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THE KEY TO THE PAST

Chapter 11
Geologic time

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Age of the Earth Age of the Earth

Prior to the 19th century, accepted age of Earth was based on Modern Geology began in late 1700s.
religious beliefs. •James Hutton: “Father of Geology”
• Biblical: ~6,000 years for Western culture  realized that geologic features could be explained through present
• Chinese/Hindu: Old beyond comprehension day processes and that it would require vast amounts of time

• James Ussher, mid-1600s, he was a respected scholar of the  Uniformitarianism – “The present is the key to the past”
Bible, - The physical, chemical and biological laws that operate today have
Ussher constructed a chronology of human and Earth history in which also operated in the geological time
he determined that Earth was only a few thousand years old, having • Numerical Age –actual age given in years or other unit of time.
been created in 4004 b.c.e. • Relative time – the sequence in which events took place.
Catastrophism: Landscape developed by catastrophes. Mountains  Rocks record geologic and evolutionary changes throughout Earth’s
and canyons were explained as having been produced by sudden and history.
often worldwide disasters of unknowable causes.  Without a time perspective, these events have very little meaning.

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Principles Used to Determine Relative Age

Question: Contacts - surfaces separating successive rock layers (beds).

The basic concept of Uniformitarianism is: Formations - bodies of rock of considerable thickness with recognizable
characteristics allowing them to be distinguished from adjacent rock
A. Nothing has changed since the Earth was formed layers.
B. Geology has not changed since the Earth was formed but
other things do change
C. Geology changes constantly but the rules that control those
transformations do not change
D. There is a predictable way that the laws of nature change over
time and we are beginning to understand them
E. Evolution, Plate Tectonics, and similar theories are all related
and can be viewed as the grand theory of Uniformitarianism.

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Principles Used to Determine Relative Age Principles Used to Determine Relative Age
-- Original horizontality - Layers of sediment are generally deposited in a
horizontal position. Rock layers that are flat have not been disturbed.
Stratigraphy - subdiscipline of geology that uses interrelationships
-- Superposition - In an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each bed
between layered rock to interpret the history of an area or region.
is older than the one above and younger than the one below.
This principle also applies to surface features like lava flows and beds of ash.
Relative age - the order of events or objects, from oldest to youngest.
 original horizontality
 superposition
 lateral continuity
 cross-cutting relationships
 Other time relationships
• inclusions

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Principles Used to Determine Relative Age Principles Used to Determine Relative Age
Other Time Relationships
Lateral continuity - Beds originate
• Baked contacts - contacts between
as continuous layers that extend in
igneous intrusions and surrounding rocks,
all directions until they eventually
where surrounding rocks have
thin out or grade into a different
experienced contact metamorphism.
sediment type.
• Inclusions - fragments embedded in host
rock are older than the host rock.
Cross-cutting relationships - a
disrupted pattern is older than the
cause of the disruption.
• Intrusions and faults are younger
than the rocks they cut through.

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Question: Question:

In the late 1800’s various principles (original horizontality, inclusions, cross

The principle of superposition refers to the idea that _________.
cutting relations, etc.) were established and used to _________.

A. strata were originally horizontal

A. Determine the age of the Earth
B. strata originally extended in all directions
B. Determine the age of events on the Earth
C. the oldest strata are at the bottom
C. Organize the order in which events occurred on Earth
D. a rock containing fragments of another rock must be the younger one
D. Prove that evolution was a valid theory that could explain many
geologic observations. E. geologic features that cut across rocks must have formed after the
rocks they cut through

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Types of Unconformities
Question:
When we observe layers of rock that have been deposited essentially
without interruption, we call them conformable.
The principle of horizontality which states that sediments are usually
deposited in relatively flat layers is important because ______.
Throughout Earth history, the deposition of sediment has been interrupted
over and over again. All such breaks in the rock record are termed
A. It showed that catastrophism could not explain the flat layers of
unconformities.
the Earth
B. It provided a way to recognize if rocks had been deformed There are three basic types:
C. It provided an explanation how rocks behave in a depositional • Angular unconformity
setting • Disconformity
D. It allowed geologists to correlate sedimentary units over large • Nonconformity
distances

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Unconformities
Unconformities Surface (contact) that represents a gap in the geologic record
• Disconformities – the unconformity contact separates beds that are
parallel to one another.
Angular Unconformities – the unconformity
contact separates a younger layer above
from a lower layer that is tilted.

