figure 4.1 Traditional business models vs. Chemical Leasing (adapted from Joas, Abraham and Joas
2018, p. 398)
Traditional business models Chemical leasing model

Contradictory motivators Bundled motivators
Delivery of goods, services

Delivery of goods
and know-how
Supplier User Supplier User
Volume-based pricing Benefit-oriented pricing
“The more “Less is “Less is “Less is

the better” more” more” more”
Chemical Leasing refers to a business model whereby suppliers sell services (e.g. the number of cars painted)
rather than chemicals, creating incentives to minimize the use of chemicals and maximize resource efficiency.
Chemical Leasing: a successful application of management of the entire life cycle. Figure 4.1
chemical management services contrasts traditional business models and the
Chemical Leasing model.
Chemical Leasing is a type of CMS whereby “the
functions performed by the chemical serve as Chemical Leasing can be used whenever
the unit of payment and chemical suppliers and chemicals are needed to provide a particular
users work together to optimize chemical use function or service. Examples include industrial
in fulfilling the function” (Joas, Abraham and cleaning and degreasing of parts in the metal
Joas 2018). Responsibility for the application, processing industry; bonding of boxes in the
handling, storage and disposal of chemicals packaging industry; cleaning of bottles, pipes
is thus shifted from the user to the chemical and vessels in the beverage industry; lubrication
supplier. The supplier, in turn, takes over of conveyor belts in the beverage industry;
Box 4.1 Chemical Leasing in a middle-income country: wastewater treatment in Colombia
A Chemical Leasing project was implemented

in Colombia’s petroleum industry through a
partnership between Ecopetrol and Nalco,
a chemicals provider specializing in water
treatment. The aim of this project was to treat
wastewater from oil production processes in
environmentally sound and cost-effective ways.
Following project implementation, there was a
20 per cent reduction in chemicals consumption
while water treatment costs were reduced
by 80 per cent (US dollars 2.2 million) over
10 months (Moser and Jakl 2014). The unit
of payment shifted from dollars per kilogram
treatment agent to a unit price (per kilogram
barrel of fluid) for the treatment service. This
project won the first Global Chemical Leasing
Award gold medal in 2010 (Jakl 2011).
© UNIDO, Chemical Leasing Pilot Project in Colombia
544
Part IV
application of agrochemicals; corrosion and increasing the supplier’s competitiveness include

surface protection in the automotive and higher profits (monetary reward for supply of
electric appliances industry; and cleaning in the expertise and services); reduced raw materials
hospitality sector (Joas, Abraham and Joas 2018). costs; reliable, long-term business relationships;
access to knowledge about the application of
The Chemical Leasing business model has been chemicals; and first-hand experience concerning
successfully implemented for almost two decades areas for improvement/innovation of substances.
in a number of countries (Jakl and Schwager 2008;
UNIDO 2016; OECD 2017). At the global level, the One economic incentive for customers to switch
UNIDO Global Chemical Leasing Programme has to CMS can be the reduction of the often hidden
promoted this business model since 2004 (UNIDO costs of the management, use and purchase
2019). An example of a successful Chemical of chemicals (Figure 4.2). Implementing a CMS
Leasing approach in a middle-income country programme may result in significant cost savings;
is presented in Box 4.1. The 2016 Declaration further incentives include outsourcing of functions
of Intent on Chemical Leasing has been signed that do not represent a core competency of the
by Austria, El Salvador, Germany, Serbia, Sri company, while manufacturing processes and
Lanka and Switzerland. Additional countries may data management can also be strengthened
consider joining (Chemical Leasing 2016). (Chemical Strategies Partnership n.d.a).
Economic perspectives on chemicals Research shows that Chemical Leasing has

management services improved the economic and environmental
performance of companies across the chemicals
The economic advantages of Chemical Leasing supply chain and provided access to new markets
have been analyzed. A recent study (OECD 2017) (Moser and Jakl 2014; Joas, Abraham and Joas
reported that the benefits of increasing the user’s 2018). In Austria alone, some 4,000 companies
competitiveness include direct cost savings were identified as having the potential to benefit
(reduction of chemical quantities if processes are from Chemical Leasing, potentially reducing
further optimized); indirect cost savings (through annual use of chemicals by one-third and costs
energy and waste management); access to better by 15 per cent (OECD 2013). Nevertheless, the
knowledge, with improvement of processes uptake of Chemical Leasing has not been as
and reduction of risks; and reliable, long-term rapid as it could be. More work is needed to
business relationships. In addition, the benefits of
Figure 4.2 Visible and hidden chemicals management costs (based on Bierma and Waterstraat
1997, p. 3; adapted from CSP n.d. b, p. 6)
Visible chemical purchase cost US dollars 1
Hidden management cost US dollars 3 Chemical management costs are These management
like the hidden portion of an iceberg costs can be large: up
›› Purchasing to US dollars 3 for every
›› Transportation US dollars 1 spent on
›› Warehouse
›› Production chemicals.
›› Maintenance
›› EHS However, these costs are
›› Information often overlooked because
systems
›› Disposal fees they are hidden among many
›› Liability department budgets.

understand and overcome the obstacles which over time. The well-researched Kalundborg Eco-
hinder the uptake of this approach. Industrial Park in Denmark is an example of the
latter. Companies in the region collaborate in
using each other’s by-products and otherwise
share resources (Chertow and Park 2016). The
4.3 Coordination benefit models: number of EIPs is increasing (UNIDO, World
eco-industrial parks and chemical Bank Group and German Corporation for
parks International Cooperation [GIZ] 2017). Around
250 existed globally in 2018, compared with
Coordination benefit models are business models only 50 in 2000 (World Bank 2018). While the EIP
based on the coordination of nearby agents, concept mainly originated in Northern Europe,
where better economic and environmental an increasing focus by international development
benefits can be obtained than if there were no organizations has led to the scaling up of these
coordination. In the context of coordination parks in developing countries (Kechichian and
between companies located near one another, Jeong 2016).
a coordination benefit model can be referred
to as “industrial symbiosis” (Bilsen et al. 2013). Evidence of the economic benefits of eco-
From a chemicals management perspective, industrial parks is well-documented. Firms in
both eco-industrial and chemical parks are of Ulsan Mipo and Onsan, part of the Republic
interest. While eco-industrial parks may host of Korea’s Eco-Industrial Park Initiative, have
a wide range of companies, including chemical invested US dollars 520 million in energy
companies, chemical parks specifically host efficiency, industrial symbiosis, waste
chemical companies. management and other environmentally
friendly improvements. That investment has
Eco-industrial parks yielded US dollars 554 million in savings, while
the firms have generated US dollars 91.5 billion
Chemical companies may be part of eco-industrial in revenues (UNIDO, World Bank Group and
parks (EIPs) in which businesses cooperate with GIZ 2017; World Bank 2018). The initiative
each other and with the local community to is part of the country’s Eco-Industrial Park
reduce waste and pollution and efficiently share Program, led by the Korea Industrial Complex
resources (e.g. information, materials, water, Corporation (KICOX), which has resulted in 56
energy, infrastructure and natural resources). new patents, savings of 6.48 million tonnes of
They may be planned from scratch or evolved CO2 equivalent, and collective financial benefits of
Figure 4.3 Global growth of eco-industrial parks (EIPs) (adapted from Kechichian and Jeong 2016,
p. 15)
160
140
Cumulative number of EIPs
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
OECD Non-OECD
546
Part IV
US dollars 1,680 million (World Business Council It can be defined as a “chemical manufacturing

for Sustainable Development [WBCSD] 2018). complex which possesses controlled entrance
and exit points and accommodates several
Ownership and funding of eco-industrial parks separately owned chemical manufacturing
companies” (Dambmann and Allford 2003).
In many cases the land where eco-industrial These sites, managed professionally, provide
parks are located is owned by the government, a range of services, allowing investors and
although it may be privately owned. At the businesses to concentrate on their core fields.
development stage the most common financing The concept, which originated in the 1990s in
options are public investment or a public-private Germany, has expanded to other regions and
partnership. Some parks may also attract foreign countries, particularly China. The main drivers
investment (Erkman and Van Hezik 2016). A park of chemical parks in China are restructuring and
can request external funding when it is created improvement of technological standards in the
and during the first years of operation, but it country’s chemical industry, and the promotion
should be economically sustainable in the long of regional economic development through
run. Private investment, government subsidies making investment more attractive to foreign
and multi/bilateral donor support are among and domestic investors. Chemical parks in China
the main external funding sources. Companies are managed at both provincial and national
are likely to become interested in becoming levels (Hauthal and Salonen n.d.).
tenants if they perceive the added value of a
park’s services (UNIDO 2017). Figure 4.4 shows Chemical parks can have numerous benefits for
sources of revenue for eco-industrial parks. tenants from both economic and environmental
perspectives. A study carried out at the Rizhao
What are chemical parks and what are their Economic and Technology Development Area
benefits? in China found that economic benefits resulting
from sound environmental standards, tax
A chemical park is a business model that brings preferences, material substitution and financial
together raw material suppliers, chemical subsidies were critical drivers for stakeholder
manufacturers, producers of specialty chemicals, participation in industrial symbiosis (Yu, Han
service providers and other companies at one site and Cui 2015). Kalundborg Park in Denmark, a
(American Institute of Chemical Engineers 2011). pioneering site for chemical an industrial park,
Figure 4.4 Eco-industrial parks’ sources of revenue (adapted from UNIDO 2017, p. 49)
Bilateral/multilateral donors Government subsidies and staff allocations
Universities and
research grants Private investment
Innovation EIP management
centre
Tenants’ Land lease/ Water Waste Energy Common Eco-cities

industries purchase management services and
Direct services infrastructures
contributions

Box 4.2 The Shanghai Chemical Industry Park (Zeng and Bathelt 2011)
The Shanghai Chemical Industry Park, in operation since 2004, is the site of chemical production
by the petroleum industry. It is about 29.4 km2 in size and has direct access to the Pacific Ocean.
The park is a fully developed industrial area, equipped with infrastructure including streets,
internal pipelines, public utilities and environmental protection facilities. All of these have been
provided by the Shanghai Chemical Industry Park Development Corporation, which operates and
manages the park. In 2006 the park hosted 14 chemical firms with a labour force of 3,250 and
total sales of 29.0 billion Yuan (around US dollars 3.6 billion). New investments were expected to
lead to a total chemical labour force of 20,000 in the region.
was developed because there was a need for customer needs and wants, as well as ensuring
rational consumption of steam by the Statoil that the right strategies, processes and marketing
refinery. In exchange for steam, the refinery initiatives are in place to satisfy them (Kroner
sends its effluent cooling water to a coal-fired 2014). A customer-centric model is built around
power plant as boiler feed (Planète Énergies a deep understanding of customers, what they
2016). Box 4.2 describes the Shanghai Chemical value, and the contribution each makes to a
Industry Park. company’s profitability. This includes delivering
a positive and seamless customer experience at
Challenges and policy opportunities related to every touch point across the customer life cycle,
chemical industrial parks maintaining active dialogue with customers, and
fostering a culture that puts the customer at the
A number of challenges exist in establishing heart of the decision-making process (EY 2013).
chemical parks and mobilizing investors and It may also involve more direct marketing and
businesses. Apart from difficulties with the sales operations to reach consumers faster and
mobilization of initial investments, companies more efficiently.
may, for example, not be convinced they will
receive a reasonable return when they invest 4.4.1 Additive manufacturing/3-D
in related upgrades, renovations, more efficient printing
processes, or changes in business practices.
They may also be concerned about information The rise of additive manufacturing/3-D
sharing with potential competitors (LeBlanc et al. printing
2016). Another challenge for a chemical park
operator is to attract new companies. Other The development of advanced manufacturing
barriers relate to technological development technologies, and growing consumer demand
and capacity building. However, promoting for more customized products and services,
cooperation among stakeholders though active are bringing about significant changes in the
involvement by policymakers can help overcome scale and distribution of manufacturing (Ford
these barriers (Zhu et al. 2014). and Despeisse 2016). 3-D printing, also known
as additive manufacturing, is a consumer-
centric business model with the potential to
revolutionize production processes. It has
4.4 Customer-centric business important implications for the chemical industry.
models 3-D printing replaces traditional manufacturing, in
which products are manufactured at a company’s
The development of customer-centric business main production facility and shipped elsewhere.
models is an important dimension of Industry 4.0 An additively manufactured product is printed
(or the Fourth Industrial Revolution) (Renjen 2018). layer by layer, with each cross section stacked
These models involve a better understanding of on top of the one below it. This is done without
using large, high-throughput machinery, and at
548
Part IV
3-D printing technology has significant potential

for developing countries, as the cost of printers
is falling below US dollars 500 (Ibrahim et al.
2015). 3-D printing has the potential to contribute
to economic empowerment and improve the
livelihood of communities in developing countries
by providing opportunities to design and create
tools that support and improve people’s daily
lives (Ishengoma and Mtaho 2014). A growing
number of non-profits are promoting and
supporting the use of 3-D printing technology
in developing countries (Molitch-Hou 2014).
What does 3-D printing mean for chemicals

and waste management?
Chemical companies are already developing a

© 2019 Aprecia Pharmaceuticals, 3D-Printed tablets for oral suspension range of plastics and resins, as well as metal
manufactured by Aprecia LLC all rights reserved powders and ceramic materials, for printing
prototypes of products, industry parts and semi-
finished goods. 3-D printing, as a consumer-
hundreds or thousands of remote locations, with centric business model, provides significant
near-zero waste (Phansey 2014). opportunities for the chemical industry through,
for example, developing innovative feedstocks,
By “democratizing” manufacturing, 3-D printing printing lab equipment, and maintaining
allows small fabrication businesses to reduce plant assets (Guertzgen 2017). It also provides
labour costs and offer manufacturing services opportunities to use waste materials such as
close to the point of need. Service-oriented plastics as raw material for 3-D printing (Walker
businesses are evolving which offer libraries and 2017). Moreover, 3-D printing can enhance design
exchanges for 3-D printable digital blueprints; flexibility for chemical equipment, for example
services to transmit these blueprints; and services with unique designs for modular distillation
for networking of 3-D printers (Duffy 2016). 3-D columns (Mardani et al. 2016) and packing
printing avoids the need to invest in producing for rotating packed beds (Gładyszewski and
moulds, which requires large product orders to Skiborowski 2018).
achieve scale. This is of special significance for
small and medium-sized manufacturing firms 3-D printing can improve efficiency and reduce
(Wayne 2017). the time required to manufacture individual
batches. For example, a maker of invisible braces
In light of these opportunities, the global additive has used 3-D printing to increase batch size and
manufacturing market is expected to grow to reduce the time required to run each batch. The
more than US dollars 6 billion by 2022, with a company also requires less space compared with
compound annual growth rate of more than its traditional manufacturing method (Pullen
13 per cent between 2016 and 2022 (Market 2014). In addition, plastic waste can be turned
Research Engine 2017). Apart from providing into 3-D printing filament, so that 3-D printing
more customer-centric solutions, 3-D printing becomes a viable means of consuming waste
provides significant economic and environmental plastics (Kreiger et al. 2014; Mohammed et al.
benefits. It is estimated that it will reduce costs 2017).
by US dollars 170-593 billion, primary energy
supply by 2.54-9.30 exajoules, and CO2 emissions Researchers have designed a 3-D printer to
by 130.5-525.5 megatonnes by 2025 (Gebler, synthesize pharmaceuticals and other chemicals
Schoot Uiterkamp and Visser 2014). from simple, widely available starting compounds

fed into a series of water bottle-sized reactors. driven to print more, encouraging a culture of
This technology could one day enable consumers consumption and disposal (March 2015).
to 3-D print their own drugs (Service 2018). The
technology also enables the manufacture of 4.4.2 e-commerce: selling chemicals
medications that rapidly disintegrate with a online
sip of liquid even at high doses, which could
help people who have difficulty swallowing pills Business-to-business e-commerce websites
(Crawford 2015).
Chemical distribution is evolving rapidly, with a
Potential health and environment concerns growing number of companies and distributers
selling chemicals online. In addition, e-commerce
Despite its significant potential, 3-D printing may is a new way for small and medium-sized chemical
also pose risks. Concerns have been expressed, distributors to reach existing and potential
for example, about material use, exposure and customers (Independent Chemical Information
emissions (European Agency for Safety and Service [ICIS] News 2016). Amazon Business,
Health at Work 2017). While in general additive for example, is a business-to-business (B2B)
manufacturing is considered environmentally platform that allows registered businesses to
preferable to conventional manufacturing, shop for office, janitorial and industrial goods
because of its potential for local production online and obtain volume discounts. One
and nearly zero-waste manufacturing, research chemical company engaged in e-commerce
indicates that environmental performance is BASF, which in mid-2015 opened its first
depends on patterns of use, the configuration e-commerce store in China using the Alibaba B2B
of the 3-D printer and the materials used (Yale marketplace platform. Its goal was to make the
School of Forestry & Environmental Studies company’s products and services more accessible
2017). 3-D printing can therefore have varying to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
environmental impacts; for example, the use of (Ling and Pflug 2015). BASF later announced it
polylactic acid (PLA) bioplastic consumes less would establish a flagship online store, along
energy than the use of acrylonitrile butadiene with other major chemical companies such as
styrene (ABS) plastic (Faludi et al. 2015). Covestro, on Alibaba’s B2B platform, 1688.com
(ICIS Chemical Business 2018). Specialty chemical
Many kinds of 3-D printing machines exist, but companies have launched their online stores on
not all of them can be operated waste-free. the same platform to provide an easily accessible
An inkjet 3-D printer wastes, for example, 40- procurement process (Evonik 2017; Solvay 2018).
45 per cent of its ink (the portion that is not
recyclable) (Faludi 2013). Also of concern is that E-commerce platforms selling to consumers
3-D printers often use non-environmentally
friendly ABS plastics, nylons and other non- Online shopping platforms selling to consumers,
recyclable materials and post-processing such as Alibaba, Ebay and Amazon, are growing
chemicals that can create toxic fumes. Moreover, rapidly. Consequently, an increasing number
it has been shown that these printers can emit of hazardous chemicals may find their way
ultrafine particles or volatile organic compounds onto markets. Some of the major e-commerce
(VOCs). Caution should therefore be used when
operating printers and filament combinations
in poorly ventilated spaces, or without the aid
of combined gas and particle filtration systems
(Azimi et al. 2016). In addition, strategies for
safe disposal of 3-D printed parts and printer
waste materials are needed (Oskui et al. 2016).
There are also concerns that 3-D printing could
lead to renewed materialism, with consumers
550
Part IV
platforms have hazardous chemical policies. 4.5 Social entrepreneurship business

Alibaba has a “Flammable, Explosive and models
Hazardous Chemicals” policy which prohibits the
posting of explosives, radioactive or poisonous Social enterprise: a model for change
chemicals, ozone-depleting substances and
other harmful substances. Purchasing such The purpose of a social enterprise combines
materials could lead to delisting of the poster’s revenue growth and profit-making with respect
account (Alibaba 2018). Under Amazon’s and support for its environment and stakeholder
“Hazardous and Dangerous Items” policy, users network (Agarwal et al. 2018). Social enterprises
are prohibited from listing items for sale that lie at a point of convergence between the non-
contain bisphenol A, carbon tetrachloride and profit and for-profit spheres, combining the
red phosphorus, explosive substances, products social orientation and objectives of NGOs with
contaminated with radiation, mercury products the market-driven practices of businesses. A
and refrigerants, among others (Amazon 2018). social enterprise does not do social good to
Ebay has a “Hazardous, restricted or regulated improve its image or regard this as a means to
materials policy” which lists items that cannot increase sales. Rather, it pursues social objectives
be advertised on its website, the violation of and uses business approaches to attain these
which could lead to removal of the listing and objectives (Panum and Hansen 2014). A social
suspension of accounts (Ebay 2018). enterprise business model is essentially driven by
a social mission, generates positive externalities
Challenges for society, and recognizes the centrality of the
entrepreneurial business function (Bocken et al.
Despite these policies, little is known about 2014).
the extent to which e-commerce platforms
have chemical policies and, if so, whether Social enterprises create economic value as a
these policies are compatible with regulatory tool to achieve social goals (Perrini and Vurro
requirements. There are also questions about 2006). Profit is seen as a tool for advancing
which jurisdictions guide (or should guide) the sustainability. In this way, enterprises move
chemical policies of e-commerce platforms, away from grant dependency to become self-
and how the selling companies can effectively sufficient through the creation of income streams
monitor compliance or violations. To illustrate (Panum and Hansen 2014). Social Enterprise
the challenges, under the European Chemicals UK, in its State of Social Enterprise Survey 2015
Agency’s (ECHA) enforcement scheme 1,314 (Villeneuve-Smith and Temple 2015), found that
internet advertisements were checked for the social enterprise movement was growing
hazardous chemical mixtures, of which rapidly, with a greater proportion (40 per cent)
82 per cent were found to be non-compliant with of social enterprises increasing their turnover as
the EU’s Classification, Labelling and Packaging compared to mainstream SMEs. This growth is
(CLP) regulation (Stringer 2018). If a company driven by the increasing power of the individual
sells chemicals online in several regions, it is (especially millennials), a shift to greater trust
important for the company to know and follow of businesses, and technological change and
all the rules and regulations for each region, as advancement (Agarwal et al. 2018).
chemical products and the selling of them are
subject to different rules in different countries Social enterprises address a range of social
(Clarity 2015). issues. These include social and environmental
issues with direct or indirect links to chemicals
and waste management. A social enterprise
addressing the problem of plastic waste in Kenya
through recycling is described in Box 4.3.
How do we know whether an enterprise

contributes social and environmental value?

Box 4.3 Ocean Sole: a social enterprise in Kenya (Panum and Hansen 2014)
Ocean Sole is a social enterprise operating in Kenya. The founder, Julie Church, was appalled by
the vast amount of plastic flip-flops washed up on shore in northern coastal Kenya, disturbing
marine life. This gave her the idea of collecting the flip-flops and recycling them into crafts,
facilitating the employment of local unemployed women as a workforce. Ocean Sole started with
the proposition of creating environmental and social value through the collection and recycling of
flip-flops and through environmental awareness-raising in local communities, as well as among
the eventual consumers. Embedded in this value proposition is education of the public, together
with nudging its behaviour towards using recycled products.
© Ocean Sole Africa , one of Ocean Sole’s products
The business model of Ocean Sole is effectuated through three main phases: collection of the
flip-flops, recycling, and sale. The process is as follows:
Collection of washing and

drying gluing crafting sale
flip-flops disinfecting
The crafts are sold in shops in and around Nairobi, in retailer outlets in Kenya, and internationally.
The Social Enterprise Mark is an example of maximize positive social and/or environmental
an international social enterprise accreditation impacts, and that this takes precedence over
scheme that enables social enterprises to maximizing personal profits for owners and
demonstrate they are making a difference. It shareholders (Social Enterprise Mark CIC 2018).
independently guarantees that a business’s Figure 4.5 shows the evolution of the social
central aim is to use its income and profits to enterprise.
Figure 4.5 Evolution of a social enterprise (adapted from Agarwal et al. 2018, p. 3)
Ecosystem
External focus
Increased engagement with external actors Social enterprise
Level of external focus
Traditional organization Increased collaboration and internal integration

Enterprise
Internal focus
Functioning Level of collaboration and internal agility Symphonic

Siloed operating model “Network of teams”
operating model
552
Part IV
Social enterprises may fill gaps in governance over a longer period of use. It also avoids
using minerals mined in conditions of armed
Social enterprises have the potential to support conflict and human rights abuses (Keizer et al.
and build on government initiatives (Ding 2017). 2016). Fairphone works with its partners to
They may also fill gaps when governmental action set up projects in Ghana to improve local
is lacking. They can have significant impacts in waste collection efforts and transport
countries with low levels of state capacity to discarded phones to Europe for safe recycling.
address social problems. From a government Fairphone’s Take Back Program helps ensure
perspective, collaborating with social enterprises that old mobile phones are reused or properly
can result in short- and long-term gains for public recycled (Fairphone 2016).
budgets through reduced public expenditure and
increased tax revenue (OECD and EC 2013). If ›› Code Enterprise LLP is India’s first cigarette
such benefits are identified, enabling government waste management and recycling firm.
institutions, resources and policies may be used It operates in 20 states and has already
to scale up social enterprises, including through recycled 4 tonnes of cigarette butts into
partnerships with local governments (Shockley useful products. A chemical process is used
and Frank 2011). to recycle discarded cigarette butts into
clean cellulose acetate, the polymer used
Social enterprises’ contributions to chemicals in the butts. By-products can also be used
and waste management for plantations and nurseries. The recycled
polymer material is used to make cushions,
Social enterprises that address chemicals and garlands, small stuffed toys, accessories and
waste management issues, directly or indirectly, key chains (Roy 2018).
are emerging in many countries. For example:
Challenges and opportunities
›› A Melbourne, Australia, social enterprise
called Green Collect gathers hard-to-recycle When they start a social enterprise, most
waste and employs socially disadvantaged entrepreneurs face challenges in securing
people to refashion it into useful items to funding and investment capital. Locating the right
sell back to the companies that threw it out manufacturer or supplier is another challenge for
(Smith 2016). product-based social enterprises (Muhammed
2018). Still another challenge is mission drift, as
›› Wecyclers, a waste management social a result of which enterprises abandon their social
enterprise in Lagos, Nigeria, encourages concerns in favour of profit-seeking activities. This
households to collect and turn in waste. They can cause internal conflict and lack of support
receive “Wecyclers points” that can be used to from stakeholders. It is therefore important for
buy household goods and services. Wecyclers companies to avoid or rebalance mission drift
sorts and aggregates the collected materials (Ramus and Vaccaro 2017).
and sells them to local recycling processors
(Okeugo 2015). Governments in a number of countries use policy
tools such as fiscal incentives, grants, awareness
›› TackleTox is a social enterprise that displays, campaigns and incubation to encourage social
on a map, information about toxic chemical enterprises (Sanchez 2016). For example, in the
substances emitted by corporations. It United Kingdom social investment tax relief
currently provides toxic scores for over 28,000 (SITR) has been introduced. SITR encourages
facilities in both the Republic of Korea and the individuals to support social enterprises and
United States (Yoon 2018). receive a tax deduction equal to 30 per cent of
their investment (Government of the United
›› Fairphone is a social enterprise that aims to Kingdom 2016). In India, the Maharashtra State
make smartphones in a modular way, so Social Venture Fund aims to invest in profitable
they can be easily repaired and upgraded and scalable business ventures with the potential

to provide social benefits to the people of ›› Promote service-oriented chemicals

Maharashtra (SIDBI Venture Capital n.d.). management approaches, such as Chemical
Leasing, to enhance resource efficiency and
decrease use of hazardous chemicals.
4.6 Potential measures to advance ›› Use chemical parks as a model for sharing
the sustainability of business services, learning and information among
models companies, including SMEs.
New and evolving business models, such as ›› Explore the role and stimulate the
service-oriented models (Chemical Leasing) and establishment of social enterprises to support
models for benefit coordination (e.g. chemical the sound management of chemicals and
parks), as well as social enterprises, can create waste at all levels
opportunities to advance the chemicals and
waste management agenda. Other models ›› Review the chemistry dimension of 3-D
(e.g. 3-D printing and e-commerce) are also printing/additive manufacturing and take
evolving rapidly and will benefit from careful measures to reap its full potential by managing
scrutiny. Taking into account the preceding potential risk early on.
analysis, stakeholders may wish to consider the
following measures to advance the sustainability ›› Take measures to ensure that the distribution
of business models: of chemicals through e-commerce meets high
standards of chemical hazard communication,
and is fully compliant with relevant legislation.
554
Part IV
5/ Fiscal incentives to advance sound

chemicals management and sustainable
chemistry
Chapter Highlights
The use of market-based instruments to manage hazardous chemicals and waste

is limited, but increasing.
Market-based instruments can effectively complement command and control

regulatory measures, such as bans or restrictions.
Market-based instruments create incentives for cost-effective substitution and

can spur innovation.
Reforming subsidy programmes that provide perverse incentives is often a

challenge.
Careful design, evaluation and flexibility are needed to adjust instruments to

market reactions.
Political economy considerations are important when implementing market-

based instruments
F
iscal incentives are government policies that 5.1 Market-based instruments as an
change the relative price of a given activity or important complement to bans
input, either encouraging or discouraging its and use restrictions
use. This chapter takes stock of the extent of, and
lessons learned from, the use of fiscal incentives Many market-based instruments can be used
for chemicals management. It discusses the to create fiscal incentives for sound chemicals
effectiveness, benefits and challenges of market- management
based instruments, within the broader array of
possible policy instruments in the context of A wide range of market-based instruments are
chemicals and waste management. used in chemicals management (Table 5.1). They
stimulate behavioural change by providing price
signals to chemical producers and manufacturers,
downstream users, consumers and waste
management agents, among others. Incentives
can be created by removing existing price
distortions that generate perverse incentives for
overuse, or by implementing new market-based
instruments such as taxes, charges, deposit-
refund systems, subsidies and tradable permits.
The level of taxes and charges should ideally
Chapter 5. Fiscal incentives to advance sound chemicals management and sustainable chemistry 555
Table 5.1 Types of market-based instruments and examples of their application to chemicals
management (based on Stavins 2001; Sterner and Coria 2011; OECD n.d.)
Policy Description Example of application

instrument
Tax By increasing the price of using a chemical, a tax incentivizes decreased Pesticides; inorganic fertilizers;
use. Typically levied by the state, with its proceeds going to the general chlorinated solvents; batteries
budget. The level should reflect the damages caused by production, use and/
or disposal of the chemical, which in the absence of the tax would not be
reflected in the market price.
Charge/fee Similar to a tax, but revenues are typically earmarked. The level of a fee Hazardous waste; pesticide
should reflect the cost of providing a specific service, such as processing or chemical containers; tyres;
hazardous waste. batteries
Subsidy A subsidy is the mirror image of a tax. It can provide incentives to increase Subsidies for organic farming; lead
the use of alternative chemicals that are less hazardous. In particular, paint removal
authorities may want to subsidize learning and technology development.
Subsidy In many cases subsidies are used without giving sufficient attention to Removal of subsidies for use of
removal their distribution, potentially resulting in unsound practices from a health or chemical fertilizers or pesticides
environmental perspective. Hence, subsidy removal is considered a policy
instrument in its own right.
Deposit- A surcharge is paid when potentially polluting products are purchased. A Pesticide or chemical containers;
refund refund is received when the product is returned to an approved centre, batteries; tyres
whether for recycling or for disposal.
Tradable An overall level of “allowable” pollution is established and allocated among Lead in gasoline (trade among
permits firms in the form of permits. These permits can be traded on a market at refineries); ozone-depleting
market prices. substances (trade among
producers and importers)
be set so that all externalities (i.e. the full cost Market-based instruments can create
to society from production, consumption and incentives for cost-effective substitution and
disposal of targeted chemicals of concern, or spur innovation
products that include such chemicals) is reflected
in their price (Sterner and Coria 2011). The two main arguments in favour of fiscal
incentives are that they can be more cost-effective,
and better at promoting innovation, than bans,
use restrictions or technology standards. These
command and control policies (commonly used
Box 5.1 Shifting taxes from labour to resource use and pollution (Groothuis 2016)
Achieving sustainability is affected by a number of factors They include efficient use of resources,
closing material loops, reducing (toxic) waste, reclaiming waste as raw material, and designing
materials and chemicals that fit these purposes. An independent Dutch think tank researched
a possible shift of taxation of labour to pollution, use of resources and consumption. In the
Ex’tax Policy Toolkit they presented a suite of tax base options through which such a shift can be
designed, covering topics such as building materials, food production, metals and minerals, and
waste. Key findings of the research were that a shift in taxation would result in increased GDP,
create jobs, and cut emissions and pollution. This shift incentivizes sustainable business models
and innovation, including in the chemical sector, given an increase of the cost of water, harmful
emissions, metals and minerals through systematic application of the polluter pays principle.
Moreover, reductions in labour costs, combined with increased resource and pollution costs, are
expected to support labour-intensive R&D efforts, repair, maintenance and collection of waste,
thus stimulating ecological product design.
556
Part IV
Figure 5.1 Marginal cost of reducing the use of trichloroethylene (TCE) in metal degreasing
(adapted from Slunge and Sterner 2001, p. 292)
700
600
Marginal cost of reduction
500
(Swedish krona/kg)
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000
Quantity of TCE reduced (kg)
© 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.

The marginal cost of reducing the use of TCE (or replacing its use altogether) in metal degreasing
were reported by 65 companies in Sweden. For most companies the marginal costs were relatively
low, but some reported that it would be very costly to reduce TCE use.
in chemical risk management) typically allow very Market-based instruments complement rather
little flexibility in regard to the means of achieving than replace bans and use restrictions
specific targets (Stavins 2001). Instead, all firms
must meet the same target no matter how costly While market-based instruments have some
the change. However, the cost of complying with merits, there are many situations in which their
a ban or use restriction often differs between use is less appropriate. For example, when the
companies. This may be due to differences in, for health and environmental costs of exposure to a
example, production processes and sunk costs hazardous chemical are very high, the effects are
from technology investments. Figure 5.1 provides location-specific or threshold effects are likely.
an example of differences in the marginal costs In such situations bans and use restrictions are
of reducing the use of trichloroethylene (TCE) in more appropriate (Weitzman 1974). In practice,
metal degreasing. many context-specific factors (e.g. information
constraints, administrative costs, distributional
Companies have an incentive to substitute the effects and political economy pressures)
targeted chemical as long as the marginal cost determine which policy instruments are most
of substitution is lower than the cost of using effective and feasible to implement. Policy
the targeted chemical. By allowing firms with instrument design therefore needs to be context-
different substitution costs to reduce use on specific.
different time scales, market-based instruments
can incentivize a cost-effective reduction in the In many cases it can be beneficial to combine
use of the targeted chemical. Moreover, by market-based instruments with restrictions on
increasing the cost of using a specific chemical, exposure to hazardous chemicals. Introducing
taxes and charges can spur innovation and the a tax or charge which creates incentives for
search for new alternatives. Innovation can be substitution and innovation can make it easier
further incentivized if tax proceeds are invested to implement tougher use restrictions or even
back into the search for cleaner, less harmful bans at a later stage. Transparency, and access
substances. to information on the use of chemicals and its
associated effects, are often prerequisites for
effective design and implementation of market-
based instruments.
Box 5.2 Risk-based pesticide taxation in Norway and Denmark
In Norway a new taxation scheme for pesticides (plant protection products) was introduced
in 1999. Pesticides were classified in different risk groups, with higher taxation for higher risk
categories. Figure 5.2 indicates that a shift towards using pesticides that were relatively less
hazardous resulted. A difficulty with classifying pesticides into distinct risk categories is that those
with similar levels of environmental and health risks may show big differences in their tax rates if
they are at the bottom or top of their respective risk categories. An alternative pesticide taxation
scheme was introduced in Denmark in 2013. Under this scheme, the tax level for each approved
pesticide was calculated based on its human health risks and environmental characteristics.
Instead of distinct risk categories, the tax level was based on an environmental load index
ranging from 0 to 40. There was considerable difference in the tax levels, which ranged from
euros 0.57 to euros 25.5 per hectare. The new pesticide taxation scheme was projected to play
a major role in achieving the government’s objective of reducing the total quantity of pesticides
applied by 40 per cent between 2013 and 2015 (Böcker and Finger 2016). Preliminary evaluations
indicate that this objective was met (Ørum, Kudsk and Jensen 2017). Pesticide taxation in Norway
and Denmark is combined with tax exonerations for farmers who fulfil specific requirements
regarding pesticide management and observe other use restrictions.
5.2 Experience with using market- management, formal evaluations of their

based instruments in key effectiveness are lacking. The cases presented
industry sectors below illustrate some applications, as well as
problems that policymakers face in designing
Use of fiscal incentives to manage hazardous policy instruments.
chemicals: limited but increasing
Taxing pesticides to reduce environmental and
Compared with other policy areas, the use health risks
of market-based instruments in chemicals
management is relatively limited. Market- Several countries, including Denmark, France,
based instruments are mainly used in high- Norway and Mexico, have begun to use
income countries, but a number of low- and differentiated taxation of pesticides (mainly plant
middle-income countries have also begun to protection products) to incentivize farmers to
use them, particularly in relation to hazardous reduce the use of hazardous pesticides (Box 5.2
waste management and reducing the use of and Figure 5.2). Factors taken into account in
plastic bags. In many cases where market-based determining the taxes include, for example,
instruments have been used for chemicals hazard properties, health risks, environmental
558
Part IV
Figure 5.2 Effects of differentiated taxation on quantities of pesticides sold in Norway (adapted
from Kjäll 2012)
250
200
Quantity sold (index, 1997=100)
150
100
50
0 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Risk group 1 Risk group 2 Risk group 3 Risk group 4 Risk group 5
Under the taxation scheme for pesticides (plant protection products) introduced in Norway in
1999, pesticides were divided into five risk groups with higher taxation for higher-risk groups. A
shift towards using more of the relatively less hazardous pesticides took place.
load or environmental harm, depending on the not only enhance the economic desirability of
country. Recent evaluations have found evidence taxes, but also increase their political legitimacy
that taxation which is linked to hazards and (Söderholm and Christiernsson 2008).
risks can be effective in reducing pesticides’
environmental and health effects. In contrast, Reforming subsidy programmes which create
non-differentiated taxation of pesticides (e.g. perverse incentives is often difficult in practice
through ad valorem or per unit taxes) can have
unintended consequences, as quantity reductions Many countries provide substantial subsidization
may be achieved through substitution with of agrochemicals in order to promote agricultural
more toxic products (Finger et al. 2017). Closer production and increase food security. However,
proportionality of taxes to reduce environment these subsidies can have severe negative
and health risks may also increase the chance environmental effects and they imply a high fiscal
that a tax is perceived as fair. Such taxation may burden. The nature of the environmental effects
Box 5.3 The fertilizer subsidy programme in India
To incentivize agricultural production, the central government in India subsidizes the use of
chemical fertilizers. This has played an important role in increasing grain production. However,
the cost to the government of keeping fertilizer prices below the market price has increased
dramatically since the subsidy programme was introduced in the late 1970s. In 2015 the cost of
fertilizer subsidization was estimated at approximately US dollars 12 billion.
There is limited evidence concerning this programme’s environmental effects. It can be shown that
the programme has led to imbalanced use of nutrients by farmers through keeping the price of
urea (an inexpensive form of nitrogen fertilizer) at a very low level. Excessive and imbalanced use
of nutrients has contributed to soil degradation and water pollution (Gulati and Banerjee 2015).
A key challenge in reforming the programme is that many farmers are financially dependent on
these subsidies (Praveen et al. 2017).
Box 5.4 Chemical taxes on consumer products in Denmark and Sweden
Responding to growing concerns about risks from cumulative exposure to hazardous chemicals in
consumer goods, in 2000 Denmark introduced a tax on products containing PVC and phthalates.
The rate was approximately euros 0.3 per kilogram of PVC and euros 0.9 per kilogram of phthalate,
with some variation depending on the product. As part of broader tax reform, the Danish
government decided to abolish this tax in 2019. The effects of the tax are uncertain (Stringer
2017). An early assessment pointed to a 15 per cent decrease in the use of phthalates between
2002 and 2004 (Government of Denmark 2006). The rate has not changed or been adjusted for
inflation since the tax came into effect. European regulations on phthalates have since been
introduced.
Sweden introduced a tax on certain chemicals in electrical and electronic products in 2017.
Producers and importers of these products pay an excise duty of around euros 0.8 per kilogram
for kitchen appliances and euros 0.12 per kilogram for other electronic products. There is a
maximum amount of euros 32. per item. If producers and importers can prove that electronic
products do not contain additive compounds of bromine, chlorine or phosphorus, they can obtain
a 50 per cent tax deduction. If they can also show that the products do not contain reactive added
bromine or chlorine compounds, a deduction of 75 per cent is allowed. Since the tax recently
came into force, it has not yet been evaluated. However, it has been criticized by industry for not
being based on comprehensive risk assessment and for being administratively burdensome.
depends on how the subsidy programme is Market-based instruments can be used at

designed and on site-specific agroenvironmental different stages in the chemical life cycle
conditions. This makes it difficult to carry out
a general environmental assessment of the Market-based instruments are applied at
benefits of agricultural subsidization. different stages of the chemical life cycle. For
example, in the United States chemical producers
Reducing or removing subsidies is often and manufacturers took part in schemes with
difficult, as they tend to encourage lobbying by tradable permits to incentivize refineries to
beneficiaries in order to protect and prolong the phase out lead in gasoline in 1982-1987, and in
subsidies. Box 5.3 describes the fertilizer subsidy the phase-out of ozone-depleting substances
programme in India. in the early 1990s (Harrington, Morgenstern
Box 5.5 Different effects of charges on plastic bags in Ireland and South Africa
Charges have been used in several countries to reduce demand for plastic bags. The primary
purpose has been to reduce plastic littering. The effects of these charges are mixed. A charge of
euros 0.15 per bag, introduced in Ireland in 2002, led to a 90 per cent reduction in use and reduced
littering (Convery, McDonnell and Ferreira 2007). Similarly, in South Africa the charge of around
euros 0.05 (rand 0.46) introduced in 2003 led to an estimated 90 per cent reduction in demand
for plastic carrier bags. However, after pressure from manufacturers the charge was lowered
after only three months and demand for the bags increased again (Dikgang, Leiman and Visser
2010). In Ireland, besides the effect of the charge on demand, extensive stakeholder consultations
and information campaigns conducted in relation to the plastic bag charge contributed to the
effectiveness of the policy instrument. In South Africa the revised charge was too low to affect
demand. Since 2015, large retailers in England have been required by law to charge 5 pence
(around euros 0.06) for single-use plastic carrier bags. The seven main retailers issued around
83 per cent fewer bags (over 6 billion bags fewer) in 2016-2017 compared to the calendar year
2014. This is equivalent to each person in England using around 25 bags in 2016-2017, compared
to around 140 bags per year before the charge (United Kingdom Department for Environment,
Food & Rural Affairs 2018).
560
Part IV
and Sterner 2004). The Norwegian tax on life vehicles, and waste electric and electronic
trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene from equipment. These instruments can both
2000 is an example of chemicals used in the metal incentivize reduced use of, for example, batteries
manufacturing industry and dry-cleaning facilities containing hazardous chemicals, and finance
being targeted (Slunge and Sterner 2001). Taxes systems for the collection and processing of
on phthalates, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and flame hazardous waste. Box 5.6 describes how a charge
retardants introduced in Denmark and Sweden on waste electric and electronic equipment
are examples of taxes targeting consumer (WEEE) is used to finance hazardous waste
products where it is the importer or product management in China.
seller who pays the tax (Box 5.4) Taxes and/
or fees on plastic bags used in Ireland, South In many countries the establishment of extended
Africa, the United Kingdom, the United States producer responsibility (EPR) systems has
and a number of other countries are examples shifted the cost of waste management from
of those paid by consumers (Box 5.5). In Canada, authorities to producers and greatly increased
Loblaw Companies Limited has estimated that the rate of recycling of different waste categories.
its voluntary 5 cent fee on plastic bags prevented A provincial EPR programme for tyres across
the use of 11 billion bags in Canada subsequent Canada, for example, increased the rate of
to its launch in 2007. Proceeds are donated to an collection to ~90 per cent, and largely eliminated
environmental organization (Loblaw Companies the stockpiling and burning of end-of-life tyres
Limited 2017, p. 11). countrywide (Canadian Association of Tire
Recycling Agencies 2018). However, little effect
Charges and refunds used to finance has been seen on product design. Costs to
hazardous waste management producers are often not directly connected with
their own products, while insufficient collection
Charges and deposit refund systems are further lowers the incentive for eco-design
frequently applied in the management of (Kalimo et al. 2015; Turner and Nugent 2016;
hazardous wastes such as batteries, end-of- Zeng et al. 2017).
© ARIMAG/Shutterstock
Box 5.6 The waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) recycling fund in China
Several areas in China have been severely polluted due to crude methods of WEEE recycling in an
uncontrolled informal sector. To help create a regulated formal sector for safe WEEE recycling, the
WEEE Processing Fund Collection and Subsidy Management Approach was introduced in 2012.
Producers and importers pay a charge based on annual sales and product type. Revenues are
placed in a government fund which is used to support formal dismantling companies (Gu et al.
2017). The fund system effectively reduced the informal sector for the original five product groups
and established a formal sector consisting of more than 100 licensed enterprises (Zeng et al.
2017). However, the fund is financially imbalanced, as subsidies to the formal enterprises are five
to 10 times higher than the fee charged to producers and importers of electric and electronic
products (Gu et al. 2017; Zeng et al. 2017).
5. 3 Context-specific design of Flexibility to adjust tax levels after observing

