1.

Solar Thermal System

1.1 Alternative Energy Sources: Primary Secondary and Tertiary energy

Need of alternate energy sources Because of the following reasons there is a need of
developing, tapping, using the different alternate energy sources from future demand point of
view.
1. The supply of crude oil will fail to meet increasing demand.
2. Demand for energy is continuously growing. To meet this alternate energy source is essential
3. Coal reservoirs are unable to fulfil the energy demand
4. Nuclear energy, hydroelectric energy, wind energy, solar energy sources are utilized but they
are also unable to meet energy demand.
5. India is blessed with a variety of renewable energy sources, the main ones being biomass,
biogas, the sun, wind and small hydro power.
6. Municipal and industrial wastes can also be useful sources of energy, but are basically different
forms of biomass. Biogas plants, improved wood stoves, solar water heaters solar cookers, solar
lanterns can be used at large.
7. Different forms of biomass such as municipal and industrial wastes are the useful sources of
energy. New technologies such as biogas plants improved wood stoves, solar water heater, solar
cookers, solar lanterns, street lights; pumps wind electric In view of the above, we need to reduce
our dependency on oil, coal and nuclear fuels and their imports. Therefore we need to increase our
oil and gas production and look for alternate sources energy for our power needs.
Primary energy sources
1. Coal 2. Oil 3. Natural gas 4.Biomass
Secondary energy sources
1. Electricity 2. Steam 3. Hydrogen 4. Charcoal 5. Coke-oven coke 6. Bio fuels

Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the
case of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the
ever increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them.
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:
• Primary and Secondary energy
• Commercial and Non-commercial energy
• Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
Primary and Secondary Energy
Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common primary
energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood). Other primary energy
sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy stored in
earth's interior, and potential energy due to earth's gravity. The major primary and secondary
energy sources are shown in Figure 1.1 Primary energy sources are mostly converted in industrial
utilities into secondary energy sources; for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam

Figure 1.1 Major Primary and Secondary Sources

1.1 Classification of solar thermal systems

There are two main types of solar thermal systems for energy production – active and
passive. Active systems require moving parts like fans or pumps to circulate heat-carrying fluids.
Passive systems have no mechanical components and rely on design features only to capture heat
(e.g. greenhouses). The technologies are also grouped by temperature - low, medium or high

• Low-temperature (<100°C) applications typically use solar thermal energy for hot water or
space heating (Boyle, 2004). Active systems often consist of a roof-mounted flat plate collector
through which liquid circulates. The collector absorbs heat from the sun and the liquid carries it to
the desired destination, for example a swimming pool or home heating system. Passive heating
systems involve intelligent building design practices, which cut back on the need for heating or
cooling systems by better capturing or reflecting solar energy.

• Medium-temperature (100-250°C) applications are not common. An example would be a

solar oven, which uses a specially-shaped reflector to focus the sun’s rays on a central cooking
pot[3]. Similar systems could be used for industrial processes, but are not widely used.

• High-temperature (250°C >) solar thermal systems use groups of mirrors to concentrate
solar energy onto a central collector. These concentrated solar power (CSP) systems can reach
temperatures high enough to produce steam, which then turns a turbine, driving a generator to
produce electricity.

Advantages

Solar thermal systems have several advantages. The ‘fuel’ that powers them is free and renewable,
so these systems are cheap to run and can replace some conventional fuel useSolar thermal is an
emission-free source of energy. Finally, solar thermal systems are relatively low maintenance
because they use simpler technologies and passive systems that have no moving parts. In the case
of CSP, the technology’s ability to produce large-scale generation is an advantage for regions that
utilize a centralized electricity distribution system.

Although abundant, many aspects of sunlight can cause problems for the use of solar thermal
systems. Sunshine is not a very concentrated energy source, so it can take a large area to make a
reasonable amount of energy, evoking land-use concerns . Sunshine is also intermittent and its
availability is dependent on location.