The layers on either side of

this gap in the rock record
An angular unconformity represents are essentially parallel.
an extended period during which
deformation and erosion occurred.

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Unconformities Relative dating principles

Nonconformity - an unconformity in which an erosional surface on plutonic
The rocks and the events in Earth history they represent can be placed in
or metamorphic rock has been covered by younger sedimentary or volcanic their proper sequence.
rock.
• plutonic and metamorphic rocks exposed by large amounts of erosion.
• typically represents a large gap in the geologic record.

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Unconformities in the Grand Canyon

The geology of the Grand Canyon can be analyzed in four parts:

(1) horizontal layers of rock;

(2) inclined layers;
(3) rock underlying the inclined layers (plutonic and
metamorphic rock);
(4) the canyon itself, carved into these rocks.

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Question:
Question:

An unconformity marks _________. _________ are fragments of an older rock unit that are incorporated into
another younger stratum.

A. a layer of rock that does not contain fossils A. Inclusions

B. the boundary between two different rock types B. Illusions
C. a time of increased deposition C. Impressions
D. a gap in the geologic record D. Traces
E. igneous activity E. Nonconformities

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Question:
If you observe an angular unconformity, you would infer that the region
Question: had experienced ____.

A. Deposition in shallow water, uplift or lowering of sea level enough to

The geologic feature shown here is a(n) ________. expose the rocks to erosion and non-deposition for a period of time,
and subsequent resubmergence of the remaining sedimentary units
where they experience new deposition.
A. disconformity
B. Uplift and tilting of sedimentary units that exposes them to erosion
B. angular unconformity over a period of time with subsequent renewed deposition
C. nonconformity C. Intrusion of igneous rocks into a depositional setting forcing the
sedimentary layers upward and possibly deforming them followed by
D. inclusion subsidence of the remaining sedimentary layers and renewed
deposition.
E. intrusion
D. Deposition of sedimentary layers on crystalline igneous or
metamorphic rocks that are exposed at the surface of the earth.
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Fossils: Evidence of past life Paleontology - The scientific study of fossils.

Fossils - are traces or remains of prehistoric life preserved in rock, they
are inclusions in sediments and sedimentary rocks.

Knowing the nature of life that existed at a particular time helps

researchers understand past environmental conditions.

Types of fossils:
Permineralization
 Petrified – cavities and pores are filled
with precipitated mineral matter.
 Formed by replacement – cell material
is removed and replaced with mineral
matter.

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Types of fossils:
Fossils - are traces or remains of prehistoric life preserved in rock, they • Carbonization happens when an organism is buried, followed by
are inclusions in sediments and sedimentary rocks. compression, which squeezes out gases and liquids leaving a thin film
Types of fossils: of carbon. Effective at preserving leaves and delicate animals
Mold – shell or other structure is buried and then dissolved by • Impression – replica of the fossil’s surface preserved in fine-grained
underground water. sediment. It remains in the rock when the carbon film is lost.
Cast – hollow space of a mold is filled with mineral matter. • Preservation in amber – hardened resin of ancient trees surrounds
an organism.

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Types of fossils
Indirect evidence of prehistoric life:
• Tracks – animal footprints. Question:
• Burrows – tubes in sediment, wood, or
rock made by an animal. When a shell or another structure is buried in sediment and then dissolved
• Coprolites – fossil dung and stomach by underground water, a(n) ___________ is created.
contents.
• Gastroliths – stomach stones used to A. impression
grind food by some extinct reptiles. B. trace fossil
C. carbonization
D. mold
E. petrification

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Correlation
The determination of the time-equivalency of rock units.
Correlation of Rock Layers
Physical continuity - physically tracing a continuous exposure of a rock.
Similarity of rock types
assumes similar sequences of rocks formed at same time.
can be inaccurate if very common rock types are involved.