market-based instruments is market reactions is also necessary.
critical for their effectiveness
Balancing the benefits of a targeted approach
Careful design, evaluation and flexibility against its transaction costs is a key dilemma
are important in order to adjust to market in policy instrument design (Vatn 1998). It
reactions may be difficult or impossible to acquire the
needed information on the production of the
Optimally, a “green tax” should be set such that chemical itself, so that those planning such
the marginal damage is equal to the marginal an approach would typically move up the life
benefit of using the chemical. From the point of cycle, for example taxing use of the chemical as
view of economic efficiency, it is desirable to target an input to the production of other goods and
policy instruments to specific environmental or services. However, in some cases information
health damage as closely as possible. The risk on the production of other goods and services
of restricting the use of chemicals that do not is hidden or private and the regulator is forced
cause negative health and environmental effects to use taxes and similar instruments based on
is thereby reduced. The design of a particular final disposal of the chemical. This is the case for
policy instrument also needs to carefully consider non-point pollution, where the regulator can only
technical and political complications associated observe final pollution levels in the aggregate.
with the distribution of the regulatory costs
and benefits that result from targeting actors Political economy considerations are
at different stages of the chemical life cycle important when implementing market-based
(Söderholm 2009; Coria 2018). instruments
Good knowledge of context-specific factors such The introduction of market-based instruments

as price elasticities, market structure, availability for chemicals management often faces resistance
of substitutes, and exposure characteristics from interest groups which will pay higher
for regulated hazardous chemical facilitates taxes or will no longer benefit from a subsidy.
the choice and design of policy instruments. Consultation and monitoring of stakeholders’
However, in many cases there is a lack of data, reactions to a newly created incentive are
and assessments based on existing data are often important in order to help avoid undesired side
surrounded by considerable uncertainties. There effects and ensure that incentives operate at the
is a need for careful data collection, monitoring right level. How information on policy change
and evaluation of the performance of different is communicated (and how revenues are used)
policy instruments for chemicals management. are often critical to successful implementation.
562
Part IV
5.4 Potential measures to scale up ›› Use charges to speed up the phasing out of
the use of fiscal incentives substances of very high concern.
The use of market-based instruments has the ›› Evaluate the use of market-based
potential to effectively complement regulatory instruments for groups of chemicals, based
approaches to advance the sound management on the precautionary principle applied to the
of chemicals and waste. Further international identified hazards of the active ingredients
research and knowledge sharing could help to in similar chemicals (e.g. taxes on flame
reap the full potential of these instruments. retardants and phthalates).
stakeholders may wish to consider the following ›› Use legal requirements for Extended Producer
measures to scale up the use of fiscal incentives Responsibility, environmental liability and
to advance sound chemicals management and access to information in order to incentivize
sustainable chemistry: sound chemicals management, in line with
the polluter pays principle.
›› Expand the use of differential taxation of
hazardous chemicals, based on lessons ›› Establish a policy learning process through
learned from recent hazard- and risk-based systematic monitoring and evaluation of
taxation. the effectiveness of policy instruments for
chemicals management in different sectors
›› Evaluate and address the effects of subsidies and contexts.
and other policies that can generate perverse
incentives which increase use of hazardous
chemicals in agriculture and other sectors.
6/ Sustainable supply chain management for

chemicals and waste in the life cycle
Chapter Highlights
A number of retailers, product manufacturers and companies in the chemical

industry have taken measures to include sustainability in their procurement
processes.
Identifying and sharing information on chemicals in products, and their human

and health impacts in the life cycle, are important but challenging.
Industry action to advance the flow of information in the supply chain on

chemicals, and products that contain chemicals, is gaining momentum, although
gaps remain.
The recycling sector, which has a key role to play in advancing non-toxic material
flows and circularity, needs to have appropriate knowledge about the chemicals
in its supply chain.
Sustainable supply chain management is essential in ensuring that procurement

decisions comply with sustainability criteria and create a force driving upstream
suppliers.
While the generation of relevant data and knowledge is valuable, green and
sustainable chemistry principles can already be applied in the design of new
products.
T
he complexity of global value and 6.1 Drivers for sustainable supply
supply chains and the increasing trade chain management
in chemicals and products (discussed in
Part I) create both the need and opportunities From supply chain risk management to
for key actors in the supply chain to understand sustainable supply chain management
and take action with respect to chemicals and
products throughout the product life cycle. This Companies have traditionally focused on
chapter focuses on sustainable supply chain managing technological and economic risks that
management. It provides both a conceptual occur along their supply chains though supply
discussion and examples from key actors in chain risk management (SCRM) strategies. Supply
the value chain, in order to enhance the flow of chain risk may be defined as “the likelihood and
information and sustainability considerations impact of unexpected macro and/or micro level
within the supply chain. events or conditions that adversely influence any
part of a supply chain leading to operational,
564
Part IV
tactical, or strategic level failures or irregularities” Forward-looking industries are not only
(Ho et al. 2015). However, the image of a addressing environmental and social
company – large- or small-scale - is not only sustainability issues related to their production
related to its economic performance, but also processes and products; they have also begun
to its environmental and social behaviour and to identify and address potential risks associated
impacts. These may include impacts caused by its with their upstream supply chains (Foerstl, Reuter
suppliers and sub-suppliers in the supply chain and Blome 2010; Boström et al. 2015). These
(Leppelt et al. 2013). Certain companies in the sustainability considerations along the supply
pharmaceutical sector, for example, have been chain are driven by the objectives of lowering
held responsible for the environmental conduct reputational risks, enhancing operational
of some of their suppliers (Fick et al. 2009). performance, and ultimately enhancing
competitiveness. Companies can derive
It makes business sense for companies to numerous business benefits from sustainable
know as much as possible about the chemicals supply chains, including product differentiation;
in their products and supply chains. There are increased market share and growth in consumer
costs companies may eventually have to pay for support; reduced compliance and supply
not knowing about, or not acting on, harmful chain management costs; and better labour
chemicals in their products and supply chains, productivity (EY 2016).
whereas they could reap benefits through
managing chemicals safely. Nevertheless, An important aspect of sustainable supply chain
most product sectors do not have sufficient management is companies’ understanding of
information systems in place to ensure reliable the sustainability priorities of stakeholders,
information exchange on chemical content, and including downstream customers. Understanding
active strategies are required to facilitate that these stakeholder concerns may, in turn, be
exchange (Rossi 2014). translated into signals to their own suppliers
and sub-suppliers (Foerstl et al. 2015). Figure 6.1
Figure 6.1 Interface of demand and supply in driving the sustainability of chemicals in the supply
chain
Demand
for
sustainable Demand Demand Demand
products
Chemical raw
Product material and
Chemical
Consumers Retailers manufacturers feedstock
industry
and brands providers
Supply
of Supply Supply Supply
sustainable
products
Recycling and
waste sector
Final disposal
Consumers and retailers play important roles in driving demand for safer chemicals and products.
At the same time, green and sustainable chemistry innovations can drive the development of
safer chemicals and products “downstream” in the value and supply chains. Both “pull” and
“push” approaches are important and can complement each other.
Chapter 6. Sustainable supply chain management for chemicals and waste in the life cycle 565
represents the interface of demand and supply The role of downstream product
for sustainable products throughout the supply manufacturers and brands
chain, from consumer retailers and retailer
demand to the chemical industry and the Similarly, proactive product manufacturers
suppliers of its feedstocks. engage in voluntary chemicals management
practices to stay ahead of compliance regulations
The role of retailers in influencing upstream and maintain relationships with stakeholders.
supply and procurement Many have joined coalitions to collaboratively
address sustainable supply chain management,
Retailers are in a critical position to drive the including its chemicals management dimension
sustainability activities of different entities along (Box 6.2). An important component of such
the supply chain (Sebastiani et al. 2015). They chemicals management strategies is enhancing
are closest to consumers in the supply chain. communication about the presence of chemicals
They also have both financial and reputational in products in the supply chain and assessing
incentives to implement management potential risk. Increasing preference is being
programmes that recognize potential concerns, given to suppliers which help companies meet
as well as to reduce or eliminate specific their sustainability goals (EY 2016). Furthermore,
chemicals from products in their supply chain. certifications and standards that reflect risk-based
Consumers in both developed and developing approaches to sustainability are being advanced,
countries consider ingredient transparency to be such as the United States Green Building Council
one of the biggest issues companies face (Retail (USGBC) initiative on the Integrative Analysis of
Industry Leaders Association [RILA] n.d.). Many Building Materials (USGBC 2019).
retailers have become leaders in incorporating
sustainability considerations in their business Companies may also expand their relationships
practices and procurement processes (Lo 2013). beyond auditing and monitoring, and invest in
They are working individually and collectively capacity building and training of suppliers, in
to discontinue the use of those chemicals of order to work towards shared commitments. An
highest concern and thereby address consumer example is the amfori Business Environmental
expectations (Box 6.1). This can be done through, Performance (BEPI) Supply Chain Chemical
for example, chemical ingredient assessment, Management module, which supports members
supplier chemical assessment, restricted in addressing chemical issues in their supply
substances lists, and substituting or redesigning chain within a collaborative framework with
to eliminate priority chemicals (RILA n.d.). common tools and standards. The module
Box 6.1 Examples of chemical sustainability initiatives in the retail sector
In 2013 Walmart, one of the world’s largest retailers, announced its sustainable chemistry policy.
This policy includes goals for restricting 2,700 harmful chemicals in household products by 2022;
increased transparency of ingredients; and encouraging suppliers to certify their products to
third-party standards such as the US EPA’s Safer Choice (Sustainable Brands 2017; Porter 2018;
Sager-Rosenthal 2019).
The large North American retailer Target has also announced a new chemical strategy addressing
the company’s entire value chain and operations and every product it sells. Target has a policy
of commitment to transparency, proactive chemicals management, and innovation across all its
owned and national brand consumer products and operations (Target 2017; Porter 2018; Sager-
Rosenthal 2019). In Europe the home improvement retailer Kingfisher has published a chemicals
policy focusing on transparency, chemicals management and innovation (Kingfisher 2018).
The largest pharmacy chain in the United States, CVS, has updated its list of restricted chemicals
for use in baby, beauty and personal care and food products. It will remove parabens, phthalates
and formaldehyde donors from more than 600 products (Sturcken 2017).
566
Part IV
Box 6.2 Downstream sector sustainable supply chain initiatives addressing chemicals of concern
The Responsible Business Alliance (RBA) is the world’s

largest industry coalition dedicated to electronics
supply chain responsibility. RBA members, which are
held accountable to a Common Code of Conduct, use
a range of training and assessment tools to support
continuous social, ethical and environmental responsibility improvements in their supply chains
(RBA 2018).
The Pharmaceutical Supply Chain Initiative (PSCI) was established by the pharmaceutical sector.
Its members share a vision of responsible supply chain management, in order to deliver better
social, health, safety and environmental outcomes in the communities where they buy. The PSCI
created the Pharmaceutical Industry Principles for Responsible Supply Chain Management, which
address five areas of responsible business practices and the relevant standards the pharmaceutical
supply chain is expected to uphold. It has also developed tools to assess supply chains against the
principles, as well as conducting supplier capacity building workshops and events (Mezaros 2017).
The Responsible Beauty Initiative (RBI) was launched by four industry leaders (Clarins, Coty,
Groupe Rocher and L’Oréal) and EcoVadis, the leader in supply chain sustainability ratings, as
a collaborative effort to strengthen sustainable practices, improve environmental footprints
and social impacts, and maximize shared value across their collective supply chain. By using
the EcoVadis sustainability ratings tool, RBI members aim to facilitate the social responsibility
evaluations of their supplier network and engage suppliers more effectively (EcoVadis 2017).
Another example of such an initiative is the Beauty and Personal Care Sustainability Project,
which brings together key actors in the value chain (Forum for the Future 2018).
provides a platform and tools to communicate chemicals management and respond to detox
with producers in all tiers, improve their concern (amfori 2019).
© Jenson/Shutterstock
Box 6.3 Together for Sustainability: chemical industry collaboration with suppliers to advance
sustainability
Together for Sustainability (TfS) is an industry collaboration of

19 major chemical industry players to drive sustainability in
the chemical industry supply chain by adopting a harmonized
set of assessment and audit processes, and by developing and
implementing a global supplier engagement programme.
Through training, events and feedback, TfS raises awareness
of sustainability topics among suppliers and supports continuous improvement of suppliers’
sustainability performance (EcoVadis 2015).
In 2015 the initiative’s members conducted a total of around 5,000 sustainability assessments
and audits. The audit results are available to all TfS members with the suppliers’ consent. BASF,
one of the founding members, audited 135 supplier sites and initiated 1,044 sustainability
assessments in 2015. If a need for improvement was discovered, suppliers were supported in
the development of measures to meet the required standards. If no improvement took place, the
business relationship was terminated. In 2015 four suppliers did not meet requirements (BASF
2015).
The role of the chemical industry in data on releases during production and from
sustainable supply chain management products; and safety information (e.g. from
safety data sheets) to be provided to worker
The chemical industry has a major role to play safety managers, retailers, consumers and
in engaging in collaborative relationships, not other stakeholders. In addition, traceable
only with downstream customers through information on waste handling and associated
(extended) producer responsibility but also with recycling processes can prevent the unintended
its own suppliers. Some chemical companies contamination of products made from recycled
have developed and implemented green and materials. For example, the Proactive Alliance
sustainable supply chain management practices (a group of industry representatives seeking
with the integration of environmental concerns full material disclosure of chemicals, including
at the core, such as circular production processes retailers and product manufacturers) is exploring
and supply chain management and the tracking the possibility of a global cross-sectoral standard
of performance and engagement of suppliers for exchanging data on individual articles. Its aim
through closer supply chain collaborations is for this standard to enable transferring data on
(Genovese et al. 2017). Box 6.3 provides an substances in articles from one sector to another
example of such an initiative. and to foster simpler compliance declarations.
This initiative addresses the challenge that many
sectors have material declaration systems, while
no standard exists for sharing information
6.2 Information flow on chemicals in between companies in different sectors (Stringer
the supply chain 2018).
Strengthening two-way communication about Taking a product life cycle perspective helps
chemicals in the supply chain producers to better understand the supply
chain from a sustainability point of view, and
Producers and brands downstream of the to evaluate a holistic approach to address
chemical industry have an interest in obtaining environmental, economic and social impacts.
information about the chemicals in the products However, effective communication between
they produce. Practices to strengthen the actors in the supply chain is challenging and
knowledge base of a producer include obtaining may be complex. Both push and pull concepts
information on the chemicals present in articles; are relevant to improving flows of relevant
568
Part IV
data and information in the supply chain. The and includes requirements for performance,
push dimension refers to chemical industries’ packaging, pH and VOCs (Perlmutter 2015).
responsibility to follow the use of a chemical
through the chain leading to its customers, while At the global level, under SAICM the Chemicals in
the pull dimension refers to retailers, product Product Programme led by UN Environment (see
manufacturers and brands pulling information Part II, Ch. 4) brings together SAICM stakeholders
from their upstream suppliers, including from to strengthen information flow on the presence
the chemical industry. of chemicals throughout the supply chain. An
assessment of different tools for, and approaches
Use of information tools to increase to, managing material information in global
transparency on chemicals in the supply chain supply chains prepared within this framework
by UNEP’s Chemicals in Products project found
There is an increasing that IT-supported information exchange systems
range of available providing “full material disclosure” (FMD) were
tools companies can the most advanced solution (UNEP 2015).
use to communicate
sustainability information Supplier codes of conduct are a way to establish
along the supply chain. sustainability expectations for the supply chain,
For example, companies which supply management professionals,
may ask suppliers to fill in suppliers and other actors can use to make
forms about the chemical content of products informed decisions (UNEP 2014). Supply chain
(Scruggs 2013). Eco-labelling and social labelling information systems and product information
can be used to verify compliance with important systems provide information on restricted
aspects of sustainability and to hold suppliers chemicals and material declarations. For
responsible for ensuring sustainability in example, use of the Globally Harmonized System
supply chains. The Blauer Engel (Blue Angel), the for Classification and Labelling (GHS) promotes
German government’s eco-label, has established the transfer of information to users of chemicals
standards for environmentally friendly products through labelling and safety data sheets (Swedish
and services which are decided by an independent Chemicals Agency 2016). Other tools include
jury according to defined environmental and auditing procedures, procurement guidelines
sustainability criteria. Around 12,000 products and eco-branding (Boström et al. 2015).
and services from some 1,500 companies have
been awarded the Blue Angel. Another example While the chemical industry needs to implement
is the Safer Choice programme (formerly Design effective communication and information
for Environment, DfE), administered by the US exchange with its suppliers, it also needs to
EPA, whose label covers over 2,000 products engage with downstream partners to ensure
Box 6.4 Strengthening information flows between the chemical industry to downstream customers
The International Council of Chemical Associations (ICCA) represents chemical manufacturers and
producers around the world. ICCA members account for more than 90 per cent of global chemical
sales. Increasingly, consumers seek more detailed information from product manufacturers about
ingredients in the products they use. The ICCA launched a Value Chain Outreach programme,
starting with the electronics sector and later extending it to the automotive and textiles sectors.
Through this programme chemical companies aim to improve communication with retailers,
product manufacturers and others along the chemical value chain concerning how to safely
manage and use chemicals throughout their entire life cycle, from production, transport and
use through eventual recycling or disposal. Each part of the value chain shares responsibility
(i.e. through product stewardship) for prioritizing health, safety and environmental protection at
each stage of the chemicals’ life cycle (ICCA 2015; Patel 2016).
that chemical safety information is appropriately to global chemical supply chains (Goodnight
communicated and that chemicals are put to 2017). Blockchains could create a new model of
their intended use. Box 6.4 provides an example trust by establishing transactional relationships
of a chemical industry initiative to strengthen between businesses through smart contracts,
communication with downstream product certifications and compliance (International
manufacturers. Business Machines Corporation 2018).
The supply chain, and the ability to trace

chemicals, become increasingly complex along
the value chain. Participants in the value chain 6.3 Collaborative relationships
maintain records and update them continuously, for sustainable supply chain
which must also be carried out by others in the management
network. As a result, participants in the supply
chain potentially incur costs and delays and must Sustainable Supplier Relationship
address inaccuracies, which could be further Management
complicated due to third party audits. Important
information about chemicals in products may be Successfully managing the cross-border and
missed out using this approach. often sector-spanning nature of complex supply
chains entails governance challenges. These
While existing IT solutions such as the include addressing geographical distances in
International Material Data System (IMDS) or the the supply chain; information, communication
Sustainability Data Exchange Hub (SustainHUB) and knowledge exchange related to supply chain
are effective, the use of blockchains (lists of complexity and fragmentation; compliance
cryptographic information about individual and implementation gaps; challenges in supply
business-to-business supply chain transactions) chain power relations; and credibility issues
can help decentralize and optimize necessary (Boström et al. 2015; Blome, Foerstl and Schleper
information flows and bring greater efficiencies 2017).
Figure 6.2 Sustainable Supplier Relationship Management (SSRM) practices (adapted from Leppelt
et al. 2013, p. 100)
Sustainable supplier relationship management (SSRM) practices
Foundation Communication Guidance Outcome

1. Separate procurement 7. Communicate code of 11. Standards for supplier 15. Assess impact of supplier
governance policy conduct to procurement development development
2. Code of conduct signed by staff 12. Particular threshold for 16. Audit on follow up
suppliers 8. Report SSRM to society supplier development actions in case of “non-
3. Supplier self-declaration and customers 13. Defined compliance compliance”
4. Audits at all suppliers 9. Communicate definition manager
related to supplier of “non-compliance” to 14. Sustainable procurement
guidelines suppliers trainings
5. Supplier risk assessment 10. Report attainment of
of social/economic environmental and social
factors targets
6. Standardized process for
supplier “non-compliance”
Reconnection (Control and Adjustment)
17. Monitor compliance at 1st tier level 19. Measure impact of sustainability initiatives
18. Monitor compliance at 2nd tier level 20. Actively monitor compliance
570
Part IV
Stakeholders often hold the buying companies range of approaches including (Boström et al.
responsible for compliance issues in their 2015):
upstream supply chains. To address sustainability
concerns in upstream supply chains, companies ›› coalition and institution building on a broader
need to implement measures that substantially scale (e.g. through developing inclusive multi-
affect supplier conduct, with many firms relying stakeholder coalitions);
on improving sustainability performance in
the supply base through proactive supplier ›› ensuring flexibility to adapt global
management (Marquis, Toffel and Zhou 2016). governance arrangements to local social and
There is an overview of measures to manage environmental contexts of production and
supply chains and relationships with suppliers, in consumption;
order to meet sustainability objectives, Figure 6.2
An important aspect of this framework is the ›› supplementing effective monitoring and
fostering of behavioural change in suppliers in enforcement mechanisms with education
a cooperative manner, through “inclusive multi- and other programmes to build compliance
stakeholder coalitions” rather than through capacity; and
prescriptions by the customer.
›› integrating reflexive learning to improve
Broader governance measures need to governance arrangements over time.
support tools
While the tools discussed above are important, in

most cases they are not sufficient in themselves 6.4 Considering circularity in supply
to overcome the geographical, informational, chain management
communication, compliance, power and
legitimacy challenges that are barriers to Resource efficiency considerations include
sustainable global supply chains. Therefore, it transitioning from a traditional linear flow of
is suggested that such tools be used with a wider materials in a “take-make-use-dispose” economy
© JelloMistress CC BY-SA 4.0, recycling facility
Box 6.5 The Circular Economy Package (EC 2018)
The Circular Economy Package was adopted in December 2015 by the European Commission.
Four objectives were formulated that pinpoint the direction of innovation in circular supply chain
management and are relevant to chemicals and waste management (EC 2018):
›› Ensure that appropriate information on substances of concern in products is available to all

actors in the supply chain and ultimately also becomes available to waste operators. This will
contribute to the promotion of non-toxic material cycles, and improve the risk management of
chemicals during repair and other forms of reuse and in waste recovery processes.
›› Make recycling easier and improve the uptake of secondary raw materials by promoting
non-toxic material cycles. In addition, when considering possible chemical restrictions and
exemptions to restrictions, more attention needs to be given to their impact on future recycling
and reuse.
›› Enable a more harmonized interpretation and implementation of end-of-waste rules across
the EU to further facilitate the use of recovered material within the EU.
›› Ensure a more consistent approach between chemicals and waste classification rules.
In the corresponding EU Action Plan for the Circular Economy, it is stressed that the functioning
of value chains needs to be rethought. Value chains, especially for complex composite materials
(e.g. plastics) or chemical formulations (e.g. plant protection products), are closely connected
with the creation of material cycles, where hazardous chemicals are reduced to a minimum in
support of a “non-toxic environment” (Goldenman et al. 2017). The new database to be hosted by
the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), created under the amended Waste Framework Directive
on the presence of substances of very high concern (SVHC) in articles, is a concrete measure to
help achieve this goal (ECHA 2018).
to a more circular flow of materials. In this content, including possible contamination.

approach a core principle is the elimination of Chemical contamination of articles may prevent
waste through improved design of products, recycling, or it may present new, unexpected
use of processes that have increased resource exposure situations if contaminated recycled
efficiency, and increased recyclability of materials materials are used in products when use of these
(Sheldon 2016). Circular supply chains therefore substances was not foreseen (Goldenman et al.
cover remanufacturing, reuse and recycling 2017). In the fashion industry some retailers allow
processes (Dora, Bhatia and Gallear 2016; customers to exchange unwanted clothes for a
Genovese et al. 2017). Maintaining the value of discount, so as to use them as raw material for
materials, products and resources in the economy new products. Due to complex supply chains,
for as long as possible, and minimizing waste companies often do not have an adequate
generation, represent an essential contribution understanding of conditions in far-away factories,
to the development of sustainable, low-carbon, including chemical use (Bomgardner 2016).
resource-efficient and competitive economies (EC Promotion of uncontaminated material cycles
2015). Box 6.5 describes the Circular Economy and better tracking of chemicals of concern
Package adopted by the European Commission. in products can help address these concerns
and facilitate recycling through the uptake of
End-of-life treatment of chemicals and secondary, non-toxic raw materials. Improved
products is the stage at which improved waste tracking of chemicals of concern should also be
management and recycling strategies are used to identify contaminated materials in the
considered. In a circular economy, materials waste stream and separate them, in order to
that can be recycled are inserted back into maintain a high recycling rate while generating
material and product life cycles as “secondary uncontaminated secondary raw materials.
raw materials”. One barrier to promoting the
use of secondary raw materials is uncertainty Many stakeholders have embraced the circular
about their performance quality and chemical economy approach. The ICCA, for example, has
572
Part IV
expressed its commitment to play a key role in manufacturing are therefore important stages
the systemic transition to a circular economy for the implementation of broader sustainable
as a key component of sustainability, whereby supply management strategies, which can be
resources and materials are continuously understood as a systemic shift involving both
cycled to eliminate waste while creating value technological and non-technological innovations
for all. According to this view, circular economy (Kirchherr, Reike and Hekkert 2017; Homrich et al.
initiatives must embrace a holistic view of the 2018).
economy that considers both environmental and
societal impacts of a product or material across The coordination of product and supply chain
its life cycle. Enabling policies are needed that design decisions plays a critical role in improving
take a holistic view and consider all stages of a the sustainable supply chain’s performance. A
product life, including the closure of loops at product’s design determines its future costs,
end-of-life, while being transparent, risk-based which in turn depend on the supply chain
and flexible in nature. This will unleash market configuration (e.g. the number and locations
forces that drive innovations towards a circular of supply chain partners, and their capabilities
economy. and capacities) (Metta and Badurdeen 2013).
Integrating product design in the supply chain
is therefore a basis for establishing sustainable
competitiveness in increasingly complex customer
6.5 Integrating life cycle thinking and markets. Moreover, integrating product design
sustainability into product design in the supply chain increases communication,
supply chain visibility and responsiveness, as well
Taking a systems approach in designing as reducing supply chain risk (Khan et al. 2016).
products Box 6.6 describes the Design Thinking approach
to advance sustainability.
To address challenges associated with chemicals
and their products, it may not be sufficient Green and sustainable chemistry design
to base chemical synthesis on functionality considerations along the supply chain
criteria only (e.g. water repellency, resistance
to high temperatures and economic viability). Green and sustainable chemistry, as already
Sustainable design and supply chain solutions discussed, encompass the design, manufacture
go a step further, considering life cycle impacts, and use of efficient, effective, safe and more
from synthesis (energy, water, other chemical environmentally benign chemical products and
use) to toxicity and environmental effects, processes (Friege 2017). While the focus of green
during the product life cycle as components chemistry is on reducing waste, increasing yield
of chemical and product design criteria. and reducing non-renewable energy and material
Chemical and product design, synthesis and input (along with environmentally conscious
Box 6.6 The Design Thinking approach to advance sustainability
Design Thinking is a systematic approach to solving complex problems associated with all
aspects of life. In contrast to conventional approaches, starting with technical solvability, Design
Thinking puts customer needs (as well as user-centred inventions) at the heart of the process. It
also requires steady back-coupling between the innovator and the customer. However, Design
Thinking is not only about product and service innovation. It is a means of increasing the problem-
solving competence of the user, or of the companies using it, for all kinds of product and service
innovation. Design Thinking is also increasingly used in revising internal company processes,
especially in areas such as finance and accounting, the supply chain, personnel administration
and client management, complementing what traditional methods (e.g. Lean Six Sigma) have to
offer (Waerder, Stinnes and Erdenberger 2017).
Table 6.1 From traditional to green and biomimetic chemistry technologies (Van Hamelen 2018, p. 6)
TRADITIONAL GREEN AND BIOMIMETIC
›› “Heat, beat, treat”: chemical reactions ›› Chemical reactions take place at room temperature and pressure
under high temperature, high ›› Water as solvent
pressure and chemical treatment ›› Low-energy chemical reactions
›› Organic solvents ›› Local feedstocks, diverse sources
›› Fossil feedstock and fossil energy ›› Degradation is part of design: “timed degradation” of “triggered instability”
›› High purity of feedstock is imperative (John Warner), “Nature’s disassembly processes” (Janine Benyus)
›› Use of the entire periodic system ›› Functionality is created by the structure, not the material itself
›› Resources sourced globally ›› Living systems only utilize 25 elements; carbon, oxygen and sodium make
›› Controlling risk by taking safety up 96 per cent of atoms in living systems; other elements are used in trace
precautions amounts
›› Controlling risk by adopting the inherent properties of the materials
design of chemical reactions and products), ›› Enhance information sharing among all
sustainable chemistry has a broader focus, actors in the supply chain, on chemicals in
in line with broader sustainable supply chain products and chemicals in products’ waste,
approaches. Table 6.1 provides an overview of and harmonize approaches to share such
approaches that can help move from traditional information.
to green and biomimetic technologies that enable
the transition to circular and sustainable supply ›› Develop collaborative approaches to
chains. sustainable supply chain management
in the private sector that bring together
companies in specific sectors, and include
other stakeholders.
6.6 Measures to strengthen
sustainable supply chain ›› Promote emerging good practices and
management initiatives in sustainable supply chain
management for chemicals and waste in
Sustainable supply chain management plays a key countries where these ideas, practices and
role in ensuring that purchasing and procurement initiatives are less well-known.
decisions comply with sustainability criteria, and
that they create a force that will drive upstream ›› Take proactive corporate measures to
suppliers to participate in the growing markets design sustainable products and sustainable
for sustainable products. Taking into account solutions, and become market leaders, taking
the preceding analysis, stakeholders may wish to into account green and sustainable chemistry
consider the following measures to strengthen approaches.
sustainable supply chain management:
›› Strengthen legislation on the chemicals and
›› Develop sustainable chemistry supply chain waste interface, in order to provide clear
policies throughout the supply chain. guidance to recyclers that will advance non-
toxic materials flow.
574
Part IV
7/ Sustainability metrics and reporting:

measuring progress, strengthening
accountability
Chapter Highlights
A variety of metrics exist to assess the chemicals and waste dimension of

companies and producers, including life cycle assessment and chemical
footprint indicators.
Reporting by industry is increasing, and self-reporting in the chemical and

related industries is complemented by independent external assessments.
Opportunities exist to link, align and/or develop metrics and reporting standards,
drawing on existing international initiatives.
Stakeholders can take further steps to increase both transparency and rigour,
thereby ensuring that metrics are fit for purpose and audience.
Opportunities exist to develop a common understanding of green/sustainable

chemistry metrics.
Metrics and industry sustainability reporting could become important aspects of

measuring progress in a beyond 2020 framework.
P
rivate sector initiatives and standards, 7.1 The growing momentum of
including on chemicals and waste, have private sector sustainability
been mentioned in various chapters of metrics and reporting
the GCO-II. This chapter discusses metrics
and reporting schemes aimed at providing An increasing number of companies report on
interested stakeholders with knowledge about their sustainability performance, including that
the performance of the private sector related related to chemicals and waste management
to sound management of chemicals and waste.
The chapter is not able to cover all relevant Traditional corporate reporting has focused on
initiatives. Nor does it seek to judge the merit information that may influence the decisions
of the schemes mentioned. Rather, by drawing of those who consult a company’s financial
attention to the topic, it aims to raise the question statements, such as investors. More recently,
of how metrics and reporting schemes could momentum has been generated to integrate
fit into, and be strengthened within, a global sustainability aspects into corporate reporting.
approach on chemicals and waste beyond 2020. According to some estimates, the share of
the world’s 250 largest companies reporting
on their sustainability performance increased
from 35 per cent in 1999 to 93 per cent in
Chapter 7. Sustainability metrics and reporting: measuring progress, strengthening accountability 575
Figure 7.1 Share of the top 100 companies in 34 countries (N100) and of the world’s 250 largest
companies providing corporate responsibility reports, 1993-2017 (adapted from Blasco
et al. 2017, p. 9)
100
95% 93% 92% 93%
90
83% Underlying trend 75%
80
70 71% 73% 72%
60 64% 64%
Per cent
50 53%
45%
40 41%
35%
30
20 24%
18% 18%
10 12%
0 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2013 2015 2017
N100 World’s 250 largest companies by revenue
The survey’s findings indicate that corporate responsibility reporting has become standard
practice for most large and medium-sized companies across the world. The terms corporate
responsibility, corporate social responsibility, and environmental, social and governance are
often used interchangeably.
2017 (Blasco et al. 2017). The use of metrics to Regulations, consumers, and actors in the
assess companies’ environmental, social and supply chain drive sustainability reporting
governance (ESG) performance, as well as their
economic performance, has grown significantly, While regulation – and the need for compliance
particularly in the Asia-Pacific region (KPMG et al. – continue to be major drivers of sustainability
2016). While the majority of countries in the reporting (Cockcroft and Persich 2017), there is
world have sustainability reporting policies, such growing awareness in the corporate sector that
policies are still largely lacking in Africa and West strong performance on sustainability issues and
Asia (Global Reporting Initiative [GRI] 2016). transparent reporting are beneficial to business
and provide new opportunities to generate
Sustainability reporting is often based on revenue. In the long term, companies which
formalized standards and guidance, and the voluntarily adopt sustainability policies have
use of the majority of sustainability reporting been shown to significantly outperform their
instruments is mandatory (KPMG et al. 2016). counterparts in terms of market and accounting
However, a growing share of reporting performance (Eccles, Ioannou and Serafeim
(approximately one-third in 2016) is voluntary 2014). Companies thus have an intrinsic interest
(KPMG et al. 2016). Materiality in sustainability in making their contributions to achieving the
reporting implies a broader scope, including SDGs more visible and communicating them,
aspects that may affect the company’s “ability given that these contributions may be overlooked
to create, preserve or erode economic, or not adequately attributed. Sustainability
environmental and social value for itself, its reporting may also change perceptions of the
stakeholders, the environment, and society chemical industry and increase competitiveness,
at large” (GRI n.d.). If actors focus on short- thereby attracting new talent (WEF 2019).
term financial aspects, disclosure may lead to
management and investment decisions that are The general public and consumers are a main driver
suboptimal from a sustainable development for these developments. They are increasingly
perspective. conscious of (and demand information about) the
576
Part IV
sustainability performance of companies and/or 7.2 A snapshot of private sector

products before making choices. The need to gain metrics and reporting on
the trust of society is thus an important driver chemicals and waste
for transparency (WBCSD 2014). NGOs seek to
provide relevant information and place pressure 7.2.1 Metrics and reporting
on companies, naming frontrunners and shaming developed by industry
laggards (Follette et al. 2017). Retailers may be The chemical industry
particularly sensitive to this driver, consequently
exerting pressure on suppliers. Suppliers, in Industry associations
turn, are likely to signal a need for information also play a role in
on sustainability performance further upstream. communicating
Equally important, the chemical industry, sustainability
further upstream, is assessing, auditing and performance. In the
communicating its performance, including that context of the Responsible
of suppliers, as is done through the Together Care® initiative of the International Council
for Sustainability (TfS) initiative (TfS 2016). of Chemical Associations (ICCA), participating
Sustainability reporting by various actors along companies collect and report data for a set of
the supply chain thus becomes an important environmental, health and safety performance
source of information for corporate decision- measures. While the number of organizations
making. reporting under Responsible Care® has varied
over the years, reporting rates have increased
Financial market actors also use sustainability overall. For example, the number of organizations
performance and non-financial information in reporting on fatalities in the workforce increased
making investment decisions (Deloitte 2016). from 25 in 2000 to 42 in 2013 (ICCA 2015).
This steers companies towards improved In the United States, a Responsible Care®
sustainability policies and long-term value Management System has been established that
creation, as exemplified by a recent letter to includes independent third-party certification
CEOs from Blackrock, the world’s largest asset and transparent reporting and performance
manager (Fink 2018). metrics (ICCA 2015). This management system
has the potential to serve as the benchmark for
Figure 7.2 Snapshot of Sumitomo’s Corporate Social Responsibility Report: work-related incident
rate (adapted from Sumitomo Chemical Group 2016, p. 10)
Work-related incident rate
1.0
0.88 0.85 0.82
0.9 0.81
0.76
0.8
0.7
0.6
Percent
0.5
0.36
0.4 0.30
0.27
0.3
0.15
0.2 0.19
0.18
0.1 0.00 0.14 0.00
0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Japanese chemical industry Sumitomo Chemical (Non-consolidated) Sumitomo Chemical Group (Consolidated) (Aggregate total Sumitomo Chemical and
Consolidated Group companies)
monitoring and assessing implementation in Downstream sectors

other countries.
Almost all major chemical companies now

publish regular reports on ESG performance.
For example, the Dow Chemical Company
(2017) and the Sumitomo Chemical Group
(2016) publish sustainability reports on a regular
basis to communicate performance on selected
indicators, increasingly mapped against the SDGs.
Under Chemie3, a sustainability initiative of the
German chemical industry tailored in particular
to SMEs, 40 economic, environmental and social
indicators have been developed to measure
progress towards sustainable development,
such as product safety and resource efficiency.
Progress against the indicators is reported
publicly and on a regular basis (Chemie3 2018).
In some cases approaches are developed in
collaboration with external partners, as in the
case of the Additives Sustainability Footprint of Efforts to self-assess and report sustainability
the PVC industry (UN 2018). performance across the supply chain can also be
observed among chemical-intensive downstream
companies and retailers. One example is the
Figure 7.3 ZDHC and PUMA’s rates of compliance with MRSL parameters in wastewater, 2017
(adapted from PUMA 2018, p. 10)
Volatile organic
compounds
Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons
Phthalates
Per- and polyfluorinated
chemicals
Organotin compounds
Halogenated solvents
Glycols
Flame retardant
Disperse dyes
Azo dyes
Chlorophenol
Chlorobenzene or
chlorotulene
Alkylphenolethoxylate/
alkyphenolethoxylate
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
578
Part IV
Box 7.1 Johnson’s Greenlist™ Programme (GC3 n.d. a)
S.C. Johnson is a formulator of chemical-intensive products used in millions of households. In

