Earth Sci G4

RELATIVE
AND
ABSOLUTE
After going through this lesson, you
are expected to:
LEARNING
• Learn how layers of rocks (stratified
OBJECTIVES:
rocks) are formed;
• Identify what is relative and absolute
dating;
• Differentiate relative from absolute
dating and;
The idea behind the concept that the Earth is
billions of years old originated in the work of
James Hutton. Hutton concluded that there are
forces that change the landscape of the Earth in the
past. This conclusion is based on his observation
in the geological processes that were taking place
in his farm.
His Principle of Uniformitarianism states that

the current geologic processes, such as volcanism,
erosion, and weathering, are the same processes
that were at work in the past. This idea was refined
by other geologists that although the process of the
past and the present are the same, the rates of this
process may vary over time. The Earth’s history
was studied using the different records of past
events preserved in rocks. The layers of rocks are
like the pages in our history books.
How are
rock layers
formed?
Stratigraphy Stratification
Stratified rocks, also known as derivatives rock, may be
It isfragmental
the branchorofcrystalline.
geology thatThese rocks are products
It is also of sedimentary
known as bedding,
deals processes.
with the These are made of visible which
description, layersisofthe
sediments. Thehappens
layering that
correlation, formation of rock layers
and interpretation of depends on its stratigraphy
in sedimentary and
and igneous rocks
stratified sediments and stratifiedstratification.formed at the surface of the Earth
rocks on and within the Earth. It is that comes from lava flows or
the study of the rock layers(strata). other volcanic activity. It is
Likewise, it will give you clues to expressed by rock layers (units)
the location of ancient seas, of a general tabular or lenticular
mountains, plateaus and plains. form that differ in rock type.
As early as the mid 1600s,
Danish scientist Nicholas Steno
studied the relative position of
sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary
rocks are formed particle by
particle, bed by bed, and the
layers are piled one on top of
the other. These rock layers are
also called strata.
Stratigraphic Laws
Stratigraphic laws are basic principles that all
geologists use in decoding or deciphering the
spatial and temporal relationships of rock layers.
These include the following: Original
Horizontality, Lateral Continuity, Superposition,
Cross Cutting, Law of Inclusions and the Law of
Faunal Succession
LAW OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY
sediments are deposited in flat layers, if the rock

maintains in horizontal layers, it means it is not yet
disturbed and still has its original horizontality
LAW OF LATERAL CONTINUITY
suggests that all rock layers are laterally continuous and may be broken
up or displaced by later events. This can happen when a river or stream
erodes a portion of the rock layers. This can also happen when faulting
occurs. Faulting causes displacement in rock units.
LAW OF SUPERPOSITION
The largest and heaviest rock layer that settled first

at the bottom is the oldest rock layer. The lightest
and smallest that settled last is the youngest rock
layer.
LAW OF CROSS CUTTING RELATIONSHIP
a fault or dike- a slab rock cuts through another rock when magma
intrudes to the rock, that fault or magma is younger than the rock
LAW OF INCLUSIONS
A rock mass that contains pieces of rocks called

inclusions are younger than the other rock masses.
LAW OF FAUNAL SUCCESSION
first recognized by William Smith different strata contain assemblage of
fossils by which rocks may be identified and correlated over long
distances
Three Types of Unconformities:
 Disconformity - It originates from horizontal sedimentary rock layers that is lifted
and the top layers eroded. New sediments are deposited when they are
submerged beneath a freshwater or saltwater.
 Angular unconformity - It originates from horizontally parallel strata of

sedimentary rock that are deposited on tilted and eroded layers. It produced an
angular discordance with underlying horizontal layers.
 Non-conformity - It originates between sedimentary rocks, metamorphic or

igneous rock when sedimentary rock lies above and was deposited on the pre-
existing and eroded metamorphic or igneous rock.
Correlatio
n of Rock
Layers
Why do geologists need to correlate rock layers?
The history of earth is preserved in its rock

layers. Unfortunately, no single location on earth
has a continuous set of layers due to erosion or
ceased deposition. Instead, geologists study rock
sequences at many places around the world,
measure the depth of the layers, record what kind
of rock is in each layer, and see if there are any
fossils present. Geologists represent the layers of
rock by drawing a picture of the sequence – this
is called a stratigraphic column.
Geologists need to correlate rocks from one

