Sahaya Ozel Tasarim Depremi

Sekizinci Ulusal Deprem Mühendisliği Konferansı, 11 Mayıs-15 Mayıs, 2015, İstanbul
Eighth National Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 11May-15 May 2015, Istanbul, Turkey
SAHAYA ÖZEL TASARIM '(35(0ø

SITE SPECIFIC DESIGN EARTHQUAKE
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TECHNIQUES FOR DETERMINATION OF VULNERABLE

REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS AND AS-FOUND
GEOMETRY OF HISTORICAL STRUCTURES
Khalid M. MOSALAM 1, Selim GÜNAY 2, Shakhzod TAKHIROV 3
ÖZET
Bu oDOÕúPDGD Türkiye’deki \DSÕ VWR÷u ile LOLúNLOL iki sorun ele DOÕQPDNWDGÕU. Bu sorunlardan birincisi deprem
dayanÕNOÕOÕ÷Õ yeterli olmayan betonarme ELQDODUÕQ GR÷UX bir úHNLOGH belirlenmesidir. Bu sorun Türkiye’ye özel
ROPD\ÕS dünya genelinde deprem tehlikesi ile NDUúÕ karúÕ\D EXOXQDQ SHN ook di÷er bölgede de mevcuttur. Söz
konusu binalar deprem tasarÕm detaylarÕndan yoksun, gevrek kÕrÕlma PHNDQL]PDODUÕ bulunduran ve NÕVPL ya da
genel çökme tehlikesi ile NDUúÕ NDUúÕ\D bulunan ELQDODUGÕU. Gevrek NÕUÕOPD PHNDQL]PDODUÕQÕQ oHúLWOLOL÷LQGHQ ve
çok sayÕda belirsizlik içermelerinden dolayÕ bu binalarÕn belirlenmesi kolay bir iúlem de÷ildir. Di÷er yandan, bu
ELQDODUÕQ hassas GR÷UXOXNWD belirlenmesi ekonomik DoÕGDQ önemli bir gerekliliktir. Ne \D]ÕN ki, maddi kaynaklar
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ve güvenilirlikte VÕUDODQPDVÕ ve deprem GD\DQÕPÕ en az RODQODUÕQ belirlenmesi gerekmektedir. Bunun sonucunda,
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ELQDODUÕQ yeterli GR÷UXOXNWD belirlenmesine NDWNÕGD bulunmak DPDFÕ ile (a) GúH\ GD\DQÕP ND\EÕ ve aúamalÕ
çökme analizi ve (b) mevcut belirsizliklerin etkili bir úHNLOGH ele DOÕQPDVÕ NRQXODUÕQÕ incelemektedir. dDOÕúPDGD
incelenen ikinci sorun tarihi \DSÕ geometrisinin yeterli GR÷UXOXkta belirlenmesi için yüksek çözünülürlükte lazer
WDUDPDVÕ NXOODQÕPÕGÕU. Bu úHNLOGH elde edilen \DSÕ geometri bilgisi hasar belirlenmesi ve sonlu elemanlar
çözümlemeleri DPDFÕ\OD NXOODQÕODELOLU.
Anahtar Kelimeler: $úDPDOÕ Çökme Analizi, Belirsizlik, Tarihi <DSÕODU, Yüksek Çözünürlükte
Lazer 7DUDPDVÕ.
ABSTRACT
This paper investigates two issues related to the existing infrastructure stock in Turkey. First of these issues is
the accurate determination of vulnerable reinforced concrete (RC) buildings, which is also a common problem in
many other earthquake-prone areas around the world. These buildings are characterized by the lack of seismic
details and corresponding non-ductile behavior and significant potential of partial and global collapse.
Identification of these buildings is not a trivial task due to the various sources of non-ductile behavior and the
large number of involved uncertainty sources. On the other hand, accurate determination of collapse-prone
buildings is important from an economical perspective. Unfortunately, there are not enough economical
resources to retrofit all the non-ductile buildings that have the symptoms for collapse potential. In order to use
the available monetary resources in an effective manner, these buildings should be accurately and reliably ranked
to identify those that are most vulnerable to collapse, such that the retrofit efforts can start from these buildings.
This paper intends to provide a contribution to the accurate determination of the most collapse vulnerable non-
ductile RC buildings by discussing (a) gravity load failure modeling and progressive collapse analysis and (b)
consideration of uncertainty sources in an efficient manner. The second investigation is related to the use of high
definition laser scanning for accurate geometry documentation and subsequent damage assessment and finite
element analysis of historical structures, which constitute a significant portion of the cultural heritage of Turkey.
Keywords: 3URJUHVVÕYH&ROODSVH$QDO\VLV8QFHUWDLQW\, Historical Structures, High Definition

Laser Scanning.
1
Professor, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
2
Project Scientist, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
3
Structures Laboratory Manager, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA

INTRODUCTION
The Millenium Project, established by the United Nations in 2002 to develop a concrete action plan
for the world to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, lists sustainable development as one of
the global challenges to be tackled. Achievement of hazard resilient communities and existence of
deteriorating structure are two important issues related to sustainable development from a civil
engineering perspective (Figure 1). This paper investigates these two issues related to the existing
local infrastructure stock in Turkey.
Deteriorating Infrastructure
Resilience after hazards
Figure 1. The 15 global challenges identified by the United Nations Millenium Project (http://www.millennium-
project.org/millennium/challenges.html)
First issue is the accurate determination of vulnerable reinforced concrete (RC) buildings, which
is also a common problem in many other earthquake-prone areas around the world. It is a well-known
fact that there are many vulnerable RC buildings in Turkey. These buildings are characterized by the
lack of seismic details (e.g. lack of confinement at the beam and column ends and the beam-column
joints, strong beam-weak column proportions, and presence of shear-critical columns) and the
corresponding non-ductile behavior and significant potential of partial and global collapse, posing
threats to human life as evidenced drastically during 1999 Kocaeli and Düzce, 2003 Bingöl and 2011
Van earthquakes. One of the current challenges of the earthquake research and profession is the
identification of such buildings and the determination of effective and economical retrofit methods for
enhancing their seismic response. Furthermore, the number of buildings in Turkey to be seismically
evaluated under a recent urban renewal law passed in 2012 is estimated to be in the order of several
millions in the next 10 years (Binici et al., 2014). Identification of the collapse-prone buildings is not
an easy task due to the various sources of non-ductile behavior and the large uncertainties involved in
material characteristics, amount of reinforcement, geometry, etc. On the other hand, accurate
determination of collapse-prone buildings is important from an economical perspective. Unfortunately,
there are insufficient economical resources to retrofit all the non-ductile buildings that have the
symptoms for collapse potential. In order to effectively use these limited monetary resources, such
buildings should be accurately and reliably ranked to identify those that are most vulnerable to
collapse, such that systematic retrofit efforts can start from these identified buildings. This paper
intends to provide a contribution to the accurate determination of the most collapse vulnerable non-
ductile buildings by discussing (a) gravity load failure modeling and progressive collapse analysis and
(b) consideration of uncertainty sources in an efficient manner. It is noted that although prevention of

collapse itself is not sufficient for resiliency, it is an essential first step (prerequisite) for the
achievement of resilient structures and communities.
Historical structures and monuments constitute an important portion of deteriorating
infrastructure. The second investigation in this paper is related to the use of high definition laser
scanning for accurate as-found geometry documentation and subsequent damage assessment and finite
element (FE) analysis of historical structures, which constitute a significant portion of the cultural
heritage of Turkey.
COLLAPSE MECHANISM OF NON-DUCTILE RC BUILDINGS
Current state of knowledge and practice in nonlinear static and dynamic analyses has the ability to
determine side-sway collapse that occurs due to lateral dynamic instability at excessive lateral
displacements, when the lateral strength of the structure degrades significantly. However, non-ductile
RC buildings mostly collapse by losing gravity load carrying capacity, much before reaching these
excessive lateral displacements, as demonstrated in Figure 2. At point A of this figure, the lateral load
resistance in a non-ductle RC building starts to degrade because of various events such as in-plane or
out-of-plane failure of infill walls or shear failure of columns. This is followed by the loss of the
gravity load carrying capacity of the lateral and gravity load resisting components, starting with points
B and C, respectively. Following sections of this paper explore this relatively neglected, but
significantly important, issue of gravity load carrying capacity by discussing the methods of gravity
load failure modeling in collapse simulations and pointing out further research needs. It is to be noted
that the term “gravity load failure” is used in the rest of this paper to refer to the loss of gravity load
carrying capacity.
Lateral
Capacity
Vertical Ductile RC
Capacity Building
Lateral System Range Gravity System

Lateral Range
A
Capacity
B
Non-ductile RC
Vertical Building
Capacity
Lateral System Gravity System

Range Range
Figure 2: Lateral and vertical responses of RC buildings (modified from (Holmes, 2000))
There are two alternative options that can be considered for gravity load failure modeling of the
elements of a structure: (a) explicit modeling, and (b) implicit modeling, i.e. non-simulated failure.
Explicit modeling of gravity load failure consists of two stages: (1) detection of gravity load failure,
and (2) post-failure modeling. In the next section of this paper, the advantages and disadvantages of
explicit and implicit modeling techniques are presented. Moreover, three different approaches related
to the second stage of explicit modeling, i.e. post-failure modeling, are discussed. These approaches
are (i) element removal, (ii) assignment of low stiffness to a failed element, and (iii) representation of
the post-failure response of failed elements with degradation. A subsequent section of the paper

explores the models that can be used for failure detection of various structural members in explicit
modeling. The final section related to gravity failure modeling is comprised of modeling of the
structural elements primarily designed to resist the gravity loads with insignificant contribution to the
lateral load resistance. While the gravity load resisting system can be approximately considered for the
case of side-sway collapse, its explicit modeling significantly complements the explicit gravity load
failure modeling of the primary lateral resisting system, as shown in Figure 2.
GRAVITY LOAD FAILURE MODELING OF LATERAL LOAD RESISTING

COMPONENTS
In order to model the gravity load failure of the lateral load resisting components of non-ductile RC
buildings, there are two options that can be considered. First option is the explicit modeling of gravity
load failure, while the second one is the determination of gravity failure of the components implicitly
through post-processing without explicit modeling of gravity failure (non-simulated failure). In the
second approach, which has been the commonly utilized approach, engineering demand parameters
(EDPs), such as drifts or accelerations, obtained as a result of the analyses can be used to determine
collapse by comparing these EDPs with the limits provided by available gravity loss models (e.g.
Elwood and Moehle, 2005).
Implicit modeling of gravity load failure (non-simulated failure) can only be feasible in some
cases where the first element failure, for example a column axial failure, is sufficient to define global
collapse. Such a case may occur when all the columns at a story have similar properties and failure of
all columns is likely to take place almost simultaneously. In this case, there is no need to explicitly
consider the consequences of an axially-failed column and first column axial failure can be sufficient
to define global collapse. In other cases, explicit modeling of gravity load failure is essential for
accurate determination of collapse. This distinction can further be supported by considering one of the
collapse indicators discussed in the NIST report (2010) for collapse assessment and mitigation
strategies for existing RC buildings. The considered collapse indicator is the “maximum fraction of
columns at a story experiencing axial failures,” which requires the identification of the number of
columns experiencing gravity load failures. Such identification would potentially be inaccurate if
executed by post-processing of results without an explicit consideration of gravity load failure,
because the gravity load failure of a column (or a beam-column joint) is likely to affect the response of
the other columns and the overall system.
Explicit modeling of gravity load failure consists of two stages. The first stage is the detection of
gravity load failure. Available models in literature for columns and beam-column joints that can be
used for this purpose are presented in the next section. The second stage in explicit modeling is the
post-failure modeling. In that regard, several possible options exisit, namely (1) Element removal, (2)
Assigning low stiffness to a collapsed element, and (3) Representing the post-failure response with
degradation. The first approach consists of the direct removal of the element from the structural model
upon its failure (e.g. Talaat and Mosalam, 2007, 2009). The second approach consists of reducing the
stiffness of the collapsed element using a small multiplier (e.g. Grierson et al., 2005) in order to
eliminate its contribution to the global structural stiffness matrix and accordingly to the system
response and resistance. In the third approach, the post-failure response is represented with a degraded
force-displacement relationship (e.g. Elwood and Moehle, 2005). Advantages and disadvantages of
these three approaches are summarized in Table 1 along with the implicit gravity load failure approach
mentioned above.

Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of different gravity load failure modeling methods
Component
Advantages Disadvantages
Failure Method
Explicit Modeling 1. Numerical problems associated with 1. Requirement of additional book-keeping
Option 1: Element ill-conditioned stiffness matrices are operations to update the nodal masses and
removal eliminated. to check nodal forces, constraints,
2. Enforcing dynamic equilibrium restraints, dangling nodes, floating
enables: elements, etc.
a) Computation of the resulting
increase in nodal accelerations 2. An additional computational burden
b) Inclusion of the system’s introduced by the redefinition of degrees of
complete kinematic state at time freedom of a structural model and the
of element collapse to determine corresponding connectivity upon removal
if it can survive to a new of an element or several elements.
equilibrium state.
3. Motion of the collapsed element can 3. Convergence problems, not on the element
be tracked relative to the damaged or material levels, but on the numerical
structural system to estimate the time integration level, as a result of the sudden
and kinetics of a subsequent collision updating of mass, stiffness and damping
with intact structural part. matrices, as well as the local vibrations
4. Elimination of the numerical triggered as a consequence of the resulting
convergence problems related to the transient effect (refer to discussions on the
iterative formulation of some element methods to overcome these convergence
and material types by removing them problems).
(refer to item 1 in the disadvantages of
degraded post-failure response).
Explicit Modeling Additional tasks (Items 1 and 2 in 1. Numerical problems associated with ill-
Option 2: disadvantages of element removal) conditioned stiffness matrices.
Assigning low related to the element removal process are 2. Not possible to explicitly consider the
stiffness to a avoided. consequences of component failure (Items
failed element 2 and 3 in advantages of element removal).
Explicit Modeling Additional tasks (Items 1 and 2 in 1. Numerical convergence problems related to
Option 3: disadvantages of element removal) the iterative formulation of some types of
Degraded post- related to the element removal process are elements, e.g. force-based beam-column,
failure response avoided. and materials, e.g. Bouc-Wen, since the
failure state generally occurs at a negatively
sloped portion of the constitutive
relationship.
2. Not possible to explicitly consider the
consequences of component failure (Items
2 and 3 in advantages of element removal).
Implicit Modeling Suitable for fast and simplified analyses Inaccurate results due to the lack of realistic
(Non-simulated and in some special cases, e.g. having representation of the post-failure response
failure) similar columns in one story. including redistribution of forces.
The element removal approach of Talaat and Mosalam (2007) is based on dynamic equilibrium
and the resulting transient change in system kinematics. It constitutes the basis of a corresponding
progressive collapse algorithm. This algorithm is implemented in OpenSees for automatic removal of
collapsed elements during an ongoing simulation, Figure 3. The implementation is carried out as a
new OpenSees module, designed to be called by the main analysis module after each converged
integration time step to check each element for possible violation of its respective removal criteria,
where the relevant models presented in the next section can be used for defining the removal criteria.
A violation of a pre-defined removal criterion triggers the activation of the algorithm on the violating
element before returning to the main analysis module. Activation of the element removal algorithm
includes updating nodal masses, checking if the removal of the collapsed element results in leaving
behind dangling nodes or floating elements, which must be removed as well as removing all associated

element and nodal forces, imposed displacements, and constraints. It is noted that the gravity loads at
the node of a column, which is common with other elements, is not removed. Accordingly, the gravity
loads on the structure are not reduced upon removal of a column, allowing for the analysis model to
capture the redistribution of the gravity loads to the other intact columns.
Update
Start from main code x Remove dangling nodes structural
End,
x Remove floating elements model, back to
Check for dangling nodes, x Delete element/node loads time step
x Remove element and main
floating elements, and
x Update nodal masses solution code
element loads and masses
parameters
Figure 3: Element removal algorithm (Talaat and Mosalam, 2007)
Since the structural elements lose their ability to support gravity loads after gravity load failure,
the removal of a failed element is the most representative approach to model gravity load failure.
Hence, the discussion in the following two paragraphs are based on the comparison of the element
removal approach (Option 1) with Options 2 and 3. It should be noted that Option 1 approach assumes
that the gravity load support is lost instantaneously. As mentioned previously, the first stage of gravity
load failure in explicit modeling is the detection of this failure. Such detection is based on equations
derived from tests where the loss of the gravity load support of the test specimen was defined by a
single point and there is no data obtained from the tests beyond this point. Accordingly, the
assumption of instantaneous gravity load failure is dictated by the gravity failure detection models. As
an alternative, the detection equations can be constructed with a probability distribution, e.g. in the
form of a set of equations for the median and median plus/minus a standard deviation. However, such
equations require further experimental research.
The removal of a collapsed element requires several book-keeping operations to update the
nodal masses and to check nodal forces, constraints, restraints, dangling nodes, floating elements, etc.
Also, there is an additional computational burden introduced by the redefinition of degrees of freedom
of a structural model and the corresponding connectivity upon removal of one or more elements. Such
additional tasks are avoided in Option 2, which consists of assigning low stiffness to failed elements.
However, there are three important advantages of Option 1 compared to Option 2. First, it avoids
numerical problems due to ill-conditioned stiffness matrices. Second, enforcing the dynamic
equilibrium enables: (1) the computation of the resulting increase in nodal accelerations, and (2) the
inclusion of the complete kinematic state of the structural system at time of element collapse to
determine if the structure can successfully redistribute the forces from the removed element and
survive to a new equilibrium state. Third, the motion of the collapsed element can be tracked relative
to the damaged system to estimate the time and kinetics of a subsequent collision with the intact
structural part.
Although representing the post-failure response with a degraded force-displacement relationship
in Option 3 is realistic for most of the failed components, it may introduce numerical problems. The
failure state generally corresponds to a negatively sloped portion of the constitutive relationship,
where the iterative formulation of some types of elements, e.g. force-based beam-column, and
materials, e.g. Bouc-Wen, are likely to experience convergence problems. The removal of such
elements automatically eliminates the associated numerical problems. Analyses conducted to estimate
the responses obtained from shaking table tests of a non-ductile RC frame showed that the analyses
considering and not considering the element removal (ER) were both successful in predicting the
observed collapse of the non-ductile members (Mosalam et al., 2009). On the other hand, the response
after collapse was rather jagged and close to being unstable for the case without element removal
whereas the analysis with element removal provided a more reasonable response, Figure 4. It should
be noted that the analyses without the element removal used the degraded post-failure approach
(Option 3).
Element removal may introduce convergence problems, not on the element or material levels,
but on the numerical integration level, as a result of the sudden updating of mass, stiffness and

damping matrices, and the triggered local vibrations as a consequence of the resulting transient effect
due to the sudden changes in these matrices. It is reminded that the external forces due to gravity
loading and the ground motion excitation remain unchanged when the matrices are suddenly updated.
A possible solution to such convergence problems is adaptive switching of solver type and
convergence criteria and reduction of the integration time step (Talaat and Mosalam, 2007). It is to be
noted that this strategy has been used for the analyses of the non-ductile RC frame mentioned in the
above paragraph. Another effective solution is the use of time integrators which do not require
iterations, e.g. operator-splitting methods (Hughes et al., 1979). Analyses conducted on bridge systems
(Mosalam et al., 2013b) showed that the operator splitting method results in exactly the same solution
as the commonly used implicit Newmark integration even for cases with highly nonlinear response
under dynmaic loading.
It is noted that the objective of this paper is not the recommendation of an explicit modeling
option; rather it is to present the available options of collapse determination to the interested reader.
Furthermore, the most suitable option may change from one building to another. Hence, the presented
advantages and disadvantages are expected to provide guidance to the reader in choosing the best
starting point and possibly switching between different options.
Ductile Columns Non-ductile Columns
Slip spring
C4 C3 C2 C1
Shear and
axial springs
50 50
40 Column C1 40 Column C2
Column Shear (kN)
Column Shear (kN)
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
-10 -10
-20 -20 Test
-30 -30 Analysis (ER: Option1)
-40 -40
Analysis ( w/o ER: Option 3)
-50 -50
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
Drift Ratio Drift Ratio
Figure 4: Response of a system with non-ductile columns experiencing axial failure from shaking table tests and
analyses with and without element removal (Mosalam et al., 2009)
DETECTION OF GRAVITY LOAD FAILURE
As mentioned previously, the first stage of the explicit modeling of gravity load failure is the detection
of gravity load failure. Models that can be used for the detection of gravity load failure of columns,
beam-column joints, slab-column joints and infill walls are described in the following sub-sections.
Collapse of buildings with shear-walls, due to loss of gravity load carrying capacity, has rarely been
observed in the last 50 years (Wallace et al., 2008). Therefore, detection of gravity load failure of
shear-walls is not covered in this paper.