2001 the company, which does not produce the ingredients that go into its products, launched
an innovative chemical classification process called Greenlist™ that rates raw materials based
on their impact on human health and the environment. The scores are reported alongside
performance and cost information in the company’s chemical formulary, so that chemists can
easily compare these materials. Over time most suppliers have embraced the Greenlist™ protocol.
The programme has evolved to the point that suppliers are designing new chemicals based on
the Greenlist™ scores.
Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC) Green Building Council (USGCG) provides third-
initiative, which covers the global textile, party certifications of buildings meeting certain
leather and footwear sectors (ZDHC 2018). This sustainability criteria (USGBC 2018).
programme brings together 24 signatory brands,
53 value chain affiliates and 15 associates whose The Future-Fit Business Benchmark (Future-
aim is to eliminate the use of priority hazardous Fit Foundation 2017) seeks to support both
chemicals throughout their value chains. The chemical companies and downstream actors
ZDHC Roadmap to Zero Programme includes in articulating, assessing and transforming how
harmonized approaches in areas such as its they create long-term value for themselves and
manufacturing restricted substances list (MRSL), society as a whole. This approach is based on the
wastewater quality, audit protocols, and data and identification of an extra-financial break-even
disclosure (Figure 7.3). Rates of compliance are point for business, expressed as a unified set of
made publicly available (ZDHC 2018). social and environmental goals drawing, among
others, on criteria such as chemical releases and
7.2.2 Independent assessment the use of chemicals that are likely to build up in
schemes with industry nature and/or are considered harmful according
participation to the SIN (Substitute It Now!) List (International
Chemical Secretariat [ChemSec] 2017). Under
Companies may choose the Future-Fit scheme, independent assurance
to engage with external by third parties and publication of the scores is
bodies to assess and optional.
certify their products
based on a set of criteria Some of these schemes focus on assessing and
covering selected communicating performance to downstream
economic, social and/ users and the general public. The Chemical
or environmental Footprint Project (CFP), for example, provides a
topics. This may include product recyclability quantitative metric which manufacturers, brands
assessment and certification schemes, such as and retailers can use to measure progress in
the Cradle to Cradle Product Standard (Cradle reducing the use of chemicals of high concern.
to Cradle Products Innovation Institute 2018) Participation is voluntary and the results are
and the textile production and product-specific made publicly available (Rossi et al. 2017).
Bluesign (Bluesign 2018). Environmental Product
Declarations are another reporting tool which A number of broader sustainability reporting
companies all along the supply chain can use initiatives are in place that also cover – to a
to disclose environmental impacts throughout varying extent – topics relevant for the sound
the life cycle of products, including aspects management of chemicals and waste. The
related to waste management and disposal Global Reporting Initiative provides widely used
(International EPD System 2017). In the building Sustainability Reporting Standards which include
sector, the membership-based United States guidelines and standards that companies and
Figure 7.4 Average percentage of points across four Chemical Footprint Project (CFP) pillars scored
by small, medium and large companies selling only articles (adapted from Rossi et al.
2017, p. 7)
CFP pillar Small, medium and large companies selling only articles
(percentage of points only by pillar)
small - 33%
Management strategy medium - 49%
large - 50%
small - 39%
Chemical inventory medium - 63%
large - 76%
small - 28%
Footprint measurement medium - 38%
large - 52%
small - 13%
Disclosure and verification medium - 0%
large - 18%
small - 29%
Average of all four pillars medium - 40%
large - 52%
0-20% >20-40% >40-60% >60-80% >80-100%
other organizations can use for sustainability of international concern, or may become
reporting (GRI n.d.). The Sustainability Accounting regulated in the future, as referenced by
Standards Board (SASB) provides standards ChemSec’s SIN List (ChemSec 2017). Various
for integrating relevant ESG considerations service providers assess performance on
into reporting. They cover 79 industries in 11 environmental, social and governance topics,
sectors. Likely material sustainability issues for including chemicals and waste management, to
disclosure by the chemical industry identified allow investors to assess respective risk profiles
include, among others, wastewater management; (Sustainalytics n.d.).
waste and hazardous materials management;
employee health and safety; life cycle impacts of
products and services; and accident and safety
management (SASB 2015; SASB 2018).
7.2.3 Independent external

assessment of industry
performance
Growing investor
interest in corporate
sustainability
performance has led A number of initiatives provide independent
to the incorporation assessments of chemicals and waste management
of more detailed information on chemicals and performance directed to consumers and the
waste management in external assessment general public. For example, the Mind the Store
schemes. Under the Dow Jones Sustainability initiative in the United States informs consumers
Index, for example, chemical suppliers and by providing an aggregate grade based on criteria
downstream companies are requested to provide such as whether a policy is in place to ensure that
information on the percentage of products that suppliers conduct credible hazard assessments
contain substances regulated as hazardous, are for alternatives to chemicals of high concern
580
Part IV
Box 7.2 Sustainability information of relevance to the financial sector
The financial sector is important in driving the demand for information on sustainability
performance of companies. A number of metrics and reporting schemes exist to inform
investment decisions, including the following:
›› ESG (environmental, social and governance) factors: These are a subset of non-financial
performance indicators which include sustainable, ethical and corporate governance issues
and ensuring there are systems in place to ensure accountability. The UN-backed Principles
for Responsible Investment (n.d.) provide a voluntary ESG framework for companies and
funds, on the basis of which investors can make informed investment decisions with respect
to sustainability and governance practices (UNEP and World Bank 2017; Financial Times n.d.).
›› Environment-related financial disclosure and transparency: This allows investors to exclude

companies in the chemical industry or among downstream users of chemicals, including
formulators and retailers, which are not working towards the implementation of more
sustainable practices.
›› Environmental disclosure on stock exchanges: Stock exchanges have historically played an

important role in economic growth and development through enabling effective capital
allocation. It is increasingly clear that environmental and social issues have an impact on
corporate performance. Therefore, stock exchanges (or the relevant securities regulators)
should require disclosure in the same way that financial disclosure is required (Cleary 2015).
›› Environmental and sustainability stock market indices, ratings and associated products: These are
useful to investors as they seek to shift to more sustainable investment (Cleary 2015). It is
important that robust methodology be used, which can address relevant green and sustainable
criteria within the chemical industry and downstream use sectors.
›› Environmental risk management by financial institutions: This includes risk management

frameworks, such as the Equator Principles, which are adopted by financial institutions to
determine, assess and manage environmental and social risk in projects. It is primarily intended
to provide a minimum standard for due diligence and monitoring to support responsible
risk decision-making. The most recent version of the Equator Principles (currently under
review) advises that assessment documentation may include “pollution prevention and waste
minimization, pollution controls (liquid effluents and air emissions), and solid and chemical
waste management” (Equator Principles 2013).
(Safer Chemicals, Healthy Families 2018a). sectors identify greener and more sustainable
Others provide consumers with online product products. Eco-labelling uses specific criteria
and ingredient information to help guide better (e.g. hazard properties) to provide information
informed buying decisions for specific applications about the environmental characteristics of a
(GoodGuide 2018). The scientific community product. Such labels are initiated in some cases
also provides information on the sustainability by governments and in others by the private
performance of relevant stakeholders, including sector. In recognizing that environmental
the chemical industry. For example, one study concerns may become a market advantage,
(Britzelmaier et al. 2015) assessed the corporate private companies use eco-labels to increase
sustainability management of international awareness and influence consumer decisions
chemical companies across four categories: through their purchasing (Tranchard 2018;
reporting, ecology, environment and economy. International Organization for Standardization
2019). An example of a certification scheme for
Eco-labelling can be a useful tool to encourage products and services that also covers chemicals
more sustainable production and consumption and waste related issues is the Blauer Engel (Blue
by helping customers from the public and private Angel) in Germany.
7.3 Green and sustainable chemistry Becker 2016) explores how measuring progress
within metrics and reporting towards mainstreaming green chemistry requires
schemes the use of relevant metrics at the molecular/
process level (e.g. water usage in the process),
Stakeholders use the green and sustainable the product and material level (e.g. the inherent
chemistry concepts in standards and reporting hazard of chemicals or materials in a product),
the firm and sector level (e.g. the existence of
In their reporting, various stakeholders use the effective chemicals management strategies), and
terms “green chemistry”, “green engineering” the societal level (e.g. the production volume of
and “sustainable chemistry”. In doing so, some chemicals meeting the Principles of Green
have developed their own metrics to measure Chemistry) in a complementary manner (see also
performance. For example, Dow has set a goal GC3 n.d. b).
of increasing sales of sustainable chemistry
products, defined sustainable chemistry, and
developed a Sustainable Chemistry Index to
track progress. The index combines variables
such as the recycled content of the product, its
social benefit, and risks it may pose at the end
of the life cycle (Dow Chemical Company 2015).
Sigma-Aldrich has developed a quantitative
assessment of a product’s performance against
the 12 Principles of Green Chemistry in order to
optimize the manufacturing process accordingly
(Sigma-Aldrich n.d.). S.C. Johnson applies
requirements for full disclosure of products’
ingredients and green chemicals selection criteria
(S.C. Johnson & Son 2018).
Exploring the potential of sustainable

chemistry metrics to assess and communicate
performance
As highlighted in Part I, Ch. 1, there is currently

no common understanding among stakeholders
of sustainable chemistry or how to assess
information about the sustainability of chemical
processes and products. A recent report by The German Environment Agency (UBA)
the United States Government Accountability developed a Guide on Sustainable Chemicals,
Office (2018) highlights the challenges of using a decision tool for substance manufacturers,
different metrics, which incorporate different formulators and end users (UBA 2011). Since
factors, in order to evaluate the sustainability of 2016 there is a corresponding IT tool, SubSelect
processes or products. It finds that this impedes (UBA 2016), which can be used to measure the
the development and adoption of sustainable sustainability of Chemical Leasing projects (UBA
chemistry technologies, while there is as yet 2018) and has an ongoing activity on sustainable
no common understanding of how to measure chemistry case studies. At the international level,
progress towards green and sustainable UNEP has developed an analysis of submissions
chemistry. of cases from stakeholders that have relevant
experience with the issue of sustainable
Efforts are under way to advance a common chemistry, in response to a mandate received
understanding of green and sustainable from the second UN Environment Assembly
chemistry. For example, one study (Tickner and (UNEA-2). Among other considerations, it looks
582
Part IV
at the possibility of developing practical guidance Integrating chemicals and waste into metrics
on sustainable chemistry (UNEP 2019). and reporting schemes
A review of existing sustainability metrics and

reporting in the chemical industry focuses on
7.4 Strengthening the chemicals and “traditional” environmental and social concerns
waste dimension of sustainability such as job creation, labour rights, carbon
metrics and reporting footprints and resource efficiency. Specific issues
of relevance to chemicals management are often
The metrics and reporting landscape is inadequately addressed and not integrated into
complex and fragmented companies’ sustainability strategies (Cockcroft
and Persich 2017). Similarly, related and chemical-
The rapid proliferation of sustainability reporting intensive downstream industries could enhance
instruments has created a complex and the consideration of chemicals and waste in
fragmented landscape (KPMG et al. 2016). One their reporting efforts. Opportunities also exist
study found more than 2,500 different metrics to further and more comprehensively integrate
for supply chain performance reporting (Ahi and chemicals and waste management issues into
Searcy 2015). While the availability of a large existing and widely used reporting schemes like
set of metrics may allow companies to report the GRI.
on specific aspects of particular relevance, it
also presents challenges in regard to providing Ensuring that metrics are fit for purpose and
meaningful information. Technological advances audience
(e.g. in the context of big data) could help in
gathering and analyzing publicly available In some cases simplified metrics are needed for
sustainability reporting data, in order to create effective communication of relevant information
useful data points for chemicals management to the target audience, such as investors or
across the value chain. consumers. Footprint indicators aim to do this by
providing a single consolidated metric. However,
Sustainability instruments and metrics to assess depending on the approach used, footprints
performance with respect to chemicals and waste could also be used to draw attention to a selected
vary significantly, for example in terms of who stage of the life cycle while neglecting others,
undertakes them, who/what is being evaluated, which might give an incomplete picture of the
the scope of the assessment, and the methods environmental impact. Life cycle assessments
used and the audience. Depending on these may help provide a more comprehensive picture,
variables, the results communicated in terms including of potential trade-offs across different
of chemicals management performance, along stages of the life cycle, thus providing a more
with the transparency of the scheme, may vary useful basis for decision-making in certain
significantly. To ensure credibility, and to avoid contexts. Meanwhile, increased complexity
the suspicion of “greenwashing”, it is important comes at a cost and the results may be less easily
for methods to be transparently documented accessible to non-experts (Ridoutt et al. 2015).
(Berrone 2016; Stacchezzini, Melloni and Lai
2016). It has been argued that the growing Existing sustainability metrics and reporting
number of footprint indicators, and the absence schemes have been criticized for not placing
of consistent methods, may result in incoherence the reported indicators in the environmental,
and contradictory results which could also social and economic context as this applies at
hamper the usefulness of such reporting for the relevant level (local, regional, global) (McElroy
policymaking and corporate decision-making and and Baue 2013; Kropp 2014; Haffar and Searcy
represent a market barrier for green products 2018). Context-based metrics that give due
(Ridoutt et al. 2015). consideration to relevant thresholds, including
where these are not fully understood, may help
determine the value of companies’ reported
efforts to increase the sustainability performance Some progress has been made towards the
of their portfolio. As regards chemicals and establishment of binding global norms in the
waste, this could prove a straightforward exercise area of sustainability reporting. At the UN
in some areas but a more complicated one in Conference on Sustainable Development in
others, as is also evident from the difficulties of Johannesburg (UN 2012), several proposals
identifying a measurable planetary boundary for were discussed concerning a potential legally
chemical pollution (Robèrt, Broman and Basile binding instrument on sustainability reporting
2013; Diamond et al. 2015). More research may for certain corporations. This concept was based
be needed in order to explore the value and on the “report or explain” approach that has
feasibility of context-based sustainability metrics. become law in Denmark and is a requirement
for companies listed on some stock exchanges.
Taking steps towards coherent metrics and Although the initiative failed, it had the support
reporting of various private businesses, including strategic
investors and insurers, and the debate around
There may be value in exploring opportunities the various proposals has perhaps opened the
to align and/or develop harmonized metrics and door to broader consideration of mandatory
reporting standards, as appropriate (e.g. at the environmental and social performance standards
sectoral level). Such efforts could draw on existing (Stec, Paszkiewicz and Antypas 2017).
international standards in order to increase
efficiency and the comparability of results. Life Proposals have been made to develop a common
cycle approaches, for example, could draw on conceptual framework for deriving chemical
International Organization for Standardizaton footprints (Rydberg et al. 2014). Several initiatives
(ISO) standards 14040 and 14044, which specify recognize and aim to address the need for
requirements and provide guidelines for life cycle coherence, comparability and transparency
assessment (Ridoutt et al. 2015). (SASB 2015; Future-Fit Foundation 2017; WBCSD
584
Part IV
2018; GRI n.d.). Efforts at the international level to 2020 framework. Nevertheless, further efforts
streamline approaches and facilitate coherence may be needed to align approaches, ensure that
are under way, including in the framework of the reporting is meaningful, increase transparency,
Life Cycle Initiative (UNEP 2017), the Society of and address the lack of a common green/
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2018) sustainable chemistry assessment framework.
and the EU Product Environmental Footprint. Taking into account the preceding analysis,
The role of metrics and reporting in chemicals measures to further advance sustainability
and waste management beyond 2020 metrics and reporting:
Despite the wide use of metrics and reporting, ›› Integrate chemicals and waste considerations
little of the information gathered currently into existing sustainability metrics and
feeds into international chemicals and waste reporting systems, where needed, and ensure
frameworks such as SAICM. Stakeholders may that all stages of the life cycle are covered.
wish to consider whether, and to what extent,
the integration of such reporting could help to ›› Explore the need for harmonized/aligned
evaluate progress under a future platform for metrics and reporting standards at relevant
sound management of chemicals and waste levels (e.g. at the sectoral level), drawing on
beyond 2020. existing international standards.
Of equal interest may be the question of ›› Scale up the use of sustainability reports
how efforts at the international level could in all chemical and downstream industries,
help increase the visibility of sustainability including through use of harmonized methods
reporting efforts, while at the same time holding and indicators at the relevant levels (e.g.
stakeholders accountable. It could be worthwhile sectoral).
to consider mechanisms for bringing together the
sustainability reporting schemes of the chemical ›› Ensure that reporting is carried out using
industry and relevant downstream sectors, quality standards, and use, where appropriate,
respective external partners and independent external reviewers and independent
bodies to facilitate sharing of lessons learned, and certification.
to identify steps towards increased coherence
(along with transparency). This could facilitate ›› Bring together relevant stakeholders to
collaboration in order to accelerate progress advance a common understanding of metrics,
towards the sound management of chemicals including exploring potential elements of a
and waste. practical guidance on sustainable chemistry.
›› Encourage investors to systematically take

into account sustainability reporting in their
7.5 Potential measures to advance investment decisions.
sustainability metrics and
reporting ›› Consider ways that relevant metrics and
reporting can play a more formal role in
Private sector metrics and reporting are measuring progress in order to implement
proliferating and have significant potential to the 2020 goal for the sound management of
complement existing mechanisms in a beyond chemicals and waste.
8/ Empowering and protecting citizens,

workers and consumers
Chapter Highlights
Citizens play a key role in shaping demand for safer and more sustainable
products, and in shaping relevant policies and action by governments and the
private sector.
Providing workers, consumers and communities with access to chemical

information is a requisite for implementing the public’s right-to-know, and for
ensuring effective public participation.
New information tools and mobile applications are available to engage citizens
in collecting and processing knowledge relevant to chemicals and waste
management.
Use of human rights laws may complement other legislation to advance the sound
management of chemicals and waste, and to ensure protection or seek remedies.
Research and policy development within the framework of the Human Rights
Council suggests that human rights violations have been caused by chemical
pollution.
A number of leading chemical companies have embraced a human rights

approach in advancing sustainability.
T
he management of chemicals and waste 8.1 The role of citizens and
is complex and often highly technical. consumers in shaping markets
Specialists, including toxicologists and and policies
risk managers, are at the forefront of decision-
making. Yet workers, consumers, citizens and Consumer awareness can drive market
institutional purchasers also have important transformation
roles to play in advancing sound chemicals
and waste management. They can stimulate Consumers can have a major impact
market transformation through their purchasing through purchasing products with desirable
decisions, participate in decision-making and, environmental properties (OECD 2018). By
when necessary, access the courts. means of their purchasing decisions, consumers
are able to influence the chemical content and
other characteristics of products placed on the
market. While ethical-value products were once
a niche with a small consumer base, mainstream
consumer demand has been increasing for
586
Part IV
products associated with environmental and The chemicals and waste dimension of
social responsibility and sustainability (Caruana consumer choices
and Chatzidakis 2014). Unilever, one of the world’s
largest consumer goods companies, reports that Today consumers are more sensitive to
its sustainable brands (which it describes as environmental, social and ethical concerns
combining “a strong purpose delivering a social or than at any time in the past (BCG 2017). In East-
environmental benefit”) grew 40 per cent faster Central Europe the health effects of chemicals
than the rest of its business in 2016 (Hancock have been ranked fourth among environmental
2017). concerns, with some one-third of the population
interested in receiving more information about
Consumers weigh environmental, social and this topic (Luca et al. 2018). In many countries
economic benefits when they shop for “green” there has been a steady increase in the number
products (Maniatis 2016). Other important factors of consumers concerned about health and
include a consumer’s green self-identity and peer wellness, as well as the short-term and long-
influence (Khare 2015). Shopping decisions are term effects of chemicals in food (Deloitte, Food
also determined by the impacts they are likely to Marketing Institute and Grocery Manufacturers
have in the future (Buerke et al. 2017). Women Association 2016; Nielsen 2016; International
have a particularly influential role to play, as they Food Information Council [IFIC] Foundation 2018).
control the large majority of consumer spending Food manufacturers, retailers and restaurant
(Silverstein and Sayre 2009). When awareness chains have responded to such concerns by
of products’ health and environmental impacts reformulating products to eliminate the use of
influences consumer choices, this suggests artificial colouring and flavouring, among other
that information dissemination (and access initiatives. However, redesigning products and
to information) can lead to more responsible marketing them can be a longer and far more
consumer behaviour (Scherer, Emberger-Klein expensive process than many consumers are
and Menrad 2017). aware of, while a newly introduced product
Chapter 8. Empowering and protecting citizens, workers and consumers 587
(or one with different ingredients) may not be Family Life Assurance Company of New York
popular with some traditional customers (Klara 2017).
2018).
At a time of rapid environmental and social
In the IFIC Foundation’s most recent annual change, younger consumers are playing an
Food and Health Survey, 59 per cent of important role in market transformation.
respondents said it was important for the foods According to a recent survey, 92 per cent of
they purchase and consume to be produced in millennials are more likely to buy products from
a sustainable way, compared with 50 per cent in ethical companies, while 82 per cent believe
2017. The respondents also indicated that their ethical brands outperform those of similar
two most important individual factors with companies that lack a commitment to ethical
respect to sustainability were reducing the use principles (Shewan 2017). Some companies have
of pesticides, followed by ensuring an affordable responded to consumer concerns by adopting
food supply. In addition, when asked which better sustainability practices and transparency
sources of information most influenced their in their value and supply chains (BCG 2017;
opinions on food safety issues, only 16 per cent of Unilever 2018). Behavioural insights can help
those aged 18 to 34 cited news articles or policymakers obtain a better understanding of
headlines, compared with 44 per cent of those the behavioural mechanisms that contribute
aged 65 and older (IFIC Foundation 2018). to environmental problems, and design and
implement effective policy interventions to
Understanding factors that affect consumer encourage more sustainable consumption,
behaviour investment and compliance decisions by both
individuals and firms. The policy areas in which
Consumers in selected developing countries behavioural sciences have been integrated
expressed greater concern about the include water and food consumption and waste
environmental impact of their consumption management (OECD 2017).
patterns than did those in some higher-income
countries (National Geographic and Globescan According to a recent UNIDO report, while
2014). “Green” consumers in India were willing consumers are influenced by the medium-
to support environmental protection and accept and long-term savings associated with the
environmental responsibilities and were inclined consumption of more energy-efficient products,
to look for green product-related information they do not always shift their preferences to
(Kumar and Ghodeswar 2015). In many countries goods with a lower environmental footprint
price is an important factor, even when there is fast enough to decouple economic growth and
a preference for green products (Drozdenko, environmental degradation. In that report three
Jensen and Coelho 2011; Biswas and Roy 2015; stages in the purchasing of an environmental
Hancock 2017). Pro-environmental attitudes good are identified: 1) consumers become aware
are not automatically converted into green of the environmental threat and are eager to help
purchasing behaviour if this means paying a mitigate it through their consumption choices;
considerable premium or settling for poorer 2) they obtain information about the impact of
performance (Olson 2013). At the same time, environmental goods on the environment; and
economic benefits or efficacy issues normally 3) they buy the environmental good based on
outweigh social or environmental benefits in their pro-environment attitude and their trust that
purchasing decisions (O’Rourke and Ringer 2016). the good will deliver the expected environmental
Nevertheless, in a recent survey in the United impact. However, at all three stages the following
States more than half of consumers said they biases may affect consumer behaviour: too
would drive a greater distance (up to 14 miles) little public awareness about the seriousness
and pay more (up to 19 per cent) in order to shop of the impending environmental threat; lack
at a “responsible store” (American Family Life of information about products, costs and, in
Assurance Company of Columbus and American some cases, potential savings; and perceptions
588
Part IV
that companies may make exaggerated claims and activities in their communities, and the
or even lie about their products’ environmental opportunity to participate in decision-making
attributes (UNIDO 2017, pp. 19-20). processes. States shall facilitate and encourage
public awareness and participation by making
information widely available. Effective access to
judicial and administrative proceedings, including
8.2 Procedural environmental rights: redress and remedy, shall be provided.”
exploring the chemicals and
waste dimension The first treaty to address procedural
environmental rights was the UNECE Convention
To empower citizens, consumers, workers and on Access to Information, Public Participation
the public, through informing them and engaging in Decision-Making and Access to Justice
them in environmental actions, individual in Environmental Matters (or the Aarhus
countries as well as several international bodies Convention), which entered into force in 2001.
have promulgated a range of policy measures, Most recently, the 2018 Regional Agreement on
also referred to as “procedural environmental Access to Information, Public Participation and
rights” (Peters 2018). An early measure taken Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America
at the international level was the adoption of and the Caribbean (the Escazú Agreement) was
Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration at the UN adopted. Its purpose is to guarantee full and
Conference on Environment and Development effective implementation of the rights of access to
in 1992. Principle 10 states that “Environmental environmental information, public participation
issues are best handled with the participation and access to justice in environmental matters.
of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. It is the first treaty in the world to include
At the national level, each individual shall have specific provisions to ensure a safe and enabling
appropriate access to information concerning the environment for environmental human rights
environment that is held by public authorities, defenders (UN 2018a). Although the scope of
including information on hazardous materials these agreements is broader in scope than
© Sasin Tipchai
chemicals and waste management, they support several provisions about access to information,
chemicals and waste management actions under public registries, environmental education and
topics such as labelling of chemicals, providing awareness, and public participation. It also
communities with data on chemical releases by provides that information relating to the health
major facilities in their vicinity, and accessing and safety of people and the environment shall
the courts when citizens’ rights to a healthy not be considered confidential. The Minamata
environment have been violated. Convention is consistent with the Aarhus
Convention, which specifically provides that
commercial confidentiality cannot be used as
grounds for refusal to disclose information
8.3 Advancing sound management of about emissions to the environment. Negotiated
chemicals and waste through the through a multi-stakeholder process, the SAICM
right-to-know Overarching Policy Strategy (OPS) adopted in
2006 includes a range of provisions striking a
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 4.7 balance between the disclosure of information
specifically aims to ensure that all learners and protecting legitimate, legally protected
acquire the knowledge and skills needed to interests (Box 8.1).
promote sustainable development, including
through education for sustainable development The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed
and sustainable life styles, which will enable Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
citizens to take informed decisions (UNESCO Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade,
2017). If citizens are to develop knowledge which entered into force in 2004, also provides
and make informed choices, the right-to-know for the right-to-know through public awareness
about chemicals and waste is a key factor. It is and outreach activities. Other relevant measures
also an important market mechanism. Several in the Convention include the prior informed
studies have shown that mandatory disclosure consent (PIC) procedure, the need for export
of information can have an impact on consumer notifications for substances that are not listed
behaviour and health (Mathios 2000). to Annex III (providing parties with information
on chemicals coming through their borders), as
Under the right to information, people have well as the requirements set out under Article 13
a right-to-know whether they are, or may be, of the Convention, which require labelling (to
exposed to hazardous chemicals. Right-to-know ensure adequate availability of information with
is essential in order to give effect to other rights, regard to risks and/or hazards to human health
such as the right to participate in decision-making or the environment) and the inclusion of a safety
and policymaking, due process, and the right data sheet (for occupational purposes).
to an effective remedy. To realize the right to
information, information about the potential Both the Aarhus Convention and the 2018
impacts of substances must be available, Escazú Agreement establish an enforceable
accessible, functional and non-discriminatory right to access environmental information,
(United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human including information on chemicals and waste
Rights and Toxics [UN Special Rapporteur] 2016a). management. Outside these two regions, there
are general freedom of information acts in many
International environmental agreements countries with enforcement provisions in the
advancing right-to-know spirit of Article 19 of the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (“Everyone has the right to
A number of international chemicals and freedom of opinion and expression; this right
waste agreements have provisions to advance includes freedom to hold opinions without
right-to-know. The Minamata Convention on interference and to seek, receive and impart
Mercury is a recent expression of the principle information and ideas through any media and
that information about chemicals and hazards regardless of frontiers.”).
belongs in the public domain. It includes
590
Part IV
Box 8.1 Excerpts from paragraph 15 of the SAICM Overarching Policy Strategy (OPS) (UNEP 2015)
“The objectives of the Strategic Approach [to International Chemicals Management] with regard
to knowledge and information are:
A. To ensure that knowledge and information on chemicals and chemicals management are
sufficient to enable chemicals to be adequately assessed and managed safely throughout their
life cycle;
B. To ensure, for all stakeholders:

1. That information on chemicals throughout their life cycle, including, where appropriate,
chemicals in products, is available, accessible, user-friendly, adequate and appropriate to
the needs of all stakeholders. Appropriate types of information include their effects on
human health and the environment, their intrinsic properties, their potential uses, their
protective measures and regulation;
2. That such information is disseminated in appropriate languages by making full use of,
among other things, the media, hazard communication mechanisms such as the Globally
Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals and relevant provisions of
international agreements;
C. To ensure that, in making information available in accordance with paragraph 15 (b), confidential
commercial and industrial information and knowledge are protected in accordance with
national laws or regulations or, in the absence of such laws or and regulations, are protected
in accordance with international provisions. In the context of this paragraph, information on
chemicals relating to the health and safety of humans and the environment should not be
regarded as confidential ….”
National and sub-national right-to-know An example of right-to-know schemes advanced

at the sub-national level is Proposition 65 (or
Laws around the world provide for public the Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement
access to information held by public authorities. Act of 1986), promulgated in the State of
These laws can often be used to gain access California in the United States (California Office
to information about chemicals and waste of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment
management. Where countries do not have 2013). It requires businesses in California to
such provisions, they can adopt them pursuant provide warnings about significant exposures
to Guideline 15 in the UNEP Guidelines for the to chemicals in products, homes or workplaces,
Development of National Legislation on Access or those released to the environment, that
to Information, Public Participation and Access cause cancer, birth defects and other types of
to Justice in Environmental Matters (the Bali reproductive harm. This enables people living in
Guidelines), adopted by the UNEP Governing that state to make informed decisions about their
Council in 2010. Guideline 15 establishes exposures to these chemicals. Proposition 65
that “States should ensure that any natural requires California to publish a list (updated
or legal person who considers that his or her once a year) of such chemicals. It has grown to
request for environmental information has include approximately 900 chemicals since it was
been unreasonably refused, in part or in full, first published in 1987.
inadequately answered or ignored, or in any
other way not handled in accordance with Providing chemical product information:
applicable law, has access to a review procedure consumers’ right-to-know
before a court of law or other independent and
impartial body to challenge such a decision, act An example of consumers’ right-to-know
or omission by the public authority in question.” is a provision under the European REACH
(Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and manufactures are important in building trust

Restriction of Chemicals) Regulation. For and providing easily understandable information
substances of very high concern (SVHC) on a (Hartmann and Klaschka 2017).
“candidate list”, consumers have the right to
receive information from the suppliers of an Providing chemical pollution information to
article about the presence of any SVHC in that the public: community right-to-know
article, and the supplier is obliged to provide
the information within 45 days (Klaschka 2017). Community right-to-know provisions help
Box 8.2 describes the US EPA’s Chemical Access increase the public’s knowledge and access
Data Tool. to information on chemicals at individual
facilities, as well as their uses and releases
While initiatives like the one under REACH support to the environment. These provisions allow
consumers’ right-to-know, some consumers public concerns to be addressed regarding
may not be capable of using information about environmental and safety hazards due to
hazardous substances in products adequately, the storage, handling and emissions of toxic
even if they have a high educational level. chemicals in the vicinity of industrial installations.
Consumers may also assume, wrongly, that
products with eco-labelling, natural personal care The public’s right-to-know about chemicals and
products or products without hazard pictograms waste is greatly enhanced by the use of structured,
do not contain harmful substances. Organic food accessible databases, such as Pollutant Release
or untreated food, homeopathic medicines and and Transfer Registers (PRTRs), which enable
natural personal care products may all contain informed participation in environmental decision-
harmful substances (Klaschka 2016; United making. PRTRs collect and provide information
States Food and Drug Administration 2017). An on chemicals released to the environment or
enhanced strategy to communicate chemical risks otherwise managed as waste. They support
in consumer products may be thus warranted, the public’s right-to-know and provide useful
including extensive participation by target groups. information for evaluating the performance of
Furthermore, greater efforts by authorities and facilities, sectors and governments (Wine et al.
Box 8.2 The US EPA’s Chemical Access Data Tool (US EPA 2017)
The Chemical Data Access Tool (CDAT) provides a range of chemical-specific information submitted
to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) under the Toxic Substances
Control Act (TSCA). The CDAT enables searches of the following databases:
›› The CDR database includes non-confidential information on the manufacture (including

import), processing and use of chemicals reported under the Chemical Data Reporting (CDR)
rule.
›› The eDoc database includes a broad range of health and safety information reported by
industry under TSCA Sections 4, 5, 8(d) and 8(e).
›› The TSCA Test Submissions (TSCATS) database is an online index to unpublished, non-
confidential studies covering chemical testing results and adverse effects of chemicals on
health and ecological systems.
›› The High Production Volume Information System (HPVIS) database provides access to health
and environmental effects information obtained through the High Production Volume (HPV)
Challenge.
›› The declassified CBI database includes health and safety studies, and other information,
submitted to the EPA in which chemical identities have been declassified as part of its effort to
increase transparency in TSCA.
592
Part IV
2014). An early example was the Toxics Release information, leading to greater NGO participation
Inventory under the Emergency Planning and in environmental governance (although with
Community Right-to-Know Act in the United limited impact) (Tan 2014). Such initiatives could
States. provide a good starting point for developing a
PRTR or similar system.
Many countries, including in low- and middle-
income regions, subsequently introduced PRTRs. The private sector also plays an important role
Chile’s PRTR, for example, contains accessible in advancing communities’ right-to-know. The
information through a website including a FAQ ZDHC Group, for example, is a coalition of textile,
page in Spanish and English that explains the leather and footwear industries and related
sources of air and water pollutants, their impact chemical industry and other solution providers
on health and how they can be avoided, among that supports the improvement of chemicals
other information (Registro de Emisiones y management and the development of publicly
Transferencias de Contaminantes n.d.). While available indicators throughout the apparel and
China does not have a PRTR system in place, footwear supply chains to reduce discharges
it established a set of Open Environmental of hazardous chemicals to the environment.
Information measures in 2008 requiring local ZDHC member brands encourage their supply
governments to disclose information on, among partners to proactively disclose PRTR information
others, environmental laws and regulations; (ZDHC 2014; ZDHC 2018). Another important
the allocation of emission quotas and permits; example is the Clean Electronics Production
pollution fees and penalties collected; and lists Network (CEPN) (Green America Center for
of violators of environmental regulations. These Sustainability Solutions n.d. a; Green America
measures have given citizens the ability to request Center for Sustainability Solutions n.d. b).
Workers’ right-to-know Using the internet and apps to disseminate

chemical information and knowledge
Workers’ right-to-know refers to their right to
information about chemicals in the workplace. New information and communication
The ILO Chemicals Convention of 1990 (No. 170) technologies, such as mobile applications,
states that “workers have a need for, and right are now available to help citizens, consumers
to, information about the chemicals they use at and workers better understand the chemical
work” and includes specific obligations in this composition of certain products and their
regard. Employers can use specific measures potential exposure (Box 8.3). While these
and tools such as labelling, hazard symbols, applications cannot replace a full risk
safety data sheets and training to inform workers assessment, many of them feature chemical
about chemical hazards. The United States hazard information, thus providing information
Occupational Safety and Health Administration about intrinsic properties of chemicals and/or
(US OSHA) acknowledges workers’ right-to-know information on chemicals subject to regulatory
about hazards present in the workplace and processes. This information allows users to
how to protect themselves (US OSHA 2016). In consider a range of possible measures. For
Canada all employees have a right-to-know what example, after a consumer using the Toxfox
hazards are present on the job and how these app sent a SVHC information request for a bicycle
hazards can affect them (Canadian Centre for care set to the sporting goods manufacturer
Occupational Health and Safety 2018). In Europe Decathlon, the company discontinued sales of
workers’ right-to-know about workplace hazards the product, which contained the hazardous
is managed by the European Agency for Safety plasticizer Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)
and Health at Work (European Agency for Safety (LIFE AskREACH 2018).
and Health at Work 2018).
Box 8.3 Examples of mobile applications for disseminating chemical information
›› ToxFox, a smartphone app by Friends of the Earth Germany, provides information about
endocrine-disrupting chemicals in cosmetics and allows users to submit SVHC inquiries. It has
a continuously growing database, in which suppliers’ responses are saved. Suppliers can also
enter data about the SVHC content of their articles (Klaschka 2017).
›› The AskREACH mobile app, similar to ToxFox, is scheduled to be launched in April 2019. It will
be available throughout Europe and may be adapted for use in each EU Member State (Lovell
2018).
›› The Dirty Dozen app helps consumers determine which fruits and vegetables are best bought
organic by identifying those with maximum pesticide residues. Another app for food is EWG’s
Healthy Living app, which allows users to scan a product, review its rating and buy the better,
healthier choice (Sammons 2016).
›› For cosmetics and personal care products, apps such as Cosmetifique and Think Dirty allow
consumers to make better beauty choices by listing potentially toxic ingredients when they
scan a product and even to find cleaner alternatives to toxic products (Sammons 2016).
›› GoodGuide provides consumers with product information to help guide more informed buying
decisions. Products are assessed by a team of over 50 scientific and regulatory professionals
with expertise in chemicals and chemical-containing products. The team includes chemists,
toxicologists, and life cycle assessment and regulatory experts (GoodGuide 2019).
While these apps are evolving, information is still scattered and it may not be easy to find
comprehensive information. A user-friendly, central coordinated information hub could be
helpful in raising awareness and enabling citizens to easily find comprehensive information from
scatted sources.
594
Part IV
Figure 8.1 DOZN scoring example (adapted from Sigma-Aldrich 2018)
Beta-amylase
Principe % improvements Remarks
55 Eliminated organic solvent usage and reduced overall waste generation by
1. Waste prevention 50%
2. Atom economy 52 Increased yields and reduced amount of raw materials used
96 Replaced organic solvents with water-based solutions and removes toxic

3. Less hazardous synthesis filtering agents
5. Safer solvents 100 Eliminated all organic solvent usage
6. Energy efficiency 100 New process eliminated need for elevated temperature and pressure
7. Renewable feedstock 71 More efficient environmental impact with new procedure
10. Design for degradation No change No increased environmental impact with new practice
12. Accident prevention 54 Eliminated flammability and reactivity dangers
Total 95%
Previous Re-engineered
Aggregate process process Scoring matrix (0 = most desirable)
score 2 100 0
43
DOZN (Quantitative Green Chemistry Evaluator) is an interactive web-based scoring matrix

based on the 12 Principles of Green Chemistry which allows users to calculate the relative
greenness of chemical products and processes (ACS Green Chemistry Institute 2017).
8.4 Public participation in chemicals possible range of scientific information for

and waste management regulatory processes. This includes public
consultations for making the final decision
International agreements, statutory legislation on which substances cannot be placed on
and public bodies around the world are providing the market, or used after a given date, unless
the public with rights and opportunities to they meet specific authorization requirements
contribute to and participate in decision-making (ECHA 2018). The US EPA has public participation
related to the environment, including with respect processes for certain pesticide registration
to chemicals and waste management. The actions as part of its Pesticide Program, providing
requirement to assess the environmental impacts an opportunity for the public to comment on risk
of a proposed project as part of a permitting assessments and proposed registration actions
process has become a global standard. As part (US EPA 2018). In China citizens increasingly make
of this assessment, it is generally considered use of information communication technologies,
necessary to provide for public participation. such as social media and blogging websites, to
The UNECE Convention on Environmental Impact further citizen participation in environmental
Assessment in a Transboundary Context (the sustainability initiatives and influence
Espoo Convention), which entered into force in governmental decision-making (He et al. 2017).
1997, and the UNECE Aarhus Convention together In Canada, under the Chemicals Management
establish a good international standard for public Plan, there are opportunities for the public and
participation in environmental decision-making. interested stakeholders to provide comments
and relevant information on risk assessments
Public participation in chemicals management and risk management measures (regulations,
pollution prevention planning notices, codes of
The European Chemicals Agency, for example, practice and guidelines) developed under the
organizes public consultations to obtain feedback Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999
from interested parties and gather the widest
(Government of Canada 2016; Government of and sold, as well as the materials and chemicals
Canada 2017). used in the product or during its manufacture.
On Facebook and LinkedIn a number of groups
Public participation in private sector initiatives share views and information on toxic chemicals
is important and evolving. Under the and sustainable chemistry. As major users of
International Council of Chemical Associations social media, 61 per cent of millennials think
(ICCA) Responsible Care® programme, senior social media is the “new power of youth” and
executives of member organizations sign 70 per cent consider it a force for change
the Responsible Care® Global Charter, which (Euro RSCG Worldwide 2011). With the rise of
is a public commitment to sound chemicals “complaint-vertising” it has also become common
management globally through enhancing the for users to make their complaints known on
organization’s environmental, health, safety social media, and these complaints may go viral
and security performance. Through the Global (Eisenhardt 2015). Companies have struggled with
Charter organizations also commit to engage the right way to respond to complaint-vertising;
stakeholders along the value chain and within social media are therefore steering companies
their communities. In addition, members commit towards sound management of chemicals that
to respond to community concerns about goes beyond compliance (Sanders 2017).
operations and chemicals; report information on
relevant chemical-related health or environmental As participants in environmental governance,
hazards promptly to appropriate authorities, citizens may exchange information, especially
employees, customers and any affected sectors in the Information Age. Through direct
of the public, as well as recommending protective communication they can extend their influence
measures; and increase knowledge through towards shaping policies (Soma et al. 2016). An
conducting and supporting relevant research example of social media supporting chemical risk
on the safety, health and environmental effects of management actions is the banning of plastic
products, processes and waste materials, among microbeads in various products. In the United
others (ICCA 2015; Chemical & Allied Industries’ States, for example, after it emerged through
Association 2017). social media that 8 trillion microbeads entered
aquatic habitats in that country per day, public
Initiatives triggered from within civil society are an support for a ban on microbeads grew, leading
important aspect of public participation. In 2015, to prohibition of the selling and distribution of
for example, NGOs from 15 countries convened products containing them (Imam 2015). Similarly,
and developed the Chemical Challenge to the through a social media campaign 385,000
Global Electronics Industry (GoodElectronics people signed a petition by Greenpeace urging
2015). More than 200 civil society groups and the United Kingdom (UK) Government to ban
activists from electronics production countries microbeads (Casson 2017), leading to a ban on
and from across the globe challenged the microplastics in that country (Carrington 2018).
electronics industry to improve its actions on More broadly, NGOs in more than 30 countries
chemicals management during the production worked on or helped to pass legislation to ban
process. In response, leading electronics microbeads in personal care products using
companies are now working with NGOs in the social media (Rochman et al. 2015), motivating
Clean Electronics Production Network (CEPN) cosmetic companies to use alternatives (Conick
with the goal of eliminating workers exposures 2018).
to hazardous chemicals.
Participation by citizens and workers in
Use of social media to advance public scientific knowledge generation
participation
“Citizen science”, sometimes also referred to
Social media have become platforms where as “community science” or “public participation
consumers, end users and NGOs can share in scientific research”, is a growing movement
information about how a product is manufactured that enlists the public in scientific discovery,
596
Part IV
monitoring and experimentation across a wide plastic buckets to measure emissions from a
range of disciplines (Theobald et al. 2015). There local petroleum refinery in view of lack of support
is growing evidence that citizen science projects from the US EPA. Similar citizen action groups
can achieve gains in knowledge and increase have used these buckets to collect and validate
public awareness of the diversity of scientific data about exposures, and the buckets have
research (Bonney et al. 2016). One concern about been approved as a reliable source of data for
citizen science projects is data quality; however, exposures (Joyce and Senier 2017).
it has been shown that participants can provide
accurate and complete information as long as Workers, too, can contribute to data collection.
scientists have a sufficiently flexible or inclusive Based on data collected from silicone-based
view of a citizen scientist’s role (Wiersma, Parsons wristband passive samplers worn by fire fighters,
and Lukyanenko 2016). a study revealed that the fire fighters could be
exposed to VOCs and risk management was
As a part of a citizen science project to monitor undertaken (Santiago et al. 2018). Real-time
concentrations of neonicotinoids in honey, toxic gas detection during working hours may
researchers in Switzerland analyzed honey be carried out using a smartphone coupled hand-
brought back by travellers from various world held array reader. Signals from a colorimetric
regions (Mitchell et al. 2017) (Figure 8.2). The reader can be transferred to a smartphone,
International Coastal Cleanup is another example where an app displays the detected toxic gases
of a citizen science project. Volunteers around the and their exposure levels (Devadhasan et al.
world collect debris from local beaches and tally 2017).
it using the Ocean Conservancy’s standardized
data format (Zettler et al. 2016). A collaborative
effort between researchers at Washington State
University in the United States and a small town is 8.5 Access to justice in chemicals and
an example of community involvement in waste waste management
management research and decision-making
(Youngquist et al. 2015). In Contra Costa County, Access to justice is a basic principle of the rule
California, citizens used low-cost air monitoring of law. In the absence of access to justice,
technology based on the use of inexpensive people are unable to make their voices heard,
Figure 8.2 Citizen science project to monitor the concentration of neonicotinoids in honey (adapted
from Mitchell et al. 2017, p. 110)
No neonicotinoids Detection limit to 0.01-0.1 0.1-1.0 1.0-10 Over 10 (nanogram/gram)

detected 0.01
exercise their rights, challenge discrimination or

hold decision-makers accountable (UN 2018b).
Access to justice helps ensure public authorities’
accountability to the public. It also provides the
public with assured final recourse to justice with
a view to ensuring correct implementation of
environmental law (Pan-European Coalition of
Environmental Citizens Organisations 2016).
Under Article 9.1 of the Aarhus Convention,