place to another to get a more complete record of
Earth’s history over time. They try to determine
the relative age of widely separated strata or rock
layers. They used correlation, trying to fit
together sedimentary strata in different places,
just like a cut-out puzzle.
Correlation of Rock Layers
The process of showing that rocks or geologic events occurring at different
locations are of the same age is called correlation. Geologists have developed a
system for correlating rocks by looking for similarities in composition and rock
layer sequences at different locations.
The geological technique of correlation provides information that has taken place
in Earth’s history at various times that occurred. There are different methods in
correlating rock layers, these include:
1. Rock Types and its Characteristics
 color, texture, hardness, composition, or its mineral content
 the harder and more densely packed the particles are, the older the
rock and the deeper the layer it came from.
2. Index fossil
 also known as guide fossils or indicator fossils, are fossils used to
define and identify geologic periods (or faunal stages)
3. Bedrock
 a deposit of solid rock that is typically buried beneath soil and
other broken or unconsolidated material (regolith). ⮚ made up of
igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock, and it often serves as
the parent material for regolith and soil.
TYPES OF CORRELATION
 Physical Correlation is accomplished by using several criteria
such as color, texture, and types of minerals contained within a
stratum which make it possible for geologists to classify a stratum
specifically.
 Fossil Correlation is a principle that geologists use to determine

the age of rock. It uses fossils with unique characteristics, such as
geologically short lifespan and easily identifiable features, and
uses this information to estimate the age of a rock layer in other
areas that contain the same type of fossil or group of fossils.
There are fossils which are used to date the layers of rock that they
are found in. Fossils that can be used in this way are called index
fossils, and rock layers with the same index fossils in them can be
correlated.
Criteria to be considered in identifying index fossils include:

1. The fossilized organism must be easily recognizable, and it must be
easy to identify because of its uniqueness.
2. Fossils must be geographically widespread or found over large

areas so that it can be used to match rock layers separated by huge
distances.
3. Fossils must have lived for only a short time, so that it appears in
only the horizontal layer of sedimentary rocks.
Dating in
Archaeolo
gy
What is Dating in
Archaeology?
Dating in archaeology is
the process of assigning a
chronological value to an
event in the past.
Absolute Dating
Relative Dating
To find the specific age of an object, archaeologists use
This relationship helps this. Absolute dating methods measure the physical
There
archaeologists know are two types
that objects of dating thatof archaeologists
properties an object itself and use these
we find deep in the ground are use:
measurements to calculate its age. One of the most
older than things we find closer to useful absolute dating methods for archaeologists is
the surface. We determine which called radiocarbon dating. It works by measuring
things are older or younger based carbon isotopes, which are versions of the element
on their relationships. carbon. All isotopes of carbon have 6 protons but
different numbers of neutrons. One of the carbon
isotopes that occurs in nature is radioactive; it has 8
neutrons and is called carbon-14.
Relative
RelativeDating
dating methods estimate whether an
object is younger or older than other things found
at the site. Relative dating does not offer specific
dates, it simply allows to determine if one artifact,
fossil, or stratigraphic layer is older than another.
Stratigraphy
If soil layers in a deposit accumulate on top of one another, and that the
bottom layers will be older than the top layers, stratigraphy allows
archaeologists to construct a relative chronological sequence from the
oldest (bottom) to youngest (top) layers. Artifacts found in these layers are
at least as old as the deposit in which they were found.
Seriation
technique that was common in the mid-20th century, seriation looks
at changes in certain styles of artifacts present at a site. A
chronology is developed based on the assumption that one cultural
style (or typology) will slowly replace an earlier style over time.
Fluorine dating
a technique that analyzes how much of the chemical fluorine has
been absorbed by bones from the surrounding soils in order to
determine how long the specimen has been underground.
Absolute
dating
Absolute dating methods provide more specific
origin dates and time ranges, such as an age range
in years. How specific these dates can be will
depend on what method is used.
Radiocarbon Dating
One of the most widely known radiometric dating techniques, radiocarbon dating
measures the decay of the radioactive isotope Carbon-14 (C-14) in any organic material
found in archaeological deposits, such as wood, plants, textiles, and human or animal
remains to determine its age.
Dendrochronology
Since most trees produce a ring of new wood annually,
archaeologists use the variations in cross-sections of wood to
produce timelines.
Thermoluminescence
Useful for determining the age of pottery or ceramics, it can be
used to date materials containing crystalline minerals to a specific
heating event in the past (such as when the item was made).
Fission-track dating
A technique that determines age of various minerals and glasses
based on the trails of damage done by the spontaneous fission of
uranium-238, the most abundant isotope of uranium.
Potassium-argon (K-Ar) and Argon-argon (Ar-
Ar)
measure the ratio of argon gas in igneous volcanic rock to estimate
how much time has elapsed since the rock cooled and solidified.
Archaeomagnetic dating
Magnetic particles in most materials of geological origin, such as
rocks and clay, are analyzed to track shifts in the earth’s
magnetic fields over time.

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RELATIVE

His Principle of Uniformitarianism states that

sediments are deposited in flat layers, if the rock

The largest and heaviest rock layer that settled first

A rock mass that contains pieces of rocks called

 Angular unconformity - It originates from horizontally parallel strata of

 Non-conformity - It originates between sedimentary rocks, metamorphic or

The history of earth is preserved in its rock

Geologists need to correlate rocks from one

 Fossil Correlation is a principle that geologists use to determine

Criteria to be considered in identifying index fossils include:

2. Fossils must be geographically widespread or found over large

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