Columns
One of the models that can be used to detect the gravity load failure of columns is proposed by
Elwood and Moehle (2005), where the drift at axial failure of a shear-damaged column is represented
as follows:
1 tan T
2
§'· 4 (1)
¨ ¸
© L ¹ axial 100 tan T P s Ast f yt d c tan T
ZKHUH ǻL)axial is the drift ratio at axial failure, P is the column axial load, Ast, fyt, and s are
respectively area, yield strength, and spacing of the transverse reinforcement, dc is the column core
depth (center to center of tie) and ș is the critical crack angle from the horizontal (assumed 65°).
Elwood and Moehle (2005) stated that this axial failure model is based on data from 12
columns, where all columns were constructed from normal strength concrete, had the same height-to-
width ratio, were designed to yield the longitudinal reinforcement prior to shear failure, and were
tested in uniaxial bending. Despite these limitations, Fardipour et al. (2011) mentioned that the drifts
estimated with a modified version of Equation (1) were in reasonable agreement with the test results of
four cantilever columns with axial load ratios of 20% to 40%, a nominal transverse reinforcement ratio
of 0. 07% and vertical reinforcement ratio of 0.5% to 1%. The modifications of Fardipour et al. (2011)
to Equation (1) consisted of: (1) change of the crack angle to 55+35P/Po for P/Po < 0.25 and 59 for
P/Po > 0.25 where Po is the axial force capacity of the undamaged column and (2) addition of the yield
drift to the right-hand side of Equation (1) to calculate the drift corresponding to axial failure.
However, it is to be noted that the above change of the crack angle is inappropriate due to the way
Equation (1) was developed.
This axial capacity model is implemented in OpenSees as a limit state material model and used
as a spring connected to a column end. Removal of the corresponding spring is also implemented in an
earlier version of OpenSees. It is to be noted that the authors can provide this version to an interested
reader, until the code is rearranged to comply with the standard version of OpenSees. When the drift
during a simulation reaches the drift corresponding to axial failure, the corresponding spring and the
column, to which the spring is connected, are removed using the element removal algorithm.
Beam-Column Joints
Beam-column joints of old non-ductile RC buildings, e.g. designed in the sixties, are generally
unreinforced without any transverse steel bars. The beams connected to such joints rotate relative to
the columns, i.e. right angle between the beam and column is not maintained, due to joint shear failure
and corresponding deformation. Joint panel flexibility can be modeled by using a rotational spring
located between the beam and column end nodes. It is noted that rigid end offsets are used at the beam
and column ends to consider the joint physical dimensions (Figure 5d). The rotational spring is defined
by a nonlinear constitutive relationship, which is characterized by a backbone curve and a set of
hysteresis rules (Park and Mosalam, 2013a). These characteristics are recently developed empirically
based on the measured joint responses and visual observations from tests of four corner beam-column-
slab joint specimens (Park and Mosalam, 2013b) and verified by comparison with other exterior and
interior beam-column joint tests. A strength model is developed to determine the peak force of the
backbone curve, which also corresponds to the joint shear strength (Park and Mosalam, 2009, 2012a).
The practical strength model in Figure 5a, which accounts for the effects of two main parameters,
namely (1) the joint aspect ratio, defined as the ratio of beam to column cross-sectional heights and (2)
the beam reinforcement ratio, is verified through its accurate predictions of various beam-column joint
test results available in the literature (Park and Mosalam, 2012b, 2012c).
The rotational spring and the constitutive relationship mentioned above can be used to represent
the axial failure and the corresponding removal of a beam-column joint using a proposed extension by
Hassan (2011) where an axial capacity model is proposed for beam-column joints with drift, i.e. beam
tip displacement normalized by the beam length as shown in the test setup of (Park and Mosalam,
2012), at axial collapse represented as a function of the axial force and the beam bottom reinforcement

strength (Figure 6). Equation (2) is accordingly suitable to be used to remove a beam-column joint as a
part of the progressive collapse algorithm when the drift from this equation is replaced by the joint
rotation of the considered analytical model, Figure 5c. Note that the difference between the joint
rotation and the above-mentioned drift in the tests of (Park and Mosalam, 2012) is the sum of the
flexural deformation of the beam and the beam displacement due to column rotation (Figure 7).
However, it should be noted that this expression is based on a rather small database of joint axial
failures. Thus, more joint axial failure tests are needed to further verify this relationship. Moreover,
the case of high axial load on a joint where the beam flexural capacity is much smaller than the direct
joint failure capacity is excluded from the application of this model.
Asb f yb
T axial 0.057 (2)
P tan T
where șaxial is the joint rotation at the joint axial failure, P is the axial force, Asb and fyb are the
respective area and yield strength of the beam bottom reinforcement, and ș is the crack angle.
The removal of a beam-column joint is not implemented in OpenSees yet. However, the idea is
similar to the case of column failure, i.e. when the rotation of the spring (representing the joint) during
a simulation reaches the rotation corresponding to axial failure defined by Equation (2), the joint
(rotational spring and rigid end offsets) is removed using the element removal algorithm. Because the
generic removal algorithm is already implemented, including the removal of beam-column joints using
the above mentioned criteria is rather straightforward.
hairline crack
Shear strength model
ª cos T º
k «12 f cc b j hc T tan 1 hb hc
cos S 4 »¼
Vn
I II III IV ¬
1.0 Predicted by strength model
III
II
I
IV
Joint rotation
V jh L 1
Mj K & hysteresis rules SIj
K L hc 2 jd b H
geometrically
identical nodes
Constitutive relationship of the rotational spring

Figure 5: Overview of unreinforced beam-column joint model (Park and Mosalam, 2012c)

Figure 6: Axial capacity model in Equation (2) for beam-column joints (Hassan, 2011)
§'·
¨ ¸ : Drift at axial collapse
© L ¹ axial
Ǉc T j ,axial : Joint rotation at axial collapse
Ǉj
T c ,axial : Column rotation at axial collapse
'
§ ' bf ·
¨¨ ¸¸ : Beam flexural drift at axial collapse
'bf © L ¹ axial
Figure 7: Contribution of different components to beam tip displacement in a beam-column joint test
Slab-Column Joints
Gravity support loss of slab-column joints can be defined with the punching shear failure. In order to
detect the punching shear failure, available limit models in literature such as Hueste and Wight (1999)
or Elwood et al. (2007) can be used (Figure 8). In these models, drift or plastic rotation values
corresponding to the punching shear failure are determined as functions of the gravity shear ratio
defined as the value of the vertical gravity shear divided by the punching shear strength of the joint.
Kang et al. (2009) used these limit models for the detection of punching shear failure, while
conducting analytical simulations to predict the results of shaking table tests. In that regard, they used
Option 3, representing the post-failure response with degradation, for post-failure modeling.

(a) Hueste and Wight (1999) (b) Elwood et al. (2007)
Figure 8: Detection of gravity load failure for slab-column joints
Unreinforced Masonry Infill Walls
When the seismic vulnerabilities present in the RC system are combined with the complexity of the
interaction between infill walls and the surrounding frame and the brittleness of the unreinforced
masonry (URM) materials, the URM infill walls can increase the vulnerability and collapse potential
of non-ductile RC buildings. Earthquakes in the last two decades, e.g., 1999 Kocaeli, 2008 Wenchuan,
and 2009 L’Aquila earthquakes, led to several observations related to URM infill walls (Mosalam and
Günay, 2012), which are listed as follows:
1. URM infill walls contribute to the stiffness and strength of the frames as evidenced from the
weak/soft story damage of the open ground story buildings and the torsional response created
by the non-uniform distribution of infill walls around the building perimeter.
2. URM infill wall failure is a combination of in-plane (IP) and out-of-plane (OOP) effects as
evidenced from some of the URM infill wall failures taking place at the upper stories instead
of the lower stories where the IP story shear forces are the highest.
3. Failures of infill walls at a story lead to the formation of weak/soft stories during the
earthquake, which may result in the failure of a story as evidenced by intermediate story
collapses.
4. Infill walls interact with the frame members as evidenced by shear cracks and failures of
columns and beam-column joints in infilled bays.
Accordingly, URM infill walls should be modeled to consider these observations. The first two
observations can be reflected by employing a practical model that considers IP-OOP interaction of
infill walls, Figure 9, (Kadysiewski and Mosalam, 2008). The fourth observation can be taken into
account by modeling nonlinear shear springs at the column ends to consider the effect of additional
horizontal forces transferred from the infill walls to the columns. The third observation can be
considered by removal of failed infill walls where detection of failure is based on a combination of IP
and OOP displacements (OpenSees Wiki, 2011, Mosalam and Günay, 2015).
Modeling of infill walls considering the element removal due to IP/OOP interaction has been
recently used for the investigation of the earthquake response of buildings designed according to
modern seismic codes without considering the infill walls in the design process (Mosalam et al.,
2013a). It is noted that, different from the previously discussed elements, failure of infill walls is not
directly considered as gravity load failure. It is rather considered to negatively affect the lateral
response. However, detection and post-failure modeling of infill walls are still important modeling
aspects for the objective of the accurate determination of collapse, because the consequences of infill
wall collapse and removal are likely to affect the gravity load failure of other elements, e.g. columns
or beam-column joints.

IP displacement
Displacement history
Failure Curve (symmetric

OOP displacement about x and y axes)
Figure 9: Failure detection of URM infill walls considering IP-OOP interaction
EXPLICIT MODELING OF GRAVITY SYSTEMS
Modeling of the gravity system as a single leaning column that accounts for P-ǻHIIHFWV)LJXUH) is
a commonly utilized approach (Liel et al., 2009, Lai and Mahin, 2013). Such modeling does not
generally account for the strength and stiffness of the gravity system, either because collapse is not of
interest or the investigated collapse mechanism is side-sway. For the collapse type investigated herein,
namely the gravity load failure, explicit modeling of the gravity system is essential. As shown in
Figure 2, gravity support may not be completely lost after the lateral and axial failures of the primary
system. Therefore, explicit modeling of the gravity system generally leads to a more accurate and
realistic determination of the global collapse.
Leaning
column
Figure 10: Modeling of the gravity system as a leaning column
TORNADO DIAGRAM ANALYSIS
Non-ductile RC buildings generally involve significant number of uncertainty sources. Some of these
sources are concrete strength, longitudinal and transverse reinforcement yield and ultimate strength
values, concrete and masonry modulus of elasticity, masonry compressive and shear strengths,
damping ratio, story mass, and ground motion record-to-record variability. Considering all these
uncertainty sources in the process of accurate determination of the most collapse-vulnerable buildings
is likely to result in an extensive number of collapse simulations. However, uncertainties of some of
these parameters may have insignificant effects on the variability of the structural response in terms of
one of more EDPs. Tornado diagram analysis is a practical method used to identify and rank the effect
of parameter uncertainties on the response variability (Lee and Mosalam, 2006). Considering that time
is of essence to rapidly determine the most collapse vulnerable buildings, so that they can be
retrofitted or demolished (if needed) before the next big earthquake, tornado diagram analysis comes

forward as a suitable method to eliminate the burden of unnecessary large number of simulations by
treating the parameters with insignificant effect as deterministic.
The tornado diagram, commonly used in decision analysis, has been used in sensitivity analysis
in earthquake engineering (Porter et al., 2002). The diagram consists of a set of horizontal bars,
referred to as swings, one for each random variable, i.e. considered parameter. The length of each
swing represents the variation in the output, i.e. EDP, due to the variation in the respective random
variable. Thus, a variable with larger effect on the EDP has larger swing than those with lesser effect.
In a tornado diagram, swings are displayed in a descending order from top to bottom. This wide-to-
narrow arrangement of swings resembles a tornado. In order to determine the swing due to a
considered parameter, two extreme values, e.g. 10th and 90th percentiles, corresponding to pre-defined
upper and lower bounds of the assumed probability distribution for the parameter are selected.
Considered EDP is determined as a result of nonlinear response history analysis using the upper and
lower bound values of the considered parameter while the other input random variables are set to their
best estimates such as the medians. This process yields two bounding values of the EDP variation for
each input parameter. The absolute difference of these two values is the swing of the EDP
corresponding to the selected input parameter. This process is repeated for all the input parameters to
compute the swings of the EDP, Figure 11. Finally, one constructs the tornado diagram by arranging
the obtained swings in a descending order as mentioned above. The resulting tornado diagram
generally provides an informative picture for the selection of the necessary random variables to be
used in the collapse simulations to develop the fragility curves (Lee and Mosalam, 2005).
Figure 11: Construction of the tornado diagram (Lee and Mosalam, 2006)
LASER SCANNING OF HISTORICAL STRUCTURES
Laser scanning technology is rapidly expanding into many fields and becoming an essential tool for
accurate non-destructive three-dimensional (3D) measurement of structures. This technology enables
users to capture many points from the subject structure with high accuracy. In particular, high-
definition laser scanning (HDS) technology provides both qualitative and quantitative information
about a complex object which is discretized as a cloud of millions or billions of points in space.
Nowadays, the HDS technology is going beyond the limits of its traditional usage, namely
topographical surveying, reverse engineering, etc., and is finding excellent applications in several
fields, e.g. scanning surfaces of visible faults in earthquake-prone regions and analysis of their
roughness led to new developments in seismology. Extensive studies of heritage buildings are being
conducted for historic places throughout the world. The HDS has been extensively used for
documentation and damage assessment of test structures subjected to earthquake loads at the
University of California, Berkeley (UCB) (Mosalam et al., 2009). This part of the paper extends the
ideas presented earlier (e.g. Takhirov, 2010) and uses laser scans as a tool to capture as-found
geometry of historic structures. The geometry is used in generating accurate FE models to be used for
detailed structural assessment, seismic analysis, and development of retrofit strategies. Intended usage
of laser scanning is demonstrated on the Registan Square ensemble in Samarkand, Uzbekistan

(Takhirov et al., 2015) and is expected to hold considerable potential to be applied to historical
structures in Turkey.
The as-found geometry of historic monuments in Registan (Samarkand, Uzbekistan) was
captured by means of high definition laser scanning (Takhirov et al., 2015). The point clouds were
generated from more than 70 stations and they were stitched into a single point cloud. The resulting
point cloud was analyzed for structural anomalies. As a representative example, a minaret in one the
historic monuments is discussed here. The analysis of the point cloud revealed the fact that this
minaret has developed an inclination due to past earthquakes, extreme seasonal temperatures, and
changes in the underlying soil conditions as presented in Figure 12.
Figure 12: Point cloud of the monument showing inclined minaret on the left side
From a structural point of view, the minaret represents a tapered hollow tower constructed from
unreinforced masonry. Since the minaret had an original taper, it was difficult to estimate the
directivity of the current residual inclination and its value. A small portion of the full registration of
the monument was analyzed for this purpose, which consisted of the point cloud of the minaret and
two nearby walls. The total number of points was close to 20 million. This allowed to capture the
surface with much more detail. Analysis of several horizontal slices of the minaret’s point cloud
revealed several interesting results as discussed in the following paragraphs.
The angle between the walls is very close to 90 degree, as presented in Figure 13a by horizontal
and vertical arrows. The minaret is mainly inclined away from both walls, so the overall direction of
inclination from the walls is close to 135 degrees, as shown in Figure 13b. The inclination of the
minaret was noticed earlier (Sourdel-Thomine and Spuler, 1990) and it is mostly related to the uneven
settlement of the underlying soil. A large portion of the tiles installed on the minaret surface is bulging
out at the bottom of the minaret in the direction of the inclination, Figure 14. The bulging partition of
the tile covering represents large compression forces in this part of the minaret. As a result, the tile
covering has buckled away from the minaret’s wall at this location. The is, most likely, associated
with the fact that the center of gravity of the minaret is shifted toward the bulging region and thus the
mass distribution in the cross-section is mainly concentrated right next to this region.
The dense point cloud displaying many details of the minaret’s tile covering is presented in
Figure 15 (left and top right images). A zoomed view of the bulged region where the tile cover has
buckled away from the wall is presented in Figure 15 (bottom right image).

a) Wall elevations at lower heights b) All elevations (45o to walls) along differnet heights
Figure 13: Horizontal slices of the minaret
Figure 14: Vertical slice of the minaret at 135 degrees to the walls (bulged section shown to the right)
Figure 15: Point cloud displaying the minerate details and the bulged region

From a geometric point of view, the minaret represents a truncated tapered cone, i.e. without a
tip. Therefore, it is not simple to estimate its inclination since the surface of the cone is tapered. To
estimate the inclination of the minaret, the following procedure was employed. Analysis of shapes of
the horizontal slices of the minaret revealed that all sections can be closely approximated by circles.
The radii of these circles were used for the estimates of the original taper and the circle’s origin
locations were used to estimate the global direction of inclination. The results of this procedure are
presented in Figure 16. The straight dashed lines represent linear best fits of the radii and the
inclinations. Based on these linear approximations, an estimate of 4.6% of inclination was obtained.
On the other hand, the original taper of the minaret is estimated as 2.3 % as shown in Figure 16.
30 30
25 25
4.6%
2.3%
20 20
Elevation, m
15 15
10 10
5 Radii+ 5 North-west
Radii- South-west
Taper Inclination
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 -1 0 1
Radii of cross sections, m Inclinations, m
Figure 16: Taper and inclination estimates of the minaret
It is worthy to note that the inclination of the minaret’s axis is very close to a straight line as
indicated by Figure 16. This can serve as evidence that (1) the structural connections between the
walls and the minaret are most likely compromised and (2) the residual deformation (inclination) is
most likely related to soft soil conditions under the minaret. It is noted that the adjacent walls of the
monument end are of about 12 meters of height (elevation) and they have negligible effect on the
inclination shape. Hence, as a starting point of seismic analysis, the minaret can be analyzed
independently from the walls and the rest of the monument.
The mesh of the minaret was generated by utilizing the horizontal slices of the minaret’s point
cloud and it was based on best fits using circles to these sections of the point cloud. The resulting
regular mesh has fine spacing at the elevation where the bulging has occurred and coarse spacing
elsewhere. The mash was generated in Matlab environment (MathWorks, 2007) for two conditions of
the minaret: 1) The current inclined condition and 2) The so-called ‘original condition,’ where the axis
of the conic surface of the minaret is assumed to be vertical. The latter condition assumes that the
minaret was plumbed during its original construction. The meshes generated from the point cloud to
represent current inclined and ‘original’ conditions are shown in Figures 17a and 17b, respectively.
Since soil conditions play a significant role in the minaret’s seismic performance, it is crucial to take
soil-structure interaction effects into consideration, Figure 17c. Such effects can be significant for the
historical monument where its structural integrity is compromised by a soft underlying soil.

a) Mesh of current - b) Mesh of c) Soil-structure interaction model of the inclined
inclined condition ‘original’ condition minaret on a soft soil
Figure 17: Finite element models of the minaret
CONCLUSIONS
This paper intended to provide a contribution to the accurate determination of the most collapse
vulnerable non-ductile RC buildings in Turkey by presenting methods related to the following: (a)
gravity load failure modeling and progressive collapse analysis and (b) consideration of uncertainty
sources in an efficient manner. The paper also presented a comprehensive approach to the structural
assessment of historic buildings and monuments, which constitute an important portion of the cultural
heritage of Turkey, through the use of laser scanning. Concluding remarks are as follows:
x Non-ductile reinforced concrete (RC) buildings mostly collapse by losing gravity load
carrying capacity, much before reaching the lateral displacements that would be experienced
in a more favorable side-sway collapse mechanism.
x Implicit (non-simulated) modeling of gravity load failure is only adequate in the case where
determining the first element failure is sufficient to define global collapse. In other cases,
explicit modeling should be utilized for accurate prediction of global collapse.
x There are various advantages and disadvantages of the methods that can be used for post-
failure modeling. Furthermore, the most suitable option may change from one building to
another. Advantages and disadvantages presented in this paper are expected to provide
guidelines to the reader for selecting the best starting point and switching patterns between
different options.
x There are various methods in literature that can be used for failure detection of the RC
elements of a structure. However, there is still a need for enhancement of the failure detection
of some of the elements, for example the non-ductile RC beam-column joints.
x There is an existing element removal algorithm implemented in OpenSees. This algorithm is
used in the standard version of OpenSees for the removal of URM infill walls. Removal of
columns and beam-column joints are planned to be included in the standard version of
OpenSees in the near future.
x Gravity support may not be completely lost after the lateral and axial failures of the primary
lateral load resisting system. Therefore, explicit modeling of the gravity system generally
leads to a more accurate and realistic determination of the global collapse.
x The geometry of the final finite element models closely represents the as-found geometry of
the historic monuments and can be analyzed with all pre-existing geometric imperfections.

x The choices of mesh generation techniques of laser scanned historical structures have been
enriched by a Matlab-based package that uses a point cloud for a regularly spaced meshing.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks are due to Smart Scanning Solutions, LLC and BNZ companies from Uzbekistan for
funding the pilot program of heritage scanning in Samarkand and providing access to the laser scan
data and high-resolution still images.
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ܵܽ = ܵ‫( ܵܦ‬0.4 + 0.6 ܶΤܶ‫;) ܣ‬ 0 ൑ ܶ < ܶ‫ܣ‬ E
ܵܽ = ܵ‫; ܵܦ‬ ܶ‫ ܣ‬൑ ܶ < ܶ‫ ܤ‬ F
ܵܽ = ܵ‫ܦ‬1 Τܶ ; ܶ‫ ܤ‬൑ ܶ < ܶ‫ ܮ‬ G
2
ܵܽ = ܵ‫ܦ‬1 ܶ‫ ܮ‬Τܶ ; ܶ ൒ ܶ‫ܮ‬ H
ܵ݀ = ܶ 2 /(4ߨ 2 )ܵܽ
Sa sabit sabit sabit

ivme hiz deplasman
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zĞŶŝzƂŶĞƚŵĞůŝŬ;WĞŶĚŝŬͿ 80
1.0 zĞŶŝzƂŶĞƚŵĞůŝŬ;WĞŶĚŝŬͿ
zĞŶŝzƂŶĞƚŵĞůŝŬ;ƚĂƔĞŚŝƌͿ 70 zĞŶŝzƂŶĞƚŵĞůŝŬ;ƚĂƔĞŚŝƌͿ
Spektral 7ǀŵĞ (g)
0.8 60
50
0.6
40
0.4 30
20
0.2
10
0.0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Periyot (s) Periyot (s)
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a
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a
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BUILDING RESILIENCE THROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF

AN INTEGRATED LOW-DAMAGE BUILDING SYSTEM
Stefano PAMPANIN 1
ABSTRACT
The 2010-2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence has highlighted the severe mismatch between societal
expectations over the reality of seismic performance of modern buildings. A paradigm shift in performance-
based design criteria and objectives towards damage-control or low-damage design philosophy and technologies
is urgently required. The increased awareness by the general public, tenants, building owners, territorial
authorities as well as (re)insurers, of the severe socio-economic impacts of moderate-strong earthquakes in terms
of damage/dollars/downtime, has indeed stimulated and facilitated the wider acceptance and implementation of
cost-efficient damage-control (or low-damage) technologies.
Building safer and more resilient communities is in fact being recognized as the overarching goal of risk
reduction policies and practices. A damage-resistant or impact-resilient built environment, including structures
and infrastructures, would represent a key step towards this goal. The ‘bar’ has thus been raised significantly
with the request to fast-track the development of what the wider general public would hope, and somehow
expect, to live in, i.e. an “earthquake-proof” building system, capable of sustaining the shaking of a severe
earthquake basically unscathed.
The paper provides an overview of recent advances through extensive research, carried out at the University of
Canterbury in the past fifteen years towards the development of a low-damage building system as a whole,
within an integrated performance-based framework, including the skeleton of the superstructure, the non-
structural components and the interaction with the soil/foundation system. Examples of real on site-applications
of such technology in New Zealand, using concrete, timber (engineered wood), steel or a combination of these
materials, and featuring some of the latest innovative technical solutions developed in the laboratory will be
presented as comforting example of successful transfer of performance-based seismic design approach and
advanced technology from theory to practice in line with the broader objective of Building Resilience.
Keywords: Low-Damage systems, Performance-based design, Building Resilience
1
Prof. Dr. Stefano Pampanin, Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of
Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, [email protected]
Department of Structural and Geotecnical Engineering, La Sapienza University of Rome, Italy,
[email protected]

INTRODUCTION
The Canterbury earthquakes sequence in 2010-2011 has represented a tough reality check for the
international community of seismic engineering, highlighting the severe mismatch between societal
expectations over the reality of seismic performance of modern buildings.
The Mw 6.3 Christchurch (Lyttelton) earthquake occurred at 12.51pm on Tuesday 22nd Feb 2011,
approximately 5 months after the Mw 7.1 Darfield (Canterbury) main shock. Due to the proximity of
the epicenter to the Central Building District, CBD, (10km south-east), its shallow depth (5km) and
peculiar directionality effects (steep slope angle of the fault rupture), significant shaking was
experienced in the city centre (Fig. 1), the eastern suburbs, Lyttelton-Sumner-Porter Hills areas.
The aftermath counted 185 fatalities, the collapse of several unreinforced masonry buildings and of
two reinforced concrete (RC) buildings, extensive damage deemed beyond reparability to several RC
buildings, damage to tenths of thousands of (mostly timber) houses. Unprecedented liquefaction
effects occurred in whole parts of the city, compromising housing and building foundations as well as
causing severe damage and impact on the main infrastructures and lifelines systems of the city
including road, water and wastewater networks, and the electricity transmission systems (though
quickly restored within two weeks).
Figure 1. Skyline of Christchurch CBD before (Top) and just after (bottom) the 22 Feb 2011 earthquake (photo
taken by Gilly Needham)
In general, albeit with some unfortunate exceptions, modern multi-storey buildings performed as
expected from a technical point of view, in particular when considering the high level of shaking they
were subjected to (well over the design level for new buildings).
As per capacity design principles, plastic hinges formed in discrete predetermined regions, e.g. beam-
to-column interface, column-to-foundation and wall-to foundation connections, allowing the buildings
to sway and stand and people to evacuate. Nevertheless, in many cases, these buildings were deemed
too expensive to be repaired and were consequently demolished leading to the controlled demolition of
large portion of the Central Building District of the second largest city in New Zealand and to an
economic impact evaluated in the range of 40 Billion NZ$, corresponding to approximately 20-25% of
the GDP (Gross Domestic Product).
For a more comprehensive information on the overall earthquake impact, the reader is referred to
Special Issues dedicated to the Canterbury Earthquake sequence (NZSEE, 2010, 2011 and
EERI/NZSEE, 2014).