Parties have agreed on standards for access
to justice in respect to information requests. © Antoine Taveneaux, People of Tibet (in Nagqu Horse festival) CC BY-SA 3.0
For example, a person does not need to show
an interest in the information requested in
order to have standing to challenge a refusal to environmental protection activities for at least
provide the information in whole or in part. The five consecutive years to initiate public interest
Convention is also concerned with matters of environmental litigation. Before this amendment
judicial administration, including costs, fairness went into effect there were as few as eight cases
and timeliness. Similarly, members of the public a year, but since 2015 there have been over 117
whose rights to participate in environmental public interest environmental cases (UNEP 2018).
decision-making are not respected have the
option to seek access to justice under Article 9.2 Standing requirements to access courts
of the Aarhus Convention. The same principle
is expressed in the UNEP Bali Guidelines Countries are increasingly recognizing the standing
(Guideline 16) as follows: “States should ensure of environmental civil society organizations
that the members of the public concerned have to bring cases in the public interest aimed at
access to a court of law or other independent protecting human health and the environment.
and impartial body to challenge the substantive Most legal systems have required that members
and procedural legality of any decision, act or of the public challenging such decisions meet
omission relating to public participation in certain standing requirements, expressed as the
decision-making in environmental matters.” “public concerned.” However, there is a trend
towards eliminating formal requirements such as
Access to justice in matters of law those related to the registration of organizations
enforcement or of the organizations’ purposes. For example,
Mexico now recognizes “collective actions” by
Public concern about the environment, human social groups that may not be legally registered
health and exposure to chemicals, and other (UNEP 2015). In California, Proposition 65 (the
hazards and risks, can be harnessed to help public Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement
authorities enforce environmental laws. This Act of 1986) provides citizen standing to sue.
role is contained within the Aarhus Convention Any individual acting in the public interest
(Article 9.3), the Escazú Agreement (Article 8.2(c)) may enforce Proposition 65 by filing a lawsuit
and the Bali Guidelines (Guideline 17). Such against a business alleged to be in violation of it
provisions give the public opportunities to (California Office of Environmental Health Hazard
meet their duty to protect and improve the Assessment 2013). Under the Aarhus Convention,
environment for the benefit of present and future certain established environmental NGOs should
generations, as recognized in Principle 1 of the be granted standing to challenge decisions even
Declaration of the United Nations Conference on when they would not meet the strict legal interest
the Human Environment, agreed in Stockholm test under some legal systems. On the other
in 1972. For example, in 2015 China amended hand, under United States jurisprudence an
its Environmental Protection Law to allow any organization must have suffered an “injury in
duly registered NGO that had been engaged in
598
Part IV
fact” to have standing to challenge a government threatened by the presence of hazardous

decision. chemicals and waste (UN Special Rapporteur
2016b). Every country has recognized one or
Science in judicial proceedings more human rights that are directly or indirectly
implicated by the management of chemicals
Judicial systems around the world have and waste. For example, virtually every country
addressed the challenges presented by complex has ratified the UN Convention on the Rights
scientific considerations in environmental cases of the Child, which recognizes the right of the
by establishing specialized courts. To expand child to the highest attainable standard of health
and deepen systems of access to remedy in and requires that states shall take appropriate
India, the Green Tribunal Act was passed in measures to combat disease and malnutrition,
2010. This Act stemmed from the 1996 Indian taking into consideration the dangers and risks
Council for EnviroLegal Action v. Union of India of environmental pollution.
case, where the court stated that a system of
green tribunals with jurisdiction over civil and The right-to-know about possible exposures to
criminal aspects of environmental claims could chemicals and hazardous wastes has also been
help achieve expediency of justice, establish guaranteed through human rights instruments.
panels of experts to resolve highly technical An example is the European Convention on
cases, and help reduce large caseloads (UNDP Human Rights, Article 8, which provides for
2014). Other prominent examples of specialized respect for one’s “private and family life, his
environmental courts may be found in Australia, home and his correspondence.” In Guerra v. Italy
Chile, Kenya, Pakistan and the Philippines. the Court interpreted Article 8 in a case where
Altogether at least 44 countries have some form authorities had failed to provide information
of environmental court. The Escazú Agreement about the risks associated with a chemical factory
includes a reference to shifting the burden of or about emergency procedures. It affirmed that
proof in certain cases where chemicals and severe environmental pollution could interfere
hazardous wastes could be involved. Article 8.3(e) with the right to respect for home, private life
refers to “measures to facilitate the production and family and held that the authorities had not
of evidence of environmental damage, when taken the necessary measures to ensure effective
appropriate and as applicable, such as the protection of this right by providing essential
reversal of the burden of proof and the dynamic information. A similar result was reached in
burden of proof.” the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in
the case of Claude-Reyes v. Chile. In interpreting
Article 13 of the American Convention on Human
Rights, which addresses the right to freedom
8.6 Human rights law with respect of expression (Inter-American Commission on
to chemicals and waste Human Rights 2011), the Court held that this right
management includes the right of the public to have access
to State-held information, as well as the State’s
Linkages to a range of human rights obligation to provide the information subject to
limited exceptions. Thus, the failure of a State
The use of human rights-based approaches body to disclose information on environmental
complements and provides a back-up to matters requested by an NGO violates Article 13
legislative and regulatory measures in ensuring of the American Convention on Human Rights.
protection and access to effective remedies.
Hazardous substances and wastes, including The right to a healthy environment
toxic chemicals, are associated with a broad
range of civil, cultural, economic, political and A large majority of UN Member States have
social rights. Under a number of international constitutional provisions that include the right to a
human rights instruments, countries have a healthy environment in some form, which can be
duty to protect human rights, including those considered an economic, social or cultural right.
As elaborated in Stockholm Principle 1 adopted sanitation, housing, and other cultural, civil and
in 1972, the natural environment is essential to political rights.
the enjoyment of basic human rights and the
right to life itself. Violations of environmental Enforcing such rights has traditionally presented
rights may have a profound impact in regard to challenges, but recently certain developments in
a wide variety of human rights, including those international jurisprudence have clarified that
to life, self-determination, food, water, health, they are capable of direct enforcement (Box 8.4).
Box 8.4 Cases of human rights protection in matters of chemicals and waste
The use of environmental rights and human rights to obtain protection or seek remedies related
to chemicals and waste is widespread. Examples include:
›› In Mexico, the Comisión Nacional de los Derechos Humanos (CNDH) issued a number of
recommendations related to environmental protection even before the right to a healthy
environment was included in the Mexican Constitution in 2012. In 2010 CNDH found that the
National Water Commission did not comply with environmental standards, which caused the
death of a child and affected the health of people living in the vicinity of the Santiago River. It
recommended that the National Water Commission warn residents of the risk of pollution and
take steps to clean up and restore the affected areas (Environmental Rights Database [ERDb]
n.d. a).
›› The Supreme Court of India has been active in protecting the right to life from environmental
degradation. It ordered the closing down of limestone quarries and mining operations, among
others, to protect citizens’ right to life (ERDb n.d. b).
›› In the United Kingdom, the Trafigura waste dumping case is an example of justice successfully
accessed for crimes committed abroad. A group action by approximately 30,000 claimants
from Côte d’Ivoire against Trafigura Ltd. was heard by the High Court of Justice in London in
2006. In 2009 the parties reached a settlement, with Trafigura agreeing to pay each claimant
approximately US dollars 1,500 (A/HRC/36/41/Add.1).
600
Part IV
A recent case is Lagos del Campo v. Peru of 2017 In 2011 the HRC affirmed “that the way hazardous
in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, substances and wastes are managed throughout
the first decision of that court which recognized their lifecycle, including manufacturing,
the direct enforceability of economic, social or distribution, use and final disposal, may have
cultural rights. In this case the subject right was an adverse impact on the full enjoyment of
the right to work (International Network for human rights”. Similarly, the Special Rapporteur
Economic, Social & Cultural Rights 2018). Even has emphasized that the right to information
in federal systems where there is no such right at on hazardous substances and wastes is
the constitutional level, many constituent states, central to the enjoyment of human rights and
provinces or republics establish such rights in fundamental freedoms. He also makes the case
their own laws. that information should be available, accessible
and functional for everyone, consistent with the
UN Human Rights Council initiatives and principle of non-discrimination (United Nations
appointments Human Rights Council [UN HRC] 2015; Office
of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Since 1995 the Commission on Human Rights Human Rights 2018).
and its successor, the Human Rights Council
(HRC), have mandated a Special Rapporteur to Research recently undertaken within the mandate
report on the implications for human rights of of the Special Rapporteur suggests that human
the environmentally sound management and rights violations and abuses caused by chemical
disposal of hazardous substances and wastes. pollution are still prevalent. A UK-based non-
While the Commission on Human Rights mandate profit, the Business & Human Rights Resource
in 1995 covered waste, the HRC expanded the Centre (BHRRC), has collaborated with the UN
mandate in 2011 and appointed a UN Special Special Rapporteur to analyze trends concerning
Rapporteur on the implications for human rights alleged cases of human rights abuse relating to
of the environmentally sound management and the chemical industry, along with responses by
disposal of hazardous substances and wastes. States and companies. The analysis notes that
The mandate includes monitoring and reporting despite positive steps to address toxic pollution
on the human rights impacts of such substances from the chemical industry, critical gaps remain,
throughout their life cycle, including production, particularly in protecting the rights of workers,
management, handling, distribution and final children, low-income communities and other
disposal. vulnerable groups. Figure 8.3 shows human
rights impacts by life cycle stage, as identified
Figure 8.3 Human rights impacts by life cycle stage (adapted from BHRRC 2018, p. 3)
Raw
materials
extraction
22%
Release
and/or
disposal
37%
Manufacture
11%
Development/
testing
Use 8%
22%
in the report. It concludes by recommending responsibility movement has proceeded through

that States and businesses strengthen chemical various certification schemes, membership
industry regulations and practices in line with organizations, guidelines and standards, such
human rights standards (BHRRC 2018). as the ISO 26000 standards for corporate social
responsibility, the Global Reporting Initiative, the
In an August 2018 report to the HRC, the Special Equator Principles and the UN Global Compact.
Rapporteur recommended that “States must In parallel, critics of the voluntary approach have
ensure that legislation and other practices reflect advocated for the adoption of binding norms
their duty to respect, protect and fulfil human governing corporate behaviour with social
rights obligations implicated by hazardous and environmental impacts, largely under the
substances and wastes […] [and] that victims rubric of corporate accountability (Antypas and
of the effects of hazardous substances and Paszkiewicz 2015).
wastes have access to an effective remedy”,
further noting that “the right to information is In 2008 the UN Human Rights Council adopted
critical in the context of toxics”. This report sets the UN Protect, Respect and Remedy Framework
out findings from four years of monitoring in for Business and Human Rights, commonly
industries and countries around the world, with known as “the Ruggie Framework” after the
a focus on the situation of workers exposed UN Special Rapporteur, Professor John Ruggie.
to toxic and otherwise hazardous substances This framework expresses the global standard
worldwide. It argues that many companies and of expected corporate conduct and provides
national governments are not meeting their the baseline for corporate responsibility with
duty to uphold the rights of workers under the respect to human rights as “part of the company’s
Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the social license to operate”. It centres on three
International Covenant on Economic, Social and “differentiated but complementary” pillars of
Cultural Rights. These stipulate the right to safe responsibility: the State’s duty to protect against
and healthy working conditions. human rights abuses by third parties (including
business); corporate responsibility to protect
The report proposes 15 principles which are human rights; and the need for more effective
relevant to strengthening chemicals and waste access to remedies.
management beyond 2020. They aim at helping
governments and businesses ensure protection The Ruggie Framework was followed by the
from exposure to hazardous chemicals, which the endorsement in 2011 of the UN’s Guiding
Special Rapporteur referred to as a global health Principles on Business and Human Rights
crisis. The proposed principles broadly cover the (Antypas and Paszkiewicz 2015). The international
responsibilities and duties of businesses and community indicated its commitment to these
governments; worker access to information; and Guiding Principles through the UN General
“remedies” to hold those who violate workers’ Assembly’s adoption of the 2030 Agenda for
rights accountable (UN HRC 2018). A subsequent Sustainable Development in 2015. In response to
report in October 2018 explored opportunities the adoption of these Guiding Principles, major
to further integrate the human rights dimension chemical companies such as BASF and Merck
of chemicals and waste into the beyond 2020 have committed to protect human rights (Merck
framework. 2017; BASF 2018). Important steps companies
may take to prevent and address human rights
Corporate responsibility, accountability and impacts related to their production and products
human rights include the use of a life cycle approach. Hence,
everyone in the entire chain of a product’s
The role of corporations in achieving sustainability life cycle has a responsibility to consider the
was recognized as long ago as the World environmental, social and economic impacts of
Commission on Environment and Development a product at every stage of its life cycle (BHRRC
report Our Common Future, published in 1987. 2018).
The corporate sustainability or corporate social
602
Part IV
8.7 Potential measures to empower information concerning hazards and possible

and protect citizens, workers and exposures to chemicals is made available.
consumers
›› Engage citizens and the public in collecting
The roles of citizens and consumers in advancing data relevant for scientific chemical analysis
the sound management of chemicals and and effective chemicals risk management
waste are crucial. Enabling policies, including policies.
the right-to-know of workers, consumers and
communities, public participation, and access to ›› Consider stricter regulation that requires
justice, coupled with innovative technologies, can clear and consumer-friendly advice for using
reap the full potential of citizens to engage and harmful products in a safe way.
protect their rights to a healthy environment.
Taking into account the preceding analysis, ›› Initiate corporate campaigns, multi-
stakeholders may wish to consider the following stakeholder collaborations, and working with
measures to empower and protect workers, socially responsible investors.
consumers and citizens:
›› Ensure that citizens can access the courts in
›› Take steps so that consumers have appropriate matters of chemical pollution and human
knowledge concerning chemicals in products health protection related to chemicals and
in order to make informed decisions, including waste.
through innovative technology applications.
›› Encourage all chemical companies to embrace
›› Develop and strengthen worker, consumer the UN Guiding Principles on Business and
and community right-to-know policies and Human Rights.
laws, and ensure that relevant and complete
References
Chapter 1 Blum, C., Bunke, D., Hungsberg, M., Roelofs, E., Joas,
A., Joas, R., Blepp, M. and Stolzenberg, H.-C. (2017).
Abraham, M.A. and Nguyen, N. (2003). ‘Green The concept of sustainable chemistry: key drivers
engineering: defining the principles’- results from for the transition towards sustainable development.
the Sandestin conference. Environmental Progress Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy 5, 94-104. https://
22(4), 233-236. https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.670220410. doi.org/10.1016/j.scp.2017.01.001.
American Chemical Society (2019). History of green Cayuela, R. and Hagan, A. (2019). The Chemical Industry
chemistry. https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/ Under the 4th Industrial Revolution: The Sustainable,
greenchemistry/what-is-green-chemistry/history-of- Digital and Citizens One. Not yet published. Hoboken,
green-chemistry.html. Accessed 21 February 2019. NJ: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH.
American Sustainable Business Council and Cisco (2017). Industry 4.0: 11 questions answered, 1
Green Chemistry & Commerce Council (2015). September. Cisco Canada Blog. https://gblogs.cisco.
Making the Business & Economic Case for Safer com/ca/2017/09/01/industry-4-0-11-questions-
Chemistry. http://asbcouncil.org/sites/default/files/ answered/. Accessed 3 December 2018.
asbcsaferchemicalsreportpresred.pdf.
Clark, J.H. (2006). Green chemistry: today (and
Anastas, P.T. and Warner, J.C. (1998). Green Chemistry: tomorrow). Green Chemistry 8(1), 17-21. https://doi.
Theory and Practice. Oxford University Press. https:// org/10.1039/b516637n.
global.oup.com/academic/product/green-chemistry-
theory-and-practice-9780198506980?cc=ch&lang=en&. Deloitte and German Chemical Industry Association
(2017). Chemistry 4.0: Growth through Innovation in
Anastas, P.T. and Zimmerman, J.B. (2003). Design a Transforming World. https://www2.deloitte.com/
through the 12 Principles of Green Engineering: content/dam/Deloitte/global/Documents/consumer-
sustainability requires objectives at the molecular, industrial-products/gx-chemistry%204.0-full-report.
product, process, and system levels. Environmental pdf.
Science & Technology 37(5), 94A-101A. https://doi.
org/10.1021/es032373g. Erythropel, H.C., Zimmerman, J.B., de Winter, T.M.,
Petitjean, L., Melnikov, F., Lam, C.H., Lounsbury, A.W.,
Anastas, P.T. and Zimmerman, J.B. (2018). The United Mellor, K.E., Janković, N.Z., Tu, Q., Pincus, L.N., Falinski,
Nations sustainability goals: how can sustainable M.M., Shi, W., Coish, P., Plata, D.L. and Anastas, P.T
chemistry contribute? Current Opinion in Green (2018). The green ChemisTREE: 20 years after taking
and Sustainable Chemistry 13, 150-153. https://doi. root with the 12 principles. Green Chemistry 20(9),
org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2018.04.017. 1929-1961. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8gc00482j.
BCC Research (2016). Global concerns promoting European Commission (1996). Council Directive 96/61/
growth of ‘green’ chemistry markets, reports EC of 24 September 1996 concerning integrated
BCC Research, 4 April. Markertwired. http://www. pollution prevention and control. Official Journal of
marketwired.com/press-release/global-concerns- the European Comminities L(257), 26-40. https://eur-
promoting-growth-of-green-chemistry-markets- lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ
reports-bcc-research-2111318.htm. Accessed 3 June .L_.1996.257.01.0026.01.ENG&toc=OJ:L:1996:257:TOC.
2018.
European Commission (2017). Germany: Industrie 4.0.
Bernick, L. (2016). The $100 billion business case https://ec.europa.eu/growth/tools-databases/dem/
for safer chemistry, 6 May. Greenbiz. https://www. monitor/sites/default/files/DTM_Industrie%204.0.pdf.
greenbiz.com/article/100-billion-business-case-safer-
chemistry. Accessed 30 January 2019. German Environment Agency (2016). Sustainable
chemistry: what is sustainable chemistry? 3 May.
Bhattacharjee, N. and Swamynathan, Y. (2017). https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/topics/
Chemical giants see growth in green, clean tech, 27 chemicals/chemicals-management/sustainable-
July. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-du- chemistry#textpart-1. Accessed 19 February 2019.
pont-results-health-idUSKBN1AC2ZP. Accessed 6
August 2018. Hill, J., Kumar, D.D. and Verma, R.K. (2013). Challenges
for chemical education: engaging with green chemistry
and environmental sustainability. Journal of the
American Institute of Chemists 86(1), 24-31. http://www.
theaic.org/pub_thechemist_journals/Vol-86-No-1/Vol-
86-No1-Article-5.pdf.
604
Part IV
Jakobsen, S., Naik, K., Raberger, N. and Winkler, G. Stieger, G. (2015). Popcorn without fluorinated
(2017). Demystifying digital marketing and sales in the chemicals: retailer coop denmark introduces
chemical industry, February. McKinsey. https://www. microwave oven popcorn containing no fluorinated
mckinsey.com/industries/chemicals/our-insights/ substances in the food packaging, aims to phase out
demystifying-digital-marketing-and-sales-in-the- further chemicals of concern by 2017, 30 October. Food
chemical-industry. Accessed 16 September 2018. Packaging Forum. https://www.foodpackagingforum.
org/news/popcorn-without-fluorinated-chemicals.
Kirkpatrick, P. and Ellis, C. (2004). Chemical space. Nature Accessed 14 September 2018.
432(7019), 823-823. https://doi.org/10.1038/432823a.
Klei, A., Moder, M., Stockdale, O., Weihe, U. and Winkler, Analysis of Stakeholder Submissions on Sustainable
G. (2017). Digital in chemicals: from technology to Chemistry Pursuant to UNEA Resolution 2/7. http://www.
impact, July. McKinsey & Company. https://www. saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/meetings/OEWG3/
mckinsey.com/industries/chemicals/our-insights/ inf/OEWG3-INF-22-Analysis.pdf.
digital-in-chemicals-from-technology-to-impact.
Accessed 20 September 2018. United States Government Accountability Office (2018).
Chemical Innovation: Technologies to Make Processes
Kümmerer, K. (2017). Sustainable chemistry: a future and Products More Sustainable. https://www.gao.gov/
guiding principle. Angewandte Chemie International products/GAO-18-307.
anie.201709949. World Economic Forum (2017). Digital Transformation
Initiative: Chemistry and Advanced Materials Industry.
Linthorst, J.A. (2010). An overview: origins and http://reports.weforum.org/digital-transformation/
development of green chemistry. Foundations of wp-content/blogs.dir/94/mp/files/pages/files/dti-
Chemistry 12(1), 55-68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10698- chemistry-and-advanced-materials-industry-white-
009-9079-4. paper.pdf.
Mubofu, E.B. (2016). Castor oil as a potential renewable Zuin, V.G. (2016). Circularity in green chemical products,
resource for the production of functional materials. processes and services: innovative routes based on
Sustainable Chemical Processes 4(1), 11. https://doi. integrated eco-design and solution systems. Current
org/10.1186/s40508-016-0055-8. Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 2, 40-44.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2016.09.008.
Development (2012). The Role of Government Policy
in Supporting the Adoption of Green/Sustainable
Chemistry Innovations. http://www.oecd.org/ Chapter 2
officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote
=env/jm/mono(2012)3&doclanguage=en. American Chemical Society (2019a). Green chemistry:
history. https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and greenchemistry/what-is-green-chemistry/history-of-
Development (2018). Sustainable chemistry. http:// green-chemistry.html. Accessed 21 February 2019.
www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/risk-management/
sustainablechemistry.htm. Accessed 20 February 2019. American Chemical Society (2019b.). 12 Design
Principles of Green Chemistry. https://www.acs.
Philp, J.C., Ritchie, R.J. and Allan, J.E.M. (2013). Biobased org/content/acs/en/greenchemistry/what-is-green-
chemicals: the convergence of green chemistry with chemistry/principles/12-principles-of-green-chemistry.
industrial biotechnology. Trends in Biotechnology 31(4), html. Accessed 21 February 2019.
219-222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2012.12.007.
American Chemical Society (2019c). Green chemistry:
Pike Research (2011). Green chemistry: biobased education roadmap. https://www.acs.org/content/acs/
chemicals, renewable feedstocks, green polymers, en/greenchemistry/students-educators/education-
less-toxic alternative chemical formulations, and roadmap.html. Accessed 21 February 2019.
the foundations of a sustainable chemical industry.
Industrial Biotechnology 7(6), 431-433. https://doi. Anastas, N.D. (2015). Embedding toxicology into the
org/10.1089/ind.2011.1003. chemistry curriculum. In Worldwide Trends in Green
Chemistry Education. Zuin, V.G. and Mammino, L. (eds.).
Sarathy, V., Gotpagar, J. and Morawietz, M. (2017). The Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. Chapter 9. 137-
next wave of innovation in the chemicals industry, 5 156. https://doi.org/10.1039/9781782621942-00137.
June. Strategy+Business. https://www.strategy-business.
com/article/The-Next-Wave-of-Innovation-in-the- Armstrong, L.B., Rivas, M.C., Douskey, M.C. and
Chemicals-Industry. Baranger, A.M. (2018). Teaching students the
complexity of green chemistry and assessing growth
Sheldon, R.A. (2008). Green and sustainable chemistry: in attitudes and understanding. Current Opinion in
challenges and perspectives. Green Chemistry 10(4), Green and Sustainable Chemistry 13, 61-67. http://doi.
359-360. https://doi.org/10.1039/b804163f. org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2018.03.008.
605
Aubrecht, K.B., Padwa, L., Shen, X. and Bazargan, G. Eilks, I. and Rauch, F. (2012). Sustainable development
(2015). Development and implementation of a series and green chemistry in chemistry education. Chemistry
of laboratory field trips for advanced high school Education Research and Practice 13(2) 57-58. http://doi.
students to connect chemistry to sustainability. org/10.1039/C2RP90003C.
Journal Chemical Education 92(4), 631-637. http://doi.
org/10.1021/ed500630f. Eissen, M., Bahadir, M., König, B. and Ranke, J. (2008).
Developing and disseminating NOP: an online, open-
Barra, R. and González, P. (2018). Sustainable chemistry access, organic chemistry teaching resource to
challenges from a developing country perspective: integrate sustainability concepts in the laboratory.
education, plastic pollution, and beyond. Current Journal of Chemical Education 85(7), 1000-1005. http://
Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 9, 40-44. doi.org/10.1021/ed085p1000.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2017.12.001.
Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2017). Universities.
Beyond Benign (2019). Green chemistry education. https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/
https://www.beyondbenign.org/. Accessed 21 February programmes/education/universities. Accessed 2 April
2019. 2018.
Burmeister M. and Eilks I. (2012). An example of Global Network of Chemistry Centres (2016). A global
learning about plastics and their evaluation as a network of chemistry centres. G2C2 and GCN: a new
contribution to education for sustainable development partnership, working together to further the cause of
in secondary school chemistry teaching, Chemistry green chemistry. http://g2c2.greenchemistrynetwork.
Education Research and Practice 13(2), 59-68. http:// org/. Accessed 20 April 2018.
doi.org/10.1039/c1rp90067f.
Green Chemistry & Commerce Council (n.d.). Advancing
Cannon, A.S. Finster, D. Raynie, D. and Warner, J.C. green chemistry across sectors and supply chains.
(2017). Models for integrating toxicology concepts https://greenchemistryandcommerce.org/. Accessed
into chemistry courses and programs. Green Chemistry 2 January 2019.
Letters and Reviews 10(4), 436-443. https://doi.org/10.
1080/17518253.2017.1391880. Gross, E.M. (2013) Green chemistry and sustainability:
an undergraduate course for science and nonscience
Centi, G. and Perathoner, S. (2009) From green majors. Journal of Chemical Education 90(4), 429-431.
to sustainable industrial chemistry. In Sustainable http://doi.org/10.1021/ed200756z.
Industrial Processes. Cavani, F., Centi, G., Perathoner,
S. and Trifiró, F. (eds.). Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Haack, J.A. and Hutchison, J.E. (2016). Green chemistry
Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Chapter 1. 1-72. https://doi. education: 25 years of progress and 25 years ahead.
org/10.1002/9783527629114.ch1. ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering 4(11), 5889-
5896. http://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b02069.
CHEM21 (n.d.). Pharmaceuticals and universities
working together on multi million pound project. Haley, R.A., Ringo, J.M., Hopgood, R., Denlinger, K.L.,
https://www.chem21.eu/. Accessed 21 February 2019. Das, A. and Waddell, D.C. (2018). Graduate student
designed and delivered: an upper-level online
Clarivate (2018). ISI Web of Science. www. course for undergraduates in green chemistry and
webofknowledge.com. Accessed 13 September 2018. sustainability. Journal of Chemical Education 95(4),
560-569. http://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00730.
Clark, J.H. (2016). Green and sustainable chemistry:
an introduction. In Green and Sustainable Medicinal Hamidah, N., Prabawati, S., Fajriati, I. and Eilks,
Chemistry: Methods, Tools and Strategies for the 21st I. (2017). Incorporating sustainability in higher
Century Pharmaceutical Industry. London: The Royal chemistry education in Indonesia through green
Society of Chemistry. Chapter 1. 1-11. https://doi. chemistry: inspirations by inquiring the practice in a
org/10.1039/9781782625940-00001. German university. International Journal of Physics and
Chemistry Education 9(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.12973/
Cohn, R. (2012). Taking green chemistry out of the ijpce/79220.
lab and into products, 16 May. Yale Environment
360. https://e360.yale.edu/features/taking_green_ Holme, T.A. and Hutchison, J.E. (2018). A central learning
chemistry_out_of_the_lab_and_into_products. outcome for the central science. Journal of Chemical
Accessed 13 September 2018. Education 95(4), 499-501. http://doi.org/10.1021/acs.
jchemed.8b00174.
Collins, T. (2001). Toward sustainable chemistry.
Science 291(5501), 48-49. http://doi.org/10.1126/ International Sustainable Chemistry Collaborative
science.291.5501.48 Centre (2018). ISC3 – International Sustainable
Chemistry Collaborative Centre. https://www.isc3.
Collins, T. (2017). Review of the twenty-three year org/en/home.html. Accessed 20 August 2018.
evolution of the first university course in green
chemistry: teaching future leaders how to create
sustainable societies. Journal of Cleaner Production 140,
93-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.136
606
Part IV
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Mahaffy, P.G., Krief, A., Hopf, H., Mehta, G. and Matlin,
(2018). Systems thinking, and green and sustainable S.A. (2018). Reorienting chemistry education through
chemistry, 26 September. https://iupac.org/systems- systems thinking. Nature Reviews Chemistry 2(4), 1-3.
thinking-and-green-and-sustainable-chemistry/. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-018-0126.
Accessed 21 February 2019.
Mammino, L. (2015). A great challenge of green
Italian National Committee for IUPAC of the National chemistry education: the interface between
Research Council of Italy (2016). Interdivisional provision of information and behaviour patterns.
Committee on Green Chemistry for Sustainable In Worldwide Trends in Green Chemistry Education.
Development: mission. http://www.iupac.cnr.it/ Zuin, V. and Mammino, L. (eds.). Cambridge:
interdivisional-committee-on-green-chemistry- Royal Society of Chemistry. 1-15. https://doi.
for-sustainable-development-icgcsd. Accessed org/10.1039/9781782621942-00001.
21 February 2019.
Matus, K.J.M., Clark, W.C., Anastas, P.T. and Zimmerman,
Juntunen, M. and Aksela, M. (2014). Education for J.B. (2012). Barriers to the implementation of Green
sustainable development in chemistry – challenges, Chemistry in the United States. Environmental Science
possibilities and pedagogical models in Finland and and Technology 46(20), 10892-10899. http://doi.
elsewhere. Chemistry Education Research and Practice org/10.1021/es3021777.
15(4), 488-500. http://doi.org/10.1039/c4rp00128a.
Network Operations Portal (2018). Sustainability in the
Karpudewan, M., Ismail, Z. and Roth, W.-M. (2012). organic chemistry lab course, 23 May. https://www.
Promoting pro-environmental attitudes and reported oc-praktikum.de/nop/en-entry. Accessed 15 July 2018.
behaviors of Malaysian pre-service teachers using
green chemistry experiments. Environmental Education
Research 18(3), 375-389. http://doi.org/10.1080/1350
Shuang, L. and Yanqi, Z. (2018). A metrology
4622.2011.622841. analysis of articles published on green chemistry
from 1999 to 2016. Chemistry Bulletin (HUAXUE
Kennedy, S.A. (2016). Design of a dynamic
TONGBAO) 81(7), 660-666. In Chinese.
undergraduate green chemistry course. Journal
of Chemical Education 93(4), 645-649. http://doi.
org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.5b00432. Sjöström, J., Eilks, I. and Zuin, V. G. (2016). Towards
eco-reflexive science education: a critical reflection
Kitchens, C., Charney, R., Naistal, D., Farrugia, J., about educational implications of Green Chemistry.
Clarens, A., O’Neil, A., Lisowski, C. and Braun, B. (2006). Science & Education 25(3-4), 1-21. http://doi.org/10.1
Completing our education. green chemistry in the 007%2Fs11191-016-9818-6.
curriculum. Journal of Chemical Education 83(8), 1126
http://doi.org/10.1021/ed083p1126. Sjöström, J. and Talanquer, V. (2018). Eco-reflexive
chemical thinking and action. Current Opinion in
Kümmerer, K. (2017). Sustainable chemistry: a future Green and Sustainable Chemistry 13, 16-20. http://doi.
guiding principle. Angewandte Chemie-International org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2018.02.012.
anie.201709949. Summerton, L., Hurst, G.A. and Clark, J.A. (2018)
Facilitating active learning within green chemistry.
Lee, K‐H. (2009). Why and how to adopt green Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry
management into business organizations? The case 13, 56-60. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2018.04.002.
study of Korean SMEs in manufacturing industry.
Management Decision 47(7), 1101-1121. http://doi. United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural
org/10.1108/00251740910978322. Organization (2014). Shaping the Future We Want - UN
Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005-
Leitner, W. (2004). Focus on education in green 2014) (Final Report). https://sustainabledevelopment.
chemistry. Green Chemistry 6(8), 351. http://doi. un.org/content/documents/1682Shaping%20the%20
org/10.1039/B412202J. future%20we%20want.pdf.
Levy, I.J. and Middlecamp, C.H. (eds.). (2015). Teaching United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural
and Learning about Sustainability. Washington, D.C.: Organization (2018). Education for sustainable
American Chemical Society. http://doi.org/10.1021/ development. https://en.unesco.org/themes/
bk-2015-1205. education-sustainable-development. Accessed
13 September 2018.
Lozano, R. and Watson, M.K. (2013). Chemistry
education for sustainability: assessing the chemistry United Nations Industrial Development
curricula at Cardiff University. Educación Química Organization (2018). Guidance development and
24(2), 184-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0187- case study documentation of green chemistry
893X(13)72461-3. and technologies. Open Data Platform. https://
open.unido.org/projects/M0/projects/150185?_
ga=2.177078181.1470394430.1535145283-
246569987.1525458642. Accessed 20 July 2018.
607
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2017). Brigl, M., Roos, A., Schmieg, F. and Watten, D. (2014).
Pollution Prevention Act of 1990, 30 March. https:// Incubators, Accelerators, Venturing, and More: How
www.epa.gov/p2/pollution-prevention-act-1990. Leading Companies Search for Their Next Big Thing.
Accessed 21 February 2019. Boston, Ma: Boston Consulting Group. https://
www.elkarbide.com/sites/default/files/incubators_
University of Oregon (2018). The place for green. accelerators_venturing_more_jun_2014_tcm80-
http://greenchem.uoregon.edu/. Accessed 2 May 2018. 163819.pdf.
Vallée, M. (2016). Obstacles to curriculum greening: the Brigl, M., Hong, M., Roos, A., Schmieg, F. and Wu,
case of green chemistry. In The Contribution of Social X. (2016). Corporate venturing shifts gears. Boston
Sciences to Sustainable Development at Universities. Consulting Group, 25 April. https://www.bcg.com/en-
Filho, W.L. and Zint, M. (eds.). Cham: Springer. 245- ch/publications/2016/innovation-growth-corporate-
258. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26866-8_15. venturing-shifts-gears-how-largest-companies-apply-
tools-innovation.aspx. Accessed 18 February 2019.
Wang, M.-Y., Li, X.-Y. and He, L.-N. (2018). Green
chemistry education and activity in China. Current Clark, B.R. (1998). Creating Entrepreneurial Universities:
Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 13, 123-129. Organizational Pathways of Transformation. Issues in
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2018.07.001. Higher Education. New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED421938.
Welton, T. Thakur, V. Gupta, R.K., Matharu, A.S., Eilks,
I. and Zuin, V.G. (eds.). (2018). Special issue: UN SGDs: Coyle, P.E. (2011). National Defense Industrial Association
how can sustainable chemistry contribute? / reuse Science & Engineering Technology Division Executive
and recycling / green chemistry in education. Current Breakfast: The Missing Middle. Washington, D.C.: United
Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 13, A1-A10, States Office of Science and Technology Policy. https://
1-174. https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/current- ndiastorage.blob.core.usgovcloudapi.net/ndia/2011/
opinion-in-green-and-sustainable-chemistry/vol/13. SET/CoyleNDIA.pdf.
Yale University (n.d.). Global green chemistry initiative Dempwolf, C.S., Auer, J. and D’Ippolito, M. (2014).
(GGCI). https://www.global-green-chemistry-initiative. Innovation Accelerators: Defining Characteristics Among
com/. Accessed 2 May 2018. Startup Assistance Organizations. Washington, D.C.:
United States Small Business Administration, Office
Zuin, V.G. and Mammino, L. (eds.). (2015). Worldwide of Advocacy. https://www.sba.gov/sites/default/files/
Trends in Green Chemistry Education. Cambridge, rs425-Innovation-Accelerators-Report-FINAL.pdf.
MA: Royal Society of Chemistry. https://doi.
org/10.1039/9781782621942. Edmondson, G., Valigra, L., Kenward, M., Hudson,
R.L. and Belfield, H. (2012). Making Industry-
Zuin, V.G. (2016). Circularity in green chemical products, University Partnerships Work. Lessons from Successful
processes and services: innovative routes based on Collaborations. Brussels: Science|Business Innovation
integrated eco-design and solution systems. Current Board. https://www.sciencebusiness.net/sites/default/
Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 2, 40-44. files/archive/Assets/94fe6d15-5432-4cf9-a656-
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2016.09.008. 633248e63541.pdf.
Elgie, S. and Brownlee, M. (2017). Accelerating Clean

Innovation in Canada. Ottawa: Smart Prosperity
Chapter 3 Institute. https://institute.smartprosperity.ca/sites/
default/files/acceleratingcleaninnovationincanada.pdf.
American Sustainable Business Council and
Green Chemistry & Commerce Council (2015). Elschami, M. and Kümmerer, K. (2018). Sustainable
Making the Business & Economic Case for Safer Chemistry and the International Sustainable Chemistry
Chemistry. http://asbcouncil.org/sites/default/files/ Collaborative Centre. GAIA – Ecological Perspectives
asbcsaferchemicalsreportpresred.pdf. for Science and Society 27(2), 247-249. https://doi.
org/10.14512/gaia.27.2.13.
Baldwin, J.R., Gorecki, P., Caves, R.E., Dunne, T. and
Haltiwanger, J. (1995). The Dynamics of Industrial Ernst & Young (2016). Green Bonds: A Fresh Look
Competition: A North American Perspective. Cambridge: at Financing Green Projects. https://www.ey.com/
Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/ Publication/vwLUAssets/Green_bonds-a-fresh-look-
CBO9780511664700. at-financing-green-projects/$FILE/EY-Green%20bonds-
a-fresh-look-at-financing-green-projects.pdf.
Bøllingtoft, A. and Ulhøi, J.P. (2005). The networked
business incubator-leveraging entrepreneurial agency? Etzkowitz, H. (2002). MIT and the Rise of Entrepreneurial
Journal of Business Venturing 20(2), 265-290. https:// Science. Abingdon: Taylor & Francis. https://doi.
doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2003.12.005. org/10.4324/9780203216675.
608
Part IV
Etzkowitz, H., Ranga, M., Benner, M., Guaranys, L., International Council of Chemical Associations (2017).
Maculan, A.M. and Kneller, R. (2008). Pathways to Global Chemical Industry Contributions to the Sustainable
the entrepreneurial university: towards a global Development Goals. https://www.icca-chem.org/wp-
convergence. Science and Public Policy 35(9), 681-695. content/uploads/2017/02/Global-Chemical-Industry-
https://doi.org/10.3152/030234208x389701. Contributions-to-the-UN-Sustainable-Development-
Goals.pdf.
European Commission (2012). Communication from the
Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, International Energy Agency (2008). Energy Technology
The European Economic and Social Committee and the Perspectives 2008: Scenarios & Strategies to 2050. https://
Committee of the Regions: ‘A European Strategy for Key www.iea.org/media/etp/etp2008.pdf.
Enabling Technologies – A Bridge to Growth and Jobs’.
Brussels. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ Jackson, D.J. (2011). What Is an Innovation Ecosystem?
TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52012DC0341&from=EN. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. http://
www.sustainablescale.org/ConceptualFramework/
European Commission and Organisation for Economic UnderstandingScale/BasicConcepts/
Co-operation and Development (2012). A Guiding EcosystemFunctionsServices.aspx.
Framework for Entrepreneurial Universities. https://www.
oecd.org/site/cfecpr/EC-OECD%20Entrepreneurial%20 Kirchhoff, B.A., Newbert, S.L., Hasan, I., and Armington,
Universities%20Framework.pdf. C. (2007). The influence of university R&D expenditures
on new business formations and employment growth.
Faulkner, A. and Berenshteyn, Y. (2013). Advanced Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 31(4),543-559.
Materials: Creating Chemistry between Innovators and https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00187.x.
Investors. San Francisco, CA: Cleantech Group. http://
www.phoenix-vp.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/ Klofsten, M., and Jones-Evans, D. (2000). Comparing
Advanced-Materials_Creating-Chemistry_0713.pdf. academic entrepreneurship in Europe – the case of
Sweden and Ireland. Small Business Economics 14(4),
Forrest, C. (2018). Accelerators vs. incubators: what 299-309. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008184601282.
startups need to know, 25 June. TechRepublic. https://
www.techrepublic.com/article/accelerators-vs- Kutzhanova, N., Lyons, T.S. and Lichtenstein, G.A. (2009).
incubators-what-startups-need-to-know/ Skill-based development of entrepreneurs and the role
of personal and peer group coaching in enterprise
Global Innovation through Science and Technology development. Economic Development Quarterly 23(3),
(2018). Startups. http://www.gistnetwork.org/content/ 193-210. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891242409336547.
startups. Accessed 18 February 2019.
Langenheim, J. (2018). Could seaweed solve Indonesia’s
Green Chemistry & Commerce Council (n.d. a). plastic crisis? 27 June. Guardian. https://www.
Members of the GC3 Startup Network. https:// theguardian.com/environment/blog/2018/jun/27/
greenchemistryandcommerce.org/startup-network/ could-seaweed-solve-indonesias-plastic-crisis. .
list-of-startups. Accessed 18 February 2019.
Lockett, N., Jack, S. and Larty, J. (2012). Motivations
Green Chemistry & Commerce Council (n.d. b). and challenges of network formation: entrepreneur
Advancing green chemistry across supply chains and and intermediary perspectives. International
Sectors. https://greenchemistryandcommerce.org/. Small Business Journal 31(8), 866-889.https://doi.
Accessed 02 January 2019. org/10.1177/0266242612448383.
Hoffman, D.L. and Radojevich-Kelley, N. (2012). Analysis Lopes Da Silva, C.E., Baptista Narcizo, R. and Cardoso, R.
of accelerator companies: an exploratory case study (2012). The proximity between academy, industry and
of their programs, processes, and early results. Small government: towards a more sustainable development
Business Institute® Journal 8(2),54-70. https://www.sbij. of a Brazilian oil region. Selection and/or peer review
org/index.php/SBIJ/article/view/136. under responsibility of Institut Teknologi Bandung.
Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 52, 100-109.
Huizingh, E.K.R.E. (2011). Open innovation: state of the https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.446.
art and future perspectives. Technovation 31(1), 2-9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2010.10.002. Malairaja, C. and Zawdie, G. (2008). Science parks
and university–industry collaboration in Malaysia.
IESE Business School (2017). Corporate Venturing: Technology Analysis & Strategic Management 20(6), 727-
Achieving Profitable Growth Through Startups. 739. https://doi.org/10.1080/09537320802426432.
Whitepaper. https://www.iese.edu/research/pdfs/ST-
0429-E.pdf. Mbaka, C. (2018). Gjenge Makers is providing alternative
building materials and products made from recycled
International Bank for Reconstruction and plastics, 27 February. TechMoran. https://techmoran.
Development and World Bank (2017). What Are Green com/2018/02/27/gjenge-makers-providing-alternative-
Bonds? http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ building-materials-products-made-recycled-plastics/.
en/400251468187810398/pdf/99662-REVISED-WB- Accessed 25 February 2019.
Green-Bond-Box393208B-PUBLIC.pdf.
609
Mirowski, P. and Sent, E.-M. (2007). The Şimşek, K. and Yıldırım, N. (2016). Constraints to open
commercialization of science, and the response of innovation in science and technology parks. Procedia
STS. In The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. - Social and Behavioral Sciences 235, 719-728. https://
Lynch, M. and Wajcman, J. (eds.). Cambfidge, MA: MIT doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.11.073.
Press. 635-689. https://philpapers.org/rec/MIRTCO-5.
Söderblom, A. and Samuelsson, M. (2014). Sources of
National Aeronautics and Space Administration of Capital for Innovative Startup Firms: An Empirical Study
the United States (2012). Technology readiness level, of the Swedish Situation. Stockholm: Entreprenörskaps
28 October. https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/ Forum. https://entreprenorskapsforum.se/wp-
scan/engineering/technology/txt_accordion1.html. content/uploads/2014/05/NaPo_Sourcesofcapital_
Accessed 20 September 2018. webb.pdf.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Storey, D.J. (1994). Understanding the Small Business
Development (1997). National Innovation Systems. Sector. London: Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.
https://www.oecd.org/science/inno/2101733.pdf. com/books/9781134838554.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and SusChem (2017). Strategic Innovation and Research
Development (2011). Invention and Transfer Agenda. http://www.suschem.org/publications.
of Environmental Technologies. OECD Studies
on Environmental Innovation. http://dx.doi. Sworder, C., Salge, L. and van Soest, H. (2017). Global
org/10.1787/9789264115620-en. Cleantech Innovation Index 2017: Which Countries
Look Set to Produce the Next Generation of Start-Ups?
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Cleantech Group and World Wide Fund for Nature.
Development (2012). OECD Science, Technology and https://wwf.fi/mediabank/9906.pdf.
Industry Outlook 2012. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/
science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and- Sworder, C., Zhang, L. and Matheson, H. (2018). Global’18
industry-outlook-2012_sti_outlook-2012-en. Cleantech 100: A Barometer of the Changing Face of
Global Cleantech Innovation. Steger, M. and Youngman,
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and R. (eds.). Cleantech Group. http://info.cleantech.
Development (2016). OECD Science, Technology and com/rs/151-JSY-946/images/2018Global100Report_
Innovation Outlook 2016. https://doi.org/10.1787/ weboptimized.pdf.
sti_in_outlook-2016-en.
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
Oviatt, B.M., and Mc Dougall, P.P. (2005). Toward (2016a). Enabling Measures for an Inclusive Green
a theory of international new ventures. Journal of Economy in Africa. http://www.greengrowthknowledge.
International Business Studies 36(1), 29-41. https://doi. org/sites/default/files/downloads/resource/UNECA_
org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400128. Enabling%20measures%20for%20an%20inclusive%20
green%20economy%20in%20Africa.pdf.
Root, A. (2017). Scale Up! Entrepreneurs’ Guide to
Investment in Kenya. Kariuki, M., Schwaab, J. and United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
Wiedner, S. (eds.). Bonn: German Development Agency. (2016b). Inclusive Green Economy Policies and Structural
https://make-it-initiative.org/africa/activities/guides- Transformation in Selected African Countries. http://
investment/. repository.uneca.org/bitstream/handle/10855/23004/
b11560265.pdf?sequence=3.
Ryzhonkov, V. (2013). Innovation ecosystem model.
Entrepreneurship, Business Incubation, Business Models United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
& Strategy Blog. https://worldbusinessincubation. (2012). Innovation Review Performance Kazakhstan.
wordpress.com/2013/08/04/demand-not-the- https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/ceci/
infrastructure-is-the-cornerstone-of-successful- publications/icp5.pdf.
innovation-ecosystem/innovation-ecosystem-
model-2/. Accessed 15 September 2018. United Nations Environment Programme (2017).
Advancing Entrepreneurship and Start-up Initiatives
Schumpeter, J.A. (1954). History of Economic for Sustainable Chemistry: Learning from Case Studies.
Analysis. Schumpeter. E.B. (ed.). New York: Oxford Compilation of Case Studies. http://wedocs.unep.
University Press. http://www.urbanlab.org/articles/ org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/22044/SC%20
economics/Schumpeter%201954%20-%20history%20 Startup%20WS_Case%20Studies%20Compilation_
economic%20analysis.pdf. Final.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Sergey, A.B., Alexandr, D.B. and Sergey, A.T. (2015). Proof United Nations Industrial Development Organization
of Concept Center – a promising tool for innovative (2017). Industrial Development Report 2018. Demand
development at entrepreneurial universities. Procedia for Manufacturing: Driving Inclusive and Sustainable
– Social and Behavioral Sciences 166, 240-245. https:// Industrial Development. https://www.unido.org/news/
doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.518. industrial-development-report-2018-launched.
610
Part IV
United States Government Accountability Office (2018). American Institute of Chemical Engineers (2011).
Chemical Innovation: Technologies to Make Processes Chemical Parks: Industry Landscaping à la Germany.
and Products More Sustainable. https://www.gao.gov/ https://www.aiche.org/sites/default/files/
products/GAO-18-307. cep/20111044.pdf.
Whitesides, G. (2015). Reinventing Chemistry. Askar, Y. (2006). Chemical Management Services:

Angewandte Chemie International Edition 54(11), 3196- Advantages, Barriers and Opportunities in the Egyptian
3209. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201410884. Market. Lund: Lunds universitet Internationella
miljöinstitutet. http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/downloa
Wilson, K.E. (2015). Policy Lessons from Financing d?func=downloadFile&recordOId=1329423&fileO
Innovative Firms. OECD Science, Technology and Id=1329424.
Industry Policy Papers No. 24. Paris: Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development. https:// Azimi, P., Zhao, D., Pouzet, C., Crain, N.E. and Stephens,
doi.org/10.1787/5js03z8zrh9p-en. B. (2016). Emissions of ultrafine particles and volatile
organic compounds from commercially available
Wissema, J.G. (2009). Towards the Third Generation desktop three-dimensional printers with multiple
University: Managing the University in Transition. filaments. Environmental Science & Technology 50(3),
Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. https:// 1260-1268. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b04983
doi.org/10.4337/9781848446182.
Beltramello, A., Haie-Fayle, L. and Pilat, D. (2013). Why
World Economic Forum (2018). Chemistry and Advanced New Business Models Matter for Green Growth. OECD
Materials: Collaborative Innovation towards the Green Growth Papers. 2013-01. Paris: Organisation
Sustainable Development Goals. Forthcoming. https:// for Economic Co-operation and Development. https://
www.weforum.org/ www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/paper/5k97gk40v3ln-
en.
Wu, J.J. and Atkinson, R.D. (2017). How Technology-Based
Start-Ups Support U.S. Economic Growth. Information Bierma, T.J. and Waterstraat, F.L. (1997). Innovative
Technology & Innovation Foundation. http://www2. Chemical Supply Contracts: A Source of Competitive
itif.org/2017-technology-based-start-ups.pdf. Advantage. Champaign, IL: Waste Management and
Research Center. https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/
Yuan and Powell (2013). MOOCs and Open Education: handle/2142/2042.
Implications for Higher Education. Bolton: Centre
for Educational Technology, Interoperability and Bilsen, V., Blondiau, T., Debergh, P. and Lukach, R. (2013).
Standards. https://publications.cetis.org.uk/wp- Exchange of Good Policy Practices Promoting Innovative/
content/uploads/2013/03/MOOCs-and-Open- Green Business Models. Brussels: European Commission
Education.pdf. Directorate-General Enterprise and Industry. http://
ec.europa.eu/DocsRoom/documents/4668.
Bocken, N.M.P., Short, S.W., Rana, P. and Evans, S.