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Correlation of Rock Layers Correlation involves matching of rocks of similar ages from different regions.
Correlation within limited areas: Correlation provides a more comprehensive view of the rock record.
 Often accomplished by noting the position of the bed in a sequence
of strata.
 Involves matching of rocks of similar ages from different regions.
 To correlate over larger areas, fossils are used for correlation.

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Fossil and Correlation Fossil and Correlation

Faunal succession - rock layers in different places can be correlated based
on their fossils. Index fossils and fossil assemblages
 A fossil assemblage is a group of fossils Environmental indicators.
Principle of Fossil Succession:
 Fossils can be used to infer information about past environments.
• Fossils succeed one another in a definite and determinable order.
Example: Shells of organisms can be used to infer positions of ancient
Example: Age of Trilobites, Age of Fishes, Age of Reptiles, Age of
shorelines and seawater temperatures.
Mammals.
• Proposed by William Smith – late 1700s and early 1800s.

Index fossils are widespread geographically

and limited to a short period of geologic time.
• Used to determine a rock’s age

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Question:
Question:
Which of the following is an essential characteristic of an index fossil?

Matching up rocks of similar ages in different regions is known as _________.

A. The organism lived only in specific environments such as beaches
A. radiometric dating
or estuaries.
B. relative dating
B. The organism only lived for a short period of geologic time.
C. The fossils are exceptionally abundant and well preserved C. correlation

D. The fossils occur in deep-water marine sediments, but the D. assembling

organism actually lived in the sunlit, surface layer of the ocean. E. cross-referencing

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The age of events or objects, expressed as a number or numbers

NUMERICAL AGE
 The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
 Electrons are negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus.
 The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus.

Isotopic dating - puts absolute values (e.g., millions of years) on the ages of
rocks and geologic time periods.
Isotopes and radioactive decay
 Isotopes – varieties of the same element that have different
numbers of protrons in the nucleus.
 Radioactive decay – the spontaneous nuclear change of isotopes
with unstable nuclei.
• Alpha emission, Beta emission and Electron capture.

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Alpha emission Beta emission

Alpha particles have been identified as Helium nuclei. Beta particles have been identified as either electrons ( -) or positrons ( +).

P  Z 1A D  01 e 00

An alpha particle produced by nuclear decay usually does not have any A
bound electrons, so alpha particles almost always have a charge of +2e. The reaction for beta-minus decay is:
Z
The reaction for alpha decay is:
A
Z P  ZA24 D  24 The reaction for beta-plus decay is:
A
Z P  Z 1A D  01 e 00
Alpha particle
Parent nucleus Daughter nucleus

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Electron capture Isotopic Dating

The rate of proportional decay for isotopes is expressed as half-life - the time
During electron capture a proton in a nucleus captures an electron. The it takes for one-half of a given number of radioactive atoms to decay.
reaction is:

A
Z P  01 e Z 1A D  01 n 00
The proportional amount of
atoms that decay in time is
unaffected by chemical reactions
or by the high pressures and high
temperatures of Earth’s interior.

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Isotopic Dating Using Unstable Isotopes

Requires a closed system Determining the quantities of parent and daughter isotopes must be
Cross-checks are used for accuracy precise. Some radioactive materials do not decay directly into stable
daughter isotopes.
Complex procedure
Example: uranium-238 has 14 steps to ultimately decay to the stable
Yields numerical dates
daughter lead-206

Parent Isotope Half-life Daughter product Effective dating range (years)

40K 1.3 B.y. 40Ar 100,000 – 4.6 Billion
238U 206Pb
4.5 B.y. 10 Million – 4.6 Billion Uranium 238 decays
235U 704 M.y. 207Pb 10 Million – 4.6 Billion to Lead 206.
232Th 14.1 B.y 208Pb 10 Million – 4.6 Billion
87Rb 47 B.y. 87Sr 10 Million – 4.6 Billion
14C 5,730 y. 14N 100 – 40,000

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Isotopic Dating Dating with Carbon-14

Carbon-14 can only be used to date organic materials, such as wood,
Radiocarbon Dating
charcoal, bones, flesh, and cloth.
Evaluates the ratio of carbon 12 to carbon 14 (half-life: 5,730 years). It is
used to date objects <40,000 yrs. old (about seven half-lives.)