Figure 2. Example of damage to post-1980s RC walls (left) and frames (centre and right) - all these buildings
have now been demolished (from Kam et al., 2011; Pampanin, 2012)
Targeting life-safety is arguably not enough for our modern society, at least when dealing with new
building construction. A paradigm shift in performance-based design criteria and objective towards
damage-control design philosophy and technologies is clearly and urgently required.
The next steps in performance-based seismic design should more explicitly focus towards the
development of an integrated approach, involving all aspects of design framework, design procedures
and tools and technological solutions for engineers and stakeholders to control the
performance/damage of the building system as a whole, thus including superstructure, non-structural
elements and soil/foundation system.
In the aftermath of the Canterbury Earthquake sequence, the increased public awareness of seismic
risk and better understanding on the concept of building performance, has resulted into a renewed
appetite for cost-efficient technological solutions to meet the higher public expectations, i.e. sustaining
low-level of damage and thus limited business interruption after a design level earthquake, in other
words building a safer and more resilient community.
In additional to more “traditional” damage-control technology as base isolation and supplemental
dissipative braces, which are experiencing a resurgence in New Zealand, particular interest is being
received by alternative and more recently developed “low-damage” systems, based on post-tensioned
rocking mechanisms, combining self-centering and dissipating capabilities, for either concrete, timber
and steel.
In such a context, the paper will provide an overview of recent advances and on-going research
carried out at the University of Canterbury in the past fifteen years towards the development of a low-
damage building system as a whole, within an integrated performance-based framework, including the
skeleton of the superstructure, the non-structural components and the interaction with the
soil/foundation system. In the conclusive part, examples of real on site-applications of such
technology in New Zealand, using concrete, timber (engineered wood), steel or a combination of these
materials, and featuring some of the latest innovative technical solutions developed in the laboratory
will be presented, as comforting examples of successful transfer of performance-based seismic design
approach and advanced technology from theory to practice and in line with the broader objective of
Building Resilience.
NEED FOR A PARADIGM SHIFT:

FROM LIFE-SAFETY TO DAMAGE CONTROL
As anticipated, the excessive socio-economic impacts of the Canterbury earthquakes sequence in

2010-2011 have clearly and critically highlighted the mismatch between the societal expectations over
the reality of engineered buildings' seismic performance.
Clearly, the engineering concept and code-approach to define an earthquake-resistant building,
e.g. a structure capable of sustaining a design level earthquake with extensive (oftern non-repairable)
damage in both structural and non-structural component with the main target being the Life Safety of

the occupants, is far from the understanding of the general public who would prefer to talk about an
“earthquake-proof” building.
The overall performance of the building stock, represented in a schematic in the Figure 3 below, where
structural, non-structural and soil-structure interactions aspects are summarized, has come with a
shocking surprise to the general population.
On one hand a better communication between technical and non-technical could help
clarifying and disclosing to the wide public what are the accepted/targeted performance levels built in
a design code, itself to be considered a ‘minimum’ (not a maximum) standard.
On the other hand the earthquake engineering community is challenged with the complex task to
“raise the bar”, by shifting the targeted performance goals from the typically accepted Life-Safety
level (for a design level earthquake or 1/500 years event for an ordinary structure), to a more
appropriate and needed Damage-Control level (see performance matrix in Figure 4), all this without
increasing (too significantly) the cost of constructions.
These increased expectations would require a significant paradigm shift in terms of
performance-based design, which can be accomplished by the development and/or further refinement
of design methodologies as well as of high seismic-performance, whilst cost-effective, technologies.
Figure 3. Holistic representation of damage/performance to a modern building, including structural skeleton

(frame system, floor diaphragm), non-structural components (lightweight partitions, heavy brick infills and
precast concrete facades) and foundation system (significant settlement and residual tilting) (modified after
Johnston et al., 2014)

Repairable Irreparable
Figure 4. Seismic Performance Design Objective Matrix as defined by SEAOC Vision 2000 PBSE Guidelines,
herein rearranged to match building tagging, and proposed/required modification of the Basic-Objective curve
towards a damage-control approach (blue line, modified after Pampanin, 2010, Kam et al., 2011)
BUILDING RESILIENCE: THE OVERARCHING GOAL
Building safer and more resilient communities is being recognized as the overarching goal of risk
reduction policies and practices.
A general framework to define, quantitatively measure and enhance the seismic resilience of
commnities has been recently proposed by Bruneau et al. (2008), in an attempt to support decision
makers to assessment the progresses made, via alternative top-down or bottom-up practices and
policies, towards this ultimate goal of risk reduction.
The concept of resilience, more commonly used in other disciplines such as psycology, sociology,
economics as well as materal engineering is generally related to the capacity to “bounce back” within
a recovery time after absorbing the impact of an external event (Figure 5).
When referring to seismic resilience, the concept is much wider than the evalution of the
seismic response/performance of a single/individual building, through the evaluation of
drift/acceleration parameters etc, and yet goes beyond and broader than the evalution of direct and
indirect losses (in accordance to the Performance-Based Earthquake Engineering Framework by
Cornell et al.).
According to Bruneau at al., ‘Seismic resilience can be achieved by enhancing the ability of a
community’s infrastructure (e.g., lifelines, structures) to perform during and after an earthquake, as
well as through emergency response and strategies that effectively cope with and contain losses and
recovery strategies that enable communities to return to levels of predisaster functioning (or other
acceptable levels) as rapidly as possible’.
The proposed framework relies on the complementary measures of resilience:

a) Reduced failure probabilities;
b) Reduced consequences from failures
c) Reduced time to recovery
and integrate those measures into the four dimensions of community resilience, namely technical,
organizational, social, and economic.
It appears clear that creating a more damage-resistant or impact-resilient built environment, including
structures and infrastructures, would represent a key and now more tangible step towards the goal of
building community resilience as it would score highly against two out of these three measures of

resilience, namely Reduced Failure Probability and Reduced time to Recovery, whilst the Reduced
Consequences From failures woud be more related to the overall structure/infrastructure/organization
system and associated intra and inter-dependencies.
Figure 5. Left: Aerial view of CBD with entire lots demolished and “cleaned up” (Photo courtesy of Kam Weng
and Umut Akguzel); Right: Concept of Resilience (Source: Yossi Sheffi & James B. Rice Jr., MIT Sloan
Management Review, 2005
THE NEXT GENERATION OF LOW-DAMAGE SEISMIC RESISTING SYSTEMS
Within the aforementioned overall framework of risk reduction and enhancement of seismic resilience
of community, the next crucial step in performance-based seismic design should more explicitly focus
towards the development of an integrated approach, involving, in a holistic view, all aspects of the
design framework, design procedures and tools and technological solutions for engineers and
stakeholders to control the performance/damage of the building system as a whole, thus including
superstructure, non-structural elements and soil/foundation system (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Concept of integrated (structure/skeleton including floor/diphragms, and non-structural/envelope) low-

damage building system (after Johnston et al., 2014)

The skeleton: a low-damage structural system
In addition to, or better complementary and integrative of, more “traditional” damage-control
technology such as base isolation and dissipative braces, which are experiencing a resurgence in New
Zealand after the Canterbury earthquake sequence, particular interest is being received by alternative
and more recently developed “low-damage” systems, based on post-tensioned rocking & dissipative
mechanisms for either concrete, timber and steel structures
Such technology, also broadly referred to as PRESSS-technology from its original developments
in the 1990s for precast concrete construction under the US PRESSS Program (Priestley, 1991,
Priestley et al., 1999), relies upon the use of jointed ductile connections, where structural elements are
jointed together through unbonded post-tensioning tendons/strands or bars creating moment-resisting
connections. Additional damping and moment contribution can be provided by mild steel rebars either
internally located (first generation) or by alternative dissipaters externally located and repleacable
(recently developed). The combination of unbonded post-tensioning and additional dissipaters, lead to
a so-called hybrid system (Priestley et al., 1996; Stanton et al. 1997). The recentering and dissipative
mechanism of a hybrid system, also referred to as controlled rocking, is described by a peculiar “flag-
shape” hysteresis behaviour (Fig. 7, bottom), whose properties and shape can be modified by the
designer by varying the ration between the re-centering and dissipative (moment) contributions,
provided by the post-tensioned tendons/bars (and/or axial load) and mild steel/dissipaters,
respectively.
100/0 75/25 50/50
25/75 0/100
Figure 7. Top: Jointed precast “hybrid” frame and wall connections developed in the US PRESSS-Program (fib,
2003; NZS3101:2006, NZCS2010. Bottom: flag-shape hysteresis loop for a hybrid system when varying the
ratio between re-centering vs. dissipative contribution (modified after Nakaki and Stanton 1999) and
comparative response of a traditional monolithic system (damage in the plastic hinge and residual deformations)
and a jointed precast (hybrid) solution (rocking mechanism with negligible damage and negligible residual
deformations, fib, 2003)
During the earthquake shaking, the inelastic demand is accommodated within the connection itself
(beam-column, column to foundation or wall-to-foundation critical interface), through the opening and
closing of an existing gap (rocking motion). The mechanism acts as a fuse or “internal isolation
system” with negligible or no damage accumulating in the structural elements, basically maintained in
the elastic range. The basic structural skeleton of the building would thus remain undamaged after a

major design level earthquake without any need for repairing intervention.
This is a major difference and improvement when compared to cast-in-situ solutions where, as
mentioned, damage has to be expected and it is actually accepted to occur in the plastic hinge regions,
leading to substantial costs of repairing and business interruption.
The plastic hinge, or sacrificial damage-mechanics, is thus substituted by a sort of “controlled
rocking” (dissipative and re-centering) at the critical interface with no or negligible damage (Fig. 7
bottom right).
Reparability of the weakest link of the chain: “Plug&Play” replaceable dissipaters
In the last decade, extensive research and developments have been carried out at the University of
Canterbury in New Zealand on low-damage PRESSS-technology for both concrete and timber
structures (buildings and bridges), resulting into the development of a wide range of improvements
and new features.
As part of the overall scope, significant effort has been dedicated towards the development of cost-
efficient external and replaceable dissipaters, for easy access, inspection and if needed, replacement
after an earthquake (Pampanin, 2005; Marriott et al., 2008, NZCS, 2010; Sarti et al., 2013). These
dissipaters, referred to as “Plug&Play” and consisting for example of axial, tension-compression
yielding mild steel short-bar-elements, machined down to the desired “fuse” dimension and inserted
and grouted (or epoxied) in a steel tube acting as anti-buckling restrainer have been developed and
extensively tested within several subassemblies configurations, i.e. beam-column joint connections,
wall systems, column (or bridge pier)-to-foundation connections (Fig. 8).
This option gives the possibility to conceive a modular system with replaceable sacrificial fuses at
the rocking connection, acting as the “weakest link of the chain” according to capacity design
principles, with the additional feature of being reparable. The traditional assumption “ductility equal to
damage” (and consequent repair costs and business downtime) is thus not anymore a necessary
compromise of a ductile design.
Figure 8. Top: Internal vs. external replaceable (Plug&Play) dissipaters/fuses in a column/pier and beam-column
connections (Marriott et al., 2008, 2010) Bottom: Schematic of geometry and element composition (Sarti et al.,
2013)
Either metallic and/or other advanced materials (e.g. shape memory alloys, visco-elastic systems) can
be used and implemented to provide alternative type of dissipation mechanisms (elasto-plastic due to
axial or flexural yielding, friction, visco-elastic). Examples of application of friction and viscous
devices in unbonded post-tensioned systems have been given in by Kurama (2001) and Kurama and
Shen (2004). A second generation of self-centering/dissipative high-performance systems, referred to
as advanced flag-shape systems (AFS) has been proposed, tested and implemented in real practice

(Kam et al., 2006, Marriott et el. 2008, Latham et al., 2013). AFS systems combine alternative forms
of displacement-proportional and velocity-proportional energy dissipation (i.e. yielding, friction or
viscous damping) in series and/or in parallel with the main source of re-centering capacity (unbonded
post-tensioned tendons, mechanical springs or Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) with super-elastic
behaviour). As a result, an enhanced and very robust seismic performance, under either far field and
near field events (high velocity pulse) can be achieved, as proven by numerical investigations (Kam et
al. 2006) as well as shake table testing (Marriott et al. 2008).
Low-damage multi-storey timber buildings: the Pres-Lam system
The concept of post-tensioned hybrid (recentering&dissipating) system has been in the past decade
successfully extended from precast concrete to timber (engineered wood) frames and walls (Palermo
et al., 2005; Pampanin et al., 2006). Since 2004, a series of experimental tests, including quasi-static
cyclic, pseudo-dynamic and shake-table, have been carried out on several subassemblies or larger
scale structural systems at the University of Canterbury to develop different arrangements of
connections for unbonded post-tensioned timber frame and walls (Fig. 9)
Due to its high homogeneity and good mechanical properties, laminated veneer lumber (LVL) was
initially selected as the preferred engineered wood material for the first phase of the research and
development. However, any other engineered wood product as Glulam or Cross-lam (X-lam or CLT)
can be adopted as shown by recent experimental tests and numerical analyses on both materials (Smith
et al., 2014; Dunbar et al. 2014).
20
Hybrid specimen 3 – HY3
15
T op-lat eral Force [kN]
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
fp0 = 0.6fpy
-20
-0,05 -0,04 -0,03 -0,02 -0,01 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05
Drift
Figure 9 Testing of hybrid post-tensioned timber (Pres-Lam) beam-column joints and column-to-foundation
connections (Palermo et al., 2005,2006) and typical flag-shape hysteresis loop.
The extensive experimental and numerical campaign has provided very satisfactory results and
confirmation of the high potential of this new construction system, referred to as a Pres-Lam system
(acronym for Prestressed Laminated timber). The extension of low-damage systems to engineered
wood solutions opens new opportunities for much greater use of timber and engineered wood products
in multi-storey and large buildings, using innovative technologies for creating high quality buildings
with large open spaces, excellent living and working environments, and resistance to hazards such as
earthquakes, fires and extreme weather events (Buchanan et al., 2009).
Examples of on-site applications of structural frames, walls, combination of them and hybrid material
construction will be given in the later part of this paper.
The diaphram: a jointed articulated floor system
The peculiarity of a jointed ductile connection, consisting of an “articulated” assembly of

precast elements can be further exploited and extended to the design of floor-to-lateral-load-resisting-
system connections in order to minimize ad control the damage to the diaphragms, as observed in
recent earthquakes.
The latter topic has been receiving a growing attention in the engineering community in the last
two decades, following the several examples of poor performance of floor-diaphragm observed in
recent earthquakes, including the Canterbury earthquake sequence. Damage to the floor diaphragm can

compromise the structural performance of the whole building when not leading to collapse of entire
floors.
During the seismic response of the whole building, significant displacement incompatibilities
issues can arise between the main lateral resisting systems (frames and walls) and the floor-diaphragm.
In general terms they can be classified into vertical incompatibility (primarily associated to the wall
response and uplifting, but also incurred into frames) and horizontal incompatibility (more typical of
frame system subject to beam elongation effects, Fenwick and Megget, 1993).
In the case of walls, regardless of them being based on a rocking mechanism or on a monolithic
plastic hinge behaviour, the development of inelastic actions at the base (in the form of a concentrated
or distributed plastic hinge) result into a geometrical uplifting of the wall. The resulting interaction
with the floor-diaphragm can lead either to significant deformation and damage to the floor system
itself and/or to a unexpected brittle mechanism in the walls due to the significant increased level of
axial and shear forces acting in the wall. A conceptual solution to limit this effect is to develop
connection details between wall and floors able to accommodate the relative vertical movement of the
two systems while transferring the shear forces. An example of a practical solution to achieve this
scope was proposed in the PRESSS five Storey building tested at UCSD in 1999 at the culmination of
the PRESSS Program and later adopted in the fib guidelines on seismic design precast concrete
construction (fib, 2003, see Fig. 10 left): the shear connection between walls and floors should
resemble the behavior of a shear key in the horizontal direction and inserted into a vertical slot to
accommodate the vertical displacement incompatibility.
Figure 10. Left: Vertical displacement incompatibility between a shear wall and the floor system: slotted shear
key solution to accommodate the relative movement (after fib, 2003); Centre and right: example of vertical (after
Matthew, 2003) and horizontal (due to beam elongation effects) displacement incompatibility (right: after fib,
2003) between frame and floor
When dealing with frame systems, both vertical and horizontal displacement compatibility
issues between the lateral resisting systems and the floor-diaphragm can arise, as highlighted by a
series of experimental tests on 3-dimensional performance of precast super-assemblages including
frames and hollowcore units (Matthews et at., 2003)
Alternative innovative solutions have been recently developed and proposed in literature to minimize
the damage to the floor system due to displacement incompatibilities with the response of the seismic
resisting frame, while guaranteeing a reliable diaphragm action. One proposal, developed from the
original concept of discrete X-plate mechanical connectors implemented in the Five-Storey PRESSS
Building tested at UCSD (Priestley et al., 1999, Fig. 15), is based on the concept of an articulated or
“jointed” floor system to be combined with precast rocking/dissipative frames (Amaris et al., 2007).
The floor (hollowcore in this case) units are connected to the beams by mechanical connectors, acting
as shear keys when the floor moves orthogonal to the beam and as sliders when the floor moves
parallel to the beam (Fig. 11).

Figure 11. Left: “X-connectors between precast floor (pre-topped double-tee) units and frames as implemented
in the PRESS Five Storey Building (Priestley et al., 1999). Centre and right: “Articulated floor” system -
concept, connection details (Amaris et al., 2007)
As a result, the system is able to accommodate the displacement compatibilities demand between floor
and frame by creating an articulated or jointed mechanism, which is effectively decoupled in the two
directions. Also, due to the low flexural stiffness of the shear keys-connectors in the out-of-plane
directions, torsion of the beam elements due to pull out of the floor or relative rotation of the floor and
the edge support, can be limited. A relatively simple design option which can reduce the extent of
floor damage due to beam elongation is to use a combination of walls and frames to resist lateral
loads, with walls in one directions and frames in the other. If the precast one-way floors run parallel to
the walls and orthogonal to the frame, the elongation effects of the frame to the floor are reduced. This
approach can be combined with partial de-bonding of the reinforcing bars (starters) in the concrete
topping, and the use of a thin cast-in-situ slab or “timber infill” slab in the critical regions adjacent to
the beams, to enhance the capacity to accommodate relative deformations.
The envelope: low-damage solutions for non-structural elements
A rapid and wide implementation of low-damage structural systems, capable of protecting the main
“skeleton”, including frames, walls and floor diaphragm from extensive damage at a design level
earthquake would indeed be already major achievement. The next step towards the development of
that “ultimate earthquake proof” building that the society expects would be to “dress” such structural
skeleton with a compatible low-damage envelope and fit-outs, including all non-structural components
(infills/partitions, facades, ceilings, services and contents)
Valuable tentative recommendations/suggestions have been proposed in the past in the form of pair of
limit states or performance requirements for both structural and non-structural elements (e.g. NEHRP
1997, FEMA). Yet, practical cost-efficient solutions for low-damage resisting non-structural elements
for the daily use of practitioners and contractor need to be specified and developed.
Not unexpectedly, the sequence of strong aftershocks that followed the main event of the Canterbury
earthquakes (4 September 2010, or Darfield earthquake), caused significant and repetitive damage to
the non-structural components requiring continuous and expensive repairing.
In parallel to the refinements of low-damage structural systems, a substantial effort has been dedicated
at the University of Canterbury since 2009 (thus well before the main earthquake event) to the
development of low-damage non-structural components (Palermo et al., 2010), with focus on
either vertical elements, e.g. infills/partitions (Tasligedik et al., 2012) and façades (Baird et al., 2011),
or horizontal, e.g. ceilings (Dhakal et al., 2014).
In the case of infilled walls, either being lightweight partitions (drywalls) or “heavy” concrete or clay
brick infills (more typical of the European Construction practice), the conceptual solution for a low-
damage system is based once again on the possibility to create an articulated mechanism or jointed
system, so to accommodate the interstorey drift demand through a sort of internal rocking mechanism
of smaller panels with concentrated inelastic behaviour in few discrete locations, between adjacent

panels and between panel and surrounding frame (Fig. 12a,b). The low-damage infilled wall solutions
were able to sustain 2-2.5% interstorey drift, under quasi-static cyclic loading, corresponding to the
maximum code-allowed demand under a design level earthquake, without evident cracking/damage,
thus well beyond the expected performance of traditional infilled walls and in line with the ideal
expectation of a more resilient building system.
Full details of the experimental campaign and suggested construction details can be found in
Tasligedik 2014 and Tasligedik et al., 2015.
Figure 12a. Low-damage solution for infilled walls/partitions: general concept (after Tasligedik et al., 2014.
2015)
Figure 12b. Low-damage solution for infilled walls/partitions: technology details of (after Tasligedik et al., 2014.
2015)
In the case of precast concrete facades/claddings, a number of connection solutions and detailing has
been tested, ranging from traditional ones relying upon rods of different length, to slotted-bolted
connections, to innovative solution with dissipative U-shape Flexural Plates (Skinner et al, 1972;
Priestley et al., 1999), widely adopted in PRESSS or Pres-Lam structures as dissipative coupling
systems for rocking walls. The target strategy could be either a full disconnection between the façade
and the bare structures or a controlled disconnection with additional dissipation capability provided by
ad-hoc designed elements (i.e., UFP). For detailed information the reader is referred to Baird, 2014
and Baird et al. 2014 (Fig. 13).