Chapter 4 (2014). A literature review to develop sustainable
business model archetypes. Journal of Cleaner
Agarwal, D., Bersin, J., Lahiri, G., Schwartz, J. and Production 65, 42-56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
Volini, E. (2018). The Rise of the Social Enterprise: 2018 jclepro.2013.11.039.
Deloitte Global Human Capital Trends. Kaji, J., Edelman,
K., Khan, A., Garia, N., Budman, M., Thomas, R. and Chemical Leasing (2016). Joint declaration signed,
Devan, P. (eds.). Deloitte. https://www2.deloitte.com/ 21 november 2016. https://chemicalleasing.org/news/
content/dam/insights/us/articles/HCTrends2018/2018- joint-declaration-signed-21-november-2016. Accessed
HCtrends_Rise-of-the-social-enterprise.pdf. 22 February 2019.
Agrawal, V.V. and Bellos, I. (2015). Servicizing in Chemical Strategies Partnership (n.d. a)
supply chains and environmental implications. In Chemical Management Services: A New Strategy
Environmentally Responsible Supply Chains. Atasu, A. for Pollution Prevention. https://www.dtsc.ca.gov/
(ed.). Cham: Springer. Chapter 7. 109-124. https://doi. PollutionPrevention/upload/P2_FLY_Chemical_
org/10.1007/978-3-319-30094-8_7. Management.pdf.
Alibaba (2018). Product listing policy, 10 May. http:// Chemical Strategies Partnership (n.d. b). Chemical
rule.alibaba.com/rule/detail/2047.htm#p2.2. Accessed Strategies Partnership: A Supply-Chain Approach to
16 September 2018. Reducing Chemical Use. http://www.chemicalstrategies.
org/pdf/workshop_events/2008/JKJ_CMS101.pdf.
Amazon (2018). Hazardous and dangerous items,
28 September. https://sellercentral.amazon. Chertow, M. and Park, J. (2016). Scholarship and
com/gp/help/external/200164570?language=en- practice in industrial symbiosis: 1989-2014. In Taking
US&ref=mpbc_200277300_cont_200164570. Accessed Stock of Industrial Ecology. Clift, R. and Druckman, A.
22 February 2019. (eds.). Cham: Springer. Chapter 5. 87-116. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-319-20571-7_5.
611
Clarity (2015). B2B eCommerce considerations for Faludi, J. (2013). Is 3D printing an environmental
the chemical industry, 18 February. https://www. win? 19 July. GreenBiz. https://www.greenbiz.com/
clarity-ventures.com/articles/b2b-ecommerce- blog/2013/07/19/3d-printing-environmental-win.
considerations-for-the-chemical-industry. Accessed Accessed 18 September 2018.
17 September 2018.
Faludi, J., Hu, Z., Alrashed, S., Braunholz, C., Kaul, S.
Crawford, M. (2015). 3D printed drugs: what does the and Kassaye, L. (2015). Does material choice drive
future hold? December. American Society of Mechanical sustainability of 3D printing? International Journal of
Engineers. https://www.asme.org/engineering-topics/ Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering 9(2), 216-223.
articles/manufacturing-design/3dprinted-drugs-does- http://scholar.waset.org/1307-6892/10000327.
future-hold. Accessed 14 August 2018.
Ford, S. and Despeisse, M. (2016). Additive
Dambmann, D. and Allford, L. (2003). A Walk in the manufacturing and sustainability: an exploratory study
Chemical Park – Process Safety Perspectives. Institution of the advantages and challenges. Journal of Cleaner
of Chemical Engineers Symposium Series. No. 149. Production 137, 1573-1587 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Manchester: Institution of Chemical Engineers. https:// jclepro.2016.04.150.
www.researchgate.net/publication/306255205_A_
walk_in_the_chemical_park-_process_safety_ Gebler, M., Schoot Uiterkamp, A. and Visser, C. (2014).
perspectives. A global sustainability perspective on 3D printing
technologies. Energy Policy 74, 158-167. https://doi.
Ding, L. (2017). How China’s social enterprises can org/10.1016/j.enpol.2014.08.033.
prosper alongside the country’s state-run businesses,
27 June. World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum. Gładyszewski, K. and Skiborowski, M. (2018). Additive
org/agenda/2017/06/how-china-s-social-enterprises- manufacturing of packings for rotating packed
can-prosper-alongside-the-country-s-state-run- beds. Chemical Engineering and Processing – Process
businesses/. Accessed 14 August 2018. Intensification 127, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cep.2018.02.024.
Duffy, K. (2016). How 3D printing is driving the growth of
small businesses, 17 May. https://www.manufacturing. Government of the United Kingdom (2016). Social
net/article/2016/05/how-3d-printing-driving-growth- investment tax relief: guidance, 23 November.
small-businesses. Accessed 18 September 2018. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/social-
investment-tax-relief-factsheet/social-investment-tax-
Ebay (2018). Hazardous, restricted or regulated relief. Accessed 14 August 2018.
materials policy. https://www.ebay.com/help/policies/
prohibited-restricted-items/hazardous-restricted- Guertzgen, S. (2017). How 3D printing will energize the
regulated-materials-policy?id=4335. Accessed 16 chemical industry – Part 1: Key opportunity areas, 4
September 2018. January. Digitalist Magazine. https://www.digitalistmag.
com/digital-supply-networks/2017/01/04/3d-printing-
Erkman, S. and Van Hezik, C. (2016). Global Assessment energize-chemical-industry-part-1-04824179. Accessed
of Eco-Industrial Parks in Developing and Emerging 13 August 2018.
Countries. https://sofiesgroup.com/en/news/
global-assessment-eco-industrial-parks-developing- Hänsch Beuren, F., Gomez Ferreira, M.G. and Cauchick
emerging-countries/. Miguel, P.A. (2013). Product-service systems: a
literature review on integrated products and services.
Ernst & Young (2013). The Journey Toward Greater Journal of Cleaner Production 47, 222-231. https://doi.
Customer Centricity. https://www.ey.com/Publication/ org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.12.028.
vwLUAssets/The_journey_toward_greater_customer_
centricity/$FILE/Customer_Centricity_Paper_29_April_ Hauthal, H. and Salonen, T. (n.d.) Chemical Industrial
Final.pdf. Parks in China. Achema World Wide News. https://
dechema.de/dechema_media/Downloads/Presse/
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work ACHEMA+worldwide/851_S_14_16-p-1146.pdf.
(2017). 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing – the
Implications for OSH. https://osha.europa.eu/en/ Ibrahim, A.M.S., Jose, R.R., Rabie, A.N., Gerstle, T.L., Lee,
tools-and-publications/publications/3d-printing-new- B.T. and Lin, S.J. (2015). Three-dimensional printing in
industrial-revolution. developing countries. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
Global Open 3(7), e443 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1097/
Evonik (2017). Evonik opens online flagship store gox.0000000000000298.
on Alibaba, 7 November. https://corporate.
evonik.com/en/media/search/pages/news-details. Independent Chemical Information Service Chemical
aspx?NewsId=70974. Accessed 22 August 2018. Business (2018). Alibaba for chemicals as Covestro,
BASF sign up, 26 April. https://www.icis.com/resources/
Fairphone (2016). How we’re tackling e-waste with the news/2018/04/26/10215762/alibaba-for-chemicals-
Fairphone 2, 25 February. https://www.fairphone.com/ as-covestro-basf-sign-up/. Accessed 22 August 2018.
en/2016/02/25/tackling-e-waste-with-fairphone-2/.
Accessed 15 September 2018.
612
Part IV
Independent Chemical Information Service News March, R. (2015). 3D printing – exploring a technology
(2016). US Amazon now sells DVDs, books and caustic and its sustainability potential, 21 December. http://
soda, 26 October. https://www.icis.com/resources/ sustainability.com/our-work/insights/3d-printing-
news/2016/10/26/10048495/us-amazon-now-sells- exploring-a-technology-and-its-sustainability-
dvds-books-and-caustic-soda/. Accessed 22 August potential/. Accessed 7 August 2018.
2018.
Mardani, S., Ojala, L.S., Uusi-Kyyny, P. and Alopaeus, V.
Ishengoma, F.R. and Mtaho, A.B. (2014). 3D printing: (2016). Development of a unique modular distillation
developing countries perspectives. International Journal column using 3D printing. Chemical Engineering and
of Computer Applications 104(11), 30-34. https://www. Processing: Process Intensification 109, 136-148. https://
researchgate.net/publication/267029274_3D_Printing_ doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2016.09.001.
Developing_Countries_Perspectives.
Market Research Engine (2017). Additive manufacturing
Jakl, T. (2011). Global chemical leasing award 2010. market by end user analysis; by type analysis and by
Technology and Investment 2(1), 20-26. http://doi. regional analysis – global forecast by 2016 – 2022,
org/10.4236/ti.2011.21003. November. https://www.marketresearchengine.
com/reportdetails/additive-manufacturing-market.
Jakl, T. and Schwager, P. (eds.) (2008). Chemical Leasing Accessed 6 July 2018.
Goes Global – Selling Services Instead of Barrels: A Win-Win
Business Model for Environment and Industry. Vienna: Mohammed, M.I., Mohan, M., Das, A., Johnson, M.D.,
Springer Link. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-211- Badwal, P.S., McLean, D. and Gibson, I. (2017). A low
73752-1. carbon footprint approach to the reconstitution of
plastics into 3D- printer filament for enhanced waste
Joas, R. Abraham, V. and Joas, A. (2018). Chemical reduction. The International Conference on Design and
leasing: a business model to drive resource efficiency Technology 2017, 234-241. https://doi.org/10.18502/
in the supply chain, In Factor X. Chapter 28. 395-403. keg.v2i2.621.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50079-9_28
Molitch-Hou, M. (2014). How a medical clinic in the
Kechichian, E. and Jeong, M.H (2016). Bolivian rainforest might use 3D printing, 18 February.
Mainstreaming Eco-Industrial Parks. Washington, https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/medical-clinic-
D.C.: World Bank. https://openknowledge. bolivian-rainforest-might-use-3d-printing-23735/.
worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/24921/ Accessed 7 August 2018.
Mainstreaming00020150event0in0Seoul.
pdf?sequence=5&isAllowed=y. Moser, F. and Jakl, T. (2014). Chemical leasing – a review
of implementation in the past decade. Environmental
Keizer, A., Stikkers, A., Heijmans, H., Carsouw, R. and Science and Pollution Research 22, 6325-6348. https://
Van Aanholt, W. (2016). Scaling the Impact of the Social doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3879-3.
Enterprise Sector. McKinsey & Company. https://www.
social-enterprise.nl/files/9314/7809/5072/Scaling-the- Muhammed, A. (2018). Four challenges (millennial)
impact-of-the-social-enterprise-sector.pdf. social entrepreneurs should account for when running
their businesses, 4 March. Entrepreneurs. https://
Kreiger, M., Mulder, M., Glover, A. and Pearce, J. www.entrepreneur.com/article/309905. Accessed
(2014). Life cycle analysis of distributed recycling of 18 September 2018.
post-consumer high density polyethylene for 3-D
printing filament. Journal of Cleaner Production 70, Okeugo, P. (2015). Wecyclers: Nigeria’s sustainable waste
90-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.009. recycling social enterprise, 22 September. http://www.
nudgesustainabilityhub.com/initiatives/2015/9/21/
Kroner, E. (2014). The 7 pillars of customer wecyclers-nigerias-sustainable-waste-recycling-social-
centricity, 6 October. American Marketing Association. enterprise. Accessed 18 September 2018.
https://www.ama.org/publications/eNewsletters/
MarketingInsightsNewsletter/Pages/7-pillars-of- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
customer-centricity.aspx. Accessed 13 August 2018. Development (2013). Environmental Performance Review
of Austria. http://www.oecd.org/env/country-reviews/
LeBlanc, R., Tranchant, C., Gagnon, Y. and Côté, R. EPR%20Highlights%20AUSTRIA%202013%20web.pdf.
(2016). Potential for eco-industrial park development
in Moncton, New Brunswick (Canada): a comparative Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
analysis. Sustainability 8(5), 1-18. https://doi. Development (2017). Economic Features of Chemical
org/10.3390/su8050472. Leasing. Series on Risk Management. No. 37. https://
www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/risk-management/
Ling, M. and Pflug, K. (2015). E-Business and chemical The%20Economic%20Features%20of%20Chemical%20
distribution: disintermediation 2.0? China Chemical Leasing.pdf.
Reporter 26(14), 8-9. http://www.mc-chemicals.com/
sites/mc-chemicals.com/files/Ebusiness%20and%20
Chemical%20Distribution%20CCR%202015.pdf.
613
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Service, R. (2018). You could soon be manufacturing
Development and European Commission (2013). your own drugs—thanks to 3D printing, 18 January.
Policy Brief on Social Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurial Science. http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/01/
Activities in Europe. https://www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/ you-could-soon-be-manufacturing-your-own-drugs-
Social%20entrepreneurship%20policy%20brief%20 thanks-3d-printing. Accessed 22 February 2019.
EN_FINAL.pdf.
Shockley, G.E. and Frank, P.M. (2011). The functions
Oskui, S.M., Diamante, G., Liao, C., Shi, W., Gan, J., of government in social entrepreneurship: theory
Schlenk, D. and Grover, W.H. (2016). Assessing and and preliminary evidence. Regional Science Policy &
reducing the toxicity of 3D-printed parts. Environmental Practice 3(3), 181-198. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1757-
Science & Technology Letters 3(1), 1-6. https://doi. 7802.2011.01036.x.
org/10.1021/acs.estlett.5b00249.
SIDBI Venture Capital (n.d.). Maharashtra state social
Panum, K. and Hansen, M. (2014). Successful Social venture fund (MS Fund). http://www.sidbiventure.
Enterprises in Africa: Case Studies of Six Social Enterprises co.in/ms_fund.html. Accessed 14 August 2018.
in Kenya. CBDS Working Paper Series Working Paper No.
02. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School http:// Smith, F. (2016). Trash to treasure: the social enterprises
openarchive.cbs.dk/bitstream/handle/10398/9002/ transforming recycling, 20 November. https://www.
Panum_and_hansen_2014_2.pdf. theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/nov/21/
social-enterprises-transforming-recycling. Accessed
Perrini F. and Vurro C. (2006). Social entrepreneurship: 19 September 2018.
innovation and social change across theory
and practice. In Social Entrepreneurship. Mair, Social Enterprise Mark CIC (2018). The social
J., Robinson J. and Hockerts, K. (eds.). London: enterprise mark – what it means. https://www.
Palgrave Macmillan. Chapter 5. 57-85. https://doi. socialenterprisemark.org.uk/what-the-social-
org/10.1057/9780230625655_5. enterprise-mark-means/. Accessed 4 September 2018.
Phansey, A. (2014). How 3D printing can revolutionize Solvay (2018). Alibaba! Solvay opens flagship e-store,
sustainable design, 29 May. https://www.greenbiz. 23 January. https://www.solvay.com/en/article/solvay-
com/blog/2014/05/29/3d-printing-revolutionize- opens-alibaba-e-store. Accessed 22 August 2018.
sustainable-design. Accessed 7 August 2018.
Stringer, L. (2018). E-commerce: the challenges of
Planète Énergies (2016). Eco-industrial parks looking to enforcing a chemicals policy, June. Chemical Watch.
enhance economic and environmental performance, https://chemicalwatch.com/67611/e-commerce-the-
24 June. https://www.planete-energies.com/en/ challenges-of-enforcing-a-chemicals-policy. Accessed
medias/close/eco-industrial-parks-looking-enhance- 8 August 2018.
economic-and-environmental-performance. Accessed
19 September 2018. Technical Progress. (2018). Chemical Management
Services (CMS) market 2018-2025: global industry report
Pullen, J.P. (2014). What 3D printing means for small by product and region. https://thetechnicalprogress.
business, 14 January. https://www.entrepreneurmag. com/2018/05/chemical-management-services-cms-
co.za/advice/starting-a-business/launch/what-3d- market-2018-2025-global-industry-report-by-product-
printing-means-for-small-business/. Accessed 19 and-region/. Accessed 6 June 2018.
September 2018.
United Kingdom Chemicals Stakeholder Forum (2013).
Ramus, T. and Vaccarus, A. (2017). Stakeholders matter: A Guide to Chemical Services: An Information Note from
how social enterprises address mission drift. Journal the UK Chemicals Stakeholder Forum. https://www.gov.
of Business Ethics 143(2), 307-322. https://link.springer. uk/government/groups/uk-chemicals-stakeholder-
com/article/10.1007/s10551-014-2353-y. forum.
Renjen, P. (2018). Industry 4.0: are you ready? Deloitte United Nations Industrial Development Organization
Review (22), 9-11. https://www2.deloitte.com/content/ (2016). Global Promotion and Implementation of
dam/insights/us/collections/issue-22/DI_Deloitte- Chemical Leasing Business Models in Industry. http://
Review-22.pdf. www.recpnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/10-
Years-Chemical-Leasing-Report.pdf.
Roy, S. (2018). This startup has recycled over 4 tonnes
of cigarette butts into useful products, 9 January. United Nations Industrial Development Organization
YourStory Media. https://yourstory.com/2018/01/code- (2017). Implementation Handbook for Eco-industrial
enterprises/. Accessed 19 September 2018. Parks. https://www.unido.org/sites/default/files/
files/2018-05/UNIDO%20Eco-Industrial%20Park%20
Sanchez, B. (2016). 10 policy tools that governments Handbook_English.pdf.
are implementing to spur social enterprise, 9 January.
World Bank. http://blogs.worldbank.org/dmblog/10-
policy-tools-governments-are-implementing-spur-
social-enterprise. Accessed 9 August 2018.
614
Part IV
United Nations Industrial Development Organization Zhu, Q., Geng, Y., Sarkis, J. and Lai, K-H. (2014). Barriers
(2019). Chemical leasing. https://www.unido.org/our- to promoting eco‐industrial parks development in
focus/safeguarding-environment/resource-efficient- China. Journal of Industrial Ecology 19(3), 457-467.
and-low-carbon-industrial-production/chemical- https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12176.
leasing. Accessed 11 February 2019.
United Nations Industrial Development Organization,

World Bank Group and German Corporation for Chapter 5
International Cooperation (2017). An International
Framework for Eco-Industrial Parks. Washington, DC: Böcker, T. and Finger, R. (2016). European pesticide
World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ tax schemes in comparison: an analysis of experiences
handle/10986/29110. and developments. Sustainability 8(4), 1-22. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su8040378.
Villeneuve-Smith, F. and Temple, N. (2015). State of
Social Enterprise Survey 2015: Leading the World in Canadian Association of Tire Recycling Agencies
Social Enterprise. https://www.socialenterprise.org. (2018). Annual Report 2017. https://www.catraonline.
uk/Handlers/Download.ashx?IDMF=828443a9-2f80- ca/storage/files/shares/publications-en/catra-
4c2a-ab2b-81befed6ed05. annualreport-2017-final-feb-16-2018-english.pdf.
Walker, C. (2017). Perpetual plastics – 3D printing Convery, F., McDonnell, S. and Ferreira, S. (2007).
with waste, 27 October. Elsevier. https://chemical- The most popular tax in Europe? lessons from the
materials.elsevier.com/chemical-rd/perpetual-plastics- Irish plastic bags levy. Environmental and Resource
3d-printing-waste/. Accessed 13 August 2018. Economics 38(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10640-
006-9059-2.
Wayne, J. (2017). How 3D printing is empowering
SMBs in manufacturing’s digital transformation, Coria, J. (2018). The economics of toxic substance
6 October. Entrepreneur. https://www.entrepreneur. control and the REACH directive. Review of Environmental
com/article/300966. Accessed 13 August 2018. Economics and Policy 12(2), 342-358. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1093/reep/rey003.
World Bank (2018). Eco-industrial parks emerge
as an effective approach to sustainable growth, Dikgang, J., Leiman, A. and Visser, M. (2010). Analysis
23 January. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ of the Plastic-Bag Levy in South Africa. Policy Paper. No.
feature/2018/01/23/eco-industrial-parks-emerge- 18. https://econrsa.org/papers/p_papers/pp18.pdf.
as-an-effective-approach-to-sustainable-growth.
Accessed 6 August 2018. Finger, R., Möhring, N., Dalhaus, T. And Böcker, T.
(2017). Revisiting pesticide taxation schemes. Ecological
World Business Council for Sustainable Development Economics 134, 263-266. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
(2018). Chemical Sector SDG Roadmap. https:// ECOLECON.2016.12.001.
www.wbcsd.org/Programs/People/Sustainable-
Development-Goals/Resources/Chemical-Sector-SDG- Government of Denmark (2006). Ftalater -
Roadmap. Reguleringsmæssig Status, Ftalatafgiftens Effekter
Og Overvejelser Om Differentieret Afgift (Phthalates -
Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies Regulatory Status, Effects of the Fee on Phthalates and
(2017). Additive manufacturing and sustainability: Considerations about a Differentiated Charge). Miljø- og
the environmental implications of 3-D printing, Planlægningsudvalget. Appendix 343. https://www.
14 November. ScienceDaily. https://www.sciencedaily. ft.dk/samling/20051/almdel/mpu/bilag/343/267804.
com/releases/2017/11/171114142343.htm. Accessed pdf.
7 August 2018.
Groothuis, F. (2016). New Era. New Plan: A Fiscal Strategy
Yoon, D. (2018). Putting toxic chemicals on the map, for an Inclusive, Circular Economy. Gersen, P. (ed.). LX
13 June. International Chemical Secretariat. http:// Houten: Ex’tax Project. http://www.neweranewplan.
chemsec.org/putting-toxic-chemicals-on-the-map/. com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/New-Era-New-Plan-
Accessed 14 August 2018. Europe-Extax-Report-DEF.compressed.pdf.
Yu, F., Han, F. and Cui, Z. (2015). Evolution of industrial Gu, Y.F., Wu, Y.F., Xu, M., Wang, H.D. and Zuo,
symbiosis in an eco-industrial park in China. Journal T.Y. (2017). To realize better extended producer
of Cleaner Production 87, 339-347. https://doi. responsibility: redesign of WEEE fund mode in China.
org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.10.058. Journal of Cleaner Production, 164, 347-356. https://doi.
org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2017.06.168.
Zeng, G. and Bathelt, H. (2011). Divergent growth
trajectories in China’s chemical industry: the case of Gulati, A. and Banerjee, P. (2015). Rationalising
the newly developed industrial parks in Shanghai, Fertiliser Subsidy in India: Key Issues and Policy Option.
Nanjing and Ningbo. GeoJournal 76(6), 675-698. https:// Working Papers. No. 307. New Delhi: Indian Council
doi.org/10.1007/s10708-009-9313-6. for Research on International Economic Relations.
https://ideas.repec.org/p/ess/wpaper/id11083.html.
615
Harrington, W., Morgenstern, R. and Sterner, T. (eds) Sterner, T. and Coria, J. (2011). Policy Instruments for
(2004). Choosing Environmental Policy: Comparing Environmental and Natural Resource Management. 2nd
Instruments and Outcomes in the United States and edn. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future.
Europe. 1st edn. Washington, D.C.: Routledge. https:// https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315780894.
www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781936331468.
Stringer, L. (2017). Denmark to scrap tax on PVC and
Kalimo, H., Lifset, R., Atasu, A., Van Rossem, C. and phthalates, 16 November. Chemical Watch. https://
Van Wassenhove, L. (2015). What roles for which chemicalwatch.com/61121/denmark-to-scrap-tax-
stakeholders under extended producer responsibility? on-pvc-and-phthalates. Accessed 12 September 2018.
Review of European Comparative & International
Environmental Law 24(1), 40-57. https://doi.org/10.1111/ Turner, J.M. and Nugent, L.M. (2016). Charging up battery
reel.12087. recycling policies extended producer responsibility for
single-use batteries in the European Union, Canada,
Kjäll, K. (2012). Hur väl Fungerar Miljöskatter Inom and the United States. Journal of Industrial Ecology
Kemikalieområdet? Effekter av Miljöskatter på Växtskydd 20(5), 1148-1158. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12351.
och Klorerade Lösningsmedel i Sverige, Danmark, Norge
och Frankrike. Stockholm: Swedish Chemicals Agency. United Kingdom Department for Environment, Food
& Rural Affairs (2018). Single-use plastic carrier bags
Loblaw Companies Limited. (2017). 2017 Corporate charge: data in England for 2016 to 2017, 27 September.
Social Responsibility Report. http://www.loblaw.ca/ https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/carrier-
CSRReport.pdf. bag-charge-summary-of-data-in-england/single-use-
plastic-carrier-bags-charge-data-in-england-for-2016-
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and to-2017. Accessed 21 February 2018.
Development. (n.d.). Database on policy instruments
for the environment. https://pinedatabase.oecd.org/. Vatn, A. (1998). Input versus emission taxes:
Accessed 13 July 2018. environmental taxes in a mass balance and transaction
costs perspective. Land Economics 74(4), 514. https://
Ørum, J.E., Kudsk, P. and Jensen, P.K. (2017). Economics doi.org/10.2307/3146882.
of site-specific and variable-dose herbicide application.
In Precision Agriculture: Technology and Economic Weitzman, M. L. (1974). Prices vs quantities. The
Perspectives. Springer, Cham. Chapter 4. 93-110. Review of Economic Studies 41(4), 477-491. https://
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68715-5_4. doi.org/10.2307/2296698.
Praveen, K.V., Aditya, K.S, Nithyashree, M.L. and Zeng, X. L., Duan, H. B., Wang, F. and Li, J. H. (2017).
Sharma, A. (2017). Fertilizer subsidies in India: an Examining environmental management of e-waste:
insight to distribution and equity issues. Journal of China‘s experience and lessons. Renewable &
Crop and Weed 13(3), 24-31. https://www.cabdirect. Sustainable Energy Reviews 72, 1076-1082. https://
org/cabdirect/abstract/20183048688. doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2016.10.015.
Slunge, D. and Sterner, T. (2001). Implementation

of policy instruments for chlorinated solvents: a
comparison of design standards, bans, and taxes to
phase out trichloroethylene. European Environment
Chapter 6
11(5), 281-296. https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.271.
amfori (2019). amfori BEPI Supply Chain Chemical
Söderholm, P. (2009). Economic Instruments in Chemicals Management Module (SCCM). https://www.amfori.org/
Policy: Past Experiences and Prospects for Future Use. content/bepi-supply-chain-chemical-management-
Copenhagen: Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers. module-sccm. Accessed 20 February 2019.
https://www.elibrary.imf.org/abstract/IMF931/21827-
9789289319201/21827-9789289319201/21827- BASF (2015). Chemical initiative “together for
9789289319201.xml?rskey=OZFzjS&result=8. sustainability” (TfS). https://www.basf.com/en/
company/about-us/suppliers-and-partners/
Söderholm, P. & Christiernsson, A. (2008). Policy sustainability-in-procurement/together-for-
effectiveness and acceptance in the taxation of sustainability.html. Accessed 9 September 2018.
environmentally damaging chemical compounds.
Environmental Science and Policy 11(3), 240-252. Https:// Blome, C., Foerstl, K., Schleper, M.C., (2017).
Doi.Org/10.1016/J.ENVSCI.2007.10.003. Antecedents of green supplier championing and
greenwashing: An empirical study on leadership and
Stavins, R.N. (2001). Experience with Market-Based ethical incentives. Journal of Cleaner Production 152,
Environmental Policy Instruments. Discussion Paper. 339-350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.052.
No. 01-58. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future.
https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/10909/files/ Bomgardner, M. (2016). Cleaning the clothing industry.
dp010058.pdf. Chemical and Engineering News 94(26), 30-32. https://
cen.acs.org/articles/94/i26/Cleaning-clothing-industry.
html
616
Part IV
Boström, M., Jönsson, A.M., Lockie, S., Mol, A.P.J., Foerstl, K., Azadegan, A., Leppelt, T., Hartmann, E.,
Oosterveer, P., (2015). Sustainable and responsible (2015). Drivers of supplier sustainability: Moving
supply chain governance: challenges and opportunities. beyond compliance to commitment. Journal of
Journal of Cleaner Production 107, 1-7. https://doi. Supply Chain Management 51(1), 67-92. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.11.050. org/10.1111/jscm.12067.
Dora, M., Bhatia, M.S., Gallear, D. (2016). Supply Chain in Forum for the Future (2018). Beauty and Personal Care
a Circular Economy: A Multidimensional Research Agenda. Sustainability Project. https://www.forumforthefuture.
3rd International Conference on Green Supply Chain. org/bpc. Accessed 20 February 2018.
London: Brunel University. https://bura.brunel.ac.uk/
handle/2438/13002. Friege, H., (2017). Sustainable Chemistry - a concept
with important links to waste management. Sustainable
EcoVadis (2015). Collaboration Drives Sustainability Chemistry and Pharmacy 6, 57-60. https://doi.
Efficiently, in the Chemical Industry Supply Chain. https:// org/10.1016/j.scp.2017.08.001.
www.ecovadis.com/library/together-sustainability-
chemical-industry-supply-chain/#download. Genovese, A., Acquaye, A.A., Figueroa, A., Koh, S.C.L.,
(2017). Sustainable supply chain management and
EcoVadis (2017). Four beauty industry leaders and the transition towards a circular economy: evidence
EcoVadis launch the Responsible Beauty Initiative, a and some applications. Omega 66, 344-357. https://
shared vision to strengthen sustainability throughout doi.org/10.1016/j.omega.2015.05.015.
the beauty supply chain, 14 November. https://www.
ecovadis.com/four-beauty-industry-leaders-ecovadis- Goldenman, G., Holland, M., Lietzmann, J. and Meura, L.
launch-responsible-beauty-initiative/. Accessed 14 (2017). Study for the Strategy for a Non-Toxic Environment
September 2018. of the 7th Environment Action Programme: Final Report.
Brussels: European Commission DG Environment.
Ernst & Young Global Limited (2016). The State https://doi.org/10.2779/025.
of Sustainable Supply Chains: Building Responsible
and Resilient Supply Chains. https://www.ey.com/ Goodnight, H., (2017). Blockchain: the best way to
Publication/vwLUAssets/EY-the-state-of-sustainable- decentralize supply chains, 6 September. Supply
supply-chains/$FILE/EY-building-responsible-and- Chain Drive. https://www.supplychaindive.com/news/
resilient-supply-chains.pdf. blockchain-Sweetbridge-decentralization-supply-
chain-management/504362/. Accessed 6 June 2018.
European Chemicals Agency (2018). New database
on Candidate List substances in articles by 2021, Ho, W., Zheng, T., Yildiz, H., Talluri, S. (2015).
11 July. https://echa.europa.eu/-/new-database-on- Supply chain risk management: a literature review.
candidate-list-substances-in-articles-by-2021. Accessed International Journal of Production Research 53(16),
30 December 2018. 5031-5069. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207543.2015
.1030467.
European Commission (2015). Communication from
the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, Homrich, A.S., Galvão, G., Abadia, L.G., Carvalho,
the European Economic and Social Committee and the M.M., (2018). The circular economy umbrella: Trends
Committee of the Regions: Closing the Loop - an EU Action and gaps on integrating pathways. Journal of Cleaner
Plan for the Circular Economy. https://eur-lex.europa. Production 175, 525-543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52015DC0614. jclepro.2017.11.064.
European Commission (2018). Communication from International Business Machines Corporation (2018).
the Commission - On the Implementation of the Circular Blockchain Can Help Transform Supply Chain Networks
Economy Package: Options to Address the Interface in the Chemicals and Petroleum Industry: Blockchain
Between Chemical, Product and Waste Legislation. http:// Enables Immutable, Transparent and Auditable Business
ec.europa.eu/information_society/newsroom/cf/dae/ Transactions among Participants and Suppliers,
document.cfm?doc_id=2733. Distributors and Partners. https://www-01.ibm.com/
common/ssi/cgi-bin/ssialias?htmlfid=CHJ12351USEN.
Fick, J., Söderström, H., Lindberg, R.H., Phan, C., Tysklind,
M., Larsson, D.G.J., (2009). Contamination of surface, International Council of Chemical Associations (2015).
ground, and drinking water from pharmaceutical Value chain outreach (VCO). https://www.icca-chem.
production. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry org/value-chain-outreach-vco/. Accessed 14 September
28, 2522-2527. https://doi.org/10.1897/09-073.1. 2018.
Foerstl, K., Reuter, C., Hartmann, E., Blome, C., Khan, O., Stolte, T., Creazza, A. and Hansen, Z. (2016).
(2010). Managing supplier sustainability risks in a Integrating product design into the supply chain.
dynamically changing environment - sustainable Cogent Engineering. Zhou, Z. (ed.) 3(1), 1-24. https://
supplier management in the chemical industry. Journal doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2016.1210478.
of Purchasing and Supply Management 16(2), 118-130.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pursup.2010.03.011. Kingfisher (2018). Chemicals Policy. http://files.the-
group.net/library/kgf/sustainability_policies/2017/
pdfs/cr_10.pdf.
617
Kirchherr, J., Reike, D., Hekkert, M., (2017). Retail Industry Leaders Association (n.d). Chemicals
Conceptualizing the circular economy: an analysis and Toxics in Retail and its Supply Chain. RILA Issue
of 114 definitions. Resources, Conservation and Brief: Chemicals and Toxics. http://www.retailcrc.org/
Recycling 127, 221-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sustainability/Lists/Briefings/Attachments/9/RILA%20
resconrec.2017.09.005. issue%20brief%20-%20Chemicals%20and%20Toxics.
pdf.
Leppelt, T., Foerstl, K., Reuter, C., Hartmann, E., (2013).
Sustainability management beyond organizational Rossi, M. (2014). The Business Case for Knowing
boundaries–sustainable supplier relationship Chemicals in Products and Supply Chains. http://
management in the chemical industry. Journal of web.unep.org/chemicalsandwaste/sites/unep.org.
Cleaner Production 56, 94-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chemicalsandwaste/files/publications/UNEP CiP
jclepro.2011.10.011. Business case_En.pdf.
Lo, S. (2013). Effects of supply chain position on Sager-Rosenthal, I. (2019). Major retailers phasing
the motivation and practices of firms going green. out worst of the worst chemicals: chemical laws help
International Journal of Operations & Production ensure safer products for all, 18 February. Toxic-Free
Management 34(1), 93-114. https://doi.org/10.1108/ Future. https://toxicfreefuture.org/major-retailers-
ijopm-04-2012-0133. phasing-out-worst-of-the-worst-chemicals/. Accessed
20 February 2019.
Marquis, C., Toffel, M. and Zhou, Y. (2016). Scrutiny,
norms and selective disclosure: a global study of Scruggs, C. (2013). Reducing hazardous chemicals in
greenwashing. Organization Science. 27(2), 483-504. consumer products: proactive company strategies.
https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2015.1039 Journal of Cleaner Production 44, 105-114. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.12.005.
Metta, H. and Badurdeen, F. (2013). Integrating
sustainable product and supply chain design: modeling Sebastiani R., Corsaro D., Montagnini F. and Tzannis A.
issues and challenges. IEEE Transactions on Engineering (2015). Sustainability in the supply chain: the retailers’
Management 60(2), 438-446. https://ieeexplore.ieee. perspective. In: Marketing in Transition: Scarcity,
org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=6336806. Globalism, & Sustainability. Developments in Marketing
Science: Proceedings of the Academy of Marketing Science.
Mezaros, S. (2017). The Pharmaceutical Supply Chain Campbell C.L (ed.). 8-12. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
Initiative: An Overview. http://www.industrialgreenchem. 3-319-18687-0_5.
com/pdf-docs/Vizag%20Conference%202017/
Day%20I/The%20Pharmaceutical%20Supply%20 Sheldon, R.A., (2016). Green chemistry and resource
Chain%20Initiative%20%E2%80%93%20An%20 efficiency: towards a green economy. Green
Overview%20by%20Steven%20Meszaros.pdf. Chemistry 18(11), 3180-3183. https://doi.org/10.1039/
C6GC90040B.
Patel, M. (2016). ICCA consults on value chain
communication principles: safety information should Stringer, L. (2018). Cross-sector initiative sets full
be disclosed if ‘based on science and risk’, 15 December. materials disclosure goal, 14 June. Chemical Watch.
Chemical Watch. https://chemicalwatch.com/51633/ https://chemicalwatch.com/67695/cross-sector-
icca-consults-on-value-chain-communication- initiative-sets-full-materials-disclosure-goal. Accessed
principles. Accessed 14 September 2018. 1 January 2019.
Perlmutter, A. (2015). Advancing Safer Chemicals Sturcken, E. (2017). Walmart effect: Retailers lead the
in Products: The Key Role of Purchasing. Lowell way on chemical safety at a critical time, 10 October.
Center for Sustainable Production, University of Environmental Defense Fund. https://www.edf.org/
Massachusetts Lowell. https://www.epa.gov/sites/ blog/2017/10/10/walmart-effect-retailers-lead-way-
production/files/2015-09/documents/uml-rpt_ chemical-safety-critical-time. Accessed 9 September
greenpurchasing_7_15_14-2_0.pdf. 2018.
Porter, G. (2018). Apple, Target, Walmart get best Sustainable Brands (2017). Walmart’s updated
grades in chemical policy review, 14 November. policy aims to drive toxic chemicals out of 90k
Bloomberg https://www.bloomberg.com/news/ household products, 28 September. https://
articles/2018-11-14/apple-target-walmart-get-best- www.sustainablebrands.com/news_and_views/
grades-in-chemical-policy-review. Accessed 20 chemistry_materials/sustainable_brands/walmarts_
February 2019 updated_policy_aims_drive_toxic_chemi. Accessed
14 September 2018.
Responsible Business Alliance (2018). Responsible
Business Alliance Code of Conduct Version 6.0. Swedish Chemical Agency (2016). Chemicals in Products:
http://www.responsiblebusiness.org/media/docs/ Challenges and Approaches. https://www.kemi.se/
RBACodeofConduct6.0_English.pdf global/broschyrer/chemicals-in-products.pdf.
618
Part IV
Target (2017). Target announces new chemical Britzelmaier, B., Franziska, F., Landwehr, M. and
strategy including policy and goals for its products and Salerno, L. (2015). Evidences for sustainability in the
operations, 25 January. https://corporate.target.com/ chemical industry - An international comparison.
article/2017/01/chemical-policy-and-goals. Accessed International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing
15 September 2018. 4(2), 3-21. http://www.ijsrm.com/ijsrm/Current_&_
Past_Issues_files/IJSRM4-2.pdf.
Sustainability of Supply Chains and Sustainable Public Chemie3 (2018). Die initiative: Fortschrittsindikatoren
Procurement: A Pre Study. http://www.oneplanetnetwork. von Chemie³ [Progress Indicators of Chemie³]. https://
org/sites/default/files/sustainability_of_supply_chains_ www.chemiehoch3.de/de/home/die-initiative/
and_sustainable_public_procurement.pdf. fortschrittsindikatoren.html. Accessed 14 September
2018.
The Chemicals in Products Programme: Guidance for Cleary, S. (2015). Inquiry: Design of a Sustainable
Stakeholders on Exchanging Chemicals in Products Financial System - Stock Exchanges and Sustainability.
Information. http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/ Inquiry Working Paper. Geneva: United Nations
Documents/EPI/Guidance%20for%20Stakeholder%20 Environment Programme. http://unepinquiry.org/
in%20Exchanging%20CiP%20Information_ wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Stock_Exchanges_and_
October2015.pdf. Sustainability.pdf.
United States Green Building Council (2019). Integrative Cockcroft, L.-J. and Persich, T. (2017). Insights on the
Analysis of Building Materials. https://www.usgbc. Impact of REACH & CLP Implementation on Industry’s
org/credits/new-construction-core-and-shell-schools- Strategies in the Context of Sustainability: ECHA
new-construction-retail-new-construction-healthca-87. Corporate Sustainability Strategies - Final Report. Risk
Accessed 20 February 2019. & Policy Analysts Limited. https://echa.europa.eu/
documents/10162/13637/echa_css_report_without_
Van Hamelen, E. (2018). Without Chemistry There Can Be case_studies_en.pdf/a0a6f46f-16c8-fbea-8b41-
No Circular Economy: The Imperative of a New Perspective 9ff683aafe5c.
on Chemicals and Materials Management. Planegg: The
Natural Step. https://thenaturalstep.org/wp-content/ Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute
uploads/2018/05/20180508-_Circular-chemistry-EN- (2018). Product certification overview - get certified.
BioEDIT-TNSinternational.pdf. https://www.c2ccertified.org/get-certified/product-
certification. Accessed 14 September 2018.
Waerder, B., Stinnes, S. and Erdenberger, O. (2017).
Design thinking as driver for innovation in the Deloitte (2016). Sustainability Disclosure: Getting Ahead
chemical industry. Journal of Business Chemistry of the Curve. https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/
14(2), 41-50. http://www.businesschemistry.org/ Deloitte/us/Documents/risk/us-risk-sustainability-
article/?article=247. disclosure.pdf.
Diamond, M.L., de Wit, C.A., Molander, S., Scheringer,