 Living matter incorporates 12C and 14C into its tissues; the ratios of 12C
and 14C in the new tissues are the same as in the atmosphere.
 On dying, the plant or animal ceases to build new tissue. The 14C
disintegrates radioactively at the fixed rate of its half-life.
 The ratio of 12C to radioactive 14C in organic remains is determined in a
laboratory.
 Using the ratio, the time elapsed since the death of the organism is Chauvet Cave in southern France, discovered in 1994, contains some of
calculated. the earliest-known cave paintings. Radiocarbon dating indicates that
most of the images were drawn between 30,000 and 32,000 years ago.

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Isotopic Dating Isotopic Dating

Closure Temperature - the temperature below which the system is closed
and the “clock” starts. For an isotopic age determination to be accurate, several conditions must
 Best dates usually obtained from igneous rocks. be met.
 Improved techniques result in changes in numerical dating.  To ensure that the isotopic system has remained closed, the rock
How reliable is isotopic dating? collected must show no signs of weathering or hydrothermal
alteration.
• Decay of isotopes do not vary beyond statistical expectations.
 One should be able to infer there were no daughter isotopes in the
• Use of relative dating confirms reliability of isotopic dating.
system at the time of closure or make corrections for probable
Earth’s oldest rocks amounts of daughter isotopes present before the “clock” was set.
 Oldest rocks are found on the continent.  There must be sufficient parent and daughter atoms to be measurable
 All continents have rocks exceeding 3.5 billion years.  Technicians and geochronologists must be highly skilled.
 Confirms that geologic time is immense.
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Determining Numerical Dates for Sedimentary Strata

Question:
Sedimentary rocks can rarely be dated directly by radiometric means.
Geologists must rely on igneous rocks in the strata:
An important geochronometer is the decay of 147Sm to 143Nd. What type of
 Radiometric dating determines the age of the igneous rocks.
radioactive decay is involved in this parent-daughter pair?
 Relative dating techniques assign date ranges to sedimentary rocks.

A. Beta decay
B. Electron capture
C. Alpha decay
D. A positron capture

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Question:

Why is it challenging to assign numerical dates to sedimentary strata? THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
A. Most sedimentary strata are too old.
B. Most sedimentary strata don’t contain the right minerals.
C. Most sedimentary strata are too young.
D. The particles in sedimentary rocks are older than the rocks in which
they occur.
E. The particles in sedimentary rocks are younger than the rocks in
which they occur.

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Structure of the time scale Structure of the time scale

Geologists have divided the whole of geologic
Era: subdivision of an eon.
history into units of varying magnitude.
-- Originally it was created using relative dates. The Phanerozoic eon (“visible life”) is the most recent
eon, which began about 542 million years ago.
Subdivisions:
Eon: greatest expanse of time  Eras of the Phanerozoic eon:
• Four eons:  Cenozoic (“recent life”)
Hadean  Mesozoic (“middle life”)
Archean Precambrian
 Paleozoic (“ancient life”)
Proterozoic  Eras are subdivided into periods.
Phanerozoic  Periods are subdivided into epochs.

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Numbers on the time scale

represent time in millions of
years before the present.
Numerical dates were added
long after the time scale was
established, using relative
dating techniques.

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Isotopic dating gives numerical time brackets for events with known
relative ages:
• individual layers may be dated directly
• radiometric dating of units above and below brackets age of units
in between
 Precambrian – represents 88 % of geologic time divided into three
Eons (Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic). Next: Chapter 12 – Earth’s evolution
 Phanerozoic – most recent eon that includes all geologic time with
through geologic time
abundant fossil record.

Geologic (deep) time is vast

• a long human lifetime represents only about 0.000002% of geologic
time.

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