Figure 13 Low-damage solution for precast concrete facades with UFP dissipative connectors (after Baird et al.,
2014)
A WORLD FIRST TEST-BUILDING

WITH INTEGRATED LOW-DAMAGE SOLUTIONS
In the previous paragraph, an overview of the recently developed low-damage solutions for both
structural and non-structural systems, capable to withstand high levels of drift with negligible damage
have been presented, including dry jointed ductile connections for frames and walls, articulated floor
solutions, low damage infilled walls (drywall/partitions) and low damage facade/cladding connections.
As inherent part of any research and development such solutions have been developed, refined and
tested independently (mostly under quasi-static cyclic testing).
The next challenge towards the development of an integrated low-damage resisting building
system was to investigate the feasibility and seismic performance of a building system prototype
combining the aforementioned low-damage solutions for both skeleton and envelope
With this scope, a shake table tests of a two storey, ½ scale, concrete frame building consisting of a
post-tensioned rocking hybrid frame and incorporating an articulated floor solution (with U-shape
Flexural Plates), low damage drywall infills and façades have been carried out (Johnston et al., 2014).
An overview on design, fabrication, set-up and preliminary shake table testing can be found in
Johnston et al., 2014. The test building was tested under different configurations and subjected to over
400 earthquakes of different intensity levels, with no evident level of structural and non-structural
damage. More information can be found in Johnston et al. 2014 and in future publications under
preparation.

`
Figure 14. Low-Damage test-building under shake-table tests (after Johnston et al., 2014)
TOWARDS AN INTEGRATED STRUCTURE-FOUNDATION

PERFORMANCE BASED-DESIGN
The Canterbury earthquake has emphasised the actual impact (in terms of final outcome: demolition
vs. repair) of combined damage to the superstructures and the foundation-soil system (Fig. 15,
Giorgini et al., 2012-2014). The area of Soil-Foundation-Structure Interaction has received in the past
decades a substantial attention reaching a significant maturity. Yet, there is strong need to convert the
available information into practical guidelines for an integrated structure-soil-foundation performance
based design. This would require the definition and setting of specific and jointed limit states for the
superstructure and the foundation and suggest the corresponding design parameters to achieve that
“integrated” level of performance. In the aftermath of the reconstruction of Christchurch, this issue is
becoming more apparent, as the designers of new buildings are requested by the clients to be able to
specify the targeted overall performance of the building, thus including the superstructure (skeleton
and non-structural elements) and foundation-soil system.

1.8 deg
8 5 2 0
17
150 mm 260 mm
f M. Cubrinovski
f M. Cubrinovski
Figure 15. “Example of significant tilting and differential settlement in buildings in the CBD after the 22 Feb
2011 Canterbury Earthquake (from Giorgini et al., 2012, 2014)
An attempt to develop a framework for an integrated structure-foundation performance-based design

approach where limit stated and associated damage of superstructure and foundation can be combined
into a performance matrix with defined objective and criteria is under-going at the University of
Canterbury. More information on the overall integrated framework and on the more specific
displacement based design approach can be found in Giorgini et al., 2014 and Millen et al., 2014,
respectively.
(http://nisee.b
(http://nisee.berkeley.edu/elibrary)
se
se erkeley.edu/elibrary)
Modified after Hamburger and Mohele, 2000
Figure 16 Concept of a performance matrix (bottom) for integrated structure-foundation design combining limit
states for structure (top left) and foundation (top right) (Giorgini et al., 2014)

ON-SITE IMPEMENTATION OF LOW-DAMAGE BUILDING SYSTEMS
The continuous and rapid developments of jointed ductile connections using PRESSS-technology for
seismic resisting systems have resulted in a wide range of alternative arrangements currently available
to designers and contractors for practical applications.
On site implementations of PRESSS-technology buildings have happened in different seismic-prone
countries around the world, e.g. U.S., Central and South America, Europe and New Zealand.
Overviews of research and developments, design criteria and examples of on-site implementations can
be found for concrete structures in Pampanin et al., (2005) and in the PRESSS Design Handbook
(2010). In the following Figures 17-27 a quick overview of implementations in New Zealand of such
low-damage structural systems in concrete, timber and steel will be given
Figure 17. First multi-storey PRESSS-concrete building in New Zealand. Post-tensioned frames with external
Plug&Play dissipaters in one directio; Post-tensioned walls coupled with steel beams in the other (Structural
Engineers: Dunning Thornton Consultants; Cattanach and Pampanin, 2008).
Figure 18. Southern Cross Hospital Endoscopy Building, Christchurc. Post-tensioned frames with internal (top-
only) mild steel in one directio: Post-tensioned UFPs coupled walls in the other. Rendering, U-shape Flexural
Plate dissipaters and construction of the frame
(Structural Engineers: Structex Metro, Pampanin et al., 2011).
Figure 19. Police Station in Rotorua. Post-tensioned concrete (PRESSS) walls with external & replaceable
dissipaters in both directions (Structural Engineers: Spiire)

Figure 20. World First Pres-Lam Building. Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology, (NMIT), Nelson, New
Zealand. Post-tensioned timber (Pres-Lam) walls coupled with U-shape Flexural Plates (UFPs)
(Structural Engineers Aurecon; Architects Irving-Smith-Jack, Devereux et al., 2011)
Figure 21. Carterton Events Centre, New Zealand. Single-storey building with LVL truss roof and Post-
tensioned walls with internal epoxied bar dissipaters (Designed by Opus International: Dekker et al. 2012)
Figure 22. From laboratory specimen to office building: left 3D Test Specimen with post-tensioned frames in
one direction and post-tensioned walls coupled with UFPs in the other (Newcombe et al, 2010), tested,
demounted and reconstructed (Smith et al., 2011) on UC campus as EXPAN/STIC office.

Figure 23. College of Creating Arts - MacDiarmid Building, Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand. Post-
tensioned timber (Pres-Lam) frames with draped tendons in the transverse directions with horizontal U-Shape
flexural plate dissipaters on the first floor and Post-tensioned concrete (PRESSS) walls in the longitudinal
direction (Structural Engineers: Dunning Thornton Consultants)
Figure 24. Trimble Building , Christchurch. Two storey office building (more than 6,000m2) consisting of post-
tensioned timber (Pres-Lam) frames with external replaceable dissipaters at the beam-column connections and at
the column-to-foundation connection and Pres-Lam coupled (with UFP, U-shape Flexural Plates) walls with
external dissipaters at the base-connections.
(Architecture and Structures by Opus International; Construction by Mainzeal/ City Care)

Figure 25. Merritt Building, Victoria Street, Christchurch. Three Storey commercial Building consisting of Post-
tensioned timber (Pres-Lam) frames with Plug&Play external dissipaters in the transverse direction and cast-in-
situ reinforced concrete wall in the longitudinal direction.
(Structural Engineers: Kirk and Roberts; Architects: Sheppard and Rout)
Figure 26 Former ‘St Elmo Courts’ Building, Christchurch. Five storey building, combining base-isolation and
two-ways post-tensioned frames in the superstructure with timber beams and concrete columns (Architect: Ricky
Proko, Structural Engineers: Ruamoko Solutions)
Figur 27. Forté Health Medical Centre, three storey building with over 5000m2 of specialist medical facilities.
Post-tensioned steel rocking coupled ‘walls’ (or braced-frames) in both directions, combining hysteretic and
viscous dampers in parallel for “an advanced flag-shape” system (World first).

CONCLUSIONS
The increased awareness by the general public/tenants, building owners, territorial authorities as
well as insurers/reinsurers, of the severe economic impacts in terms of damage/dollars/downtime of
moderate-strong earthquakes has indeed stimulated and facilitated the wider acceptance and
implementation of cost-efficient damage-control, also referred to as low-damage, technologies in New
Zealand, based on concrete, timber, steel or combination of the above material.
From an earthquake engineering community prospective, the challenge is still significant:
- on one hand, maintaining and support this (local and temporary) renewed appetite for seismic
protection for both new buildings and existing ones (retrofit);
- on the other hand, pushing towards a wider internationally dissemination and acceptance of
damage-resisting technologies according to current best know-how and practice
Somehow the target goal has not changed but the societal expectations (the ‘bar’) are higher and the
allowed time frame shorter: to develop, at comparable costs, what the general public would referred to
as the “ultimate earthquake-proof” building system (including skeleton, non-structural
components/contents and foundation systems), capable as a whole of sustaining the shaking of a
severe earthquake basically unscathed.
A wider implementation of low-damage or impact-resistant technologies in the built environment
would represent a key step towards the overarching goal of risk reduction and enhancement of the
seismic resilience of our communities.
Acknowledgements
The research, development and implementation of low-damage solutions described in this paper
are the results of the exceptional support and collaborative effort of a significant number of individuals
and organizations from academia, the wider industry, governmental and funding agencies, at national
and international level, a list of whom would be practically impossible to prepare. Nevertheless, the
author wishes to acknowledge and sincerely thank all those involved in this extended and
extraordinary team.
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Zealand

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DNPDNDSDVLWHVLQHFyRUDQÕGÕU%XUDGDNLGL÷HUGROD\OÕYDUVD\ÕPGR÷UXVDOHODVWLNVLVWHPLQYHGR÷UXVDO
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WDVDUÕPÕQWHPHOJHUHNoHOHULQGHQELULVLGHEXGXU
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ܴߤ = ൘‫ܨ‬
‫ݕ‬
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WDVDUÕP oHúLWOL GHSUHP úLGGHWOHUL DOWÕQGD SHUIRUPDQV EDNÕPÕQGDQ NRQWURO HGLOLU 7DVDUODQDQ \DSÕGDQ
KDILI RUWD YH úLGGHWOLGHSUHP HWNLOHUL DOWÕQGD EHNOHQHQ SHUIRUPDQV KDVDU GD÷ÕOÕPÕ DoÕN RODUDN LIDGH
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\DSÕVLVWHPOHULYH\DSÕP\|QWHPOHULLOHKHGHIOHQHQSHUIRUPDQVODUÕVD÷ODPDNPPNQROPX\RUVD \HQL
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Deprem Tehlikesi
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VUHVL\ÕORODQGHSUHPúLGGHWLRODUDNWDQÕPODQÕU0HYFXW<|QHWPHOLNWHGHSUHPLQLLIDGH
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WDVDUÕPVSHNWUXPXHOGHHGLOLUùHNLO
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Yeni nesil deprem \|QHWPHOLNOHULQGH GHSUHP VSHNWUXPODUÕ LQúDDW VDKDVÕQÕQ FR÷UDIL

NRRUGLQDWODUÕ LoLQ WDQÕPODQDQ VSHNUDO LYPHOHUGHQ GR÷UXGDQ HOGH HGLOPHNWHGLU 'HSUHP WDVDUÕP
VSHNWUXPODUÕ NÕVD VDQL\H YH X]XQ VDQL\H SHU\RW GH÷HUOHULQGH WDQÕPODQDQ VSHNWUDO LYPHOHUL
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%XUDGD GD\DQÕP YH SHUIRUPDQV HVDVOÕ GHSUHP WDVDUÕPÕQÕQ NDUúÕOÕNOÕ GH÷HUOHQGLULOPHVL

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GH÷LúWLUPHOHULQKHVDSODQPDVÕQDQHGHQROPDNWDGÕU%XGH÷HUOHUOH\HUGH÷LúWLUPHOHUHGD\DOÕSHUIRUPDQV
HVDVOÕ ELU WDVDUÕP \DSPDN PPNQ YH JHUoHNoL GH÷LOGLU 'ROD\ÕVÕ\OD \HQL QHVLO GHSUHP
\|QHWPHOLNOHULQGHVSHNWUXPXQD]DODQH÷ULVL7\HULQH7LOHLIDGHHGLOPLúWLU
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QRUPDOELU\DSÕGDQ\ÕOOÕNGHSUHPGHEHNOHQHQFDQJYHQOL÷LSHUIRUPDQVÕ|QHPLELU\DSÕGDQ
\ÕOOÕN PDNVLPXP GHSUHP DOWÕQGD EHNOHQLU 'ROD\OÕ RODUDN EX \DSÕQÕQ \ÕOOÕN GHSUHP DOWÕQGD GD
PLQLPXP KDVDU J|VWHUHFH÷L EHNOHQLU dR÷XQOXNOD EX EHNOHQWLQLQ JHUoH÷L \DQVÕWPDGÕ÷Õ LOHULGHNL ELU
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FR÷UDIL GD÷ÕOÕPÕ YHULOPHNWHGLU *|UOG÷ JLEL RUDQ JHQHOOLNOH ¶GHQ \NVHNWLU g]HOOLNOH GHSUHP
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JHUoHNoLELUEHNOHQWLGH÷LOGLU
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3HUIRUPDQV HVDVOÕ GHSUHP WDVDUÕPÕQGD IDUNOÕ GHSUHP úLGGHWOHUL VSHNWUDO LYPHOHULQ DúÕOPD
RODVÕOÕNODUÕ FLQVLQGHQLIDGH HGLOPLúWLU %X úLGGHWOHU JHQHO RODUDN \ÕOGD DúÕOPD RODVÕOÕNODUÕ
\ÕO YH \ÕO RODQ VÕN WHNUDUODQDQ GHSUHPOHU \ÕOGD DúÕOPD RODVÕOÕ÷Õ \ÕO RODQ
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GHSUHP \|QHWPHOLNOHULQGH \XNDUÕGD YHULOHQ VSHNWUDO LYPHOHULQ DúÕOPD RODVÕOÕNODUÕ WP SHU\RGODU LoLQ
D\QLGLUXQLIRUPKD]DUGVSHFWUXP6XFXR÷OXYH$NNDU
Performans Hedefleri
'D\DQÕP HVDVOÕ GHSUHP WDVDUÕPÕQGD SHUIRUPDQV KHGHIOHULQL QLWHOLNVHO RODUDN WDQÕPODPDN PPNQ
GH÷LOGLU$QFDNQLFHOLNVHORODUDNWDQÕPODQDELOLU7UNL\H'HSUHP<|QHWPHOL÷LQGHNLSHUIRUPDQV
KHGHIOHULWDQÕPÕúXúHNLOGHYHULOPLúWLU“+DILIúLGGHWWHGHSUHPDOWÕQGDKDVDUVÕ]OÕNRUWDúLGGHWWHGHSUHP
DOWÕQGD VÕQÕUOÕ KDVDU úLGGHWOL GHSUHP DOWÕQGD NDOÕFÕ KDVDU DQFDN FDQ JYHQOL÷LQLQ VD÷ODQPDVÕ´
%LULQFLVL KDILI RUWD YH úLGGHWOL GHSUHPLQ QH ROGX÷X EHOLUWLOPHPLúWLU 7DVDUÕP GHSUHPLQLQ úLGGHWOL
GHSUHP ROGX÷X NDEXO HGLOPHNWHGLU 7DVDUÕP GHSUHPL DOWÕQGD FDQ JYHQOL÷L J|oPHQLQ ROPDPDVÕ
KHGHILVD÷ODQÕUVDGL÷HUSHUIRUPDQVKHGHIOHULQLQGHVD÷ODQDFD÷ÕYDUVD\ÕOPDNWDGÕU%XGH÷erlendirmeler
KDOHQ\UUONWHRODQWPGD\DQÕPHVDVOÕGHSUHP\|QHWPHOLNOHULLoLQJHoHUOLGLUøNLQFLVLWDQÕPODQDQ
SHUIRUPDQV KHGHIOHUi |OoOHELOLU GH÷LOGLU ]LUD GR÷UXVDO HODVWLN DQDOL] \|QWHPOHri EX LPNDQÕ YHUPH]
$QFDNVDKDJ|]OHPOHULQHGD\DQDUDNGR÷UXODPDVÕ\DSÕODELOLU

3HUIRUPDQV HVDVOÕ GHSUHP WDVDUÕPÕQGD LVH GHSUHP SHUIRUPDQV KHGHIOHUL QLFHOLNVHO RODUDN
HOHPDQ YH\D NULWLN NHVLWOHU G]H\LQGH \DSÕOPDNWD YH KHU SHUIRUPDQV VHYL\HVLQGH \DSÕODQ DQDOL]OHUOH
GR÷UXODQPDNWDGÕU'ROD\ÕVÕ\ODSHUIRUPDQVHVDVOÕGHSUHPWDVDUÕPÕúHIIDIELU\|QWHPGLU
øNL\|QWHPLQSHUIRUPDQVKHGHIOHULQLQLQNDUúÕODúWÕUPDOÕGH÷HUOHQGLUPHVLQL ùHNLO¶GHNLWLSLNELU
NHVLWLQPRPHQW-H÷ULOLNLOLúNLVL]HULQGH\DSPDND\GÕQODWÕFÕRODFDNWÕU
ùHNLO57LSLNELUEHWRQDUPHNHVLWLQPRPHQW-H÷ULOLNLOLúNLVLMG WDVDUÕPGD\DQÕPÕMn QRPLQDOGD\DQÕPMH

GR÷UXVDOHODVWLNDQDOL]GHQHOGHHGLOHQGD\DQÕPWDOHEL‫׋‬y DNPDH÷ULOL÷L‫׋‬X H÷ULOLNNDSDVLWHVL
'D\DQÕPHVDVOÕWDVDUÕPGDVDGHFHGD\DQÕPNRQWUROX\DSÕOÕU
‫݁ܯ‬ ‫݁ܯ‬
‫= ݀ܯ > ݊ܯ‬ ;ܴ=
ܴ ‫݀ܯ‬
%XUDGDܴ \ND]DOWPDNDWVD\ÕVÕGÕUYHLNLDQDELOHúHQGHQROXúXU
‫݁ܯ‬ ‫݊ܯ‬
ܴ = ܴߤ × ܴߗ ; ܴߤ = ‫݊ܯ‬
; ܴߗ = ‫݀ܯ‬

ܴߤ ‫ݏ‬üneklik D]DOÕP IDNW|U RODUDN DGODQGÕUÕOÕU YH VQHNOLN RUDQÕ ȝ ile \DNÕQGDQ LOLúNLOLGLU ܴߗ ise
dD\DQÕPID]ODOÕ÷ÕIDNW|UGUߗ dD\DQÕPID]ODOÕ÷ÕQÕLIDGHHGHUYHGD\DQÕPHVDVOÕWDVDUÕPGDNRQWUROGÕúÕ
RODUDN RUWD\D oÕNDU 7DVDUÕP MG LoLQ \DSÕOÕU GD\DQÕP ID]ODOÕ÷Õ LOH QRPLQDO GD\DQÕP ROXúXU (÷HU
QRPLQDOPHYFXWGD\DQÕPWDVDUÕPGD\DQÕPÕWDOHELQLVD÷OÕ\RUVD'HQNWDVDUÕPKHGHILQHXODúÕOPÕú
VD\ÕOÕU $QFDN NHVLWLQ WDVDUÕP GHSUHPL DOWÕQGD JHUoHNWH KDQJL H÷ULOL÷H XODúWÕ÷Õ ‫׋‬EQ YH EX H÷ULOL÷LQ
hangi SHUIRUPDQVD YH KDVDUD WHNDEO HWWL÷L KHVDSODQPD] 'ROD\ÕVÕ\OD ELU SHUIRUPDQV NRQWUROX
\DSÕOPDVÕPPNQGH÷LOGLU
3HUIRUPDQV HVDVOÕ WDVDUÕPGD úHNLOGH÷LúWLUPH kRQWURO \DSÕOÕU +HUKDQJL ELU GHSUHP
VHYL\HVLQGH |UQH÷LQ \ÕOOÕN GHSUHP HWNLVL DOWÕQGD NHVLWWH PH\GDQD JHOHQ H÷ULOLN WDOHEL ‫׋‬EQ
SHUIRUPDQVVÕQÕUODUÕLOHNDUúÕODúWÕUÕODUDNNHVLWLQSHUIRUPDQVG]H\LQHNROD\FDNDUDUYHULOLU
‫׋‬EQ < ‫׋‬y : +DVDUVÕ]OÕN D
‫׋‬y < ‫׋‬EQ ‫׋‬PD[ 6ÕQÕUOÕKDVDU&DQ*YHQOL÷L3HUIRUPDQVÕ E
‫׋‬PD[ < ‫׋‬EQ < ‫׋‬PD[ 6WDELOLWH*|oPHgQFHVL3HUIRUPDQVÕ F
3HUIRUPDQV SDUDPHWUHVL RODUDN H÷ULOLN \HULQH HOHPDQ Xo G|QPHOHUL GH NXOODQÕODELOLU %X
GXUXPGD NHVLWLQ SODVWLN H÷ULOLk ‫׋‬EQ - ‫׋‬y LOH SODVWLN G|QPH WDOHEL DUDVÕQGD SODVWLN PDIVDO E|OJHVL
X]XQOX÷XLp FLQVLQGHQELULOLúNLNXrmak JHUHNLU Lp JHQHOOLNOHNHVLWGHULQOL÷LQLQ\DUÕVÕNDGDUDOÕQDELOLU
ߠ‫݌‬,‫ = ܳܧ‬൫߶‫ ܳܧ‬െ ߶‫ ݕ‬൯‫݌ܮ‬

(XURFRGH YH $6&( SHUIRUPDQV VÕQÕUODUÕQÕ SODVWLN G|QPHOHU FLQVLQGHQ WDQÕPODPDNWDGÕU 3ODVWLN
G|QPH VÕQÕUODUÕ GHQH\OHUGHQ HOGH HGLOHQ GH÷HUOHUOHUGHQ ROXúPDNWDGÕU %HWRQDUPH HOHPDQODUGD EX

VÕQÕUODU HNVHQHO \N NHVPH NXYYHWL GRQDWÕ WU YH GHWD\ODQGÕUPD |]HOOLNOHUL JLEL ELUoRN GH÷LúNHQH
ED÷OÕGÕU
%HQ]HU ELU \DNODúÕPOD NHVLW H÷ULOLNOHULQGHQ NHVLW ELULP úHNLOGH÷LúWLUPHOHULQH JHoPHN GH
PPNQGU ùHNLO ¶GD J|VWHULOHQ G]OHP NHVLWOHULQ H÷LOPH HWNLVL DOWÕQGD G]OHP NDODFD÷Õ WHPHO
YDUVD\ÕPÕ LOH VDUJÕOÕ YH VDUJÕVÕ] EHWRQXQ HQ GÕú OLIOHULQGHNL EHWRQ JHULOPHOHUL YH NHVLWLQ HQ GÕú
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LOLúNLVL
0DO]HPHOHULQELULPúHNLOGH÷LúWLUPHSHUIRUPDQVVÕQÕUODUÕPDO]HPHQLQDNPDYHNRSPDVÕQÕUODUÕGLNNDWH
DOÕQDUDNEHOLUOHQHELOLU7UNL\H'HSUHP<|QHWPHOL÷L¶QGHEX\DNODúÕPNXOODQÕOPÕúWÕU
(ߝܿ‫ = ܰܯ) ݑ‬0.0035 ; (ߝ‫ = ܰܯ) ݏ‬0.010 D