M., Backhaus, T., Lohmann, R., Arvidsson, R., Bergman,
Chapter 7 Å., Hauschild, M., Holoubek, I., Persson, L., Suzuki,
N., Vighi, M. and Zetzsch, C. (2015). Exploring the
planetary boundary for chemical pollution. Environment
Ahi, P. and Searcy, C. (2015). An analysis of metrics used International 78, 8-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
to measure performance in green and sustainable envint.2015.02.001.
supply chains. Journal of Cleaner Production 86, 360–
377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.08.005. Dow Chemical Company (2015). 2015 Sustainability
Goals: The Sustainable Chemistry Index. http://storage.
Berrone, P. (2016). How to succeed at sustainability dow.com.edgesuite.net/dow.com/sustainability/
(and why greenwashing doesn’t work), 25 goals/50409-SustainableChemistry-WPaper-Digital.
September. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/ pdf.
iese/2016/09/15/how-to-succeed-at-sustainability-
and-why-greenwashing-doesnt-work/#152316c3124e. Dow Chemical Company (2017). 2017 Dow Sustainability
Accessed 14 September 2018. Report. https://corporate.dow.com/-/media/dow/
corporate/dow-corporate/sustainability/2025-goals/
Blasco, J.L., King, A., McKenzie, M. and Karn, M. pdf/dow-2017-sustainability-report.ashx.
(2017). The Road Ahead: The KPMG Survey of Corporate
Responsibility Reporting 2017. https://assets.kpmg.com/ Eccles, R.G., Ioannou, I. and Serafeim, G. (2014). The
content/dam/kpmg/xx/pdf/2017/10/kpmg-survey-of- impact of corporate sustainability on organizational
corporate-responsibility-reporting-2017.pdf. processes and performance. Management Science
60(11), 2835–2857. https://doi.org/10.1287/
Bluesign (2018). Bluesign® system. http://www. mnsc.2014.1984.
bluesign.com. Accessed 14 September 2018.
619
Equator Principles (2013). The Equator Principles: Green Chemistry & Commerce Council (n.d. b).
A Financial Industry Benchmark for Determining, Advancing green chemistry across sectors and supply
Assessing and Managing Environmental and Social Risk chains. https://greenchemistryandcommerce.org/.
in Projects. http://equator-principles.com./wp-content/ Accessed 2 January 2019.
uploads/2017/03/equator_principles_III.pdf.
Haffar, M. and Searcy. C. (2018). The use of context-
Financial Times (n.d.). Definition of ESG. Lexicon. http:// based environmental indicators in corporate reporting.
lexicon.ft.com/Term?term=ESG. Accessed 15 August Journal of Cleaner Production 192. 496-513. https://doi.
2018 org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.202.
Fink, L. (2018). Larry Fink’s letter to CEOs: a sense International Chemical Secretariat (2017). Investor
of purpose. BlackRock. https://www.blackrock.com/ analysis of chemicals management increases thanks to
corporate/investor-relations/2018-larry-fink-ceo-letter. ChemSec and RobecoSAM, 30 March. http://chemsec.
Accessed 14 September 2018. org/investor-analysis-of-chemicals-management-
increases-thanks-to-chemsec-and-robecosam/.
Follette, C., Jung, U., Kharisov, I., zum Felde, A.M. and Accessed 14 September 2018.
Rubel, H. (2017). Making a business case for sustainability
in chemicals, 19 April. The Boston Consulting Group. International Council of Chemical Associations (2015).
https://www.bcg.com/publications/2017/making- 2015 Responsible Care Status Report. https://www.
business-case-sustainability-chemicals.aspx. Accessed icca-chem.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/2015-
14 September 2018. Responsible-Care-Status-Report.pdf.
Future-Fit Foundation (2017). Business Benchmark. International EPD System (2017). Environmental Product
http://futurefitbusiness.org. Accessed 14 September Declarations. https://www.environdec.com/News-
2018. archive/New-brochures-to-explain-EPDs-available/.
German Environment Agency (2011). Guide on International Organization for Standardization (2019).
Sustainable Chemicals: A Decision Tool for Substance Standards catalogue 13.020.50 – ecolabelling. https://
Manufacturers, Formulators and End Users of Chemicals. www.iso.org/ics/13.020.50/x/. Accessed 1 January
https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/ 2019.
guide-on-sustainable-chemicals.
KPMG, Global Reporting Initiative, United Nations
German Environment Agency (2016). SubSelect Environment Programme and Center for Corporate
- guide for the selection of sustainable chemicals, Governance in Africa (2016). Carrots & Sticks: Global
15 November. https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/ trends in sustainability reporting regulation and policy.
en/document/subselect-guide-for-the-selection-of- https://www.carrotsandsticks.net/wp-content/
sustainable. Accessed 21 February 2019. uploads/2016/05/Carrots-Sticks-2016.pdf.
German Environment Agency (2018). Das instrument Kropp, R. (2014). Why companies need context-based
SMART 5 zur bewertung der nachhaltigkeit von sustainability metrics, 24 June. GreenBiz. https://
chemikalienleasing [The instrument SMART 5 for the www.greenbiz.com/blog/2014/06/26/context-based-
evaluation of the sustainability of chemical leasing]. sustainability-metrics. Accessed 14 September 2018.
https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/dokument/das-
instrument-smart-5-zur-bewertung-der. Accessed McElroy, M.W. and Baue, B. (2013). Research needs
21 February 2019. and opportunities in context-based sustainability.
Financial Reporting 2, 47-70. https://www.researchgate.
Global Reporting Initiative (2016). Sustainability net/publication/261653975_Research_Needs_and_
disclosure database: SDG target 12.6 global real time Opportunities_in_Context-Based_Sustainability.
tracker. http://database.globalreporting.org/SDG-12-6/
Global-Tracker. Accessed 14 September 2018. Principles for Responsible Investment (n.d.). PRI: ESG
issues. https://www.unpri.org/esg-issues. Accessed
Global Reporting Initiative (n.d.). Materiality: What Topics 21 February 2019.
Should Organizations Include in Their Reports? Draft.
https://www.globalreporting.org/resourcelibrary/ PUMA (2018). PUMA progress report 2017. https://
Materiality.pdf. about.puma.com/en/sustainability/environment/
chemicals. Accessed 1 January 2019.
GoodGuide (2018). Let us guide you to what’s good:
search for healthier products. https://www.goodguide. Ridoutt, B., Fantke, P., Pfister, S., Bare, J., Boulay, A.-M.,
com/#/. Accessed 14 September 2018. Cherubini, F., Frischknecht, R., Hauschild, M., Hellweg,
S., Henderson, A., Jolliet, O., Levasseur, A., Margni,
Green Chemistry & Commerce Council (n.d. a). S.C. M., McKone, T., Michelsen, O., Milà i Canals, L., Page,
Johnson Is Transforming Its Supply Chain to Create G., Pant, R., Raugei, M., Sala, S., Saouter, E., Verones,
Products That Are Better for the Environment: Case F. and Wiedmann, T. (2015). Making sense of the
Study for the Green Chemistry and Commerce Council minefield of footprint indicators. Environmental Science
(GC3). http://www.greenchemistryandcommerce.org/ & Technology 49(5), 2601-2603. https://doi.org/10.1021/
downloads/SCJ_final.pdf. acs.est.5b00163.
620
Part IV
Robèrt, K.-H., Broman, G.I. and Basile, G. (2013). Sustainalytics (n.d.). Sustainalytics. https://www.
Analyzing the concept of planetary boundaries from a sustainalytics.com/. Accessed 14 September 2018.
strategic sustainability perspective: how does humanity
avoid tipping the planet? Ecology and Society 18(2), art5 Tickner, J.A. and Becker, M. (2016). Mainstreaming
1-9. https://doi.org/10.5751/es-05336-180205. green chemistry: the need for metrics. Current Opinion
in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 1, 1-4. https://doi.
Rossi, M.S., Edwards, S., Peele, C. and Greiner, T. org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2016.07.002.
(2017). The Chemical Footprint Project: 2017 Annual
Report. Chemical Footprint Project. https://www. Together for Sustainability (2016). The chemical
chemicalfootprint.org/results/2017-report. initiative for sustainable supply chains. https://tfs-
initiative.com. Accessed 14 September 2018.
Rydberg, T., Sala, S., Bjorn, A., Molander, S., Payet,
J., Posthuma, L., Sörme, L., Vighi, M. and Zijp, M.C. Tranchard, S. (2018). New version of ISO 14024 on
(2014). Towards a Common Conceptual Framework ecolabelling just published, 9 March. International
for Chemical Footprint Bridging Risk Assessment and Organization for Standardization. https://www.iso.org/
Life Cycle Assessment: Short Review and Way forward. news/ref2273.html. Accessed 1 January 2019.
Extended Abstract and Oral Presentation at
SETAC EU Annual Meeting. No. C 31. Göteborg: IVL United Nations (2012). United Nations Conference
Swedish Environmental Research Institute. https:// on Sustainable Development, Rio+20. https://
www.ivl.se/download/18.4b1c947d15125e72dda1 sustainabledevelopment.un.org/rio20. Accessed 11
3f6/1449742312935/C31.pdf. September 2018.
S.C. Johnson & Son (2018). What’s inside SC Johnson United Nations (2018). Sustainable Development
products. https://www.whatsinsidescjohnson.com/ Goals Partnerships Platform: VinylPlus. https://
us/en. Accessed 14 September 2018. sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=91.
Accessed 21 February 2019.
Safer Chemicals, Healthy Families (2018a). Mind the
store. https://saferchemicals.org/mind-the-store/. United Nations Environment Programme (2017). Life
Accessed 14 September 2018. Cycle Initiative. https://www.lifecycleinitiative.org/.
Sigma-Aldrich (n.d.). Environmental Sustainability.
https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/globalcitizenship/ United Nations Environment Programme (2019).
environmental.html. Accessed 14 September 2018. Analysis of Stakeholder Submissions on Sustainable
Chemistry Pursuant to UNEA Resolution 2/7. http://www.
Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/meetings/OEWG3/
(2018). About SETAC. https://www.setac.org/page/ inf/OEWG3-INF-22-Analysis.pdf.
AboutSETAC. Accessed 21 February 2019.
United Nations Environment Programme and
Stacchezzini, R., Melloni, G and Lai, A. (2016). World Bank (2017). Roadmap for a Sustainable
Sustainability management and reporting: the role Financial System. Geneva and Washington, D.C.:
of integrated reporting for communicating corporate United Nations Environment Programme and World
sustainability management. Journal of Cleaner Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/
Production 136, 102-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. en/903601510548466486/pdf/121283-12-11-2017-15-
jclepro.2016.01.109. 33-33-RoadmapforaSustainableFinancialSystem.pdf.
Stec, S., Paszkiewicz, M. and Antypas, A. (2017). Is United States Government Accountability Office (2018).
the time ripe for global binding norms for corporate Chemical Innovation: Technologies to Make Processes
accountability? Intternational Journal of Innovation and and Products More Sustainable. https://www.gao.gov/
Sustainable Development 11(2/3) 130-148. https://doi. products/GAO-18-307.
org/10.1504/IJISD.2017.083321.
United States Green Building Council (2018). LEED v4.
Sumitomo Chemical Group (2016). CSR Report 2016: https://new.usgbc.org/leed-v4. Accessed 14 September
Sustainable Chemistry. http://www.sumitomo-chem. 2018.
co.jp/english/csr/report/docs/csr_report_e2016.pdf.
World Business Council for Sustainable Development
Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (2014). Life Cycle Metrics for Chemical Products: A
(2015). Sustainability Accounting Standard Resource Guideline by the Chemical Sector to Assess and Report
Transformation Sector: Chemicals - Sustainability on the Environmental Footprint of Products, Based on
Accounting Standard. http://www.sasb.org/wp-content/ Life Cycle Assessment. https://www.wbcsd.org/Projects/
uploads/2015/03/RT0101_Chemical_Standard2.pdf. Chemicals/Resources/Life-Cycle-Metrics-for-Chemical-
Products.
Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (2018).
SASB materiality map™ https://materiality.sasb.
org/?hsCtaTracking=28ae6e2d-2004-4a52-887f-
819b72e9f70a%7C160e7227-a2ed-4f28-af33-
dff50a769cf4. Accessed 14 September 2018.
621
World Business Council for Sustainable Development Buerke, A., Straatmann, T., Lin-Hi, N. and Müller,
(2018). Chemical Industry Methodology for Portfolio K. (2017). Consumer awareness and sustainability-
Sustainability Assessments (PSA). https://www.wbcsd. focused value orientation as motivating factors of
org/Programs/Energy-Circular-Economy/Factor-10/ responsible consumer behavior. Review of Managerial
Sector-Deep-Dives/Resources/Chemical-Industry- Science 11(4), 959-991. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-
Methodology-for-Portfolio-Sustainability-Assessments. 016-0211-2.
World Economic Forum (2019). Shaping the future of Business & Human Rights Resource Centre (2018).
collaborative innovation in chemicals and materials. Business & Human Rights in the Chemical Industry: An
https://cn.weforum.org/projects/shaping-the- Assessment of Company Responses to Human Rights
future-of-collaborative-innovation-in-chemicals-and- Issues. https://www.business-humanrights.org/sites/
materials. Accessed 21 February 2019. default/files/BHRRC%20Chemical%20Briefing%20
30%20Jan%202018.pdf.
Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (2018). About
ZDHC. https://www.roadmaptozero.com/about. California Office of Environmental Health Hazard
Accessed 1 January 2019. Assessment (2013). Proposition 65 in plain language,
1 February. https://oehha.ca.gov/proposition-65/
general-info/proposition-65-plain-language. Accessed
22 February 2019.
Chapter 8 Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety

(2018). Employee rights, 29 June. https://www.ccohs.
American Chemical Society Green Chemistry Institute ca/youngworkers/resources/employeerights.html.
(2017). DOZNTM – a quantitative green chemistry Accessed 24 July 2018.
evaluator, 16 August. https://communities.acs.org/
community/science/sustainability/green-chemistry- Carrington, D. (2018). Plastic microbeads ban enters
nexus-blog/blog/2017/08/16/dozn-a-quantitative- force in UK, 9 January. The Guardian. https://www.
green-chemistry-evaluator. Accessed 16 July 2018. theguardian.com/environment/2018/jan/09/plastic-
microbeads-ban-enters-force-in-uk. Accessed 30
American Family Life Assurance Company of Columbus August 2018.
and American Family Life Assurance Company of New
York (2017). 2017 AFLAC CSR Survey: Storylines and Caruana, R. and Chatzidakis, A. (2014). Consumer social
Highlights. https://www.aflac.com/docs/about-aflac/ responsibility (CnSR): toward a multi-level, multi-agent
csr-survey-assets/2017-csr-survey-deck.pdf. conceptualization of the “other CSR”. Journal of Business
Ethics 121(4), 577-592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-
Antypas, A. and Paszkiewicz, M. (2015). Corporate social 013-1739-6.
responsibility and corporate accountability: a historical
overview. In Corporate Responsibility and Sustainable Casson, L. (2017). Microbeads - we won! 21 July.
Development: Exploring the Nexus of Private and Public Greenpeace UK. https://www.greenpeace.org.uk/
Interests. Rayman-Bacchus, L. and Walsh, P.R. (eds.). microbeads-we-won/. Accessed 30 August 2018.
London: Routledge. Chapter 1. 29-48. https://www.
taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781317540991/chapter Chemical & Allied Industries’ Association (2017).
s/10.4324%2F9781315727790-9. Responsible Care® Performance Report 2017: South Africa.
https://www.caia.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/
BASF (2018). Our responsibility to respect human rights. caia-responsible-care-report-2017-report.pdf.
https://www.basf.com/en/company/sustainability/
employees-and-society/human-rights.html. Accessed Conick, H. (2018). How marketing banned microbeads,
13 July 2018. 28 February. American Marketing Association. https://
www.ama.org/publications/MarketingNews/Pages/
Biswas, A. and Roy, M. (2015). Green products: an how-marketing-banned-microbeads.aspx. Accessed
exploratory study on the consumer behaviour in 24 July 2018.
emerging economies of the east. Journal of Cleaner
Production 87, 463-468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Deloitte, Food Marketing Institute and Grocery
jclepro.2014.09.075. Manufacturers Association (2016). Capitalizing on the
Shifting Consumer Food Value Equation. https://www2.
Bonney, R., Phillips, T.B., Ballard, H.L. and Enck, J.W. deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/us/Documents/
(2016). Can citizen science enhance public understanding consumer-business/us-fmi-gma-report.pdf.
of science? Public Understanding of Science 25(1), 2-16.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662515607406. Devadhasan, J.P., Kim, D., Lee, D.Y. and Kim, S. (2017).
Smartphone coupled handheld array reader for real-
Boston Consulting Group (2017). How innovation and time toxic gas detection. Analytica Chimica Acta 984,
collaboration can accelerate sustainability in fashion, 168-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2017.06.036.
14 July. https://www.bcg.com/publications/2017/
retail-how-innovation-collaboration-accelerate-
sustainability-fashion.aspx. Accessed 24 July 2018.
622
Part IV
Drozdenko, R.G., Jensen, M. and Coelho, D. (2011). Government of Canada (2017). Risk assessment of
Pricing of green products: premiums paid, consumer chemical substances, 16 November. https://www.
characteristics and incentives. International Journal of canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/chemical-
Business, Marketing, and Decision Sciences 4(1), 106-116. substances/canada-approach-chemicals/risk-
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267725435_ assessment.html. Accessed 21 February 2019.
Pricing_of_Green_Products_Premiums_Paid_
Consumer_Characteristics_and_Incentives. Green America Center for Sustainability Solutions (n.d. a).
About us. http://www.centerforsustainabilitysolutions.
Eisenhardt, K. (2015). #80 – social media influences org/introduction#introduction-green-america.
chemical industry to move beyond compliance, Accessed 21 February 2019.
12 February. CERM® Risk Insights. http://insights.
cermacademy.com/2015/02/80-social-media- Green America Center for Sustainability Solutions (n.d.
influences-chemical-industry-move-beyond- b). Cleaner Electronics Production Network. https://static1.
compliance-kelly-eisenhardt/. Accessed 16 September squarespace.com/static/558b1fe4e4b00725460da07a/
2018. t/5b43803888251beed8d49dd3/1531150394640/
CEPN+Poster+for+Print.pdf.
Environmental Rights Database (n.d. a). Mexican
national human rights commission’s environmental Hancock, A. (2017). Younger consumers drive shift
actions. http://environmentalrightsdatabase.org/ to ethical products, 23 December. Financial Times.
mexican-national-human-rights-commissions- https://www.ft.com/content/8b08bf4c-e5a0-11e7-
environmental-actions/. Accessed 24 July 2018. 8b99-0191e45377ec. Accessed 16 September 2018.
Environmental Rights Database (n.d. b). Jurisprudence Hartmann, S. and Klaschka, U. (2017). Interested
of the Supreme Court of India relating to environmental consumers’ awareness of harmful chemicals in
protection. http://environmentalrightsdatabase.org/ everyday products. Environmental Sciences Europe
jurisprudence-of-the-supreme-court-of-india-relating- 29(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-017-0127-8.
to-environmental-protection/. Accessed 16 September
2018. He, G., Boas, I., Mol, A.P.J. and Lu, Y. (2017).
E-participation for environmental sustainability in
Euro RSCG Worldwide (2011). New study shows transitional urban China. Sustainability Science 12(2),
millennials rejecting traditional politics in favor of 187-202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-016-0403-3.
individual action; heightened expectations of business,
11 March. PR Newswire. https://www.prnewswire.com/ Imam, J. (2015). Microbead ban signed by President
news-releases/new-study-shows-millennials-rejecting- Obama, 31 December. CNN. https://edition.cnn.
traditional-politics-in-favor-of-individual-action- com/2015/12/30/health/obama-bans-microbeads/
heightened-expectations-of-business-119756679. index.html. Accessed 30 August 2018.
html. Accessed 24 July 2018.
International Council of Chemical Associations (2015).
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (2018). Responsible care global charter. https://www.icca-
Homepage. https://osha.europa.eu/en. Accessed 13 chem.org/responsible-care-global-charter/. Accessed
September 2018. 16 September 2018.
European Chemicals Agency (2018). How to International Food Information Council Foundation
participate in the public consultation on ECHA’s draft (2018). 2018 Food and Health Survey. https://www.
recommendation. https://echa.europa.eu/participate- foodinsight.org/2018-food-and-health-survey.
in-the-public-consultation. Accessed 29 August 2018.
International Network for Economic Social & Cultural
GoodElectronics (2015). Challenge to the global Rights (2018). Lagos del Campo vs Peru, case no.
electronics industry, 1 March. https://goodelectronics. 12.795, judgment of 31 August 2017 (preliminary
org/challenge-to-the-global-electronics-industry/. objections, merits, reparations and costs), 26 April.
Accessed 21 February 2019. https://www.escr-net.org/caselaw/2018/lagos-del-
campo-vs-peru-case-no-12795-judgment-31-august-
GoodGuide (2019). Personal care. https://www. 2017-preliminary-objections. Accessed 13 September
goodguide.com/#/categories/152786. Accessed 21 2018.
February 2019.
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (2011).
Government of Canada (2016). Risk management of Article 13 - American Convention on human rights:
chemical substances: what is risk management? 4 July. freedom of thought and expression, 1 August.
https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/ Organization of American States. http://www.oas.org/
chemical-substances/canada-approach-chemicals/ en/iachr/expression/showarticle.asp?artID=25&lID=1.
risk-management.html. Accessed 21 February 2019. Accessed 16 September 2018.
Joyce, K. and Senier, L. (2017). Why environmental

exposures? Environmental Sociology 3(2), 101-106.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23251042.2017.1281375.
623
Khare, A. (2015). Antecedents to green buying National Geographic and Globescan (2014). Greendex
behaviour: a study on consumers in an emerging 2014: A Consumer Choice and the Environment - A
economy. Marketing Intelligence & Planning 33(3), 309- Worldwide Tracking Survey. https://globescan.com/
329. https://doi.org/10.1108/mip-05-2014-0083. wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Greendex_2014_Full_
Report_NationalGeographic_GlobeScan.pdf.
Klara, R. (2018). Switching to healthy ingredients is
riskier for brands than you might think, 5 January. Nielsen (2016). What’s in Our Food and on Our Minds:
Adweek. https://www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/ Ingredient and Dining Out Trends Around the World.
switching-to-healthy-ingredients-is-riskier-for-brands- https://www.nielsen.com/content/dam/nielsenglobal/
than-you-might-think/. Accessed 16 September 2018. eu/docs/pdf/Global%20Ingredient%20and%20Out-of-
Home%20Dining%20Trends%20Report%20FINAL%20
Klaschka, U. (2016). Natural personal care products- (1).pdf.
analysis of ingredient lists and legal situation.
Environmental Sciences Europe 28(8), 1-14. https:// O’Rourke, D. and Ringer, A. (2016). The impact of
doi.org/10.1186/s12302-016-0076-7. sustainability information on consumer decision
making. Journal of Industrial Ecology 20(4), 882-892.
Klaschka, U. (2017). Where are the SVHCs? 10 years https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12310.
consumer’s right to know’ about substances of very
high concern. Environmental Sciences Europe 29(24), Office of the United Nations High Commissioner
1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-017-0122-0. for Human Rights (2018). Special Rapporteur on the
implications for human rights of the environmentally
Kumar, P. and Ghodeswar, B.M. (2015). Factors sound management and disposal of hazardous
affecting consumers’ green product purchase substances and wastes. https://www.ohchr.
decisions. Marketing Intelligence & Planning 33(3), 330- org/en/issues/environment/toxicwastes/pages/
347. https://doi.org/10.1108/mip-03-2014-0068. srtoxicwastesindex.aspx. Accessed 13 September
2018.
LIFE AskREACH (2018). Consumer app inquiry results in
international company taking product off the market, 7 Olson, E.L. (2013). It’s not easy being green: the effects
May. https://www.askreach.eu/consumer-app-inquiry- of attribute tradeoffs on green product preference and
results-in-international-company-taking-product-off- choice. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 41(2),
the-market/. Accessed 30 August 2018. 171-184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-012-0305-6.
Lovell, T. (2018). EU-wide app to learn from Danish Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
project problems, 13 March. Chemical Watch. https:// Development (2017). Tackling Environmental Problems
chemicalwatch.com/64821/eu-wide-app-to-learn- with the Help of Behavioural Insights. http://dx.doi.
from-danish-project-problems. Accessed 30 August org/10.1787/9789264273887-en.
2018.
Luca, F.-A., Ciobanu, C.-I., Andrei, A., Horodnic, A., Development (2018). Green growth and consumer
Luca, F.-A., Ciobanu, C.-I., Andrei, A.G. and Horodnic, behaviour. http://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/
A. V. (2018). Raising awareness on health impact of greengrowthandconsumerbehaviour.htm. Accessed
the chemicals used in consumer products: Empirical 17 September 2018.
evidence from East-central Europe. Sustainability 10(1),
209. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10010209. Pan-European Coalition of Environmental Citizens
Organisations (2016). People Power for the Planet: How
Maniatis, P. (2016). Investigating factors influencing the Aarhus Convention Enables Citizens’ Voices to Be
consumer decision-making while choosing green Heard. Silina, M. and Wates, J. (eds.). Brussels: European
products. Journal of Cleaner Production 132, 215-228. Environmental Bureau. http://eeb.org/wp-admin/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.02.067. admin-ajax.php?juwpfisadmin=false&action=wpfd&ta
sk=file.download&wpfd_category_id=106&wpfd_file_id
Mathios, A.D. (2000). The impact of mandatory =1493&token=ad69a8ebd1b1324d26331563ee0e323
disclosure laws on product choices: an analysis of the e&preview=1.
salad dressing market. The Journal of Law and Economics
43(2), 651-678. https://doi.org/10.1086/467468. Peters, B. (2018). Unpacking the diversity of procedural
environmental rights: the European Convention on
Merck (2017). Merck corporate responsibility report Human Rights and the Aarhus Convention. Journal of
2016: human rights, 28 April. http://reports.merckgroup. Environmental Law 30(1), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1093/
com/2016/cr-report/strategy-management/human- jel/eqx023.
rights.html. Accessed 17 September 2018.
Registro de Emisiones y Transferencias de
Mitchell, E.A.D., Mulhauser, B., Mulot, M., Mutabazi, A., Contaminantes (n.d.). Últimas noticias. http://www.
Glauser, G. and Aebi, A. (2017). A worldwide survey of retc.cl/. Accessed 17 September 2018.
neonicotinoids in honey. Science 358(6359), 109-111.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan3684.
624
Part IV
Rochman, C.M., Kross, S.M., Armstrong, J.B., Bogan, Theobald, E.J., Ettinger, A.K., Burgess, H.K., DeBey,
M.T., Darling, E.S., Green, S.J., Smyth, A.R. and L.B., Schmidt, N.R., Froehlich, H.E., Wagner, C.,
Veríssimo, D. (2015). Scientific evidence supports a HilleRisLambers, J., Tewksbury, J., Harsch, M.A. and
ban on microbeads. Environmental Science & Technology Parrish, J.K. (2015). Global change and local solutions:
49(18), 10759-10761. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs. tapping the unrealized potential of citizen science for
est.5b03909. biodiversity research. Biological Conservation 181, 236-
244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.10.021.
Sammons, C. (2016). 8 mobile apps to help you
reduce your exposure to harmful chemicals (& find Unilever (2018). Unilever’s Supply Chain. https://www.
toxin free food, cosmetics & household products), 8 unilever.com/Images/unilever-supply-chain-overview-
August. TimetoCleanse. https://www.timetocleanse. --may-2018_tcm244-523172_1_en.pdf.
com/8-mobile-apps-help-reduce-exposure-harmful-
chemicals-find-toxin-free-food-cosmetics-household- United Nations (2018a). Regional Agreement on
products/. Accessed 30 August 2018. Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice
in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the
Sanders, M. (2017). When Compliance Isn’t Enough: Caribbean. https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/
Protecting Your Brand from Negative Public handle/11362/43583/1/S1800428_en.pdf.
Perception. Burlington, MA: Haley & Aldrich. http://
www.haleyaldrich.com/Portals/0/Downloads/ United Nations (2018b). United Nations and the rule of
BrandActionReport.pdf?timestamp=1491325162433. law: access to justice. https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/
thematic-areas/access-to-justice-and-rule-of-law-
Santiago, K.M., Caban-Martinez, A.J., Baum, J., Pangborn, institutions/access-to-justice/. Accessed 29 August
J., Dikici, E., Solle, N.S., Sterling, D.A., Moore, K., Grace, 2018.
K., Daunert, S., Deo, S. and Kobetz, E.N. (2018). Passive
monitoring of chemical exposures in south Florida United Nations Development Programme (2014).
firefighters using silicone wristbands. Occupational and Environmental Justice: Comparative Experiences in
Environmental Medicine 75(Suppl 2), A203. https://doi. Legal Empowerment. http://www.undp.org/content/
org/10.1136/oemed-2018-icohabstracts.574. dam/undp/library/Democratic%20Governance/
Access%20to%20Justice%20and%20Rule%20of%20
Scherer, C., Emberger-Klein, A. and Menrad, K. (2017). Law/Environmental-Justice-Comparative-Experiences.
Biogenic product alternatives for children: consumer pdf.
preferences for a set of sand toys made of bio-based
plastic. Sustainable Production and Consumption 10, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural
1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2016.11.001. Organization (2017). Unpacking Sustainable Development
Goal 4 Education 2030: Guide. http://unesdoc.unesco.
Shewan, D. (2017). Ethical marketing: 5 examples org/images/0024/002463/246300E.pdf.
of companies with a conscience, 21 December.
WordStream. https://www.wordstream.com/blog/ United Nations Environment Programme (2015). Putting
ws/2017/09/20/ethical-marketing. Accessed 17 Rio Principle 10 into Action: An Implementation Guide.
September 2018. http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/11201.
Sigma-Aldrich (2018). Greener alternatives evaluation United Nations Environment Programme (2018). First
matrix. https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/chemistry/ environmental law clinic opens in Wuhan University,
greener-alternatives/matrix-scoring.html. Accessed China, 12 July. https://www.unenvironment.org/news-
20 July 2018. and-stories/blogpost/first-environmental-law-clinic-
opens-wuhan-university-china. Accessed 24 July 2018.
Silverstein, M.J. and Sayre, K. (2009). The Female
Economy. Harvard Business Review. Cambridge, MA: United Nations Human Rights Council (2015). Report
Harvard Business School. https://hbr.org/2009/09/ of the Special Rapporteur on the Implications for Human
the-female-economy. Rights of the Environmentally Sound Management
and Disposal of Hazardous Substances and Wastes,
Soma, K., Onwezen, M.C., Salverda, I.E. and van Dam, R.I. Baskut Tuncak. https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/
(2016). Roles of citizens in environmental governance Environment/ToxicWastes/Pages/Righttoinformation.
in the information age - four theoretical perspectives. aspx. Accessed 14 November 2018.
Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 18, 122-
130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.12.009. United Nations Human Rights Council (2018). Report
of the Special Rapporteur on the Implications for Human
Tan, Y. (2014). Transparency without democracy: Rights of the Environmentally Sound Management and
the unexpected effects of China’s environmental Disposal of Hazardous Substances and Wastes. http://
disclosure policy. Governance 27(1), 37-62. https:// www.srtoxics.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/2018-
doi.org/10.1111/gove.12018. HRC-report-on-Workers-Rights-EN.pdf.
625
United Nations Industrial Development Organization Wiersma, Y., Parsons, J. and Lukyanenko, R.
(2017). Industrial Development Report 2018. Demand (2016). Data quality in citizen science – a research
for Manufacturing: Driving Inclusive and Sustainable study. Environmental Scientist 74–78. https://www.
Industrial Development. https://www.unido.org/news/ researchgate.net/publication/311206140.
industrial-development-report-2018-launched.
Wine, O., Hackett, C., Campbell, S., Cabrera-Rivera,
United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights O., Buka, I., Zaiane, O., DeVito, S.C. and Osornio-
and Toxics (2016a). Right to information on hazardous Vargas, A. (2014). Using pollutant release and transfer
substances and wastes. http://www.srtoxics.org/ register data in human health research: a scoping
issues-of-interest/right-to-information/. Accessed 29 review. Environmental Reviews 22(1), 51-65. https://
August 2018. doi.org/10.1139/er-2013-0036.
United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights Youngquist, C.P., Goldberger, J.R., Doyle, J. and Jones,
and Toxics (2016b). Human rights implicated by toxic S.S. (2015). Public involvement in waste management
chemicals. http://www.srtoxics.org/your-rights/. research and decision-making: a case study. Regional
Accessed 29 August 2018. Science Policy & Practice 7(3), 141-161. https://doi.
org/10.1111/rsp3.12061.
(2018). Public participation process for registration Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (2014).
actions, 21 December. https://www.epa.gov/pesticide- 2014 Right-to Know Disclosure Methodology Research:
registration/public-participation-process-registration- Joint Roadmap Version 2 Milestone. https://www.
actions. Accessed 22 February 2019. roadmaptozero.com/fileadmin/layout/media/
downloads/en/RightToKnowDisclosureMethodologies.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2017). pdf.
Chemical data access tool, 17 March. Data Catalog.
https://catalog.data.gov/dataset/chemical-data-access- Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (2018). Leading
tool. Accessed 13 September 2018. the textile, leather and footwear industries towards
zero discharge of hazardous chemicals. https://www.
United States Food and Drug Administration (2017). roadmaptozero.com/. Accessed 2 August 2018.
FDA confirms elevated levels of belladonna in
certain homeopathic teething products, 27 January. Zettler, E.R., Takada, H., Monteleone, B., Mallos,
https://www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/ N., Eriksen, M. and Amaral-Zettler, L.A. (2016).
pressannouncements/ucm538684.htm. Accessed Incorporating citizen science to study plastics in the
30 August 2018. environment. Analytical Methods 9(9), 1392-1403.
https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ay02716d.
United States Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (2016). Workers’ Rights. United
States Department of Labor. https://www.osha.gov/
Publications/osha3021.pdf.
626
Part IV
627
V. Scaling up collaborative
action under the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable
Development
Part V of the Global Chemicals Outlook II
© photothek/Ina Fassbender
The Global Festival of Ideas for Sustainable Development CC BY 2.0
Part V
Scaling up collaborative action under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
About Part V
Part V places the insights generated in Parts I-IV within the context of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development, focusing on opportunities for collaborative
action to achieve the sound management of chemicals and waste. Emphasis is put
on collaborative action to integrate chemicals and waste considerations into key
economic and enabling sectors. A forward-looking discussion follows with respect
to securing commitments by key stakeholders relevant to the future framework on
chemicals and waste beyond 2020. Part V concludes by presenting a range of options
for implementation of actions (referred to as “actions”) to reach relevant Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) and targets up to and beyond 2020. The listed actions
have been identified based on the findings presented in Parts I-IV of the GCO-II.
Highlights
The 2030 Agenda provides a renewed opportunity to integrate chemicals

and waste considerations into national development planning and sectoral
policies and programmes.
A growing number of stakeholders are using the 2030 Agenda to document

their chemicals and waste related actions, but further momentum is needed
and questions arise how to measure results.
Strengthening chemicals and waste management programmes at all levels

is critical to achieve SGD Targets 12.4 and 3.9, which focus on chemicals and
waste.
A comprehensive global framework is needed, with ambitious priorities,

coherent indicators, and incentives to foster commitment and engagement
by all relevant actors.
Ten action areas with specific options for the implementation of actions
to reach relevant SDGs and targets, up to and beyond 2020, have been
identified by the GCO-II.
Country and stakeholder driven action plans and roadmaps to achieve the
sound management of chemicals and waste could be the foundation for
reviewing progress at the global level.
Contents
1/ The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: an integrated

framework for action 630
2/ Strengthening collaborative action on chemicals and waste in line

with the 2030 Agenda 641
3/ Engaging all sectors and actors in chemicals and waste

management beyond 2020 651
References655
629
1/ The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable

Development: an integrated framework for
action
1.1 Advancing chemicals and waste The SDGs are a robust framework for
within the 2030 Agenda for addressing chemicals and waste
Sustainable Development
The sound management of chemicals and
The integrated nature of the Sustainable waste cuts across the 17 SDGs. It is a crucial
Development Goals (SDGs) element underpinning the implementation of
the 2030 Agenda, as chemicals and waste affect
The 2030 Agenda emphasizes that development many aspects of development (Figure 1.2). This
needs to be compatible with all three is reflected directly or indirectly in a number
dimensions of sustainability: economic, social of goals and targets. While SDG Targets 12.4
and environmental. Sustainable development and 3.9 are of direct relevance for a range of
is integrated and indivisible, meaning that it chemicals and waste management issues, SDG
needs to be implemented as a whole rather Target 6.3 focuses specifically on improving
than in a fragmented manner. Figure 1.1 water quality. Equally relevant, a number of
illustrates the three dimensions of sustainable SDGs and targets are relevant for chemical-
development as three interdependent systems, intensive sectors, for example those pertaining
with the biosphere serving as a foundation for to access to food, clean energy and safe housing.
the development of societies and economies. A These SDGs and targets cannot be achieved in a
logic whereby social, economic and ecological sustainable manner without due consideration
development are distinct is replaced by a view of the sound management of chemicals and
in which the economy serves society within the waste. Furthermore, chemicals and waste issues
safe operating space of the planet (Stockholm are relevant for a number of enabling SDGs and
Resilience Centre [SRC] 2016). targets, including those concerned with access
to information, education and financing.
Figure 1.1 The three dimensions of sustainability (adapted from SRC 2016)
Economy
Society
Biosphere
630
Part V
The SDGs provide an opportunity to fostering innovation (SDG 9). The 2030 Agenda
mainstream chemicals and waste also creates opportunities to include chemicals
management in policymaking and waste management considerations in
national and sub-national budgeting, and in the
The significance of mainstreaming chemicals and allocation of national financial resources, in line
waste considerations in national development with the integrated approach to financing across
policies, plans and sectoral policies for chemical- its three components (mainstreaming, industry
intensive economic sectors has been recognized involvement, and dedicated external financing).
by, among others, the Dubai Declaration and the Equally important is the integration of chemicals
Overarching Policy Strategy adopted in 2006. and waste management considerations in
It is also addressed in the Overall Orientation international development assistance and
and Guidance adopted by Strategic Approach capacity building programmes (SDG Targets 17.6
to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) and 17.8).
stakeholders in 2015. Despite these calls for
action, gaps remain in achieving that ambition. SDG 17: A call for new partnerships and an
opportunity for collaborative action
The 2030 Agenda creates new opportunities
to integrate sound chemicals and waste The 2030 Agenda is built on the premise that
management in national development policies and sustainable development can only be achieved by
plans, as well as in sectoral policies and actions. bringing together all countries and stakeholders.
Linkages exist, for example, with ending poverty Given the diversity of the challenges related to
(SDG 1); promoting sustained, inclusive and chemicals and waste and the resources needed,
sustainable economic growth, full and productive protecting human health and the environment
employment, and decent work for all (SDG 8); from the adverse effects of chemicals and waste,
and building resilient infrastructure, promoting and maximizing the contributions of chemistry to
inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and sustainable development, require collaborative
Figure 1.2 Linkages between chemicals and waste and the SDGs (adapted from Inter-Organization
Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals [IOMC] 2018, p. 3)
• Pollution and
other exposures
• Health effects
• Integrated water
• Circular Chemicals management
economy and waste • Water quality
• Resource and quantity
efficiency management • Improved
sanitation
• Safe and
adequate
housing access
• Air quality and
waste
management
Chapter 1. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: an integrated framework for action 631
© IISD/ENB | Kiara Worth, High Level Political Forum Recap: The world’s report card on global goals (iisd.org/library/hlpf-recap)
action to advance the sound management of respect to addressing legacies and advancing
chemicals and waste, bringing together all innovative solutions. Therefore, the period up
relevant stakeholders across sectors and with to the conclusion of the intersessional process
a common vision. Providing a global vision that to prepare recommendations regarding the
brings together all countries and all stakeholders, Strategic Approach and the sound management
the 2030 Agenda thus presents an opportunity of chemicals and waste beyond 2020 provides a
for collaborative action at all levels to achieve a brief but critical window in which to develop an
sustainable future with and through chemicals. ambitious and comprehensive global framework
– as well as to increase engagement by all
Sustainable Development Goal 17 calls on the stakeholders.
global community to strengthen the means to
implement and revitalize the global partnership
for sustainable development. The complexity and
magnitude of the SDGs can only be adequately 1.2 Chemicals and waste
addressed through the coordinated efforts stakeholders are starting to use
of multiple stakeholders working in close the SDG framework
collaboration (World Economic Forum 2018).
Partnerships and collaborative action are equally The 2030 Agenda has been widely endorsed. It
critical in addressing chemicals and waste issues. has also started to inspire stakeholders, including
They can provide an enabling environment that in the area of sound management of chemicals
cuts across sectors. An expanded and results- and waste. Although initiatives are still at an
based global collaborative framework for the early stage, some stakeholders engaged in the
sound management of chemicals and waste sound management of chemicals (including
would therefore be a critical step forward with governments, the private sector, civil society,
632
Part V
In the context of an exercise to outline how the

EU contributes to the implementation of the 2030
Agenda, mapping has been prepared to show
how various EU policies and actions support the
implementation of SDG Target 12.4. Nigeria has
compiled data concerning national progress on
indicator 12.4.1 (hazardous waste generated per
capita) as part of a broader exercise to establish
a baseline for the SDG indicators (Government
of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 2017). It is also
making efforts to monitor progress at the sub-
national level (Kaduna State Government 2017). In
Denmark, statistical information is presented on
a dedicated website, where national information
related to the indicators under Target 12.4 is
compiled (Statistics Denmark 2018). Canada has
compiled data related to indicator 3.9.3 and is
transmitting information required by relevant
international agreements, as measured by
indicator 12.4.1 (Government of Canada 2018)
Early signs of private sector use of the SDG

academia and intergovernmental organizations) framework
are undertaking activities to use the 2030 Agenda
as an organizing framework and as a framework
to communicate how their initiatives and actions
contribute to achieving relevant SDGs and targets.
Initial government actions to link chemicals

and waste to the 2030 Agenda
Governments have begun to link sound

management of chemicals and waste with the
broader sustainable development context. For
example, China’s National Plan on Implementation
of the 2030 Agenda maps action plans against the
targets, noting, among others, under Target 3.9
the establishment of a monitoring system and,
under Target 12.4, improving the level of green
chemical industry technologies (Government
of China 2016). In their Voluntary National
Reviews for the High Level Political Forum, some
governments have indicated how actions related
to the sound management of chemicals and
waste help achieve progress towards meeting
various SDGs and targets. Thailand, for example,
recognizes chemicals and waste in its review
as a cross-cutting issue relevant to achieving, Several companies and industry associations
among others, SDGs 3, 11 and 12 (Government are using the 2030 Agenda as a framework to
of Thailand 2017). communicate corporate policies concerned
with advancing sound chemicals and waste
management (United Nations Global Compact its commitment to the 2030 Agenda, describing
and Accenture Strategy 2016). Within the the SDGs as a guiding framework for industry.
framework of the World Business Council for
Sustainable Development (WBCSD), for example, Companies and associations including BASF
chemical companies and industry associations (2018), Cefic (2016), Dow (2018), Sumitomo
from a number of countries have developed a (2018) and the International Council of Chemical
roadmap exploring how the chemical sector Associations (2017) are establishing how they
can contribute to achieving various SDGs can contribute to meeting the SDGs (Figure 1.3).
and targets (WBCSD 2017). In the context of On its webpage, CropLife International
the ChemistryCAN initiative, the European explores linkages between the sustainable
Chemical Industry Council (Cefic) has reiterated use and effective management of pesticides
Figure 1.3 Alignment of the Dow 2025 Sustainability Goals with the SDGs (Dow 2018, p. 41)
Delivering Safe materials Engaging impact World-leading

The Leading the Advancing in
breakthrough Valuing nature for a sustainable communities, operations
SDGs blueprint circular economy
innovations planet employees, customers performance
634
Part V
and the SDGs (CropLife International 2019).