(ߝܿܿ )‫ = ܸܩ‬0.0035 + 0.01൫ߩ‫ݏ‬ൗߩ‫ ݉ݏ‬൯ < 0.0135; (ߝ‫ = ܸܩ) ݏ‬0.040 E
ߩ
(ߝܿܿ )‫ = ܥܩ‬0.004 + 0.014൫ ‫ݏ‬ൗߩ‫ ݉ݏ‬൯ < 0.018 ; (ߝ‫ = ܸܩ) ݏ‬0.060 F
$QFDNEXVÕQÕUODUÕQEHOLUOHQPHVLQGHWDPH÷LOPHGDYUDQÕúÕYHGRQDWÕQÕQEHWRQODRODQDGHUDQVÕQÕQWDP
ROGX÷XYDUVD\ÕOGÕ÷ÕQGDQNHVLWWHNLNHVPHNXYYHWLRUDQÕYHG]GRQDWÕNXOODQÕOPDVÕGXUXPODUÕLoLQED]Õ
D]DOWPDODU\DSÕOPDVÕPPNQGU%XD]DOWPDODUÕQGHQH\VHOJ|]OHPOHUOHWXWDUOÕROPDVÕJHUHNOLGLU
ùHNLO¶GH\|QHWPHOLNNXUDOODUÕQDX\JXQRODUDNWDVDUODQPÕúELUNRORQXQGHQH\SHUIRUPDQVÕLOH
7'< $6&( YH (XURFRGH SHUIRUPDQV VÕQÕUODUÕ NDUúÕODúWÕUÕOPDNWDGÕU $FXQ YH 6XFXR÷OX

200 200
150 150
0.8 My 0.8 My
100 100
Taban Momenti (kN-m)
50 50
0 0
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VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT OF RC BUILDINGS:

PRESENT STATE AND CHALLENGES
Kyriazis PITILAKIS 1, Sotiria KARAPETROU 2
ABSTRACT
The objective of the paper is to discuss few important issues involved in seismic vulnerability assessment of RC
buildings; it is divided in two parts. The first part of the paper outlines the main components, parameters and
methods to derive fragility functions, which are used in seismic risk assessment of reinforced concrete buildings
at urban and regional scale. Its aim is to provide a mean of understanding the main factors governing the current
practice in seismic vulnerability assessment. Part of the work that has been carried out in the framework of
SYNER-G project is also presented, as it reflects the most recent efforts and development on this field. The
second part of the paper discusses the needs and challenges that have not been thoroughly investigated up to
now, but should be addressed in future studies in order to enhance the reliability and robustness of seismic
vulnerability assessment procedures.
INTRODUCTION
Seismic risk assessment can be defined as the estimation of the probability of expected damages and
losses due to seismic hazard. In the past decades the field of seismic risk assessment has received
significant attention (Calvi et al., 2006) due to the dramatic increase in the losses caused by
earthquakes that has been observed worldwide. The formulation of an earthquake loss model for a
given region is a critical component not only for predicting the economic impact of future seismic
events but also for establishing emergency preparedness and risk mitigation strategies by the national
authorities. A significant component of a loss model is the methodology to assess the vulnerability of
the built environment. The vulnerability of a structure is described in all engineering-relevant
approaches as vulnerability and/or fragility functions, which can be regarded as a graphical
representation of seismic risk. More specifically vulnerability functions provide the probability of
losses (physical, social or economic) given the level of ground shacking whereas fragility functions
describe the probability of exceeding different limit states (usually expressed as physical damage)
given the level of ground shaking. The former relates the level of ground shaking with the mean
damage ratio (e.g. ratio of cost of repair to cost of replacement) and the latter relates the level of
ground motion with the probability of exceeding the limit states (Pitilakis et al., 2014a).
HAZUS (NIBS 2004) is the first comprehensive methodology that contains models for estimating
potential losses of buildings from earthquake hazards at an urban scale. Its first edition was released in
1997 (HAZUS 97); the current version is HAZUS-MH v2.0, which estimates the risk due to
earthquakes, floods and hurricanes. Fragility curves for buildings, utility and transportation networks
are provided in HAZUS methodology. In the first editions, the majority of the fragility functions were
relied on the methodology and data that were presented in ATC-13 (ATC 1985) and ATC-25 (ATC
1991) reports following an expert judgment approach. Analytical studies have been later considered
for bridges and buildings.
In Europe, among the first comprehensive initiative to establish a methodology for the seismic risk
assessment of buildings include the RISK-UE (2004) project followed by LESSLOSS (2007) both
funded by European Commission framework programs for Research and Technological Development.
Several research efforts have been made at a national level in Europe, aiming to propose adequate
generic fragility curves for buildings. Representative examples include the SRM-LIFE (2007) projects
in Greece and the RELUIS projects in Italy. Finally, numerous other research efforts have been
1
Professor, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, GREECE
2
PhD Student, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, GREECE

performed worldwide, developing fragility functions and methods for the vulnerability assessment of
different physical assets.
Among the latest developments is SYNER-G (2013) project. SYNER-G is a European collaborative
research project funded by the European Commission in the Seventh Framework Program, Theme 6:
Environment. The main objective of SYNER-G is to develop an integrated methodology for the
systemic seismic vulnerability and risk analysis of buildings, lifelines, infrastructures, transportation
and utility systems and critical facilities, taking into account the interactions between the different
components and systems, which generally increase the seismic impact. In the framework of the project
a comprehensive review of existing fragility curves for the most important elements at risk has been
carried out, while new fragility curves have been developed where necessary, considering the
distinctive features of European elements (Kaynia 2013). Moreover an integrated methodology has
been developed for the systemic seismic vulnerability and risk analysis of buildings, lifelines,
infrastructures, transportation, utility systems and critical facilities. The main goals of SYNER-G are
summarized in the following bullets:
x to elaborate appropriate, in the European context, fragility relationships for the vulnerability
analysis and loss estimation of all elements at risk
x to develop social and economic vulnerability relationships for quantifying the impact of
earthquakes
x to develop a unified methodology, and tools for systemic vulnerability assessment accounting
for all components exposed to seismic hazard, considering interdependencies within a system
unit and between systems
x to validate the methodology and the proposed fragility functions in selected sites (urban scale)
and systems and to implement in an appropriate open source and unrestricted access software
tool.
The results of the studies carried out within the project, which are intended to meet the needs of
researchers, professionals, stakeholders of different systems, civil protection, public services, and the
insurance industry involved in seismic risk assessment and management, can be found in Pitilakis et
al. (2014a) and Pitilakis et al. (2014b).
AN OVERVIEW OF THE PRESENT SITUATION: FRAGILITY FUNCTIONS FOR

REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS ACCORDING TO SYNER-G
Definition of Seismic Fragility Functions
In structural performance evaluation, it is convenient to describe the system performance in terms of

demand and capacity. The demand can be the force (shear, bending moment, axial forces, overturning
moment) or the response (displacement, velocity, acceleration, drift, ductility, energy dissipation) in
the system caused by the ground excitation. The capacity of the system is the maximum forces or
response that the system can withstand without member or system failure. The assessment of
vulnerability is made for a particular characterization of ground motion, which represents the seismic
demand of the earthquake on the building. The selected parameter should correlate the ground motion
with the damage to the building. Thus the definition of two intermediate variables is required, one
describing the ground motion intensity measure (IM) and the other describing the structural demand,
also known as engineering demand parameter (EDP).
Simply stated fragility defines the conditional probability P[Â@RIWhe seismic demand (D) placed
upon the structure exceeding its capacity (C) for a given level of ground motion intensity (IM), as
shown in the following equation:
Fragility P ª¬ D t C IM º¼ (1)

Different mathematical procedures for developing fragility curves have been proposed in the
literature (e.g. ATC-13, 1985; Shinozuka et al., 2000; Cornell et al., 2002; NIBS, 2004; Nielson and
DesRoches, 2007; Porter et al., 2007 etc.). However two-parameter lognormal distribution functions
are traditionally used due to their simple parametric form (Shinozuka et al., 2000). Thus Equation 1
can be further represented through Equation 2, which gives the cumulative probability of exceeding a
particular damage state dsi conditioned on a measure of the seismic intensity IM.
ª 1 § IM ·º
P>ds t dsĭ IM @ OQ « ¨ ¸» (2)
«¬ ȕtot © ,0 mi
i
¹ »¼
where P[Â@GHQRWHVWKHSUREDELOLW\RIEHLQJDWRUH[FHHGLQJDSDUWLFXODUGDPDJHVWDWHdsi for a given
seismic intensity level defined by the earthquake intensity measure ,0 ĭ is the standard normal
cumulative distribution function, IMmi is the median threshold value of the earthquake intensity
measure IM required to cause the ith damage state and ȕtot is the total standard deviation. According to
Equation 2, to develop fragility curves the definition of two parameters is required, namely IMmi and
ȕtot. Figure 1 presents the graphical representation of a fragility curve.
The conditional probabilities P[ds=i/IM@ for a structure experiencing a specific damage state dsi is
illustrated in Figure 2, are estimated based on the probabilities of exceedance P[dsL,0@For example
if four damage states are adopted (i=0,1,2,3) then the probabilities that a structure experiences the
different damage states are calculated as:
P0(=no damage)=1.0-P(ds VOLJKWGDPDJH
P1(=slight damage)= P(ds VOLJKWGDPDJH– P(ds PRGHUDWe damage)
P2(=moderate damage)= P(ds PRGHUDWHGDPDJH- P(ds H[WHQVLYHGDPDJH
P3(=extensive damage)= P(ds H[WHQVLYHGDPDJH
The total sum of these probabilities is equal to 1.
Figure 1. Graphical presentation of an example fragility curve

Figure 2. Conditional probabilities of exceeding different damage states
The vulnerability curve can be generated based on the estimation of the mean damage ratio MDR.
In Figure 3 an example vulnerability curve is presented. The MDR is a representative single statistics
that can be calculated assuming a repair cost for each damage level (Hancilar et al., 2014). It is
mathematically expressed as:
MDR ¦ CDR P>ds

ds
i i
i IM @ (3)
where CDRi represents the central damage ratio which is the ratio of the average cost of repair at each
damage state to the cost for building replacement (Hwang et al., 1994).
Figure 3. Conditional probabilities of exceeding different damage states
The main parameters that are involved in the derivation of fragility functions, namely the
typology/taxonomy, the selection of the intensity measure, the definition of damage states, the
consideration of the involved uncertainties and the methodology for the fragility curve generation, are
presented in the following section. It should be noted herein that the main epistemic uncertainties
involved in the vulnerability assessment procedure are related to the definition of these parameters.
Taxonomy/Typology/Classification
The knowledge of the inventory of the general building stock in a region exposed to seismic hazard
and the capability to create uniform classes of building types are one of the main challenges required

to carry out seismic risk assessment at an urban scale, where it is practically impossible and in any
case too expensive to perform the assessment at a building level. The development of an efficient
taxonomy able to adequately group different types of existing buildings from different countries in
Europe and worldwide is a key component in the vulnerability assessment procedure. The
classification is made based on the assumption that buildings with similar structural characteristics are
expected to perform in the same way under a seismic excitation. For common buildings their
geometry, material properties and seismic design level are the main typology parameters.
Several building typologies exist. Prominent among these are: ATC-13 (ATC 1985); EMS-98
(Grunthal 1998); ATC-14 (ATC 1987), which was used with modifications in FEMA 154 (ATC
2002), HAZUS-MH (FEMA 2006), and other FEMA-funded efforts; the World Housing Encylopedia
(WHE, http://www.world-housing.net/) ; RISK-UE 2004 (Mouroux et al. 2004); PAGER (Jaiswal and
Wald 2008; Jaiswal et al. 2010, http://pager.world-housing.net.) and the most recent developed
SYNER-G (Pitilakis et al. 2014a, http://www.syner-g.eu/) for typical European structures.
In SYNER-G a great effort was paid to create a comprehensive taxonomy from which European
typologies for the most important elements at risk are defined (Hancilar and Taucer 2013). The
taxonomy of existing buildings should allow their classification in terms of their seismic resistance
and response. As shown in Table 1, different main categories are identified to describe a building,
such as the force resisting frame mechanism, material, elevation, code design level, cladding, etc. A
hierarchy is used for some categories where additional information might or might not be available,
largely depending on the scale of the studied region. In Figure 4 a representative flowchart is shown to
group reinforced concrete (RC) with moment resisting frame (MRF) buildings, taking into account the
height level, the code level, the cladding and the detailing. It is noted that each column represents a
different level of detail.
Table 1. SYNER-G taxonomy for buildings

CATEGORY SUB-CATEGORY
Force Resisting Mechanism (FRM1) Force Resisting Mechanism (FRM2)
x Moment Resisting Frame (MRF) x Embedded beams (EB)
x Structural Wall (W) x Emergent beams (EGB)
x Flat Slab (FS)
x Bearing Walls (BW)
x Precast (P)
x Confined Masonry (CM)
FRM Material (FRMM1) FRM Material (FRMM2)
x Concrete (C) x Reinforced Concrete (RC)
x Masonry (M) x Unreinforced Masonry (URM)
x Reinforced Masonry (RM)
x High strength concrete (>50MPa) (HSC)
x Average strength concrete (20-50 MPa) (ASC)
x Low strength concrete (<20 MPa) (LSC)
x Adobe (A)
x Fired brick (FB)
x Hollow clay tile (HC)
x Stone (S)
x High yield strength reinforcing bars (>300MPa)
(HY)
x Low yield strength reinforcing bars (<300MPa)
(LY)
x Classification of reinforcing bars based on EC2
(A,B,C)
x Lime mortar (LM)

x Cement mortar (CM)
x Mud mortar (MM)
x Smooth rebars (SB)
x Non-smooth rebars
x Concrete Masonry Unit (CMU)
x Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)
x High % of voids (H%)
x Low % of voids (L%)
x Regular Cut (Rc)
x Rubble (Ru)
Plan (P)
x Regular (R)
x Irregular (IR)
Elevation (E)
x Regular geometry (R)
x Irregular geometry (IR)
Cladding (C) Cladding Characteristics (CM)
x Regular infill vertically (RI) x Fired brick masonry (FB)
x Irregular infill vertically (IRI) x High % voids (H%)
x Bare (B) x Low % voids (L%)
x Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)
x Precast concrete (PC)
x Glazing (G)
x Single layer of cladding (SL)
x Double layer of cladding (DL)
x Open first floor (Pilotis) (P)
x Open upper floor (U)
Detailing (D)
x Ductile (D)
x Non-ductile (ND)
x With tie rods/beams (WTB)
x Without tie rods/beams (WoTB)
Floor System (FS) Floor System Material (FSM)
x Rigid (R) x Reinforced concrete (RC)
x Flexible (F) x Steel (S)
x Timber (T)
Roof System (RS) Roof System Material (RSM)
x Peaked (P) x Timber (Ti)
x Flat (F) x Thatch (Th)
x Gable End Walls (G) x Corrugated Metal Sheet (CMS)
Height Level (HL) Number of stories (NS)
x Low-rise (1-3) (L) [Here the number of stories is explicitly given, if
x Mid-rise (4-7) (M) NQRZQ@
x High-rise (8-19) (H)
x Tall (20+)(Ta)
Code Level (CL)
x None (NC)

x Low (<0.1g) (LC)
x Moderate (0.1-0.3g) (MC)
x High (>0.3g) (HC)
Figure 4. Flow chart for a Reinforced Concrete, Moment Resisting Frame building class according to SYNER-G

Intensity Measures
The selection of an appropriate earthquake intensity measure (IM) that characterizes the strong ground
motion (e.g. amplitude, duration, frequency content, energy content) and correlates well with the
building response is of high importance for the derivation of fragility curves. The optimal selection of
an IM can be supported by examining the following qualities (Mackie and Stojadinovic 2003;2005,
Mehanny 2009, Padgett et al., 2008): practicality, sufficiency, effectiveness, efficiency, robustness and
hazard computability. Practicality refers to whether or not there is any direct correlation between an
IM and the demand placed on the structure. A further criterion for evaluating practicality is whether
the IM is readily described by available attenuation relationships or other sources of hazard data. A
sufficient IM is statistically independent of ground motion characteristics (such as magnitude and
epicentral distance), rendering a demand model that is conditionally independent of the earthquake
scenario. The effectiveness of an IM is determined by its ability to evaluate, in a closed form, the mean
annual frequency of a decision variable exceeding a given limiting value. An efficient IM reduces the
amount of variation in the estimated demand for a given IM value. Robustness describes the efficiency
trends of an IM-EDP pair across different structures and therefore fundamental period ranges. Hazard
computability refers to the availability of estimates of the expected IM from hazard studies.
In general, IMs are grouped into two general categories: the empirical intensity measures (e.g.
European macroseismic scale EMS) and the instrumental intensity measures (e.g. peak ground
acceleration PGA, peak ground velocity PGV, peak ground displacement PGD, acceleration spectral
values at a certain period i.e. 1.0sec etc.) (Pitilakis et al. 2014a). The instrumental intensity measures,
which are gaining in use the last years, have the advantage that the severity of the earthquake is no
longer subjective as they are expressed as an analytical value measured by an instrument or computed
analyzing the seismic recordings and therefore are considered more accurate and representative of the
seismic intensity characteristics.
For the assessment of buildings the strong motion parameters that are used almost invariably to
characterize earthquake shaking are the peak ground acceleration (PGA) and response spectral
ordinates for a linear-elastic lightly-damped (often 5%) single degree of freedom (SDOF) system.
Response spectral ordinate usually refers to spectral acceleration Sa(Ty) (or pseudo-spectral
acceleration) or spectral displacement Sd(Ty) at the elastic natural period Ty of the structure and their
advantage in comparison to PGA is that they provide information also on the frequency content of
earthquake shaking. In the pie chart of Figure 5 the percentages regarding the different IMs used for
the vulnerability assessment of European buildings (Pitilakis et al., 2014a) are presented. In the
reviewed studies, fragility functions have been derived in terms of macroseismic IMs (Mercalli-
Cancani-Sieberg Intensity Scale: MCS, Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale: MMI, Medvedev-
Sponheuer-Karnik Intensity Scale: MSK81, European Macroseismic Scale: EMS98) and instrumental
IMs (PGA, PGV, root mean square of the acceleration RMS, Sa(Ty), Sd(Ty), spectral displacement at
the inelastic period TLS corresponding to a specific damage state: Sd(TLS), roof drift ratio). Sa(Ty),
Sd(Ty), Sd(TLS) and roof drift ratio are structure-dependent IMs as they are based on response
parameters and thus require structural information regarding the building typology. Figure 5 shows
that PGA has been the most commonly used intensity measure in the studied literature.
One IM that has recently been shown to be useful in explaining structural response is epsilon of Sa
at a certain structural period Ty, which is defined as the normalized residual, in terms of natural
logarithms, between the observed and the predicted by a given GMPE for Sa (Baker and Cornell,
2005). The reason why epsilon is a potentially useful IM is that it is an indicator of peaks and troughs
in response spectra scaled to a common Sa at a given period: negative epsilon generally indicates a
trough (hence a higher structural response because it is influenced by neighboring higher Sa) and
positive epsilon means a peak (hence a lower structural response due to lower Sa at adjacent periods).
The use of epsilon for risk evaluation is possible if its value is known from hazard disaggregation or
by using probabilistic site-specific demand analysis but it is not a suitable parameter for the
construction of fragility functions unless it is combined with a fragility function using Sa (e.g. Tothong
and Cornell, 2007).

RMS Roof Drift Ratio MCS
3% 3% 2% MSK81
3%
MMI
5%
Sd(TLS)
23%
PGA
38%
Sd(Ty)
15%
PGV
Sa(Ty) 5%
3%
Figure 5. Pie chart presenting the percentages of different intensity measure types used for the development of
fragility functions for reinforced concrete buildings (Pitilakis et al., 2014a)
Damage Indicators and Damage States
In order to derive seismic fragility curves for different elements at risk, it is necessary to define
multiple damage states for the element exposed to seismic hazard. To accomplish this, the first step is
the establishment of a damage indicator or a damage measure, selecting engineering demand
parameters that are able to adequately describe the expected seismic performance.
Generally, damage indices or damage measures aim to quantify the damage level of structures
under earthquake loading. Damage indices are damage functions that are commonly defined based on
the results of a numerical analysis on the measured response of a structure during an earthquake or
comparing structure’s physical properties before and after an earthquake (Williams and
Sexsmith 1995). They may consist of one or more damage measures and can be classified based on
deformation terms, stiffness degradation, hysteretic energy dissipation, number of seismic cycles,
engineering experience, observational data as well as rehabilitation and reconstruction (or
replacement) cost. The relationship between a damage parameter (d) and a damage index (D) is
illustrated in Figure 6 for the simple case where D is expressed in terms of a single parameter d
(Kappos, 1997).
Figure 6. Relationship between damage parameter (or damage variable) and damage index (Kappos, 1997).
As shown Figure 6 for D=0 it is d=d0>0, which implies that below a threshold value of the damage
parameter no damage is detected and the structural behavior remains elastic. On the other hand when
d=du structural failure (or complete collapse) is considered and therefore D=1. For d>dr repair of the
structure is required to restore its initial conditions. The description of the curve shape D=f(d) and the

selection of appropriate values for du and dr is not an easy task due to the lack of sufficient
experimental data for different structural types and the difficulty in the definition of common failure
criteria between the different research groups. A possible expression of the damage index (Kappos,
1997) could be:
( d cal d0 )a
D (4)
( d u d0 )a
where dcal is the value of the damage parameter value calculated from the analysis and a is an exponent
which may be considered equal to unity in the absence of experimental data. The relationship damage index
– damage parameter, as illustrated in Figure 6, can be expressed not only in structural but also in
economical terms. In this case the economic damage index is expressed as the ratio of the required cost of
repair to the corresponding cost of replacement (or reconstruction).
Numerous damage indices/measures are proposed in the literature. They may express analytically the
comparison of a demand with a capacity quantity, or the consequence of a mitigation action, or the
assembled consequences of all damages (the “impact”). In the case of reinforced concrete buildings
subjected to earthquake loading, the damage measures that are commonly used, are related to deformation
quantities, such as strain (compressive, tensile) and curvature, rotations at member ends, horizontal storey
displacements, relative displacements between two adjacent storeys (interstorey drift) and/or fatigue
loading terms. For indicators based on displacement or stiffness degradation, the maximum seismic
response of the structures is taken into consideration. On the other hand, indicators related to degenerative
behavior and/or cumulative damage sustained under repeated load reversals depend on the amount of
dissipated hysteretic energy and take into account the effect of plastic cycles in the structural response. The
parameters most widely used to evaluate structural damage are ductility and plastic dissipated energy. In
the case of ductility, collapse depends on a predefined displacement value whilst, in the case of plastic
dissipated energy, collapse of the structure under cyclic loads depends on the amount of energy that can be
plastically dissipated. Indicators based on dynamic properties are used to quantify damage through modal
testing. This approach often includes vibration measurements of the structure due to a particular excitation.
In case of structural deterioration, changes in the measured dynamic responses are expected. These changes
are reflected in the modal properties of the structure (natural frequencies, damping ratios, mode shapes),
which can be determined either experimentally or analytically. Indices developed on this basis may
provide information both on the extent of damage and its location.
Different schemes are proposed for the classification of damage indices (Kappos 1997). For example
some categorizations are defined based on whether they refer to a single element or to the whole structure
(local or global) or whether they are structural or economic, on the mathematical approach for their
determination (deterministic or probabilistic) or the type of analysis for their estimation (no analysis, linear
elastic, inelastic). In the next subchapter the most commonly used global and local damage indices based
on structural properties are presented.
The damage thresholds that are defined based on performance indicators are called limit states. A limit
state defines the threshold between different damage conditions, whereas the damage states define the
damage conditions themselves. For example, the displacement capacity can be related to damage conditions
that are identifiable through limit states. In Figure 7 the difference between damage states and limit states is
presented (Crowley et al., 2011).
Methods for deriving fragility curves generally model the damage on a discrete damage scale. In
empirical procedures, the scale is used in reconnaissance efforts to produce post-earthquake damage
statistics, whereas in analytical procedures the scale is related to limit state mechanical properties of the
buildings.
The number of damage states (and consequently the number of limit states) depends on the damage
scale used and is related with the functionality of the components and/or the repair duration and cost. Some
of the most frequently used damage scales are: HCR (Rossetto and Elnashai, 2003), HAZUS99 (FEMA,
1999), Vision2000 (SEAOC,1995) and EMS98 (Grunthal, 1998), ATC-13 (ATC,1985). A summary and
qualitative comparison of some of the damage scales applicable for RC buildings is presented in Table 2. It
should be noted that there are some studies that do not refer to any of the damage scales reported in Table 2
but they follow specific damage state scales developed by the authors.
The definition and consequently the selection of the damage thresholds, i.e. limit states, are among
the main sources of uncertainties. For this reason a considerable effort has been made in SYNER-G to
homogenize the criteria as much as possible, while also discussing the different approaches or

assumptions made by different researchers in order to offer to the user of the proposed fragility
functions, the means to make most suitable selection according to the specific needs.
Figure 7. Limit states and damage states (Crowley et al., 2011).
Table 2. Comparison of existing damage scales with the HRC damage scale (adapted from Rossetto and
Elnashai, 2003)
HRC HAZUS99 Vision 2000 EMS98 ATC-13

None No damage
Slight Fully Slight
Grade 1
operational
Slight damage Light
Light
Grade 2
Operational
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate Grade 3
damage Life Safe
Heavy
Extensive Extensive Near Collapse
Grade 4
damage Major
Partial Collapse Collapse
Collapse Collapse
Treatment of Uncertainties
Several sources of uncertainties are introduced in the assessment process and accordingly impact the
ensuing technical, economic and social decision. Therefore the key point is to incorporate the
uncertainties in a way that the information and the knowledge relevant to the problem are presented in
the most faithful manner (Aven and Zio, 2011).
The uncertainties are usually categorized in aleatory and epistemic. Aleatory uncertainties stem from
the intrinsic randomness of a phenomenon (e.g. earthquake occurrence on a known fault) while
epistemic uncertainties arise from the lack of knowledge, ignorance or modeling (e.g. two dimensional
idealization of buildings for structural analysis). Apparently random observations due to: unknown
factors; known factors which are not modeled and pragmatic simplifications of reality, are generally
considered to be a result of aleatory uncertainties (Strasser et al., 2009). It may appear that the

characterization of any given uncertainty as aleatory or epistemic is self-evident, but in fact the
aleatory/epistemic quality is not an absolute attribute of uncertainty. Rather, it depends on the
deterministic or stochastic representation of the phenomenon. Uncertainty that is explicitly recognized
by a stochastic model is aleatory. Uncertainty on the model itself and its parameters is epistemic.
Hence the aleatory/epistemic split of the total uncertainty is model-dependent (Wen et al., 2003). In
contrast to aleatory uncertainties, the knowledge based (or epistemic) uncertainties depend on the
quality of the analysis and supporting databases, and generally can be reduced, at the expense of more
comprehensive (and costly) analysis (Ellingwood and Wen, 2005). Thus although the distinction
between aleatory and epistemic uncertainties depends on the problem that is investigated, uncertainties
should be treated as aleatory or epistemic depending on whether they are reducible or not
(DerKiureghian and Ditlevsen, 2009).
In Pitilakis (2014) the uncertainties that are involved in the whole analysis chain from hazard
assessment to consequences and loss assessment were discussed. It was stressed out that the
uncertainties involved in every step of the process (modeling, definition of taxonomy, intensity
measures, ground variability and spatial correlation, site effects, damage assessment) are too
important, affecting the final result. Thus although the primary goal is to obtain reliable results, in
many cases the uncertainties are increased and not decreased, a fact that has a serious implication to
the reliability and efficiency of the models regarding the assessment of the physical damages
particularly in large scale e.g. city scale. Hence it was concluded that a qualitative rebound towards a
new global paradigm is required in order to reduce partial and global uncertainties in the risk
assessment procedure.
Sources of epistemic uncertainties in a fragility assessment study are associated with small
databases of poor quality, biased sampling techniques, inability to account for the complete
characteristics of ground shaking in the selection of IMs, the nonlinear models for the variety of
structural materials and components, imposed loading distribution to identify critical response, effects
of using monotonic response to represent capacity when actual earthquake demand is cyclic in nature,
differences in analytical programs and many more. Limitations in knowledge and ability to model the
hazard and its demand on the system, the response of the system to specific demands, the ensuing state
of the system and damage, and relation of costs to limit or damage states give further rise to epistemic
uncertainties. Among all parameters affecting the seismic risk assessment, (for example hazard,
capacity curve parameters, fragility curves, duration of shaking and damping), not all of them have
equal weight. A parametric sensitivity analysis made recently with the building stock of Thessaloniki
(Mara, 2014) using a logic tree approach, showed that the parameters, which mostly influence the risk
and hence the epistemic uncertainties should be reduced, are the yielding point (acceleration and
displacement) on the capacity curve and the fragility curves. On the other hand sources of aleatory
uncertainty include the natural variation in earthquakes and their resulting ground shaking, the
variability in material properties for structural strength and stiffness, construction errors etc. In general
the uncertainty in fragility is estimated through the standard deviation ȕtot that describes the total
variability associated with each fragility curve. Although many researchers investigate the propagation
of the uncertainties based on the aforementioned categorization (e.g. Bradley, 2010), aleatory and
epistemic uncertainties are often not separated.
In the simplest case, where only the uncertainties in seismic demand (ȕD) and structural capacity
(ȕC) are considered, the total variability ȕtot is determined assuming that they are stochastically
independent and lognormally distributed random variables based on the following equation:
ǃtot ǃD2 ǃC2 (5)
Based however on the categorization of the uncertainties into aleatory and epistemic, the previous
equation can be further expressed as:
ǃtot ǃDU
2
ǃDR
2
ǃCU
2
ǃCR
2
(6)
where ȕDU and ȕDR are the aleatory and epistemic uncertainty in seismic demand respectively while ȕCU
and ȕCR are respectively the aleatory and epistemic uncertainty in structural capacity.

It should be noted herein that capacity uncertainty reflects the variability of structure properties as
well as the fact that the modelling procedures are not perfect. Demand uncertainty reflects the fact that
IM is not exactly sufficient, so different records of ground motion with equal IM may have different
effects on the same structure (Selva et al., 2013). Kwon and Elnashai (2006) investigated the effects of
the uncertainties associated with ground motion input and material variability on the fragility of a
three-storey reinforced concrete structure. Results produced based on Monte Carlo analysis, showed
that material properties contribute to the variability in structural response, but the resulting variability
is much smaller than that due to ground motion variability. In Celik and Ellingwood (2010) the
sensitivity of the response statistics of gravity load designed reinforced concrete frames to the
uncertainties in material and structural properties and modeling parameters was investigated at various
levels of earthquake hazard. Damping, concrete strength, and joint cracking strain were found to have
the greatest impact on the response statistics. However, the uncertainty in ground motion dominated
the overall uncertainty in structural response, which is in line also with the results of Kwon and
Elnashai (2006).
In a general framework of seismic vulnerability assessment however three primary sources of
uncertainty are usually considered. Besides the uncertainties in capacity and demand, which were
previously described, also the definition of damage states, ȕDS, is taken into account. In particular,
damage state definition uncertainties are due to the fact that the thresholds of the damage indices or
parameters used to define damage states are not known (Selva et al., 2013). In this case, the total
variability is modeled by the combination of the three contributors assuming that they are
stochastically independent and lognormally distributed random variables and the equivalent expression
of Equation 5 can be expressed according to HAZUS prescriptions (FEMA, 2008) as:
ȕtot &219 >ȕC ȕD @ 2 ȕDS2 (7)
The convolution procedure between ȕC and ȕD is extensively described in Gencturk (2007). The
HAZUS manual advocates ȕDS for all damage states. Recommendations are also provided for the
variability in the capacity: ȕC=0.25 for code compliant element and ȕC=0.30 for pre code
constructions.
Methodologies for Deriving Seismic Fragility Functions
Several methods are available in the literature to derive fragility functions for RC buildings.
Conventionally, they are classified into four generic groups: empirical, expert judgment, analytical and
hybrid; they are based on whether the damage data used for their generation are derived from post
earthquake surveys, expert opinion, analytical simulations or combinations of these respectively
(Rossetto and Elnashai 2003; Pitilakis et al, 2014a).
Empirical fragility curves for buildings (Spence et al., 1992; Sabetta et al., 1998; Rossetto and
Elnashai 2003) are derived based on post-earthquake surveys and observations of actual damage of the
exposed stock. The main advantage of the empirical method is the use of real observed data
considering alongside the variability in the structural capacity, site effects, soil-structure interaction,
and path, source characteristics. However this may be also a drawback as the severe limitations in their
application potential arise from the fact that empirical fragility curves are derived for a given area and
remain thus highly specific to the site particular features (seismotectonic, geotechnical and built-
environment). Furthermore the observational data used for the curve generation are scarce and usually
based on low-magnitude events and therefore tend to be clustered in the low-damage range. Moreover
probably the main source of uncertainties related to this category is the poor design and construction
often violating the seismic code prescriptions. This leads to significant uncertainties associated with
their reliable use in the case of large magnitude events.
Judgment-based fragility curves are developed based on expert opinion. Probability distribution
functions are fit to the experts’ predictions to represent the range of damage estimates at each intensity
level. These methods have the advantage of not being affected by the lack of extensive damage data
(empirical curves) and since the experts can provide damage estimates for any structural type, the
curves could apriori include all factors affecting the response of different structures. Their main
weakness however remains the difficulty to extrapolate their results in other countries with different

construction practices. The reliability of judgment-based curves is questionable as the results rely on
the individual experience of the expert consulted. To properly elicit expert opinion on uncertain
quantities, it is required to clear definitions, biases, assumption and expert qualifications (Porter et al.,
2007). Expert opinion is used by most rehabilitation codes in the United States of America (ATC
1985; ATC 1996) while a recent effort to revive the judgment-based methods has been carried out
within the Global Earthquake Model (www.globalquakemodel.org).
Analytical fragility curves (e.g. Mosalam et al., 1997; Chryssanthopoulos, 2000; Reinhorn, 2001
etc) are based on the estimation of damage distributions through the numerical analysis of structural
models subjected to seismic loading. Analytical methods may reduce the bias of the derived curves
and increase the reliability of the vulnerability estimates for different structures in comparison to
expert opinion. In the past their use might not be the common practice due to the significant
computational effort involved and the limitations in the modeling capabilities. Architectural assets are
not taken into account, the infill modeling remains a challenge, effects of soil-structure interaction
such as rocking and uplifting are not considered while many computational environments present
difficulties in converging when structural models are subjected to large demands resulting to
numerical failures (instabilities), which may precede the actual structural collapse. However due to
recent developments in the analysis techniques and solution algorithms, the numerical approaches
have become a very attractive technique for the estimation of structures’ fragilities in terms of ease
and efficiency. A detailed description of the analytical methods will be presented in next section of
this chapter.
Hybrid fragility curves (Singhal and Kiremidjian 1998; Kappos et al., 2006) are derived based on
the combination of methods to compensate for the lack of observational data, subjectivity of expert
judgment and deficiencies of analytical procedures. For buildings, hybrid fragility functions usually
focus on the combination of empirical and analytical data. In this case analytical fragility curves are
combined with available damage data from previous earthquakes to enhance their robustness. One rare
example of hybridization between analytical, empirical and expert opinion has been attempted within
the PAGER project (Jaiswal and Wald 2010).
The pie chart of Figure 8 Shows the percentages of the different methodologies used among 50
studies/publications for reinforced concrete buildings in Europe that have been reviewed in the
framework of SYNER-G (Pitilakis et al., 2014a). Figure 8 shows the popularity of analytical methods
for the derivation of fragility functions for European buildings. The “unknown” class in the chart
refers to the cases where it was not clear which method has been used.
Unknown 3% Expert-
opinion based
Hybrid 11% Em pirical 14% 3%
Analytical
69%
Figure 8. Pie chart presenting the percentages of different methodologies used for the development of fragility
functions for reinforced concrete buildings (Pitilakis et al., 2014a)
Derivation of fragility functions based on analytical methods
The main issues that are involved in the analytical derivation of fragility functions are the following:

x definition of seismic hazard
x numerical modeling of the reference structure
x selection of intensity measure
x analysis method that is performed for the calculation of the response parameters
x selection of appropriate damage measure/indicator and the definition of the corresponding
damage states
x quantification of the uncertainties considering the variability in seismic demand, structural
capacity, definition of damage states etc.
The different components of the analytical vulnerability analysis are illustrated in Figure 9. The
seismic hazard that is used as an input to a structure should be defined taking into account the seismic
nature of the region where the derived fragility curves will be applied. Depending on the analysis
method, the seismic input can be represented by a response spectrum (static methods) or an
acceleration time-history (dynamic methods).
Figure 9. Flowchart to describe the components of the calculation of analytical fragility curves (after Kwon
and Elnashai, 2007)
The generation of the numerical models of the reference structures has to be made taking into
account not only the accuracy of the representation of the nonlinear behavior but also the robustness
and cost-efficiency of the model. The finite element modeling of a structure can be coarse or detailed
depending on the objective of the study. For the assessment of seismic vulnerability at regional/urban
scale, usually simplified models of the common building typologies are employed. On the other hand in
case of building-specific fragility assessment a detailed three-dimensional model may be required
depending on the existent structural configuration. The nonlinear behavior of reinforced concrete
buildings may be represented using the concentrated or distributed plasticity concept. In the first case
plastic hinges are employed to represent the nonlinear behavior of the critical reinforced concrete
member sections based on moment-curvature relationships. In the fiber based approach on the other
hand constitutive material laws are formulated to represent the nonlinear behavior of concrete (confined
or unconfined) and reinforcement steel.
The analysis methods can be divided into two main categories: the nonlinear static and dynamic
approach respectively. In the pie chart of Figure 8, the total percentage corresponding to the analytical
method for deriving fragility functions (69%) can be further analyzed to the percentages showing the
popularity of each analysis method. More specifically, from the studies that use analytical approach

for the vulnerability assessment, 40% used the nonlinear dynamic approach and 29% the nonlinear
static approach. Inelastic analyses, either static (pushover) or dynamic (time-history) are the most
appropriate approach to investigate the deformation capacity of the structure and to provide estimate
of their seismic vulnerability. The use of time-history analyses, however, requires several assumptions
regarding the selection of the suite of earthquake ground motions and is also generally time-
consuming because of the high number of calculations involved. On the other hand static approaches
are approximate in nature as they are based on static loading and ignore the higher modes of vibration
and the frequency content of the ground motion. As a general remark, the method that is followed for
the derivation of analytical fragility curves is related to the nature of each element at risk, the
availability of resources (such as expertise, advanced computational tools etc.) and the reliability of
the analytical tools. Continuously the most popular analysis methods are shortly described, namely the
Capacity Spectrum method and the general Dynamic Analysis.
Capacity Spectrum Method (CSM)

In recent years, there has been an increasing attention to simplified Nonlinear Static Procedures. For
instance, the ATC-40 (ATC 1996) and FEMA 273 (FEMA 1997) guidelines presented performance-
based engineering methods that rely on nonlinear static analysis procedures, a move that was then
followed by other similar documents and codes (e.g. CEN, 2005). In all these procedures, pushover
analysis is employed to predict the inelastic force-deformation behavior of the structure, the different
methods then differing in the technique used to calculate the inelastic displacement demand for a
given ground motion. The Capacity Spectrum method was first introduced in the 1970s as a rapid
evaluation procedure in a pilot project for assessing seismic vulnerability of buildings (Freeman et al.,
1975). In the 1980s, it was used as a procedure to find a correlation between seismic ground motion
and building performance (ATC, 1982).
The method compares the capacity of a structure with the demands of the earthquake ground
motion on the structure. The capacity of the structure is represented by a force-displacement curve,
which is obtained based on non-linear static (pushover) analysis. The base shear forces and roof
displacements are converted to the spectral accelerations and spectral displacements of an equivalent
Single-Degree-Of-Freedom (SDOF) system, respectively. These spectral values define the capacity
spectrum. The demands of the earthquake ground motion are represented in the form of response
spectra with different levels of viscous damping (e.g. 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and sometimes 30% to
approximate the reduction in structural response due to the increasing levels of damage). The
Acceleration-Displacement Response Spectrum (ADRS) format (Mahaney et al., 1993) is used, in
which spectral accelerations are plotted against spectral displacements, with the periods represented by
radial lines. The intersection of the capacity spectrum and the demand spectrum provides an estimate
of the inelastic acceleration (strength) and displacement demand.
The capacity spectrum method has been also adapted as analysis procedure for the fragility curve
generation for RC buildings by HAZUS. For different levels of seismic code (pre-code, low-,
moderate- and high-level code) and for each building typology, the HAZUS methodology defines
bilinear capacity curves based on two control points: the yield (Dy, Ay), and the ultimate capacity (Du,
Au). Yield capacity represents the true lateral strength of the building, whereas ultimate capacity
represents the maximum strength of the building when the global structural system has reached a fully
plastic state. The capacity curves, expressed in the spectral acceleration – spectral displacement (Sa-Sd)
format, are used to obtain the performance point of the structural element (depending on the seismic
response spectrum) and to deduce the spectral displacement, which corresponds to a given damage
level. The HAZUS methodology for the building damage estimation based on the CSM is represented
schematically in Figure 10.

Figure 10. HAZUS procedure for building damage estimation based on CSM (Pitilakis et al., 2014a)
Nonlinear dynamic analysis

Despite the relatively large computational efforts involved, the fragility functions developed by means
of nonlinear dynamic analyses are able to reproduce most accurately in most cases the seismic
response of typical civil engineering structures. This analytical approach aims at the estimation of
seismic demand on structural models based on numerous nonlinear dynamic analyses with a series of
acceleration time-histories. The demand model can be formulated using two analysis methods:
Probabilistic Seismic Demand Analysis (PSDA) and Incremental Dynamic Analysis (IDA). The first
method (e.g. cloud analysis) attempts to represent seismicity through a wide selection of many ground
motions, grouped into bins. The latter method achieves the same by stepwise increment of a few
ground motion records.
The selection of the ground motion records that are used as input for the dynamic analyses is of
paramount importance for the reliable evaluation of the seismic response. The quantity and the
distribution of intensity measures in the sample of records have indeed a great influence on the
fragility parameters (both the standard deviation and the median). The studied typology is usually
restricted to a given geographical area, which allows adequate time-histories based on specified
intervals of magnitude, source-to-site distance and possibly other scenario characteristics, such as
focal depth and mechanism to be selected (e.g. Bommer and Acevedo, 2004). Special software and
strong ground motion recordings from European and international databases can be used for this
purpose, as for example REXEL (Iervolino et al., 2010) and REXEL-DISP (Smerzini et al., 2012). In
the record selection and analysis processes it is important to consider records with possible special
features, such as near-source directivity pulses. Such records must be appropriately accounted for,
since the results can be significantly different than those for records further from the source. When soil
foundation- structure interaction (SSI) is taken into consideration, modeling both soil and structure in
a coupled system, the input motion is normally introduced at the seismic bedrock and therefore it
should refer to rock conditions, as the SSI model directly captures site effects (Pitilakis et al., 2014a).