VinylPlus, the European polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) industry’s voluntary commitment to
sustainable development, reports annually on
a set of sustainability goals and targets and is
communicating on how these align with and
contribute to the SDGs (VinylPlus 2018). Chemical-
intensive downstream industries, such as textile
production (Textile Exchange 2018), are also
communicating on the linkages of their corporate
strategies with the 2030 Agenda and making
efforts to identify opportunities to contribute
to the SDGs.
Civil society stakeholders are using the SDGs

to guide their actions
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are

starting to use the SDGs as a framework to guide
actions on chemicals and waste. For example, in
a joint report the International POPs Elimination
Network (IPEN) and the Pesticide Action Network
(PAN) describe how actions related to chemical
safety and toxic chemicals are relevant to many Use of the 2030 Agenda by academia and the
if not all of the SDGs (IPEN and PAN 2017). research community to advance chemistry
Another example is provided by WWF-Worldwide
Fund for Nature, which has outlined business A number of articles published in scientific
opportunities inherent in the 2030 Agenda, journals have explored the role of the chemical
thereby highlighting how sound management industry and of green/sustainable chemistry
of chemicals and waste can help achieve in achieving the SDGs (Matlin et al. 2015;
various SDGs and targets including agricultural Axon and James 2018; Hitce et al. 2018).
productivity, food safety, air and water quality, Chemists for Sustainability was formed as
and protection of ecosystems (Ugarte et al. an international group to explore the role of
2017). Other NGOs have explored agroecology’s chemistry in implementing the 2030 Agenda
potential to support the implementation of some (International Organization for Chemical Sciences
SDGs and targets (Farrelly 2016). in Development 2018). Moreover, chemists and
Box 1.1 Planetary boundaries, chemicals and waste, and the 2030 Agenda: a research
perspective
In the research sector the concept of “planetary boundaries”, originally introduced by Rockström
et al. (2009) and extended by Steffen et al. (2015), has been further developed to link with the
implementation of the 2030 Agenda and its provision that each government set national targets
guided by the global level of ambition (Hoff and Lobos Alva 2017). The concept already includes
boundaries on biogeochemical flows (phosphorus and nitrogen), stratospheric ozone depletion
and ocean acidification, which are all relevant to chemicals and waste management. A new
boundary on “novel entities”, which has not yet been quantified, includes synthetic chemicals as
well as naturally occurring elements mobilized by anthropogenic activities, such as heavy metals
(Steffen et al. 2015).
other scientists are gathering to exchange ideas Intergovernmental organizations are mapping
on the role of chemistry in the context of the their actions against the SDGs
2030 Agenda. The 4th Green and Sustainable
Chemistry Conference in Dresden, Germany, Intergovernmental organizations active in the
in May 2019 will specifically discuss the role of area of chemicals and waste are looking at
chemistry in achieving the SDGs (Elsevier 2018). how their activities can contribute to achieving
Table 1.1 Indicative mapping of IOMC participating organizations’ activities on the SDGs for
sound chemicals and waste management (updated based on IOMC 2017)
SDG/IOMC FAO ILO UNDP UNEP UNIDO UNITAR WHO WB OECD

participating organization
No Poverty L A A A A
Zero Hunger L A A
Good Health & Well-being A A L A A A L L
Quality Education A A
Gender Equality L A A A A A
Clean Water and A A A A L A L
Sanitation
Affordable and Clean A A A A A A A
Energy
Decent Work and A L A A A A A
Economic Growth
Industry, Innovation, and A A L A A
Infrastructure
Reduced Inequalities A A
Sustainable Cities and A A L A A A A A
Communities
Responsible Consumption L A L L A A L L
and Production
Climate Action A A L A A A A
Life Below Water A A L A A
Life on Land A A L A A
Peace, Justice, and Strong A
Institutions
Partnership for the Goals A A A A A A
The table provides an indicative mapping of IOMC participating organizations’ activities on
various SDGs. Organizations with a lead role with respect to chemicals and waste management
related activities for a given goal are marked with a L. Organizations that contribute to or have
some activities related to chemicals and waste management aspects within a given goal are
marked with an A.
636
Part V
the SDGs. For example, the IOMC participating ›› Do corporate reporting efforts around the
organizations have assessed the relevance of SDGs provide a sufficient level of detail? For
their policies and actions in regard to the 2030 example, a 2017 report by the WBCSD (WBCSD
Agenda and set out plans for future actions to and Radley Yeldar 2017) found that while
implement the SDGs and targets (Table 1.1). 79 per cent of the sustainability reports of the
A similar effort has been undertaken by the companies surveyed acknowledged the SDGs
Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam and in some way, only 6 per cent aligned their
Stockholm Conventions (Secretariat of the strategies and targets with specific target-level
Strategic Approach to International Chemicals SDG criteria and measured their contributions
Management [SAICM Secretariat] 2018). to achieving key SDGs.
›› Is the 2030 Agenda used as more than a

communication tool? Some stakeholders have
1.3 Challenges in using the 2030 raised concerns that communication efforts
Agenda as a framework for action may remain generic and difficult to quantify,
focusing instead on selected stories (Verles
While many stakeholders have embraced the and Vellacott 2018). The term “SDG-washing”
2030 Agenda, questions and challenges remain has been introduced to draw attention to the
regarding its full implementation: potential use of the SDGs as a marketing tool
(Machingura and Lally 2017; Nieuwenkamp
›› Is there a common understanding of 2017; Verles and Vellacott 2018).
sustainability? Currently agreement is lacking
on how to measure or assess the sustainability ›› Is the 2030 Agenda stimulating and driving
of chemical processes and products (United change beyond what might otherwise have
States Government Accountability Office occurred? Many companies adopting the SDGs
2018). This lack may make it difficult to assess, tend to be setting sustainability goals and
compare and monitor progress in a coherent targets already. The possibility exists that
manner. A related question is how far the efforts to align with the SDGs could simply be
existing indicators under relevant SDG targets a “rebranding” of already committed efforts.
(notably Targets 3.9 and 12.4) provide a solid
basis for measuring relevant stakeholders’ ›› Are a sufficient number of stakeholders using the
progress in a meaningful manner. Measuring 2030 Agenda as a framework for action? Despite
the contributions of chemicals and waste significant progress, and initiatives undertaken
related activities to other SDGs and targets in various sectors, many stakeholders have
may require additional indicators. not yet aligned their strategies and reporting
with the SDGs and targets.
›› Are the three dimensions of sustainability
adequately considered and approached ›› To what extent are efforts to use the 2030 Agenda
holistically? Given interactions between the part of multi-stakeholder collaboration? Multi-
SDGs and targets, the need to acknowledge stakeholder collaboration could help move
both synergies and trade-offs, in order to action beyond communication efforts and
reduce negative interactions while maximizing strengthen accountability. By facilitating a
win-win situations, has been highlighted transparent exchange on prioritization, it
(Barbier and Burgess 2017; Morton, Pencheon could ensure that due consideration is given
and Squires 2017; Pradhan et al. 2017; Allen, to the three dimensions of sustainability.
Metternicht and Wiedmann 2018; Singh et al.
2018; Verles and Vellacott 2018). Inadequate
consideration of, and reporting on, trade-offs
may hamper credibility.
1.4 Achieving progress through make approaches effective. One model that has
effective collaborative action been proposed to help partnerships achieve
their full potential highlights the importance
Towards collaborative action under the 2030 of putting in place essential “building blocks”
Agenda for a more collaborative society (Figure 1.4).
This model highlights success factors (e.g. the
Bringing together stakeholders representing policy context and the supporting infrastructure
different sectors and societal interests relevant to for partnerships); the design of partnerships;
chemicals and waste is in line with the integrated the maturity, or readiness to partner, of
policy nature of the 2030 Agenda and its spirit organizations; and the skills and competencies
of collaboration and equity. Such a framework of individuals involved in the collaboration.
could provide a space, incentives and rewards to
bring together relevant sectors and stakeholders, Numerous theories and frameworks exist that
including vulnerable and marginalized groups. seek to support sustainable innovations, and to
In establishing such a framework, stakeholders scale them up through collaboration to achieve
could draw on the experience of other existing change around a commonly identified objective.
initiatives and international instruments, such In reviewing these models, some common
as the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, elements for successful multi-stakeholder
the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change, collaboration emerge:
and the 2017 Marrakech Partnership for Global
Climate Action. ›› People: respecting the different viewpoints
and skill sets of individuals and groups, and
Lessons from effective multi-stakeholder recognizing that a diversity of perspectives can
collaboration give insights on the challenge and strengthen
the outcomes.
Multi-stakeholder collaboration is a challenging
endeavour. Different forms of collaborative ›› Perspective: establishing a common awareness
action on sustainability objectives differ in their of the challenge, the need for collaboration
specific considerations and scope. Yet a number and the shared value, i.e. what is to be gained
of experiences and lessons learned emerge from working together.
from such initiatives, including elements that
Figure 1.4 Building blocks for a collaborative society (based on Stibbe 2018)
International policy
1
that promotes collaboration
2
Infrastructure
to catalyse partnerships
3
Partnerships
built to beat practice standards
4
Organizations
that are fit for partnering
5
Individuals
with the competencies to collaborate
638
Part V
›› Purpose: defining a collective purpose or vision, ›› Practice: recognizing that establishing new
with aligned objectives for collaboration, ways of working together takes time and
taking into account the mutual benefits of requires a commitment to learning and
collaboration as well as the individual interests experimentation in order to break new
of each actor. ground.
›› Process: establishing a transparent process A recent study (Kuruvilla et al. 2018) explored
that provides structure for different parties means to ensure that multisectoral collaboration
to engage, measure results, and scale up is effective, efficient, and contributes to
innovations together. transformative change in the context of
sustainable development. Based on a review of
›› Partnering: building the capacity of individuals a number of country case studies, success factors
to communicate and collaborate openly, and for multisectoral collaboration were identified
providing leadership to convene and facilitate (Figure 1.5).
collaboration.
Figure 1.5 A multisectoral collaboration model to achieve transformative change (adapted from
Kuruvilla et al. 2018, p. 3)
Design
Build on mechanism
and sectoral expertise,
ensure resources, and
organize incentives
Define Realize
Frame problems at a Learn by doing,
higher level, relevant Relate monitor results, and use
to all sectors and the Invest in stakeholder feedback to
public good collaborative adapt and improve
relationships and in
strengthening shared
evidence, norms, and
innovation
Drive change Capture success

Mobilize around change Agree success criteria,
that needs multi-sectoral ascertain attributions,
collaboration and sustain gains
Adapted with permission from BMJ Publishing Group Limited

Based on multi-case study research. focusing on sustainable development and health issues,
Kuruvilla et al. (2018) identified enabling factors that make “multi-sectoral collaboration work” in
order to achieve transformational change. These insights could be of relevance in (re-)designing
future collaborative action on chemicals and waste at all levels.
Based on multi-case study research, focusing economic sectors. Collaboration on chemicals

on sustainable development and health issues, also involves a number of unique considerations,
Kuruvilla et al. (2018) identified enabling factors such as addressing chemicals’ complexity and
that make “multi-sectoral collaboration work” in measuring their effects; the historical context
order to achieve transformational change. These of chemical pollution; public perceptions of
insights could be of relevance in (re-)designing chemicals; and the differing views of experts and
future collaborative action on chemicals and generalists on chemicals’ sustainability potential.
waste at all levels. These and other factors can negatively influence,
or at least complicate, efforts to achieve multi-
Challenges and opportunities for collaborative stakeholder collaboration. The 2030 Agenda
action on chemicals and waste provides a new opportunity for a collaborative
and integrated approach to chemicals and waste
Lessons on multi-stakeholder collaboration are by allowing the topic to be viewed in the context
especially relevant for addressing chemicals and of the broader objective of achieving sustainable
waste issues, as they cut across all societal and development.
640
Part V
2/ Strengthening collaborative action on

chemicals and waste in line with the 2030
Agenda
The 2030 Agenda provides a range of opportunities Establishing and strengthening national
for scaling up collaborative action to achieve the systems for sound management of chemicals
sound management of chemicals and waste. and waste
These opportunities include collaborative action
to achieve SDG Targets 12.4 and 3.9, focusing on The development of basic legislation and
chemicals and waste, which can be considered institutional capacity, in line with the Overall
main drivers for developing and implementing Orientation and Guidance and its 11 basic
effective and integrated chemicals and waste elements, has been recognized under the
management programmes. They also include Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
collaborative actions to implement the chemicals Management (SAICM) as critical at the national
and waste dimension of SDG targets related and regional levels to the attainment of sound
to economic sectors (such as agriculture or chemicals and waste management. Many
housing) as well as to enabling sectors (such countries have already made important headway
as education or financing). Finally, they include in enacting laws, creating programmes, and
the development of a comprehensive global implementing policies to achieve the sound
framework featuring ambitious priorities and management of chemicals and waste. Valuable
coherent indicators. work has also been carried out by countries
through the development of national chemicals
management profiles and plans.
2.1 Strengthening chemicals and However, many other countries still lack effective
waste management programmes national systems, including basic regulatory
at all levels capacity and effective institutional structure.
Such uneven progress puts vulnerable and
SDG Targets 12.4 and 3.9 are at the marginalized groups at particular risk. Further
core of the sound management steps to strengthen national systems for the
of chemicals and waste. They sound management of chemicals and waste,
are the drivers for developing particularly in developing countries and
and implementing effective and economies in transition, could include the
integrated systems and programmes following:
for the sound management of
chemicals and waste covering all ›› Intensify action at all levels to strengthen
stages of the life cycle. Opportunities legislative and institutional capacities.
therefore exist for all stakeholders, working in a
collaborative manner, to strengthen national and ›› Strengthen country-driven processes via
international chemicals and waste management national chemicals management profiles and
actions and programmes and so contribute to action plans on the sound management of
the achievement of these and other related SDG chemicals and waste.
targets.
Chapter 2. Strengthening collaborative action on chemicals and waste in line with the 2030 Agenda 641
›› Advance policy learning, alignment and Enhancing the effectiveness and use of
harmonization across countries and maximize chemicals management tools and approaches
opportunities for regional cooperation,
drawing on existing institutional structures. For many years governments, intergovernmental
organizations, industry and other stakeholders
Filling data gaps and sharing knowledge have been developing and employing a range of
globally science-based approaches, tools, methodologies
and instruments to advance sound chemicals
Although a wealth of data and knowledge has management and implement the 2020 goal. These
been generated, many data gaps and unknowns approaches, and the related generation of new
remain. These include gaps in regard to: information, serve to identify chemical hazards,
chemical hazard data for a range of chemicals assess the exposures and risks of chemicals,
on the market; environmental, health and safety promulgate risk management decisions and
data; outdoor and indoor chemical releases; actions when necessary, and assess alternatives.
exposures and concentrations in humans and the Collectively, they have contributed significantly to
environment; and adverse impacts of chemicals. protecting human health and the environment.
Disparities remain in data collection and
availability across time and countries, making the At the same time, concerns have been expressed
identification of baselines, trends, and emerging that current approaches are at times complex and
issues and priorities challenging. While a diverse slow and do not result in the progress needed.
set of mechanisms has been established at the Over the past decades, valuable lessons have
international level to identify emerging issues and been learned in the practical application of these
to set priorities for action, opportunities exist to approaches, and opportunities have emerged
explore the complementarity of processes and to enhance their effectiveness, streamline their
the use of science-based criteria for prioritization. use, and employ them more systematically in all
countries. Developing countries and economies
Various barriers pose challenges to making in transition, in particular, stand to benefit from
policy-relevant knowledge available for informed progress in these areas. Opportunities include
decision-making. Opportunities to strengthen the the following:
engagement of scientists and the science-policy
interface include the following: ›› Accelerate chemical hazard assessment and
harmonized classifications of substances.
›› Take steps towards the cost-effective
harmonization of data generation and ›› Refine chemical risk assessment and risk
collection, strengthen monitoring and management decision-making process.
surveillance capacities, and share data more
systematically at all levels. ›› Advance alternative assessments and
informed substitution of chemicals of concern,
›› Scale up industry engagement in generating including through non-chemical alternatives.
and disseminating relevant data.
›› Strengthen two-way communication, and

support collaboration between scientists and 2.2 Mainstreaming chemicals and
policymakers. waste management into sector
policies and actions
›› Explore methodologies that facilitate more
systematic identification of future priorities In addition to action to meet the SDG targets
at the international level. that directly address chemicals and waste
management (SDG 12.4 and 3.9), the 2030 Agenda
provides a renewed opportunity to strengthen
inter-ministerial coordination mechanisms, and
642
Part V
to integrate chemicals and waste considerations 2030 Agenda. However, many countries lack
into relevant sector policies and actions. economic sector strategies and policies which
Environment and Health Ministries in a number ensure the sound management of chemicals
of countries have successfully reached out to and waste dimension.
sectoral Ministries and established inter-agency/
inter-ministerial committees. Progress has thus Steps to integrate the sound management of
been made in advancing chemicals and waste chemicals and waste in economic sector policies
considerations in some sectors (e.g. in agriculture and actions could include the following:
through the International Code of Conduct on
Pesticide Management, and in health through ›› Establish and strengthen inter-ministerial
the World Health Organization (WHO) Chemicals coordination mechanisms and processes
Road Map), while other sectors (e.g. housing) have for regular dialogues with key sectoral
so far received limited international attention. stakeholders at the national level.
2.2.1 Integrating chemicals and ›› Take action to systematically integrate

waste management into chemicals and waste management actions
economic sectors in sectoral policy frameworks.
Chemical-intensive industry sectors, such as Examples of opportunities to integrate chemicals

agriculture, construction, textiles, automobiles and waste management, as well as green and
and electronics, are expanding globally, creating sustainable chemistry innovation, in relevant
potential risks and opportunities. Mainstreaming economic sectors are shown in Table 2.1).
sound management of chemicals and waste into In order to integrate chemicals and waste in
these sectors can help ensure that economic economic sector policies and actions, concerned
growth and industrial development are Ministries, working closely with respective policy
sustainable and contribute to implementing the communities, may consider initiating a structured
Box 2.1 The WHO Chemicals Road Map
On 30 May 2017, the Seventieth World Health

Assembly approved the Road map to enhance
health sector engagement in the strategic approach
to international chemicals management towards
the 2020 goal and beyond (the WHO Chemicals
Road Map), as requested by Resolution WHA69.4.
The Road Map identifies actions where the health

sector has either a lead or important supporting
role to play, recognizing the need for multi-
sectoral and multi-stakeholder cooperation. As
a companion to the Road Map, WHO developed
the WHO Chemicals Road Map Workbook which
offers a structured way to work through the road
map, choose priorities, and plan activities.
The Road Map has been recognized by

stakeholders both within the health sector, and
in other sectors, as useful for identifying actions
for collaboration, and for advocating action from
decision-makers.
Table 2.1 Integrating chemicals and waste management, and green and sustainable chemistry
innovation, in relevant economic sectors: some opportunities
Sectors SDG targets Examples of opportunities for management and innovation
Scale up Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and agroecological approaches,

Agriculture and Target 2.4: sustainable including development and use of non-chemical alternatives and other good
food food production agricultural practices
Target 3.8: safe medicines Sound management of pharmaceuticals and disinfectants that contribute to
Health antimicrobial resistance
and vaccines
Target 7.a: clean energy Improve technologies using resource-efficient, sustainable materials when
Energy decarbonizing the energy sector
research and technologies
Target 9.1: sustainable Reduce raw material use and waste generation via advanced materials without
Infrastructure creating future legacies
infrastructures
Target 9.2: sustainable Ensure that chemical-intensive industries rely on best available techniques and
Industry best environmental practices
industrialization
Reduce indoor air pollution through safer insulation and replace building
Housing Target 11.1: safe housing materials of concern (e.g. asbestos)
Target 11.2: sustainable Advance clean mobility, for example based on sustainable chemistry solutions
Transport for batteries
transport systems
Target 8.9: sustainable
Tourism Adopt practices to reduce the chemical footprint of tourism services
tourism
Target 12.2: Sustainable
Mining Ensure environmentally sound management of tailings
use of natural resources
Target 8.8: safe working Enhance risk assessment of chemicals of concern while promoting investment
Labour in green and sustainable chemistry to reduce hazardous occupational exposures
environments
Target 4.7: education for

Education Mainstream green and sustainable chemistry into relevant curricula
sustainable development
Target 17.3: financial
Enhance use of green and sustainable chemistry metrics as criteria in
Finance resources from multiple investment
sources
The sectors, SDG targets and opportunities shown in this table are not exhaustive. Other relevant
sectors include (but are not limited to) technology and innovation, labour, trade, development
cooperation, and justice. Some of these sectors are discussed in section 2.2.2.
approach which could include the following ›› Identify risk management approaches and
considerations, among others: opportunities for safer alternatives.
›› Identify industry sectors where chemicals ›› Consider sectoral policy reform and
and waste issues cause concern, including standards to encourage sustainable chemistry
hot spots. innovation.
›› Engage concerned industry sectors, International agreements can support policies

associations and groups to initiate a dialogue. and actions in economic sectors
›› Ensure hazard and risk communication In developing economic sector policies and
according to the Globally Harmonized System actions, relevant Ministries may benefit from
of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals considering linkages with relevant international
(GHS). agreements on chemicals and waste. Examples of
644
Part V
Table 2.2 Examples of opportunities for the contribution of international chemicals and waste
agreements across economic sectors
International instrument Examples of opportunities
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Reduce use of ozone-depleting substances in
Ozone Layer insulation materials in the construction industry.
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Ensure that hazardous wastes and other
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their wastes from all sectors are managed in an
Disposal environmentally sound manner.
Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Provide parties with opportunities to make
Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous informed decisions regarding imports of
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade hazardous chemicals and pesticides (e.g.
asbestos used in construction).
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Reduce use of persistent organic pollutants in
Pollutants agriculture.
Minamata Convention on Mercury Control mercury-added products and

manufacturing processes in which mercury or
mercury compounds are used.
ILO Conventions concerning Safety and Health Protect workers’ health, e.g. in construction,
in Agriculture (No. 184), Safety in the use of agriculture and health care.
Chemicals at Work (C170) and the Prevention of
Major Industrial Accidents (C174)
WHO International Health Regulations (IHR) (2005) Ensure that up-to-date information is available on
public health risks, e.g. pesticide poisonings.
International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Assist countries to develop improved registration

Management processes for pesticides.
Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Make hazard information available to relevant
Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) stakeholders.
the opportunities that these instruments provide coordination to integrate chemicals and waste
to advance sustainability in economic sectors considerations into enabling sectors. Enabling
are shown in Table 2.2. The IOMC participating conditions to advance sustainable development
organizations can also play a valuable role in are promoted through a number of SDGs and
facilitating the development of sectoral strategies, targets, including those on education, innovation
as well as in establishing and strengthening and financing. Advancing innovative solutions
communication channels. through enabling policies and actions has
significant potential to reduce chemical pollution,
2.2.2 Integrating chemicals and thus complementing traditional action to achieve
waste management into the sound management of chemicals and waste.
enabling policies and actions However, chemicals and waste considerations are
often not explicitly mentioned and therefore may
The 2030 Agenda also provides a renewed not be addressed in relevant implementation
opportunity to strengthen inter-ministerial plans.
Strengthening green and sustainable Scaling up financing and fiscal incentives

chemistry education
Significant financial resources have
Green and sustainable chemistry been mobilized from various sources.
education has received increasing However, the Integrated approach
attention in recent years. However, to financing the sound management
gaps remain in further mainstreaming of chemicals and waste has not been fully
green and sustainable chemistry into curricula implemented. Limited progress has been made
and replicating successful models, particularly by countries in integrating chemicals and waste
in developing countries. Building on existing into their development plans and/or priorities;
initiatives, further efforts are needed at all levels external funding has not matched the need and
to mainstream green and sustainable chemistry demand for support expressed by developing
education into chemistry and other education countries and economies in transition; and
curricula and teaching, including gathering and gaps remain in regard to increasing industry
disseminating best practices and forging new contributions to match responsibility and the
and strengthened partnerships at the national, required level of support. Further steps to scale
regional and global levels. up financing and fiscal incentives beyond 2020
could include the following:
Strengthening research and innovation
policies and programmes ›› Use linkages with the SDGs to secure national
and dedicated external financing.
Numerous innovations in green and
sustainable chemistry have been ›› Promote extended producer responsibility
developed, commercialized, or are and internalization of costs by industry.
on the horizon that illustrate the
potential of chemistry to make a contribution ›› Explore new opportunities such as sovereign
to sustainable development. Entrepreneurs, wealth funds, philanthropic finance, and
start-up initiatives and collaborative innovation strengthened engagement of the financial
mechanisms are emerging as new tools and sector and investors.
actors to address legacies and advance
innovative solutions. Yet innovations in chemistry ›› Scale up the use of market-based instruments.
may also have unintended and undesirable
effects, and linkages between innovators Strengthening access to information,
and the chemicals and waste community are participation and access to justice
not sufficiently developed. Opportunities to
drive innovation in the desired direction, and Providing enhanced access to robust
strengthen collaborative innovation for green information by workers, consumers
and sustainable chemistry, include the following: and citizens, as well as fostering
understanding of this information,
›› Integrate green and sustainable chemistry is a prerequisite for ensuring effective public
considerations into enabling policies, subsidy participation and informed decision-making
schemes or technology programmes. and thus achieving the sound management
of chemicals and waste. However, workers,
›› Apply green and sustainable chemistry consumers, citizens and other stakeholders
principles or considerations to drive still lack access to important information that
innovation in the desired direction. would allow them to make informed decisions.
In addition, they may not have access to
›› Strengthen the innovation ecosystem, justice. Enabling policies, including worker,
including through public research funding. consumer and community right-to-know, public
participation, and access to justice, coupled with
innovative technologies, can help reap the full
646
Part V
potential for consumers, workers and citizens to in developing countries. Furthermore, important
engage and to protect their rights to a healthy private sector stakeholders are not yet fully
environment while taking account of legitimate engaged in relevant discussions at the national
commercial confidentiality needs. As stated in and international level. Strengthening corporate
the Overarching Policy Strategy, “information commitment at the highest level is therefore
on chemicals relating to the health and safety essential.
of humans and the environment should not
be regarded as confidential”, while also “taking
account of legitimate commercial confidentiality
needs” (SAICM Secretariat, UNEP and WHO 2006). 2.4 Developing a coherent and
Relevant measures to empower and protect results-oriented global indicators
workers, consumers and citizens include the and reporting framework
following:
Establishing linkages across relevant
›› Develop and strengthen worker, consumer agreements and initiatives
and community right-to-know policies and
laws. Governance under the current international
framework for chemicals and waste management
›› Ensure access to justice in matters of chemical is characterized by an institutional architecture
pollution and human health protection related with a number of distinct indicator and reporting
to chemicals and waste. frameworks in place, making systematic
assessment of progress and identification of the
›› Ensure that consumers, workers and citizens overarching priorities challenging (Honkonen and
have access to robust information, including Khan 2017). The development of a framework for
through new information technologies. chemicals and waste beyond 2020 provides an
opportunity to create linkages across all relevant
agreements and initiatives related to chemicals
and waste management. Of particular value
2.3 Strengthening corporate polices would be a comprehensive framework bringing
together and complementing chemicals and waste
The 2020 goal cannot be achieved multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs)
without strengthened action in the and other relevant instruments and initiatives,
private sector, including the chemical without interfering in matters addressed though
industry, downstream manufacturers, these specialized instruments. Metrics and
and retailers. Many companies in sustainability reporting that document progress
chemical-intensive sectors, including and strengthen the accountability of the private
the chemical industry itself, product sector could add further value and become an
manufacturers and retailers, important aspect of measuring progress.
have taken actions to strengthen chemicals
and waste management. Initiatives include Towards a common agenda to guide actions
voluntary standard-setting beyond compliance, beyond 2020
implementation of business models reducing the
use of chemicals of concern in processes (e.g. An overarching common vision, strategic goals
Chemical Leasing), scaling up of efforts to develop (or strategic objectives), targets and indicators
green and sustainable chemistry alternatives, to achieve sound management of chemicals
and commitments to phase out chemicals of and waste could provide a common agenda,
concern in consumer products. Despite these guiding actions towards a desirable future in
efforts, voluntary actions and sustainability line with the 2030 Agenda. Specific chemicals
strategies beyond compliance that advance and waste targets could address legacies and
sound chemicals management are not yet being foster innovative solutions, creating a common
sufficiently developed and replicated, particularly agenda to which each stakeholder can contribute
Box 2.2 The integrated results and indicator framework under the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity
In 2010 Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity,
which comprises a shared Vision, a Mission, five Strategic Goals and 20 targets, collectively known
as the Aichi Targets. The Aichi Targets provide a coherence, results and indicators framework,
as well as a reference point for developing National Biodiversity Action Plans. They have been
endorsed by all key international agreements in the area of biodiversity and by key actors. The
Parties to the various MEAs in the biodiversity field have also agreed to work together in advancing
an integrated indicators framework.
© Sergey Uryadnikov/Shutterstock
The Biodiversity Indicators Partnership (BIP) is the principal mechanism to measure progress in
achieving the Aichi Targets and provide cross-mapping to the SDGs. It also supports progress
reporting for other biodiversity related MEAs. The BIP incorporates more than 60 indicators, mostly
reflecting monitoring data, in an integrated framework including 10 official SDG indicators. The
partnership includes, inter alia, NGOs, universities, research institutes, secretariats of relevant
MEAs, and other intergovernmental bodies, including the UN Statistical Division.
A key feature is that there are active institutions which take responsibility for the continued
production and communication of certain indicators. The BIP also provides support to countries
in order to strengthen capacity at the national level. In collaboration with partner organizations,
the BIP has successfully mobilized action to track changes in biodiversity (Tittensor et al. 2014;
Butchart, Di Marco and Watson 2016). The outcomes of work undertaken under the BIP serve as
important inputs for the Global Biodiversity Outlook, which is produced periodically.
based on individual strengths and capacities. of the Aichi Targets and the Strategic Plan
Reference to principles agreed during major for Biodiversity 2011-2020, which created an
international conferences (e.g. those in the 1992 integrated and coherent international framework
Rio Declaration) could provide points of reference endorsed by all stakeholders in the biodiversity
underlying actions by all stakeholders. Valuable cluster (Box 2.2).
lessons can be learned from the development
648
Part V
© Amin, United Nations Office at Geneva CC BY-SA 4.0
Making country reporting meaningful Consolidating national data and making them
available at the global level
In order to inform national action, reporting
schemes need to be simpler, country-driven Better accessibility and understandability
and linked to global targets. Making reporting of reporting information can help measure
more meaningful could be achieved by using progress and identify good practices. This, in
reporting data more systematically to monitor turn, can promote learning, facilitate action
progress over time and across countries, identify at the national level, and engage different
best practices, and inform capacity building stakeholders with the instruments designed
measures. Useful examples include the WHO for the sound management of chemicals and
International Health Regulations (IHR) model, waste. Moreover, such a function could provide a
reflecting progress with core capacities over time; way for the public, nationally as well as globally,
the Aichi Targets, which provide a reference point to engage in implementation in a meaningful
for developing National Biodiversity Action Plans; way and to demand action and accountability.
and the United Nations Framework Convention Consolidating reporting mechanisms and data
on Climate Change, by means of which country from various instruments, focusing on a limited
reports are linked to international action. number of indicators, and making this available
at the global level, as done, for example, in the
case of the Global Health Observatory, would
help to ensure accountability, track progress,
engage stakeholders and identify good practices
(Secretariat of the Vienna Convention and the
Table 2.3 Example of a results chain to minimize adverse impacts
Activities Outputs Outcomes Impacts
›› Develop GHS awareness- ›› GHS standards and ›› GHS labels and safety ›› Reduced number of
raising and capacity regulation developed data sheets available at deaths and illnesses
building materials ›› Key stakeholders trained the workplace among workers and
›› Prepare an and have capacity to ›› Companies and workers minimized impacts on
implementation strategy implement the GHS take precautionary the environment
for the GHS in key sectors measures
Implementation of the GHS is a necessary, but in many cases not sufficient measure for reducing
the number of deaths and illnesses among workers and minimizing impacts on the environment.
Montreal Protocol 2018). The Montreal Protocol number of intergovernmental organizations

Ozone Data Center is another example of a useful (e.g. World Bank 2007; UNDP 2011; OECD 2017)
implementation information system (WHO 2018). have identified the usefulness of considering
a results chain in measuring progress against
Towards a results framework that agreed objectives.
distinguishes measures taken and impacts
In developing the framework, consideration also
A coherent framework would benefit from needs to be given to impact-focused targets
distinguishing between outputs (e.g. adoption of in the 2030 Agenda. Concerning activity and
legislation) and impacts (e.g. reduction of adverse output indicators, work under SAICM could serve
impacts from hazardous chemicals), using impact as a starting point. It provides an example of
indicators, where possible, to determine whether indicators distinguishing between activities,
interventions are successful. Most indicators outputs, outcomes and impacts to illustrate such
currently used to monitor progress under a results chain. Further thinking could explore a
international chemicals and waste agreements comprehensive framework at the national level,
are output-, activity- or instrument-based, as well as the interface of such a framework
making it difficult to assess progress in protecting with tracking of progress at the global level.
human health and the environment from the Important lessons can be learned from the global
adverse effects of chemicals and waste. A biodiversity cluster (Table 2.3).
650
Part V
3/ Engaging all sectors and actors in

chemicals and waste management beyond
2020
Mobilizing additional stakeholders to shape global collaborative framework for the sound
chemicals and waste management beyond management of chemicals and waste would need
2020 to create mechanisms and incentives to foster
the commitment and engagement of sectoral
Protecting human health and the environment Ministries, retailers, downstream manufacturers
from the adverse effects of chemicals and and academia, as well as the broader global
waste requires the engagement of all relevant community.
stakeholders at the national, regional and global
levels. This includes not only the chemicals Further engaging key economic and enabling
and waste community, such as Ministries of sectors
Environment and Health, intergovernmental
organizations, civil society organizations engaged Despite some efforts and success stories in
in chemicals and waste, the chemical industry reaching out to and engaging stakeholders in
and trade unions, but also actors in key economic economic sectors, limited progress has so far
and enabling sectors, some of which have so been made at the national and global level.
far not been sufficiently engaged. To advance Stakeholders may wish to consider the following
ambitious and concerted commitment, a
Chapter 3. Engaging all sectors and actors in chemicals and waste management beyond 2020 651
measures to further engage key economic and ›› Creating a platform for frontrunners: Giving a
enabling sectors beyond 2020: public platform to frontrunner retailers and
downstream manufacturers that are excelling
›› Strengthen partnerships through through innovative action to reduce the use
intergovernmental organizations: Building of chemicals of concern, in order to showcase
on ownership and competitive advantages in their achievements, may prove a useful tool to
the respective sectors, these organizations reward and further strengthen commitment
could take further steps to integrate chemicals and to motivate other companies to adopt
and waste into their work streams and projects similar practices, thus triggering a “race to the
(as for example done with the WHO Chemicals top”. Governments would have the possibility
Road Map). The IOMC organizations play an to require, at some stage, that the practices
important role by providing the critical links of frontrunners are to apply to all players in
to engage relevant sectoral Ministries already the field concerned.
working on chemical and waste issues, as well
as other stakeholders. Action plans could be ›› Strengthening voluntary standards: The
drawn up to strengthen the chemicals and private sector can further step forward
waste dimensions in the respective sectors. and show leadership by developing and
implementing voluntary standards beyond
›› Focusing on specific sectors: Attention and compliance. These could be developed in
resources could be mobilized in a more close collaboration with the public sector and
efficient and effective manner by focusing civil society, in order to enhance transparency
on specific economic sectors at a given point and effectiveness.
in time. For example, yearly themes could
be organized through SAICM, starting, for ›› Replicating innovative business models: Efforts
example, with the construction sector. can be made to gather and share, also
internationally, best practices in implementing
›› Developing sectoral strategies: Ministries of innovative business models, and to replicate
Environment and Health could take the lead them, particularly in developing countries.
in reaching out to sectoral Ministries in order North-South (as well as South-South) public-
to develop joint strategies for the integration private partnerships could be established for
of chemicals and waste issues in relevant this purpose.
national strategies and budgeting. This
could be embedded in a global framework, Further engaging the academic and research
providing overarching international strategies community
to advance the sound management of
chemicals and waste in each sector. The full potential of the academic community to
provide data and knowledge to inform decision-
Further engaging companies, industry groups making has not yet materialized, given insufficient
and trade associations communication and engagement. Stakeholders
may wish to consider the following measures
The private sector has a critical role to play, not to further engage the academic and research
only in addressing past legacies and preventing community beyond 2020:
future ones but also in advancing innovative
solutions to maximize the benefits of chemistry. ›› Providing incentives for scientists: Scientists
Stakeholders may wish to consider the following may be more interested and motivated to
measures to further engage key companies, provide targeted and tailor-made inputs for
industry groups and trade associations beyond chemicals and waste policymaking if concrete
2020: reward structures are in place. This could
652
Part V
include focusing the criteria of science funding Further engaging the donor, investor and
agencies more on the sustainability aspect, financial communities
and on giving due prominence to contributions
made which advance sustainability. The integrated approach to financing the sound
management of chemicals and waste provides
›› Involving scientists: Proactive efforts can be a valuable framework; however, insufficient
made to foster dialogue between scientists resources have so far been mobilized and there
and policymakers, including by inviting is a need for new sources of financing as well
scientists to participate more prominently as building capacity for innovative financing,
in relevant fora and thus give them a voice, which may include cost recovery systems and
e.g. in bodies implementing or overseeing placing responsibilities on industry. Stakeholders
national and international instruments, in may wish to consider the following measures to
science-based projects implemented by further engage the donor, investor and financial
intergovernmental organizations, and in communities beyond 2020:
industry initiatives.
›› Mobilizing new donors: The linkages between
›› Improving communication with scientists: chemicals and waste and the SDGs provide a
Policymakers could inform scientists more valuable opportunity to tap into the large pools
systematically about their needs, e.g. by of funding available for implementation of the
writing guest articles in scientific journals 2030 Agenda for chemicals and waste related
or by speaking at academic conferences. projects in a wider context. This linkage can be
Moreover, bodies could be established to particularly valuable in mobilizing resources
organize regular exchanges between scientists from global public as well as private funds,
and policymakers, both at the national and including philanthropic finance. For example,
international level. linkages between chemicals and clean energy
© IISD/ENB, HRH Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands with Forum participants at the 2nd Global Session UN Science-Policy-Business Forum on the Environment,
Nairobi, Kenya (enb.iisd.org/unep/science-policy-and-business-forum/2)
Chapter 3. Engaging all sectors and actors in chemicals and waste management beyond 2020 653
© Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD) Peru/Monica Suarez
could help mobilize resources from the Green Engaging leaders in the media
Climate Fund.
Stakeholders may wish to consider the following
›› Mobilizing new business angels and investors: measures to further engage leaders in the media
There are significant opportunities, for beyond 2020:
example, to link promising start-up companies
in the field of sustainable chemistry with ›› Scaling up collaboration with the media: Media
investors that base their decisions on outlets continue to play a critical role in placing
sustainability criteria. Bringing these potential topics on the national and international
business angels into the chemicals and waste agenda. Strengthened engagement of the
community could prove a win-win situation. media can help not only to multiply the effect
of campaigns, but also to facilitate a more
›› Identifying new sources of financing: Institutional systematic information flow to ensure that
investors have a large untapped potential citizens are able to track progress in reducing
to finance interventions for the sound the adverse effects of chemicals and waste
management of chemicals and waste. It may and exert pressure on regulators and the
thus prove beneficial to reach out to public private sector.
pension funds and sovereign wealth funds
and offer them investment opportunities that ›› Implementing campaigns to stimulate action
meet their sustainability criteria. on priority topics: The “Beat Plastic Pollution”
and “Detox” campaigns are only two of many
examples demonstrating the potential of
public campaigns to raise awareness. Such
campaigns can mobilize stakeholders and
unite them behind a common goal at the local,
national, regional and global levels.
654
Part V
References
Chapter 1 Government of China (2016). China’s National Plan

on Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/
Allen, C., Metternicht, G. and Wiedmann, T. (2018).
zxxx_662805/W020161014332600482185.pdf.
Prioritising SDG targets: assessing baselines, gaps
and interlinkages. Sustainability Science 1-18. https://
Government of Thailand (2017). Thailand’s Voluntary
doi.org/10.1007/s11625-018-0596-8.
National Review on the Implementation of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development. United Nations.
Axon, S. and James, D. (2018). The UN Sustainable
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/
Development Goals: how can sustainable chemistry
documents/16147Thailand.pdf.
contribute? A view from the chemical industry. Current
Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 13, 140-145.
Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2018.04.010.
(2017). Nigeria: Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Indicators Baseline Report 2016. Abuja: Office of the
Barbier, E.B. and Burgess, J.C. (2017). The Sustainable
Senior Special Assistant to the President on SDGs and
Development Goals and the systems approach to
National Bureau of Statistics. http://www.ng.undp.org/
sustainability. Economics Discussion Paper 11(2017-28),
content/dam/nigeria/docs/SDGs/Nigeria%20SDGs%20
1-22. https://doi.org/10.5018/economics-ejournal.
Indicators%20Baseline%20Report%202016.pdf.
ja.2017-28.
Hitce, J., Xu, J., Brossat, M., Dublanchet, A.-C., Philippe,
BASF (2018). UN Sustainable Development Goals.
M. and Dalko-Csiba, M. (2018). UN Sustainable
https://www.basf.com/en/company/sustainability/
Development Goals: how can sustainable/green
employees-and-society/goals.html. Accessed 15
chemistry contribute? Green chemistry as a source
September 2018.
of sustainable innovations in the cosmetic industry.
Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 13,
CropLife International (2019). Ensuring the sound
164-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2018.06.019.
management of pesticides: CropLife International
commitment to the Strategic Approach to International
Hoff, H. and I. Lobos Alva (2017). How the Planetary
Chemicals Management (SAICM). https://croplife.org/
Boundaries Framework Can Support National
crop-protection/regulatory/product-management/
Implementation of the 2030 Agenda. SEI Policy Brief.
strategic-approach-to-international-chemicals-
Stockholm: Stockholm Environment Institute,
management/. Accessed 25 February 2019.
Stockholm. https://www.sei.org/mediamanager/
documents/Publications/SEI-2017-PB-Hoff-
Dow (2018). 2017 Dow Sustainability Report. https://
HowthePlanetary.pdf.
www.dow.com/en-us/science-and-sustainability/
highlights-and-reporting.
International Council of Chemical Associations (2017).
Global Chemical Industry Contributions to Sustainable
Elsevier (2018). 4th green & sustainable chemistry
Development. https://www.icca-chem.org/wp-
conference. https://www.elsevier.com/events/
content/uploads/2017/02/Global-Chemical-Industry-
conferences/green-and-sustainable-chemistry-
Contributions-to-the-UN-Sustainable-Development-
conference. Accessed 15 September 2018.
Goals.pdf.
European Chemical Industry Council (2016). Teaming
International Organization for Chemical Sciences
Up for a Sustainable Europe: Cefic Sustainability Charter.
in Development (2018). Current activities: chemists
http://www.cefic.org/Documents/RESOURCES/
for sustainability, 5 November. http://www.iocd.org/
PositionPapers/Cefic-Sustainability-Charter-
WhatWeDo/Current/sustainability.shtml. Accessed
TeamingUp-For-A-SustainableEurope.pdf.
20 November 2018.
Farrelly, M. (2016). Agroecology contributes to the
International POPs Elimination Network and Pesticide
sustainable development goals, 22 September.
Action Network (2017). Beyond 2020 Perspectives. http://
Ileia. https://www.ileia.org/2016/09/22/agroecology-
ipen.org/documents/ipen-beyond-2020-perspectives.
contributes-sustainable-development-goals/. Accessed
15 September 2018.
Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound
Management of Chemicals (2017). IOMC Plans for
Government of Canada (2018). Canada’s Implementation
Future Actions to Implement the Goals and Targets of
of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development:
the 2030 Agenda. Secretariat of the Strategic Approach
Voluntary National Review. Ottawa: Global Affairs
to International Chemicals Management. http://www.
Canada. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/
saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/IP2/
content/documents/20033CanadasVoluntaryNation
IP_2_7_IOMC.pdf.
alReviewENv6.pdf.
655
Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
Management of Chemicals (2018). Chemicals and Waste Chemicals Management (2018). The Contributions of
Management: Essential to Achieving the Sustainable the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions to the
Development Goals (SDGs). http://www.who.int/iomc/ Sound Management of Chemicals and Wastes. http://
Chemicals_SDGs_interactive_Feb2018.pdf. www.saicm.org/Portals/12/documents/meetings/IP2/
IP_2_INF_4_BRS_.pdf.
Kaduna State Government (2017). Kaduna SDG Report.
https://kdsg.gov.ng/download/kaduna-sdg-report/. Singh, G.G., Cisneros-Montemayor, A.M., Swartz, W.,
Cheung, W., Guy, J.A., Kenny, T.-A., McOwen, C.J., Asch,
Kuruvilla, S., Hinton, R., Boerma, T., Bunney, R., R., Geffert, J.L., Wabnitz, C.C.C., Sumaila, R., Hanich, Q.
Casamitjana, N., Cortez, R., Fracassi, P., Franz-Vasdeki, and Ota, Y. (2018). A rapid assessment of co-benefits
J., Helldén, D., McManus, J., Papp, S., Rasanathan, and trade-offs among Sustainable Development Goals.
K., Requejo, J., Silver, K.L., Tenhoope-Bender, P., Marine Policy 93, 223-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Velleman, Y., Wegner, M.N., Armstrong, C.E., Barnett, marpol.2017.05.030.
S., Blauvelt, C., Buang, S.N., Bury, L., Callahan, E.A., Das,
J.K., Gurnani, V., Kaba, M.W., Milman, H.M., Murray, J., Statistics Denmark (2018). Data – target 12.4:
Renner, I., Roche, M.L., Saint, V., Simpson, S., Subedar, responsible management of chemicals and waste.
H., Ukhova, D., Velásquez, C.N., Young, P., Graham, W. https://www.dst.dk/en/Statistik/Sdg/12-ansvarligt-
and PMNCH Multisectoral Collaboration Study Group. forbrug-og-produktion/delmaal-04/indikator-1#istart.
(2018). Business not as usual: How multisectoral Accessed 15 September 2018.
collaboration can promote transformative change for
health and sustainable development. British Medical Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockström, J., Cornell, S.E.,
Journal 363(k4771), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj. Fetzer, I., Bennett, E.M., Biggs, R., Carpenter, S.R., De
k4771. Vries, W., De Wit, C.A., Folke, C., Gerten, D., Heinke, J.,
Mace, G.M., Persson, L.M., Ramanathan, V., Reyers, B.
Machingura, F. and Lally, S. (2017). The Sustainable and Sörlin, S. (2015). Planetary boundaries: guiding
Development Goals and Their Trade-Offs: Case Study human development on a changing planet. Science,
Report. London: Overseas Development Institute. 347(6223). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1259855.
https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/long-form-
downloads/the_sdgs_and_their_trade-offs.pdf. Stockholm Resilience Centre (2016). How food
connects all the SDGs. http://www.stockholmresilience.
Matlin, S.A., Mehta, G., Hopf, H. and Krief, A. (2015). org/research/research-news/2016-06-14-how-food-
The role of chemistry in inventing a sustainable connects-all-the-sdgs.html. Accessed 31 August 2018.
future. Nature Chemistry 7(12), 941-943. https://doi.
org/10.1038/nchem.2389. Stibbe, D. (2018). Building the collaborative world we
need to deliver the SDGs, 16 January. The Partnering
Morton, S., Pencheon, D. and Squires, N. (2017). Initiative. https://thepartneringinitiative.org/news-
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and their and-views/tpi-blog/building-the-collaborative-world-
implementation. British Medical Bulletin 124(1), 1-10. we-need/. Accessed 15 September 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldx031.
Sumitomo Chemical Group (2018). Sumitomo
Nieuwenkamp, R. (2017). Ever heard of SDG washing? Chemical Group’s contributions to the Sustainable
The urgency of SDG due diligence, 25 September. Development Goals (SDGs). https://www.sumitomo-
OECD Development Matters. https://oecd-development- chem.co.jp/english/csr/management/sdgs/contents.
matters.org/2017/09/25/ever-heard-of-sdg-washing- html. Accessed 15 September 2018.
the-urgency-of-sdg-due-diligence/. Accessed 15
September 2018. Textile Exchange (2018). What are the SDGs. https://
textilesforsdgs.org/. Accessed 15 September 2018.
Pradhan, P., Costa, L., Rybski, D., Lucht, W. and
Kropp, J.P. (2017). Earth’s future a systematic study Ugarte, S., D’Hollander, D., Tregurtha, N. and Haase,
of sustainable development goal (SDG) interactions. N. (2017). SDGs Mean Business: How Credible Standards
Earth’s Future 5(11), 1169-1179. https://doi. Can Help Companies Deliver the 2030 Agenda. Jeffries,
org/10.1002/2017ef000632. B. (ed.). Gland: WWF-World Wide Fund for Nature.
http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/
Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Å., wwf_iseal_sdg_2017_28_feb.pdf.
Chapin, F.S., Lambin, E.F., Lenton, T.M., Scheffer, M.,
Folke, C., Schellnhuber, H.J., Nykvist, B., de Wit, C.A., United Nations Global Compact and Accenture Strategy
Hughes, T., van der Leeuw, S., Rodhe, H., Sörlin, S., (2016). The UN Global Compact-Accenture Strategy CEO
Snyder, P.K., Costanza, R., Svedin, U., Falkenmark, M., Study – Agenda 2030: A Window of Opportunity. https://
Karlberg, L., Corell, R.W., Fabry, V.J., Hansen, J., Walker, www.accenture.com/t20161216T041642Z__w__/us-
B., Liverman, D., Richardson, K., Crutzen, P. and Foley, en/_acnmedia/Accenture/next-gen-2/insight-ungc-ceo-
J.A. (2009). A safe operating space for humanity. Nature study-page/Accenture-UN-Global-Compact-Accenture-
46(7263), 472-475. https://doi.org/10.1038/461472a. Strategy-CEO-Study-2016.pdf.
656
Part V
United States Government Accountability Office (2018). Secretariat of the Strategic Approach to International
Chemical Innovation: Technologies to Make Processes Chemicals Management, United Nations Environment
and Products More Sustainable. https://www.gao.gov/ Programme and World Health Organization (2006).
products/GAO-18-307. Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
Management: SAICM Texts and Resolutions of the
Verles, M. and Vellacott, T. (2018). Business and the International Conference on Chemicals Management.
Sustainable Development Goals: Best Practices to Seize Geneva: United Nations Environment Programme.
Opportunity and Maximise Credibility. Geneva: Gold https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/
Standard. https://www.wwf.ch/sites/default/files/doc- documents/SAICM_publication_ENG.pdf.
2018-02/18_02_15_SDG_Goldstandard%20Report.pdf.
Secretariat of the Vienna Convention and the Montreal
VinylPlus (2018). VinylPlus contribution to the Protocol (2018). Ozone Secretariat: country data.
sustainable development goals. https://vinylplus.eu/ https://ozone.unep.org/countries. Accessed 11
community/sustainable-development-goals. Accessed September 2018.
15 September 2018.
Tittensor, D.P., Walpole, M., Hill, S.L.L., Boyce, D.G.,
World Business Council for Sustainable Development Britten, G.L., Burgess, N.D. Butchart, S. H.M., Leadley,
(2017). Chemical Sector SDG Roadmap. https:// P.W., Regan, E.C., Alkemade, R., Baumung, R., Bellard,
www.wbcsd.org/Programs/People/Sustainable- C., Bouwman, L., Bowles-Newark, N.J., Chenery, A.,
Development-Goals/Resources/Chemical-Sector-SDG- M., Cheung, W.W.L., Christensen, V., Cooper, H.D.,
Roadmap. Crowther, A.R., Dixon, M.J.R., Galli, A,. Gaveau, V.,
Gregory, R.D., Gutierrez, N.L., Hirsch, T.L., Höft, R.,
World Business Council for Sustainable Development Januchowski-Hartley, S.R., Karmann, M., Krug, C.B.,
and Radley Yeldar (2017). Reporting Matters: Striking Leverington, F.J., Loh, J., Lojenga, R.K., Malsch, K.,
a Balance between Disclosure and Engagement. Marques, A., Morgan, D.H.W., Mumby, P.J., Newbold,
https://docs.wbcsd.org/2017/10/WBCSD_Reporting_ T., Noonan-Mooney, K., Pagad, S.N., Parks, B.C.,
matters_2017_interactive.pdf. Pereira, H.M., Robertson, T., Rondinini, C., Santini,
L., Scharlemann, J.P.W., Schindler, Stefan., Sumaila,
World Economic Forum (2018). Chemistry and Advanced U Rashid., Teh, Louise S L., van Kolck, Jennifer.,
Materials – Collaborative Innovation towards the Visconti, Piero., Ye, Y (2014). A mid-term analysis of
Sustainable Development Goals. Forthcoming report. progress toward international biodiversity targets.
Science 346(6206), 241-244. https://doi.org/10.1126/
science.1257484.
Chapter 2 United Nations Development Programme (2011).

Outcome Level Evaluation: A Companion Guide to the
Butchart, S.H.M., Di Marco, M. and Watson, J.E.M. (2016). Handbook on Planning Monitoring and Evaluating for
Formulating smart commitments on biodiversity: Development Results for Programme Units and Evaluators.
lessons from the Aichi targets. Conservation Letters http://web.undp.org/evaluation/documents/
9(6), 457-468. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12278. guidance/UNDP_Guidance_on_Outcome-Level%20_
Evaluation_2011.pdf.
Honkonen, T. and Khan, S.A. (2017). Chemicals and
Waste Governance Beyond 2020: Exploring Pathways for World Bank (2007). Module 2: Results Chain. http://
a Coherent Global Regime. Copenhagen: Nordic Council siteresources.worldbank.org/INTUKRAINE/
of Ministers. https://doi.org/10.6027/tn2017-502. Resources/328335-1212401346836/
Module2ResultsChainEng.pdf.
Development (2017). Strengthening the Results Chain: World Health Organization (2018). Global Health
Synthesis of Case Studies of Results-Based Management Observatory (GHO) data. http://www.who.int/gho/
by Providers. https://www.oecd.org/dac/peer-reviews/ en/. Accessed 11 September 2018.
results-strengthening-results-chain-discussion-paper.
pdf.
657
Index
2020 goal, 8-9, 17, 235-239, 241-242, 257, 260, Automotive, 30, 59, 69, 76, 80, 114, 304, 306,
286, 330, 334, 585, 642-643, 647 428, 543, 545, 569
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Basel Convention, 7, 115, 119, 220-221, 229-
2, 6, 8-9, 17, 21, 63, 226-227, 239-240, 433, 233, 238, 244-245, 250, 257, 267, 280-288,
509, 524-525, 628-654 297, 332, 433, 645
Accidents, 68, 116-118, 157-158, 172, 250, 453- Benefits of action, 20, 164-175, 268
467
Beyond 2020, 2, 5, 9-13, 17, 20-21, 239, 275,
Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP), 319, 389- 333-334, 388-389, 394, 402, 416-417, 427-
390, 395, 409, 412 428, 511, 585, 602, 632, 646-647, 651-654
Africa, 27-28, 48-49, 62-63, 66-67, 75-76, 109- Bisphenol, 83, 85, 107, 120, 123, 143-144, 149,
110, 114-115, 138, 171, 232-235, 252-253, 154-155, 322-323, 336-337, 437, 443, 551
260, 264-266, 270, 273, 276-290, 297-298,
301, 440, 464, 511, 552, 560, 561, 576 Business models, 19, 65, 298, 533, 539, 542-
554, 556, 647, 652
Agroecology, 72, 437
Cadmium, 54-55, 72, 74, 95, 101, 104, 112, 129,
Alternatives, 70-74, 293-294, 299, 302, 307- 131, 133-134, 145, 149, 157, 324, 338-339
310, 385, 424-429, 431-433, 435-452, 472
Canada, 48, 50, 55, 70, 103, 111, 126, 128, 137-
Antibiotics, 100-101, 311-312 138, 142-143, 162, 258, 262, 263, 270, 285,
290, 310, 314, 319, 329, 386, 388, 394, 408,
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), 73, 101, 149- 410, 416-417, 517-518, 535, 561, 594-596,
150, 254, 311-313, 413, 644 633
Arsenic, 103, 123, 133, 145, 152, 154, 157, 322, Chemical industry, 2, 10, 24-40, 41-60, 61-67,
335 93-94, 113, 115-116, 157, 277, 282, 424-425,
427-428, 462, 504-505, 510-515, 528-529,
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM), 538-539, 548-549, 565-570, 576-585, 593,
53-54, 97, 103, 142, 158, 249, 283, 466-467 601-602, 635, 647, 651
Asbestos, 31-32, 56-57, 70, 150-152, 157-163, Chemical leasing, 19, 434, 542-545, 554, 582,
170-173, 270-273, 644-645 647
Asia, 25-28, 35, 46-49, 58-59, 63-67, 70-76, 96- Chemicals in products, 78, 81-88, 104, 119,
97, 107-110, 115, 171, 232, 248, 253-256, 253, 290-292, 298, 302-307, 397, 404-405,
258-260, 264, 266, 276-290, 296, 300-301, 418, 425, 431, 435-437, 566, 570, 574, 591,
323-324, 464, 510, 511, 576 603
658
Index
China, 25-28, 35, 38-40, 43, 46, 49-52, 54, 55- Education, 8, 12, 19, 227, 261-262, 299, 306-
59, 64, 67, 70-76, 79-80, 99-100, 102, 106, 307, 464, 509, 515-523, 525-526, 534, 540,
109, 112, 114-116, 182,132-138, 141-143, 571, 590, 592, 630, 636, 641, 644-646
172, 253, 262, 266, 284, 297, 301, 303, 309-
310, 319, 324, 328-329, 388, 432, 446, 455, Effectiveness evaluation, 96, 233, 247-248
460, 462, 465, 517-519, 547, 550, 561-562,
593, 595, 598, 633 Electronic and electrical products, 2, 29-30, 51-
53, 59, 68-72, 79, 84, 160, 290-292, 295-298,
Circularity, 12-13, 86-91, 110, 305, 307, 471, 303-307, 425, 442, 446, 560, 567, 569, 596
473, 505, 542, 568, 571-574, 631, 634
Emerging policy issues (EPIs), 267, 269, 290--
Citizens, 20, 144, 398, 586-603, 646-647, 654 319, 320, 333
Construction, 2, 12, 29-30, 59, 67-71, 76, 90, Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), 3,
102, 108, 118, 156, 159-160, 307, 464, 505- 147-148, 152-154, 157, 161, 163, 170-172,
506, 643, 645, 652 290-292, 311, 315-319, 322-323, 328-329,
392, 395, 426, 443, 594
Consumers, 12, 18, 20, 62, 77, 80-83, 88-90,
123-124, 298, 303-307, 396-397, 404, 420- Entrepreneurs, 519, 523, 524-541, 551-554,
425, 431, 434-435, 442, 510, 526, 539-540, 646
548-552, 565-569, 576, 580-583, 586-596,
603, 646-647 Europe, 3, 25-26, 28, 39-40, 46-50, 58, 63-54,
73, 95-97, 102, 113, 115, 124-126, 128, 130-
Coral reefs, 147-148 131, 138, 144, 146-147, 168, 170-172, 232,
248, 254-256, 264, 266, 276, 283, 284-285,
Corporate Social Responsibility, 462, 576-577, 288, 309, 386-388, 394, 398, 408, 412, 424-
602 425, 432, 507, 510-511, 587, 594
Cosmetics and personal care products, 2-3, 30- European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), 90-91,
32, 44, 59-60, 69-70, 83, 99, 105-106, 124, 255, 262, 263, 270, 306, 324, 387-388, 391-
128-130, 155, 161, 283, 325-326, 328-329, 392, 394, 416, 431,439, 551, 572
592, 594, 596,
European Union, 3, 26-28, 39-40, 50-51, 55,
Costs of inaction, 20, 164-175, 268 64, 88, 90, 100, 107, 113-114, 116, 158, 163,
169, 172, 248, 254-255, 259, 262-263, 269,
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), 43-44, 286, 290, 297, 303-304, 310, 314-315, 318,
47, 85, 96, 127-128, 130, 133, 135, 138-140, 322, 324, 327-329, 386, 391-392, 394, 398,
146, 149, 152, 154, 315, 326, 506-507 401, 408, 410, 420, 429-430, 436, 438, 442,
445-446, 455-456, 470, 522, 524, 551, 572,
Digitalization, 65, 511-514 585, 633
Dubai Declaration, 7-8, 225, 263 Exposure assessment, 19, 82-83, 90-91, 120-
125, 143-144, 162-163, 164-167, 169, 173-
Due diligence, 39, 303, 457 175, 262-263, 276, 292, 316-319, 384-385,
389, 394, 396-405, 406-418, 419-434, 438,
Ecosystem, 72-73, 103, 146-148, 163-164, 166, 468-473, 642
170, 173-174, 297, 326-327, 397, 400-401,
412-413, 444, 469-473 E-commerce, 65, 90, 283, 550-551, 554
Eco-industrial parks, 462-463, 539-540, 546- E-waste, 109, 112, 115, 134, 166, 286, 465, 562
548, 554
659
Feedstocks, 28-34, 41, 45, 59, 66, 68, 505, 507- Heavy metals, 6, 31-32, 52-55, 76, 87, 95, 101,
510, 516, 530, 549, 565-566, 574, 595 104, 108, 112, 129, 131, 133-135, 145-147,
149-150, 160, 162, 283, 324-325, 635
Financing, 8, 18, 273-282, 289, 331-333, 433,
524-541, 547, 630-631, 641, 645-646, 653- International Labour Organization (ILO), 5, 7,
654 157, 159, 222, 229-231, 238, 250, 333, 392,
398-399, 421, 462, 465, 594, 636, 645
Fiscal incentives, 18, 74, 553, 555-563, 646
Indicators, 17, 20, 225, 227, 228-240, 242, 245,
Flame retardants, 50-51, 71, 83, 85-86, 105- 282, 287-288, 334, 575-585, 593, 637, 641,
106, 112, 115, 128-131, 133, 141-142, 152, 647-650
297, 425, 432, 437, 442-443, 561
Innovation, 3-4, 8, 12, 18-19, 61-68, 69-77, 243,
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 104, 424, 426, 428-429, 424, 438, 440, 442-443,
224, 234-235, 238, 267, 270-272, 290, 299- 447, 472-473, 506-517, 525-541, 542, 545,
302, 324, 413, 434, 636 547, 556-557, 572-573, 631, 634, 636, 638-
639, 644-646
Frontrunner companies, 9, 19, 21, 424, 442,
577, 652 Integrated pest management, 73, 224, 281,
302, 433, 444-445, 450, 506, 644
Global Environment Facility (GEF), 249, 257,
261, 267, 278-280, 321, 331 International Code of Conduct on Pesticide
Management, 7, 11, 224, 234-235, 238-239,
Global Plan of Action (GPA), 8, 225, 237-239, 270-273, 299, 301, 331, 643
242, 259-261, 266, 272-273, 277
International Conference on Chemicals
Globally Harmonized System of Classification Management (ICCM), 2, 7-9, 225, 235, 238,
and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), 7, 18, 263, 267, 269, 280, 286, 288, 290-293, 296,
224, 234-235, 237-239, 242, 253-257, 263- 299, 303, 307, 311, 314, 316, 320, 437
264, 315, 331-332, 391-393, 395, 412, 417,
421-426, 430, 433-434, 569, 644-645, 650 Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound
Management of Chemicals (IOMC), 21,
Glyphosate, 47, 104, 155, 323, 324, 337 228, 234, 236, 238-239, 260-261, 266-267,
272-273, 276, 280-281, 288, 290, 300, 331,
Green chemistry, 8, 18-19, 76, 431, 469, 504- 433-434, 631, 636, 645, 652
511, 515-523, 525, 532, 539, 541, 565, 573-
574, 582, 595, 636, 643-644, 646-647 Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI),
5, 7-8, 224-225, 241, 263-265
Hazard assessment, 3, 18, 90, 263, 384-395,
412, 414, 416, 431, 439, 642 Latin America and the Caribbean, 25, 28, 40,
46-49, 57-58, 63, 66, 68, 72, 109, 128, 139,
Hazardous waste, 5-6, 53, 92, 102, 108-115, 145, 171, 248, 256-257, 260, 264, 276-277,
119, 146, 159, 161, 221, 236, 240, 244-245, 279, 285-286, 288, 511, 589
284-286, 287-288, 297-298, 331-332, 448,
463, 561 Lead, 5, 12, 52-53, 71-76, 85, 87, 89, 94-95, 101,
103-104, 107-108, 112, 115, 123, 126, 129,
Health Canada, 258, 324 131, 134, 137-138, 144, 145, 150-152, 154-
163, 170-172, 238, 253, 269, 272-273, 277,
Health sector, 10, 32, 73, 226, 239, 261-262, 290, 293-295, 321, 325, 339-340, 556, 560
459, 643, 644-645, 652
660
Index
Legacies, 4, 18, 43, 62, 74-75, 108, 127, 131, 143, 145, 147, 166, 257-258, 266, 323, 445,
135, 141, 145-146, 248, 294-295, 514, 632, 510-511
644, 646, 648, 652
Occupational health and safety, 75, 89, 165,
Life cycle assessment and management, 5, 13, 167, 250, 275, 280-281, 307, 420, 434, 461-
18-20, 78, 81, 86-91, 224-226, 237, 240, 262, 464, 467,
275, 333, 401-402, 420, 433, 438-442, 445,
468-473, 583-584 Ocean dead zones, 146-147
Market-based instruments, 90, 168, 432-433, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
555-563, 646 Development (OECD), 25, 76, 111, 116-118,
143, 158, 163, 168, 175, 235, 238, 240, 254,
Megatrends, 2, 14, 61-77, 110 257-259, 263, 267, 272, 286, 290, 301, 305,
307, 314-315, 331, 386, 388-390, 392-393,
Mercury, 53-54, 71, 83, 87, 95, 97, 101, 103- 401-403, 409-410, 416, 418, 424, 426, 432,
104, 106, 108, 112, 115, 118, 123, 128, 434, 438, 445, 454-458, 508, 636
131-132, 134, 136-137, 142-144, 145, 149,
154-155, 158, 160-163, 168-170, 223, 245, Overall Orientation and Guidance (OOG), 8,
248-250, 269, 278-279, 288, 440, 451, 466, 225, 235, 237-240, 241-242, 263, 266, 272-
645 273, 33, 631, 641
Microbeads and microplastics, 60, 83, 85, 102, Overarching Policy Strategy (OPS), 7-8, 225,
104, 133, 135, 137, 149, 321, 325-326, 340- 259, 261, 263, 274, 282, 285-286, 289, 291,
341, 596 330-331, 590-591, 631, 647
Minamata Convention on Mercury, 54, 168, Ozone depleting substances (ODS), 94, 118,
170, 220, 223, 229, 234, 248-250, 265, 279- 229, 243, 278-279, 332, 428, 551, 556, 560,
280, 332, 333, 433, 440, 446, 451, 466, 590, 645
645
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 7, 43, 68,
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete 95-96, 101, 118, 126-128, 130-131, 134-135,
the Ozone Layer, 7, 94, 147, 168, 221, 229- 138-139, 144, 149, 152, 154-155, 223, 229,
320, 243, 267, 278-279, 284, 288, 332, 334, 246-248, 265, 267, 278-279, 280-281, 301,
426, 428-429, 433, 436, 446, 450, 645, 650 332, 398, 444
Multilateral treaties, 7, 44, 168, 220-223, 228- Per- and polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs),
234, 237, 239-240, 241-251, 286, 321, 332- 50, 76, 129, 135, 140, 292, 307-310
333, 647
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), 50, 85, 99, 130,
Nanotechnology and manufactured 133, 140-141, 152, 154, 168, 172, 309-310,
nanomaterials, 28, 40, 51-52, 154, 290-292,
313-315, 386, 388, 393, 403, 407-408, 422, Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), 50, 99,
423-424, 505, 514, 530 128, 130-131, 133, 136, 140, 141, 152, 309-
310
National profiles, 238, 259-262, 331, 333
Pesticides, 7, 31-32, 46-48, 65-68, 72-73, 85,
Neonicotinoids, 85, 123, 148, 326-327, 341- 93, 98, 100-104, 113, 116, 118, 123-135,
342, 597 145-163, 223-224, 234, 238, 247, 237, 269,
270-273, 281-286, 288, 290, 292, 299-302,
North America, 25-28, 40, 46, 48, 50, 54, 57-58, 314, 318, 324, 331, 332, 337, 341-342, 396-
64, 66, 73, 97, 102-104, 126, 128, 133, 136, 397, 409, 420, 422-423, 432-434, 444-445,
661
464-465, 469, 506, 512-513, 556, 558-559, Product life cycle, 78, 80-82, 86, 86-91, 121,
590, 595, 634-635, 645 164, 220, 295-298, 302-307, 400, 405, 442,
468-473, 564, 568, 572-573
Pharmaceuticals, 3, 24, 41-43, 48-50, 59, 64,
68, 73-74, 100, 114-115, 130-132, 147, 154, Quick Start Programme (QSP), 236, 260-261,
263, 310-313, 400, 504-505, 513, 550, 644 275, 277, 279-281, 330-331
Phthalates, 71, 83, 85, 87-88, 98, 106-107, Resource efficiency, 4, 11, 13, 68, 75, 86, 115,
123-124, 129, 142, 144, 149, 152, 154-155, 512, 542, 544, 554, 571-572, 578, 583
161-162, 171, 315, 328-329, 344-345, 425,
429, 443, 560-561, 563, 594 Responsible care, 35-36, 277, 282, 426-427,
577, 596
Plastic, 29-33, 37, 42, 44, 56-60, 70-71, 80-90,
101-102, 104-105, 107-112, 115, 123-124, Rights, 226-227, 509, 553, 583, 586-603, 647
131, 133-135, 137, 148-150, 152, 162, 324,
325-326, 328, 340-341, 399, 504-507, 530, Risk assessment, 5, 19, 74, 168, 237, 262-
549-552, 558, 560-561, 596-597, 654 263, 266-269, 273, 312, 315, 320-321, 332,
384-388, 392, 403, 405, 406-418, 419-422,
Plasticizer, 83-85, 88, 105, 124, 152, 328, 443, 429-436, 439, 441, 448, 458, 469, 472, 594,
594 642, 644
Pollinators, 148, 301, 327 Risk management, 5, 19, 70, 163, 262-263, 268-
273, 321, 332, 384-385, 407-408, 411-414,
Pollution, 10, 12, 62, 67-68, 70, 76-77, 90-91, 419-434, 453-467, 564-566, 595-597, 603,
92-119, 126, 133, 146-147, 150-152, 155, 642, 644
160-162, 164-165, 169-170, 174, 240, 265,
296, 324-325, 431, 438, 464, 508-509, 512, Risk reduction, 8, 225, 236-237, 242, 269-273,
515, 542-543, 546, 556, 562, 584, 592-593, 287-288, 289, 293, 301-302, 331, 458
599, 601, 603, 646-647, 654
Roadmaps, 20-21, 634, 643, 652
Poisoning, 72, 112, 150-151, 154, 158-159, 240,
266, 273, 300, 423, 444, 465, 645 Rotterdam Convention, 7, 223, 228, 245-246,
250, 267, 282-284, 332, 444, 590, 645
Poisons centres, 237-238, 273, 331-332
Safety data sheet (SDS), 119, 224, 276, 304,
Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers 420-424, 459-460, 568-569, 590,594, 650
(PRTRs), 6, 93, 95, 103, 113-114, 118-119,
238, 257, 265-266, 305, 307, 331-332, 400, Science-policy interface, 20, 267-268, 331, 642
403, 592-593
Sectors, 2, 10, 19, 21, 28-32, 59, 61-62, 68-77,
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), 43, 85, 87, 88, 227, 251, 259, 261-263, 303, 305-306,
95-96, 112, 124, 127-128, 130-131, 133-135, 424, 427-428, 472-473, 505-506, 508-509,
138-140, 147, 149, 152, 154-155, 158, 160, 514, 525, 528-529, 539, 558, 563, 568,
162, 235, 247-248, 315, 326, 456 578-581, 585, 630-632, 638-640, 641-647,
651-654
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs)
and polychlorinated dibenzofurans Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs),
(PCDFs), 86-96, 127, 134, 138-140, 309 36, 38, 89, 156, 281, 294-295, 428, 438, 445,
459-464, 467, 549-551, 554, 578
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 85-
86, 95, 112, 130, 149, 162, 328, 343-344 Social entrepreneurship, 542, 551-552, 554
662
Index
Special Programme, 280, 331 Triclosan, 83, 123, 131, 144, 149, 154, 161, 329,
346
Standard-setting, 19, 425-426, 427-428, 462,
647, 652 Unintended contaminants, 85-89, 119, 568
Start-ups, 19, 451, 525-541, 646, 654 United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED), 5, 220, 265
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants, 7, 43-44, 50-51, 95-96, 118, 126- United Nations Conference on Sustainable
131, 138-140, 144, 152, 223, 229, 231-233, Development (Rio+20), 6, 12
246-248, 250, 261, 265, 267, 278-280, 288,
301, 309, 332-333, 398, 426, 432-433, 436, United Nations Development Programme
444, 637, 645 (UNDP), 238, 249, 274, 636
Strategic Approach to International Chemicals United Nations Environment Programme

Management, 2, 5, 7-9, 13, 91, 220, 224-226, (UNEP), 3, 7, 12, 149, 152, 166, 234-235,
228, 235-238, 239, 242, 250-251, 260-263, 238, 240, 250, 262, 274-277, 284, 290, 398,
266-267, 269, 272-277, 279-290, 291-292, 433, 449, 454-455, 466, 511, 531, 569, 582,
302-303, 305-307, 321, 325, 330, 334, 459, 591, 598, 636
511, 569, 585, 590-591, 631-632, 641, 650,
652 United Nations Economic Commission for
Europe (UNECE), 235, 324-325, 454, 589,
Substances of very high concern, 91, 255-256, 595,
258, 269, 306, 310, 329, 424, 429, 563, 572,
592, 594 United Nations Industrial Development
Organization (UNIDO), 238, 249, 290, 434,
Substitution, 19, 73, 169, 306, 323, 420, 424- 449, 519, 543-545, 588, 636
425, 429, 435-452, 468, 473, 543, 547, 556-
557, 642 United Nations Institute for Training and
Research (UNITAR), 260, 261, 272, 290, 466,
Supply chain, 2, 19-20, 29, 35, 71, 78-91, 107, 636
156, 160, 297, 302-307, 399, 426, 431, 443,
448-449, 466-467, 470-473, 513, 564-574, United States (US), 26-27, 33, 35, 38, 40, 43,
576-579, 583, 588 46-50, 52-56, 70-71, 83, 90, 95, 99-101,
103-104, 107, 109, 111, 113, 123-124, 126,
Sustainability assessment, 425, 427, 468-473, 129, 133, 137, 141-144, 148, 154-155, 157,
568 161-162, 166, 168-169, 172-173, 257-258,
262, 290, 297, 303-304, 309, 314, 323, 329,
Sustainable chemistry, 8, 18-19, 62, 76, 278, 386-387, 391, 398, 401, 409, 413, 425, 427,
468-469, 504-414, 515-523, 524-541, 563, 429, 436, 438, 446, 448, 451, 455, 458, 515,
565-566, 573-574, 582-583, 635-636, 643- 523, 527, 532, 553, 560, 561, 566, 577, 580,
644, 646-647, 654 588, 591, 593-594, 596-598
Textiles, 2-3, 9, 30, 50-51, 59, 68-69, 76-77, 80, United States Environmental Protection
83, 86, 102, 105, 109, 125, 137, 156, 159- Agency (US EPA), 126, 143, 258, 262, 270,
160, 303, 307, 310, 314, 325, 428, 435, 505, 284, 310, 387-388, 403, 408-409, 411, 431,
579, 593, 635, 643 445, 449, 469, 507, 566, 569, 592, 595, 597
Toys, 79-81, 83, 85, 105, 160, 283, 299, 303- Value chain, 17, 24, 28-30, 35-26, 41-44, 78,
304, 307, 324-325, 328, 553 81-82, 93, 115, 164, 276, 307, 313, 428-429,
512-513, 529, 537, 569, 570, 579, 583, 596
663
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 95, 98, WHO International Health Regulations (2015),
105-106, 129, 170, 328, 550, 569 7, 223, 229, 233-234, 238, 251, 454, 645, 649
Voluntary instruments, 7, 220, 224, 234-235, World Business Council for Sustainable
242 Development (WBCSD), 9, 21, 427, 634
Waste hierarchy, 12-13, 63, 88 World Health Organization (WHO), 7, 10, 21,
70, 99, 116, 123, 126, 130, 140, 149-150,
Workers, 10, 20, 70-71, 73, 81, 112, 125, 156- 152, 157, 159, 161, 223, 233, 234-235, 238-
158, 160, 161, 222, 230, 250, 269, 294, 296- 240, 251, 266-267, 270, 272-273, 290, 299,
298, 315, 325, 386, 396-370, 398-399, 407, 301, 311, 313, 315, 317, 321, 325, 331, 392,
415, 420-426, 448-449, 460, 464-467, 470, 409-410, 412-414, 417, 423-424, 434, 636,
523, 568, 586-603, 645-647, 650 643, 645, 649, 652
World Summit on Sustainable Development,

5-8, 224
664

Global Chemical Outlook PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Global Chemical Outlook PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Global Chemical Outlook PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Global Chemicals Outlook II

Copyright © United Nations Environment Programme, 2019

ISBN No: 978-92-807-3745-5

Feedback and contact

Please contact: [email protected]

The Global Chemicals Outlook II was prepared by

Generous financial and in-kind contributions

We have made some progress in managing

The global goal to minimize adverse impacts of

2. Driven by global megatrends, growth in chemical-intensive industry sectors (e.g.

7. Significant resources can be saved by sharing knowledge on chemical management

8. Frontrunner companies – from chemical producers to retailers – are introducing

9. Consumer demand, as well as green and sustainable chemistry education and

ACC American Chemistry Council CMS Chemical management services

ACS American Chemical Society CO2 Carbon dioxide

AMAP Arctic Monitoring and Assessment CO2-eq Carbon dioxide equivalent

ASGM Artisanal and small-scale gold EC European Commission

CAPP Chemical Accident Prevention and EIPs Eco-industrial parks

Cefic European Chemical Industry EPIs Emerging policy issues

CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons ESDs Emission Scenario Documents

CiP Chemicals in Products EU European Union

CIRS Chemical Inspection and EWG Environmental Working Group

GCO-II Second Global Chemicals Outlook ILO International Labour Organization

HHPs Highly hazardous pesticides JPOI Johannesburg Plan of

OHS Occupational Health and Safety PV Photovoltaic

OOG SAICM Overall Orientation and PVC Polyvinyl chloride

PET Polyethylene terephthalate SDGs Sustainable Development Goals

PFASs Per- and polyfluoroalkyl SDS Safety data sheet(s)

PFNA Perfluorononanoic acid SVHC Substances of very high concern

PFOA Perfluorooctanoic acid TCE Trichloroethylene

PFOS Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid TRI United States Toxics Release

UNDP United Nations Development US NRC United States National Research

UNEA United Nations Environment US NTP United States National Toxlcology

UNIDO United Nations Industrial WECF Women in Europe for a Common

US/USA United States WIPO World Intellectual Property

US CDC United States Centers for Disease WMO World Meteorological

US EPA United States Environmental WSSD World Summit on Sustainable

US GAO United States Government

USGS United States Geological Survey

US United States Academies of

US United States National Health and

Introduction: chemicals and waste in the broader

2/ Milestones in international chemicals and waste management 5

3/ Opportunities to link international policy agendas 10

4/ Overview of the Global Chemicals Outlook II 14

Key messages for policymakers: a call for more ambitious

I. The evolving chemicals economy: status and trends

1/ The chemical industry 24

2/ Trends in production and sales of specific chemicals 41

3/ Megatrends and chemical-intensive industry sectors: risks

4/ Global supply chains, chemicals in products, and circularity 78

5/ Chemical pollution: emissions, releases and wastes 92

6/ Concentrations of chemicals in the environment and humans  120

7/ Environmental, health and social effects of chemicals 145

8/ The economic benefits of action and the costs of inaction 164

1/ International agreements and frameworks on chemicals and waste 220

2/ Reporting schemes and indicators under international

3/ Achieving the 2020 goal: what do we know? 241

4/ Emerging policy issues and other issues of concern 291

2/ Milestones in international chemicals and waste management 5

3/ Opportunities to link international policy agendas 10

4/ Overview of the Global Chemicals Outlook II 14

1/ The chemical industry 24

2/ Trends in production and sales of specific chemicals 41

4/ Global supply chains, chemicals in products, and circularity 78

5/ Chemical pollution: emissions, releases and wastes 92

6/ Concentrations of chemicals in the environment and humans 120

7/ Environmental, health and social effects of chemicals 145

8/ The economic benefits of action and the costs of inaction 164

1/ International agreements and frameworks on chemicals and waste 220

3/ Achieving the 2020 goal: what do we know? 241

4/ Emerging policy issues and other issues of concern 291

5/ Other issues where emerging evidence indicates a risk 320

Annex: Other issues where emerging evidence indicates a risk 335

3/ Risk assessment: opportunities to improve and accelerate progress 406

4/ Risk management decision-making: making it work in all countries 419

6/ Chemical risk management in facilities and during production 453

7/ Approaches to sustainability assessment 468

1/ Envisioning and shaping the future of chemistry 504

4/ Evolving and new business models 542

8/ Empowering and protecting citizens, workers and consumers 586

Figure 1.1 Total chemical industry revenues, 2002-2016 (US dollars billion) 25

Figure 3.1 Growth of basic chemical production capacity vs. population growth 63

Figure 6.10 Mercury concentrations in polar bears, Swalbard, Norway, 1960s-2000s 137

Figure 3.1 Parties to the Basel Convention 244

Figure 3.4 Parties to the Stockholm Convention 246

Figure 1.1 From risk assessment to risk management 385

Figure 2.1 Aggregate (left) and cumulative (right) exposure 400

Figure 4.1 Hazard pictograms according to the GHS 422

Figure 6.1 Stakeholders in the change of ownership of hazardous facilities 457

Figure 7.1 Conceptual relationships of the main chemical management tools 469

Figure 3.1 Innovation ecosystem model 525

Figure 4.1 Traditional business models vs. Chemical Leasing 544

Figure 8.1 DOZN scoring example 595

Figure 1.1 The three dimensions of sustainability 630