Incremental Dynamic Analysis (IDA)
Incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) is a promising computer-intensive method, which has recently
risen to offer comprehensive evaluation of the seismic performance of structures. IDA procedure
involves the performing of a series of nonlinear dynamic analyses under a suite of multiple scaled
ground motion records whose intensities should be ideally selected to cover the whole range from
elasticity to global dynamic instability (Vamvatsikos and Cornell 2002). IDA curves of the structural
response, which provide a relationship between a damage measure quantity (i.e. engineering demand
parameter EDP) and an intensity measure (IM) of the applied scaled accelerograms, are then
constructed by interpolating the resulting EDP-IM discrete points. The reliability of the procedure
generally relies primarily on the proper formation of the nonlinear structural model, the compilation of
a suite of records, as well as on the selection of efficient EDPs and IMs. A representative set of input
ground motions should consist of approximately 15–30 ordinary records assuming that a relatively
efficient IM, like Sa(T1,5 %), is used and that peculiar features in the records (e.g. ground motions
containing pulses due to effects such as forward-directivity, fling step, basin effects and site effects)
that could potentially bias structural response are eliminated. In addition, care should be taken in the
selection of the scaling levels for each record and in the post processing of the IDA analysis results.
The scaling of the records may provide good estimates of the distribution of EDP given IM provided
that their statistical relationship is effectively independent of magnitude M and source-to-site distance
R in the range of interest. An advanced tracing algorithm, such as the “hunt & fill” (Vamvatsikos and
Cornell 2002, 2004), which ensures that the records are properly scaled with the minimum required
computational effort, is recommended to perform the IDA. A monotonic scalable intensity measure
should be used such as the Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) or the 5 %-damped spectral acceleration
DW WKH IXQGDPHQWDO SHULRG RI WKH VWUXFWXUH >6D7 @ 7KH ODWWHU LV JHQHUDOO\ IRXQG WR EH ERWK
adequately efficient and sufficient for first-mode dominated, moderate period structures (Shome and
Cornell 1999). Further reduction in record-to-record variability may be achieved employing a single
optimal spectral value or a vector of 2 or a scalar combination of several spectral values (Vamvatsikos
and Cornell 2005). The engineering demand parameter EDP is an observable response parameter that
FDQ EH H[WUDFWHG IURP ,'$ $ W\SLFDOO\ DGRSWHG ('3 LV WKH PD[LPXP LQWHUVWRU\ GULIW UDWLR șPD[
which is known to relate well to dynamic instability and structural damage. Subsequently, limit-states
(e.g., for Immediate Occupancy IO or collapse prevention CP) can be defined on the IDA curve and
the corresponding capacities can be calculated. Finally, the results of the IDA (e.g. Sa7șmax
discrete values) could be used to derive fragility curves for the already specified (on the IDA curve)
damage limit states. Figure 11 (left) presents indicative plots of 15 continuous IDA curves derived by
LQWHUSRODWLRQRIWKH6D7șmax pairs for each individual record and the associated CP limit-state
capacities for a nine-story reinforced concrete moment resisting frame building whereas Figure 11
(right) illustrates the corresponding summarized across all records IDA curves at 16, 50 and 84 %
fractiles.
Figure 11. IDA curves for the individual records and the estimation of the associated limit-state capacities for
CP limit state (left) and (b) summarization of the 15 IDA curves into their 16, 50 and 84 % fractiles (right)
(adapted from Pitilakis et al., 2014a)

The Fragility Function Manager
The Fragility Function Manager (FFM) has been developed in the framework of SYNER-G project, to
store, visualize and manage a large number of fragility function sets not only for buildings but also for
bridges and other elements at risk. The FFM has been created such that users can easily obtain
standardized sets of available fragility functions from the literature, that contain all the parameters
required for their use in seismic risk calculations. Each fragility function is accompanied by metadata
to allow the user to compare and select the functions of interest. Within the SYNER-G project, a large
effort has been made to compile and upload European derived fragility functions for buildings to the
FFM (e.g. Ahmad et al., 2011; Akkar et al., 2005; Borzi et al., 2008a; Dumova-Jovanoska 2000;
Erberik and Elnashai, 2004; Hancilar et al., 2006; Jeong and Elnashai, 2007; Kappos et al., 2006;
Kircil and Polat, 2006; Kostov et al., 2004; Kwon and Elnashai, 2006; Liel and Lynch, 2009; Ozmen
et al., 2010; Polese et al., 2008; Rossetto and Elnashai, 2003;2005; Tsionis et al, 2011 etc.). The
general metadata provided for each study includes the reference papers, the region of applicability, the
building typology, the SYNERG-taxonomy, the methodology used to develop the fragility functions,
the Intensity measure types and the damage scales. The interface of the Fragility Function Manager for
buildings is illustrated in Figure 12.
The main features of the FFM tool are the following:
x Uploading and viewing fragility functions: in order to add a set of fragility curves to the FFM,
the taxonomy, metadata and the input of the fragility parameter need to be provided.
x Harmonizing Intensity Measures types (IMTs): in order to directly compare fragility functions
from different studies, the various intensity measure types are converted to a common target
IMTs, namely PGA, PGV and Sa(T), using appropriate conversion equation (Silva et al.
2014).
x Harmonizing limit states: to directly compare fragility functions from different authors, the
limit states are harmonized into two thresholds, damage limitation or yielding and collapse.
x Comparison of fragility functions: once the user has harmonized the fragility functions in
terms of IMTs and limit states a number of features are available to allow the functions to be
compared. It is also possible to compare the damage distributions from different sets using the
“bar chart” feature.
A detailed description of the FFM tool and its features can be found in Pitilakis et al., (2014a) and in
particular in chapter 13 by Silva et al. (2014)
Figure 13 shows the variability that can be observed in the harmonized fragility functions for a
user-selected class of buildings at the yield and collapse limit states. Provided the same sources of
uncertainty have been modeled in the derivation of each fragility function, the variability between the
functions can be considered as epistemic uncertainty. If we consider, however, that these fragility
functions originally had the same IMT and limit state and are all lognormal distributions, then we can
estimate the epistemic uncertainty and model it using the mean and standard deviation of the
parameters of the fragility functions (which each have a median and dispersion), as well as the
correlation between these parameters (Silva et al., 2014).

Figure 12. Interface of the Fragility Function Manager (adapted from Silva et al., 2014 in Pitilakis et al.,
2014a)
Figure 13. Mean curve for (a) limit state yielding curve and (b) limit state collapse curve for reinforced concrete
with moment resisting frame buildings, mid rise, seismically designed model building type
CHALLENGES
Introduction
Significant efforts have been made in the context of the most recent research projects (e.g SYNER-G,
GEM) to synthesize the available vulnerability studies and to provide standard guidelines for the
future development of fragility functions and vulnerability assessment. However many important
issues remained unsolved and there are several challenges ahead of us to achieve a rigorous answer to
the problem. Among them we may state the following:

x Traditionally, in seismic vulnerability assessment, it is implicitly assumed that structures are
optimally maintained during their lifetime, thus neglecting any deterioration mechanism that may
adversely affect their structural performance. On this basis, the impact of progressive deterioration
of the material properties caused by aggressive environmental conditions, as for example the
corrosion due to chloride penetration leading to the variation of the mechanical properties of steel
and concrete over time, is not accounted for. The safety and serviceability of RC structures may
then be affected under the action of seismic loading, compromising the ability of the structures to
withstand the loads they are designed for. Consequently, fragility functions are not constant in time
and should account for aging effects introducing the time-dependent vulnerability assessment.
x The effects of soil-foundation-structure interaction (SFSI) in the derivation of fragility functions for
RC buildings are not explicitly taken into account so far in any of the currently available sets of
fragility functions. In several cases these SFSI effects may modify considerably and sometimes in a
detrimental way the analytical fragility functions.
x Uncertainties associated with the construction systems, material, mass and geometry properties that
are pronounced particularly in the case of existing buildings may not be properly captured using
generic fragility curves. Moreover the structure may have suffered previous earthquakes without
proper retrofitting and strengthening and the structural system has several “weak” points
depredating its initial strength. This is practically impossible to be identified without a rigorous
field monitoring.
x Field monitoring is an excellent tool to improve the quality and credibility of the vulnerability
assessment; it can be used for traditional structural health monitoring, to identify the actual
structural state and hence to derive building-specific fragility functions allowing the development
of robust real time assessment tools and appropriate risk mitigation strategies, which is of primary
importance in the case of structures, critical facilities, important public buildings (schools,
hospitals) and infrastructures of strategic interest.
Although their consideration in the assessment procedure enhances the reliability and robustness of the
results, up to date there are only few research studies dealing with these issues. In the following
sections the aforementioned topics are further discussed.
Evolution of building seismic vulnerability over time

Mechanisms acting on structural performance during lifetime
Traditionally, in seismic vulnerability assessment studies it is implicitly assumed that the structures are
optimally maintained during their lifetime neglecting any deterioration effect that may adversely affect
their structural performance under dynamic (or even static) loading (Rossetto and Elnashai 2005,
Crowley et al. 2004, Tsionis et al. 2011, D'Ayala et al. 2012). Two different sources of deterioration,
which cause damage to accumulate with time are generally recognized (e.g. Pitilakis et al. 2014c): one
has substantially slow, progressive effects and is usually linked to environmental and operating
conditions (e.g. aging); the other has effects that are superposed occasionally to the first effects, and
are usually related to external sudden changes in the structural capacity (e.g. due to cumulative
earthquake damage, Réveillère et al. 2012; Iervolino et al., 2013).
Aging of structures can be defined as partial or total loss of their capacity via a slow, progressive
and irreversible process that occurs over a period of time. The effects caused by aging processes lead
to the degradation of engineering properties, affecting the static and dynamic response of the
structures, their resistance/capacity and failure mode as well as the location of failure initiation. Thus,
the ability of the structural system to withstand various challenges from operation, environment and
natural events may be reduced. Once the structural capacity falls below a given performance threshold,
the structure may be intervened, leading to a new initial capacity, diminishing progressively over time
the ability to withstand future operating conditions (Figure 14).
The aging process affects directly structures by changing the characteristics of the materials of
which they are made leading to a loss in their resistance capacity. The behavior of material in time and
under variable conditions is a complex and multidimensional problem. Corrosion, irradiation, elevated
temperature, or fatigue effects are the main problems for steel material. Common problems to concrete
material may include alkali-aggregate reaction, freezing and thawing, leaching, sulphate attack,

cracking due volume changes led by temperature variation, corrosion of concrete, debonding of steel.
Cracking, splitting, spalling and disintegration, loss of mortar and stones are common defects
occurring in masonry structures due to aging (Valliappan and Chee, 2008).
Figure 14 General description of the system remaining lifetime (Beushausen and Alexander, 2010)
Aging processes decrease the reliability of the structural systems over time, accelerating the risk of
structural failure. Since the time-dependent changes are random in nature, the safety evaluation of the
existing structures can be conducted rationally within a probabilistic framework (Shinozuka, 1983),
taking into account various sources of uncertainty with respect to the deterioration process and rate.
The rate of degradation of the structural components generally depends on the age of the structure as
well as on the exposure conditions, and for its efficient determination stochastic approaches are
possible. Overall, the identification of aging structural components and their probabilistic modeling
over time may play a significant role in mitigating structural risk.
Aging effects: Corrosion of reinforcement

Among the most common environmental deterioration factors, reinforcement corrosion, generally
associated to carbonation and chloride ingress, is considered the most significant degradation
mechanism, leading to the adverse variation of the mechanical properties of steel and concrete over
time (Saetta et al., 2008). Corrosion is a complex process that may affect a RC structure in a variety of
ways, including, among others, cover spalling, loss of steel-concrete bond strength and loss of
reinforcement cross sectional area, potentially resulting to the reduction of the resistance and load
bearing capacity of the structure and to the variation of the failure mechanism from ductile to fragile
type (e.g. Saetta et al., 2008; Mohammed et al., 2011; Yalciner et al., 2012, Rodriquez et al., 1997,
Berto et al., 2009).The corrosion mechanism is a time-dependent process leading progressively to
reduction of the strength and serviceability of structures in relation to their as-built state. Figure 15
presents typical structural failures as a result of reinforcement corrosion.
The deterioration related to the corrosion of reinforcement steel bars in concrete structures, called
hereafter “aging effect”, is basically a two-phase process consisting of the initiation and the
propagation phase (Figure 16). As soon as the concentration of chlorides or carbon dioxides exceeds a
critical value, the so called “passive layer” protecting the outer reinforcement is destroyed signifying
the initiation of corrosion. Then the corrosion is gradually propagating causing the formation of
corrosion products (rust), leading progressively to concrete cracking and spalling as the volume of rust
increases and finally resulting to significant structural damage. The parameters that affect the
corrosion initiation and its progress in time may be categorized based on whether they are associated
with the design and execution phase (e.g. concrete cover depth, water/cement ratio) or with the
environmental exposure (humidity, temperature, carbon dioxide or chlorides concentration) (e.g.
Malioka, 2009). Several models have been proposed to quantify and account for corrosion in the
design, construction, fragility analysis and maintenance of RC structures. A summary of these models
can be found e.g. in DuraCrete (1998).

Figure 15 Structural deterioration due to reinforcement corrosion
Figure 16 Corrosion phases of concrete structures (Tuutti, 1982)
Time-dependent vulnerability assessment of RC buildings considering aging effects

Under the aforementioned considerations, a reliable evaluation of the structural performance usually
requires to take into account degradation mechanisms such as rebar corrosion as they may affect both
the safety and serviceability of RC structures, compromising their ability to withstand the loads they
are designed for. When combined with the earthquake loading, the effects may be even more
detrimental. The uncertainties involved in corrosion phenomena point out the need for a probabilistic
approach to predict the level and effects of degradation (Duracrete 2000). Recognizing the importance
of this issue, several probabilistic models have recently been introduced into the time-variant
vulnerability assessment of corroded RC structures (e.g. Ghosh and Padgett 2010, Choe et al. 2010,
Pitilakis et al., 2014c). Although there are few studies devoted to the modeling and vulnerability
assessment of RC bridges that have undergone corrosion of reinforcement (Choe et al. 2008, 2009,
2010; Ghosh and Padgett 2010; Simon et al. 2010), research on the fragility analysis of RC buildings
due to aging effects is still limited. There are few studies that have investigated the effects of

reinforcement corrosion on the seismic response of typical low and/or mid rise RC buildings in terms
of capacity curves estimating the residual load bearing capacity for the adopted degradation scenarios
by means of inelastic static analysis (Berto et al. 2009; Celarec et al. 2011). On the other hand, the
time-dependent fragility curves proposed by Yalciner et al. (2012) taking into account the effect of
reinforcement corrosion refer to a simple SDOF system that may not be considered representative of
the existing building typology.
In Pitilakis et al. (2014c) the time-dependent seismic vulnerability of different RC frame buildings
was assessed taking into account the aging due to rebar corrosion. More specifically three MRF
structures (Figure 17) have been analyzed for two time periods (t=0, 50 years) , which correspond to
different code design levels and are described according to the SYNER-G taxonomy as a low rise
building designed for gravity loads only with no seismic provisions (Bracci et al., 1992), a high rise
building with low level of seismic design according to the 1959 Greek seismic code (Kappos et al.,
2006) and a mid rise building designed following the provisions of the Greek modern code EAK 2000
(Kappos et al., 2006). The probabilistic model proposed by FIB- CEB Task Group 5.6 (2006) was
adopted to model the corrosion initiation time:
§ 1 ·
¨ ¸
§ D2 § 1 § Ccrit · · ·© ¹
2 1 n
Tini ¨ ¨ erf ¨1 ¸¸ ¸ (8)

¨ 4 ke kt DRCM ,0 t0 n ©¨ © Cs ¹ ¹¸ ¸
© ¹
where Tini=corrosion initiation time (years); Į=cover depth (mm) ; Ccrit.=critical chloride content
expressed as a percentage by weight of cement (wt % cement); Cs = the equilibrium chloride
concentration at the concrete surface expressed as a percentage by weight of cement (wt % cement);
t0= reference point of time (years); DRCM,0=Chloride migration Coefficient (m2/s); ke=environmental
function; kt=transfer variable defined deterministically according to Choe et al. (2008) equal to 0.832;
erf=Gaussian error function and n=aging exponent.
Figure 17. Reference MRF models used for time – dependent vulnerability assessment: (a) Low rise-no code,
(b) High rise-low code, (c) Mid rise-high code.

The statistical quantification of the model parameters describing the chloride induced corrosion
adopted for the study are presented in Table 2 in accordance with FIB- CEB Task Group 5.6 (2006)
prescriptions and the available literature (e.g. Choe et al., 2009; Ghosh and Padgett, 2010). An
atmospheric exposure environment (e.g. ke=0.67, Choe et al., 2009) with water-to cement ratio of the
concrete material equal to 0.5 is assumed for the considered chloride induced deterioration scenario. It
is noted that the adopted corrosion rate implies a relatively high corrosion level (Stewart, 2004).
First Order Second Moment (FOSM) reliability analysis is conducted to assess Tini that varies in
the different models under study, depending on their structural characteristics and more specifically on
the cover depth considered for each case (see Table 3). Based on the applied probabilistic model, mean
values for Tini are estimated as 7.01 and 14.11 years respectively for the structural models designed
with no or low seismic provisions (cover depth a=20mm, Table 3) in the first case and with modern
seismic code in the second one (cover depth a=25mm, Table 3).
Table 3 Statistical characteristics of parameters affecting the chloride induced corrosion of RC

elements adopted in the present study
Parameter Mean Coefficient of variation (cov) Distribution
Cover Depth (mm) Į 20/25 0.40/0.32 Lognormal
Environmental function ke 0.67 0.17 Normal
Chloride migration Coefficient (DRCM,0) (m2/s) 1.58E-11 0.20 Normal
Aging exponent n 0.362 cov=0.677 , a=0.0, b=0.98 Beta
Critical Chloride Concentration (Ccrit) wt % cement 0.6 cov=0.25, a= 0.2, b=2.0 Beta
Surface Chloride Concentration (Cs) wt % cement 1.283 0.20 Normal
2
Rate of Corrosion (icorr) mA/cm 2 0.25 Normal
Once the protective passive film around the reinforcement dissolves due to continued chloride
ingress, corrosion initiates and loss of reinforcement cross-sectional area is observed with time.
Moreover due to the radial pressure developed along the steel bar surfaces, caused by the increasing
volume of the corrosion products, the tensile stresses in the concrete surrounding the rebars may
exceed the tensile strength leading thus to the cracking of the concrete cover. Thus, the chloride
induced corrosion effects that have been taken into account, are the section area loss of reinforced bars
(Ghosh and Padgett, 2010), the concrete cover strength reduction (Coronelli and Gambarova, 2004;
Simioni, 2009) and the loss of steel ductility (Rodriguez and Andrade, 2001). The effects of corrosion
are assumed to be distributed uniformly around the perimeter and along the concrete members. The
distribution of the loss of reinforcement area as well as the reduction in concrete cover strength due to
corrosion of the RC elements for the considered corrosion scenario (t=50 years) are calculated as a
function of the corrosion rate and the corrosion initiation time variables. A more detailed presentation
of the calculations of the corrosion effects may be found in Pitilakis et al. (2014c)
Two-dimensional incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) of the different building types has been
preformed to derive the time-dependent probabilistic fragility functions the Immediate Occupancy
(IO) and the Collapse Prevention (CP) limit states and different periods in time (t=0, 50 years) both in
terms of Sa(T1,5%) and PGA. The first limit state (IO) is defined at 0.5% according to HAZUS
prescriptions (NIBS 2004) for RC moment resisting frame structures, whereas the second (CP) is
assigned on the median (50%-fractile) IDA curve derived in terms of Sa(T1, 5%) (see Figure 18). The
main idea is to place the CP limit state at a point where the IDA curve is softening towards the flat line
but at low enough values of șmax so that we still trust the structural model (Vamvatsitkos and Cornell
2004). Different CP limit state values are thus chosen on the IDA curve for the same structure
depending on the considered time-dependent corrosion scenario. As shown in Figure 19, a significant
increase in the seismic fragility of the structures is observed over time due to corrosion, highlighting
the importance of considering the deterioration effects due to aging on the seismic vulnerability of
structures.

Figure 18 IDA curves for the initial (t=0 years) and corroded (t=50 years) structures with no, low and high
seismic code provisions.

Figure 19. Time-dependent fragility curves in terms of Sa (T1, 5%) for the analyzed fixed base structures (Pitilakis
et al., (2014c)
Evaluation of Soil-structure Interaction and Site Effects on Seismic Vulnerability
Dynamic soil-foundation-structure interaction

The common practice in seismic performance assessment assumes that structures are fixed to their
base, which may be a realistic hypothesis only when these are founded on relatively solid rock or very
stiff soil. The seismic response of a structure resting on deformable soil however may differ
significantly compared to the fixed base assumption (Clough, 1955; Mylonakis ang Gazetas, 2000).
Soil-structure interaction (SSI) and local site effects are generally shown to be more pronounced in the
case of soft soil formations and high rise structures modifying considerably the free field input motion
as well as the dynamic characteristics of the building and finally its response (Stewart et al., 1999).
The consideration of SSI is usually achieved by taking into account inertial and kinematic
interaction schemes resulting to an elongation of the natural period of the soil-structure system and an
increase of system damping due to the energy dissipation at the soil-foundation level compared to the
fixed base case (Veletsos and Meek, 1974). Kinematic interaction affects the real Foundation Input
Motion (FIM) due to the actual stiffness of the foundation elements and the soil. In general, it deviates
from free-field motions as a result of ground-motion incoherence, wave inclination or foundation
embedment (Stewart et al., 1999). On the other hand, the inertial interaction causes further
deformation in the soil due to the inertial forces transmitted to the soil from the oscillating mass of the
super-structure. There are two main approaches that are commonly used for the analysis of the SSI
phenomenon: the direct approach and the substructure approach. In the direct method, soil, foundation
and structure are modeled and analyzed as a single system while in the substructure approach (e.g.
Wolf, 1985) SSI is analyzed as two separate systems where the coupling of the interacting subdomains
is achieved through the concept of impedance functions (e.g. Gazetas, 1991).

Numerous studies have highlighted the effects of elastic dynamic soil-structure interaction on
elastic and inelastic structural response (for example: Ciampoli and Pinto, 1995; Rodriguez and
Montes 2000; Gazetas and Mylonakis, 2001; Aviles and Pirez-Rocha, 2003); however there are only
few studies investigating SSI and site effects on structures under nonlinear soil behavior (Iida, 1998;
Saez, 2009; Saez et al., 2013; Pitilakis D. et al., 2013). The incorporation of SSI phenomena in the
analysis of elastic systems is generally believed to be beneficial. Nevertheless, research up to date has
resulted in rather contradictory findings especially when nonlinear structural behavior is considered
(Moghaddasi et al., 2011). SSI effects tend to reduce force demands on the structure. However, in
nonlinear soil-structure systems additional translation and rotation effects may be introduced
increasing the displacement demands of the structure (Krammer 1996).
Vulnerability assessment of RC buildings considering SSI effects

Soil conditions and soil-structure interaction, which affect the foundation compliance, have not been
thoroughly investigated within the framework of structural vulnerability assessment. Although there
are some studies that take into account the local site effects by providing fragility curves for buildings
for different soil conditions (e.g. NIBS, 2000), the effect of SSI to the expected structure’s
performance has not received much attention. A summary of the few reported studies incorporating
SSI in fragility analysis of buildings is briefly discussed herein. Saez et al. (2011) investigated the
effects of the inelastic dynamic SSI on the seismic vulnerability assessment of buildings performing a
comparative dynamic analysis between a complete inelastic soil-structure system that takes into
account all nonlinearities of soil, superstructure and interface associated to the SSI phenomenon and a
two-step modeling approach that neglects radiation damping but includes the nonlinear soil behavior
modifying the imposed input motion to the fixed base superstructure. The authors showed that soil
deformability and SSI may modify the response and fragility of non-linear structures leading to either
beneficial or unfavorable effects depending on the dynamic properties of the soil and the structure as
well as the characteristics (frequency content, amplitude, significant duration) of the input motion.
Rajeev and Tesfamariam (2012) studied the effects of SSI on seismic fragilities of non-ductile
concrete frames highlighting the influence of the uncertainties in soil properties, foundation
geometrical parameters and ground motion characteristics. To model the interaction between the
adopted shallow foundation and soil interface, the Beam on Nonlinear Winkler Foundation (BNWF)
model was used, which is capable of capturing the rocking and sliding effects as well as the permanent
settlement of the footing for both linear and nonlinear soil behavior. It was shown that fragilities of the
fixed base models may differ from the SSI models depending on the type of the structure while the
uncertainty in ground motion was found to be the dominating parameter influencing the structural
response of the SSI models.
In Karapetrou et al. (2015) the influence of SSI and site effects on the seismic performance and
vulnerability of a high-rise reinforced concrete moment resisting frame building was investigated.
Figure 20 presents schematically the applied approaches. A first series of analyses was conducted for
the fixed base structure founded on rock by imposing outcropping bedrock input motions. SSI was
modeled by applying the direct one-step approach considering both linear elastic and nonlinear soil
behavior, while site effects are inherently accounted for. To examine the relative contribution of site
and SSI effects, a two-step uncoupled approach was also applied, which takes into account site effects
on the response of the fixed base structure, but neglects soil-structure interaction effects. Then a two-
dimensional IDA was performed by applying 15 scaled input motions for all considered models.
Probabilistic fragility functions were derived in terms of rock outcropping PGA for the Immediate
Occupancy (IO) and Collapse Prevention (CP) limit states. Figure 21 depicts comparative plots of
fragility curves for the different SSI or fixed base models which consider site effects compared to the
reference fixed base model without modifying the ground motion due to site effects. It is shown that
the SSI model, which considers soil nonlinearity is less vulnerable compared to the SSI system where
linear elastic soil behavior is taken into account. This observation is more noticeable for the CP
damage limit state. These trends are even more pronounced for the corresponding fixed base models,
which consider site effects thought a properly modified input motion calculated using a 1D equivalent
linear analysis of soil amplification. Nevertheless, a significant overall increase of the building’s
fragility with respect to the fixed base model founded on “rock: consirions is clearly shown in all

analysis cases. Thus, local soil properties and SSI effects may play a crucial role in the expected
structural damage, as it is expressed in terms of the maximum interstorey drift ratio, and therefore they
should not be neglected for assessment purposes.
Two-step modeling
Fixed base model SSI-FE model
approach
Outcrop Free field
Elastic or inelastic
soil profile
Elastic bedrock
Figure 20 Schematic view of the modeling approaches to assess the influence of SSI and site
effects under linear elastic or inelastic soil behavior (Karapetrou et al., 2015)
Figure 21 Fragility curves for the fixed base structure founded on rock in comparison with the SSI
structural model under linear and nonlinear soil behavior (left) and with the corresponding fixed base
models, which consider site effects (right) (Karapetrou et al., 2015)
In Figure 22 we compare the fragility curves for the different coupled SSI cases and fixed base
models considering linear elastic and inelastic soil behavior. We observe an important difference
between the linear elastic and non-linear case. When soil behavior is assumed linear elastic, the
coupled approach, where SSI and site effects are considered inherently, has practically no difference
with the uncoupled fixed base model where site effects are taken into account. On the other hand,
when soil non-linearity is taken into consideration then the coupled case of SSI and site effects leads
to a significant increase of the vulnerability compared to the fixed base case where site effects are
simply taken into account through the 1D analysis modifying in that way the bedrock input motion.
Thus, while both nonlinear models (with SSI and fixed base) are associated with the presence of
higher attenuation and larger shear strains, SSI also introduces additional translation and rotation
effects at the soil-structure interface resulting to increased displacement demands to the structure.

Figure 22 Fragility curves for the fixed base structure considering site effects and the SSI structural
configurations under linear (left) and nonlinear (right) soil behavior (Karapetrou et al., 2015).
To provide further insight into the inelastic SSI effects on the dynamic response and seismic
fragility of RC buildings additional analyses were performed investigating the influence of the soil
depth and stratigraphy under nonlinear soil behavior. Figure 23 presents schematically the analyzed
cases. To study the effect of soil stratigraphy an additional layered soil medium was considered where
the low-strain shear wave velocity of the profile increases with depth H. The average value 9s,ave is
computed based on the shear wave velocity and thickness of each layer as:
H H
9s ,ave (9)
H H1 H 2 H 3
¦9 i
9s1 9s 2 9s3
si
where 9s1, 9s2, 9s3 and H1, H2, H3 are the shear wave velocities and thicknesses of the surface,
intermediate and bottom layers respectively.
Furthermore to study the effect of the soil depth H in the fragility analysis, the inelastic soil-
structure systems for both homogeneous and layered soil profiles are analyzed for varying soil depth
(H=30 and 60m).
Figure 23 Schematic view of the modeling approaches to assess the influence of SSI and site effects
under linear elastic or inelastic soil behavior (Karapetrou et al., 2015)
Figure 24 presents the fragility curves in terms of PGA for the building considering SSI and site
effects under nonlinear soil behavior for varying soil depth and stratigraphy. Nonlinear SSI leads to an

increase in fragility of structure when the stratigraphy of the soil profile is taken into account, as the
step-like layered soil medium may amplify the imposed input motion at the base of the structure in
comparison to the homogeneous soil cases. On the other hand, it is seen that nonlinear SSI may
decrease the seismic vulnerability of the structure for deeper homogeneous and layered soil profiles.
This may be attributed to the increase of attenuation levels. However it generally depends on the
considered soil depth and stratigraphy as well as on the characteristics of the input motions in relation
to the dynamic properties of the soil and the structure itself.
Figure 24 Fragility curves for different analyzed nonlinear SSI cases with varying soil stratigraphy for the
shallower (left) and the deeper (right) soil profile (Karapetrou et al., 2015).
Building-specific Vulnerability Assessment Based on Field Monitoring Data
The use of field monitoring data for identifying the actual state of existing structures has recently
drawn attention in civil engineering community for developing real time assessment tools and
reducing uncertainties involved within the risk assessment procedure (Gueguen et al. 2007, Michel et
al. 2008; 2012). Real-time monitoring of civil structures and infrastructures provide valuable
information to assess the structural health and identify the actual state and vulnerability of the
associated systems. Furthermore, it allows monitoring the evolution of the structure’s safety during the
earthquake crisis while it constitutes the key component for rapid damage assessment or the
preparation of reliable damage scenarios. In Rainieri et al. (2012) an approach for robust evaluation
and monitoring of instrumented buildings is proposed in the context of rapid post-earthquake
emergency management. In Michel et al. (2012), the main aim is to show how the experimental model
extracted from ambient vibration measurements may contribute in the framework of seismic
vulnerability assessment of existing buildings in moderate seismic-prone regions.
In this context dynamic characterization of civil engineering structures (natural frequencies,
damping ratios, mode shapes) using monitoring data becomes increasingly important in a wide range
of research and application fields, such as dynamic response prediction (e.g Brownjohn, 2003), finite
element model updating (e.g. Teughels 2003, Jaishi and Ren 2005, Zarate and Caicedo 2008, Savoia et
al. 2013, Aras at al. 2011, Antonacci et al. 2012), structural health monitoring (De Stefano 2007) and
damage detection (Peeters, 2000, Farrar et al. 2001, Ramos et al. 2010). In order to predict or modify
the response of a structure, an accurate well-known mathematical model is required that represents the
dynamics of the structure, the so-called modal model (Parloo 2003). Rapid development of data
acquisition and processing capabilities has given rise to major advances in the experimental
operational studies and more specifically in the estimation of modal parameters of vibrating systems.
A modal model of an artificially excited structure can be obtained based on Experimental Modal
Analysis (EMA) by measuring the forces and vibrational structural responses (Ewins 1984, Allemang
1994, Heylen 1995). For large-scale applications however (e.g. civil engineering structures)
Operational Modal Analysis (OMA) is generally preferred to forced vibration measurements due to
the fact that the same modal parameters can be obtained from vibration data in operational rather than

laboratory conditions (Reynders 2012). Ambient vibration measurements are usually used to perform
OMA and indentify the modal parameters of a structure.
In order to derive building specific fragility curves based on field monitoring data, that represents
the actual state and vulnerability of a structure, the measured modal parameters can be used to
improve the finite element models to better reflect the measured data than the initial ones. The lack of
correlation between the numerical structural models and experimental observations may be attributed
to poorly known boundary conditions and material properties or modeling simplifications. Due to
these uncertainties the predicted analytical dynamics of an “as built” structure based on the initial
design plans, may differ from the measured dynamics of the real structure.
In Karapetrou et al. (2014) an integrated methodology has been presented for assessing the
building- and “time-building specific” seismic vulnerability of one of the main buildings of the most
important hospital in Thessaloniki (AHEPA) based on field monitoring data. The AHEPA hospital has
been selected as test site for the European funded project REAKT (http://www.reaktproject.eu/) for the
development of an operational framework for rapid post-earthquake damage evaluation and risk
assessment in real or near-real time. “Time-building specific” vulnerability in this case refers to the
present (actual) seismic vulnerability of the building considering all possible geometrical
modifications, mass distributions and material deterioration. In the following section a short
description of the applied methodology at the hospital units is made and indicative results are
presented.
Application study: AHEPA hospital of Thessaloniki

The target building hosts both administration and hospitalization activities. It was constructed in 1971
and is considered representative of structures that have been designed with low code seismic
provisions (‘Royal Decree’ of 1959), where the ductility and the dynamic features of the constructions
are ignored. It is an eight-story infilled moment resisting frame building and its special feature is that it
is composed of two adjacent tall building units (namely UNIT 1 & UNIT 2) that are connected with a
structural joint (Figure 25a). UNIT 1 has a 29m × 16m rectangular plan section whereas UNIT 2
covers a trapezoidal section of 21m × 27m ×16m. The interstorey height is regular between the floor
levels (3.4m) except for the second floor (4.8m). The foundation system of UNIT 1 consists of simple
footings whereas in UNIT 2 the footings are partially combined with a raft foundation.
Permanent and temporary instrumentation arrays have been implemented under the responsibility
of the Soil Dynamics and Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering of the Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki (SDGEE-AUTH) and in close cooperation with Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, German
Centre for Geosciences (GFZ). The permanent accelerometric array (SOSEWIN network) operates on
a continuous basis in AHEPA since May 2012 (Bindi et al., 2014) and constitutes of 13 triaxial
accelerometers (MEMS ADXL203 chip). In addition to the SOSEWIN network, various temporary
arrays have been also deployed inside the hospital in the frame of the general risk assessment studies.
In February 2013, ambient noise measurements were collected deploying a temporary array of 39
triaxial seismometers (Mark Products L4C-3D of 1Hz coupled to EarthData Logger, PR6-24, 24bit
digitizers) in the two building units. To capture the translational and torsional modes each floor was
instrumented with four stations, which were installed along the middle corridor of the building near
and far from the structural joint (Figure 25b).
In Bindi et al. (2014) a detailed and comprehensive study has been presented regarding the
implemented monitoring schemes and the dynamic characterization of the hospital building applying
both vibrational and waveform approaches to identify the real structural conditions and potential
pathology of the building. In the context of the vibrational approach the monitoring data are used to
extract the modal parameters of the building based on operational modal analysis. The modal
identification results have been used to update and better constrain the “initial” finite element model of
the building, which is based on the design and construction documentation plans provided by the
Technical Services of the hospital. For both initial (building-specific) and updated (time-building
specific) finite element models three-dimensional nonlinear incremental dynamic analysis has been
performed to derive the fragility curves and evaluate the actual state of the hospital buildings.

Structural joint
a)
b)
Figure 25. a) AHEPA hospital building and typical floor plan with the structural joint. b) Section A-A’ along the
longitudinal direction of the hospital building with the temporary instrumentation (red squares).
Figure 26 presents a schematic flowchart of the proposed methodological framework that has been
adopted for the derivation of the ”time-building specific” fragility curves of the hospital building units
based on field monitoring data in order to improve the finite element model and in a second stage to
evaluate numerically its real (actual) vulnerability. Ambient noise measurements are used to derive the
mathematical (modal) model of the hospital building and identify its modal properties based on system
identification and operational modal analysis (OMA) respectively. The modal identification results are
continuously used to update and better constrain the “initial” finite element model of the building,
which is based on the design and construction documentation plans. In the absence of any structural
geometry modification since 1971, when the building was constructed, only the variation in the
material properties is taken into account in the present study. An eigenvalue sensitivity analysis of the
elastic numerical models is performed to identify the most sensitive parameters influencing the
structural modes of interest, which are used in the manual updating process to define the optimal
analytical models that reflect the experimental results. In this study the compressive strength of the
masonry infills have been used as sensitivity parameter for the updating procedure, to take into
account the uncertainties of the material behavior as well as the possible heterogeneity between the
material properties of the different infill parts. The selection of this particular parameter was made as
its definition included high uncertainty levels due to the fact that no data were available from the
design and constructions plans.

Building-time specific vulnerability assessment using field monitoring data
Monitoring data Design and construction plans

Modal model (system Initial FE model
identification + OMA)
Manual updating process
Comparison between experimental

and numerical model: evaluation of
response function
Eigenvalue sensitivity Sensitivity in material

analysis properties
Selection of the “best”

updated FE model
Building-time specific fragility curves generation
Nonlinear analytical Methodology for fragility

3D nonlinear incremental
simulation of the updated curve generation:
dynamic analysis
models: Incorporation of
EDP: maximum interstory drift
Material inelasticity uncertainties in limit state
Geometrical nonlinearity definition, capacity and
Earthquake demand: demand
Regional seismic hazard
(SHARE)
Figure 26 Methodological framework adopted for the seismic vulnerability assessment of the hospital
building units based on field monitoring data (Karapetrou et al., 2014)
Three-dimensional IDA was performed applying 15 progressively scaled real seismic records
corresponding to the regional hazard, to derive the fragility curves for the initial and updated finite
element models of UNIT 1 and UNIT 2. The initial “as built” numerical models are based on the
available design plans and correspond to the initial state of the structures (building-specific), whereas
the updated models reflect the measured responses and therefore represent their actual state (“time-
building specific”). The fragility curves for the different model cases have been derived in terms of
PGA for two damage states: Immediate Occupancy (IO) and Collapse Prevention (CP).
The calculated building specific fragility curves of UNIT 1 and UNIT 2 that correspond to their
initial state are evaluated through their comparison with conventional curves from the literature
(SYNER-G, Pitilakis et al. 2014a) that are derived for representative models of the same typology, that
is “high-rise, regularly infilled, moment resisting frame structures designed with low seismic
provisions”. More specifically in Figure 27 the derived curves are compared with the generic curves
proposed by Kappos et al. (2003; 2006) for the specific typology. It is noted that most of the work
presented in Kappos et al. (2006) was carried out by the same authors within the framework of the
RISK-UE project (Kappos et al. 2003). The differences between the results (given in terms of fragility
functions) of Kappos et al. (2003) and Kappos et al. (2006) are probably due to slight geometric
differences adopted for the studied RC building typologies. A good match between the curves is
observed for the IO limit state as both generic curve sets are very close to the calculated ones.
However for the CP state it is seen that the building-specific curves corresponding to the as-built state
of the hospital case study are comparable only with the curves of Kappos et al. (2003) and differs

significantly with the respective curves of Kappos et al. (2006), which is indicative of the non
negligible variability that may be observed between generic fragility curves.
The initial fragility curves are further validated through the computation of the expected damage
probability of the hospital building for the 1978 destructive earthquake in Thessaloniki, as they are
considered to better reflect the state of the structure at the time of the event which occurred quite soon
after their construction (in 1971). For a representative intensity value for the specific seismic event
equal to 0.3g the probabilities of slight damage (IO state) and collapse (CP state) according to Figure
27 are approximately estimated to 98% and 2% respectively. These probabilities are consistent with
the actual reports of that time that no considerable earthquake damage was observed for the specific
building.
Figure 27 Comparative plots of the “initial” fragility curves derived for the two adjacent building units with
the corresponding fragility curves provided by Kappos et al. (2003 and 2006).
In Figure 28 the updated numerical models are compared with the initial ones. It can be seen that
the derived curves are similar for the two building units (for the initial and updated model
respectively), which can be attributed to their similar structural configuration, stiffness and mass
properties. However the updated curves present a shift to the left in comparison to the initial ones,
indicating an increase in the structures vulnerability, which is more noticeable for the CP limit state
and for higher intensities. Since this difference in the fragility between the initial and updated models
is not attributed to geometrical modifications but to the variation and distribution of material
properties, it could be assumed that the increase in the building’s fragility is in fact an evidence of
potential degradation of the structure over time. As no significant damages have been reported for the
specific building during past earthquake events, the structural deterioration may be related to aging
effects (e.g. corrosion of reinforcement). Further details regarding the application of the methodology
and the derived results may be found in Karapetrou et al. (2014).
Figure 28 Comparative plot of the building-specific fragility curves derived for the initial and updated
models of UNIT 1 and UNIT 2.

CONCLUSIVE REMARKS
The objective of this paper, which also reflects a part of the work carried out in the SYNER-G project,
is to present a short state of the art on the fragility functions used in seismic risk assessment of
reinforced concrete buildings and to highlight some of the future challenges. Besides, the selection of
the appropriate fragility curves in the chain of seismic risk assessment is crucial as shown in Mara
(2014). The different components involved in the derivation of fragility curves have been presented,
namely the selection of intensity measure, the definition of damage scales and the associated
uncertainties. The different methodologies have been discussed, highlighting the advantages and
disadvantages of each approach. Whatever the approach is, crucial choices must be made regarding the
definition of damage states and the associated damage indices, together with their threshold values, as
well as the intensity measure adequate to capture the seismic response. A wide range of options is
available in the literature and only general recommendations may be put forward, based on
effectiveness, efficiency, sufficiency, robustness and computability of the selected parameters. In
principle, the use of a particular damage or intensity measure should be guided by the extent to which
it corresponds and correlates to damage, but in practice it is often more related to the approach
followed for the derivation of fragility curves.
In the second part of the paper, few specific needs and challenges have been discussed that have
not been yet adequately incorporated so far in the seismic vulnerability assessment practice. Further
investigation is required in topics, such as the consideration of aging effects and/or soil-structure
interaction in the derivation of fragility functions as currently available results have shown (Pitilakis et
al., 2014c; Karapetrou et al., 2015) the significant role of aging and SSI effects in altering the expected
structural performance and fragility of RC buildings. Validation of the suggested fragility curves with
field experiments and large scale laboratory tests is certainly warranted to enhance their reliability and
robustness and finally to ensure their efficient implementation in seismic vulnerability assessment
studies. Given the significant influence of SSI and site effects on the vulnerability results, further
research is necessary for the development of generalized fragility functions applicable to a variety of
RC building typologies, which would take into account SSI effects for a variety of soil conditions. All
these wished improvements are practically related to the reduction of the numerous uncertainties
(mainly epistemic).
Finally an integrated methodology has been presented for the derivation of “building –time-
specific” fragility curves based on field monitoring data (ambient noise, forced vibrations or/and weak
ground motions). It was shown that the use of conventional generic fragility curves, although
appropriate for assessing fragility and losses in a regional/urban scale, might lead to inaccurate loss
estimates in the case of individual building assessment, which constitute crucial components in the
framework of decision making and risk mitigation strategies (e.g. seismic safety and rehabilitation
costs). Applying the methodology shortly described herein it is possible to yield more reliable
structural models with respect to their real conditions in terms of structural detailing, mass distribution
and material properties. Furthermore the methodology should be extended for “real-time” risk
assessment and post-seismic fragility updating. In this context the use of field monitoring data will
contribute in reducing the uncertainties associated with the risk assessment procedure improving
seismic safety and allowing the development of robust real time assessment tools and appropriate risk
mitigation strategies.
Besides the aforementioned issues, there are also other topics, which have been identified through
the work carried out within SYNER-G and REAKT and need refinement. Thus the following points
could be the subject of future research:
x Validation of existing fragility curves against observed damage will enable better rating of
their quality and will potentially improve their reliability. However, such damage data is
scarce for some elements at risk. The development of robust field measurement techniques
that might help to better define the real condition of a building or a structure with regard to its
vulnerability rating should be also an important improvement to the fragility analysis. Another
essential step towards the improvement of damage estimation models is the establishment of a

commonly accepted format for the systematic documentation and compilation of both
damaged and undamaged structures as well as of non-structural components.
x Inventory and comprehensive databases of all elements at risk (mainly buildings and
infrastructures) are of prior importance; Considering that their buid-up is very difficult
extremely expensive in city or regional scale, advances in information and space technologies
should be further improved which now permit rapid, cost-effective collection and analysis of
virtually exhaustive data sets appropriately archived and made available to the engineering
community.
x The uncertainty of the most important parameters that are introduced in the construction of the
fragility curves (i.e. capacity and demand assessment of the element at risk and definition of
damage states) needs to be further investigated so as to confirm the default values that
describe the variability of these parameters that have been adopted in many studies, or to
propose new ones.
x Establishment of standard procedures, to improve existing fragility functions and to validate
them with empirical and experimental data
x Development of fragility curves for irregular RC buildings and buildings, which are not
comprised in the taxonomy of SYNER-G, like for example prefabricated buildings of variable
size and use.
x Development of damage-state-dependent fragility functions, which can be used to estimate the
likelihood of a structure to suffer further damage in the event of an earthquake, while
accounting for the increased vulnerability due to the fact that the building was previously
damaged in a past earthquake. Cumulative damages from multiple seismic events on a
building are actually a critical factor, which usually increase considerably the physical losses
and the resulted casualty rate. In this context if the damaged building suffers further damage
from aftershocks or/and new seismic events before repairs can take place, then its fragility is
dependent on the accumulation of damage. A whole new set of fragility curves should be
developed to account for this important issue (Luco et al. 2011; Iervolino et al. 2012;
Reveillere et al. 2012).
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Sahaya Ozel Tasarim Depremi

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Sekizinci Ulusal Deprem Mühendisliği Konferansı, 11 Mayıs-15 Mayıs, 2015, İstanbul

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TECHNIQUES FOR DETERMINATION OF VULNERABLE

Keywords: 3URJUHVVÕYH&ROODSVH$QDO\VLV8QFHUWDLQW\, Historical Structures, High Definition

COLLAPSE MECHANISM OF NON-DUCTILE RC BUILDINGS

Lateral System Range Gravity System

Lateral System Gravity System

GRAVITY LOAD FAILURE MODELING OF LATERAL LOAD RESISTING

Ductile Columns Non-ductile Columns

Column Shear (kN)

DETECTION OF GRAVITY LOAD FAILURE

Constitutive relationship of the rotational spring

Unreinforced Masonry Infill Walls

Failure Curve (symmetric

EXPLICIT MODELING OF GRAVITY SYSTEMS

Figure 10: Modeling of the gravity system as a leaning column

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