The location of CSP installations causes additional problems for the technology. Many are
normally located in remote, desert areas, and, given that steam turbines produce electricity for
CSP, water access and rapid evaporation are key concerns for the viability of the technology. In
addition, transmission of electricity over large distances is expensive and can lead to distribution
losses.

Finally, practical challenges such as upfront capital costs and awareness of solar thermal
technologies can also be barriers to implementation in some countries.
 1.2 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) System- Flat Plate collectors,
Parabolic collectors, parabolic dish collector, solar tower

The flat-plate solar collectors are probably the most fundamental and most studied technology for
solar-powered domestic hot water systems. The overall idea behind this technology is pretty
simple. The Sun heats a dark flat surface, which collect as much energy as possible, and then the
energy is transferred to water, air, or other fluid for further use.

These are the main components of a typical flat-plate solar collector:

 Black surface - absorbent of the incident solar energy

 Glazing cover - a transparent layer that transmits radiation to the absorber, but prevents
radiative and convective heat loss from the surface

 Tubes containing heating fluid to transfer the heat from the collector

 Support structure to protect the components and hold them in place

 Insulation covering sides and bottom of the collector to reduce heat losses

Figure 1.2: Schematic of a flat plate solar collector with liquid transport medium. The solar
radiation is absorbed by the black plate and transfers heat to the fluid in the tubes. The thermal
insulation prevents heat loss during fluid transfer; the screens reduce the heat loss due to
convection and radiation to the atmosphere

The flat-plate systems normally operate and reach the maximum efficiency within the temperature
range from 30 to 80 oC (Kalogirou, 2009), however, some new types of collectors that employ
vacuum insulation can achieve higher temperatures (up to 100 oC). Due to the introduction of
selective coatings, the stagnant fluid temperature in flat-plate collectors has been shown to reach
200 oC.

Some advantages of the flat-plate collectors are that they are:

 Easy to manufacture

 Low cost

 Collect both beam and diffuse radiation

 Permanently fixed (no sophisticated positioning or tracking equipment is required)

 Little maintenance

Flat-plate collectors are installed facing the equator (i.e. South oriented in the Northern
hemisphere and North oriented in the Southern hemisphere). The optimal tilt of the collector plate
is close to the latitude of the location (+/- 15o). If the application is solar cooling, the optimum
installation angle is Latitude - 10o, so that the solar beam is perpendicular to the collector during
summertime. If the application is solar heating, the optimum installation angle is Latitude + 10o.
It was found however, that for year-round hot water application, the optimum angle is Latitude +
5o, which provides somewhat better performance during winter, when the hot water is more
needed (Kalogirou, 2009)

Parabolic trough collector:

These concentrating collectors are used in which the absorber is placed along the focus axis. In
this the collector pipe is used as an absorber with a selective coating. Parabolic reflectors are
usually made of highly polished or silvered glass or of a film of aluminized plastic on affirm base.
Instead of the reflector having a continuous form the reflector may be made of a large number of
flat mirror strips on the parabolic firm base.

Figure 1.2.1-Parabolic concentrating solar collector

Parabolic dish Collector
2Parabolic dish. reflector (PDR) A parabolic dish reflector, shown schematically in Fig. 11, is a
point-focus collector that tracks the sun in two axes, concentrating solar energy onto a receiver
located at the focal point of the dish. The dish structure must track fully the sun to reflect the
beam into the thermal receiver. For this purpose tracking mechanisms similar to the ones
described in previous section are employed in double so as the collector is tracked in two axes.
The receiver absorbs the radiant solar energy, converting it into thermal energy in a circulating
fluid. The thermal energy can then either be converted into electricity using an engine-generator
coupled directly to the receiver, or it can be transported through pipes to a central power-
conversion system. Parabolic-dish systems can achieve temperatures in excess of 1500 8C.
Because the receivers are distributed throughout a collector field, like parabolic troughs, parabolic
dishes are often called distributed-receiver systems.

Fig. 1.2.2. Schematic of a parabolic dish collector.

Parabolic dishes have several important advantages: 1. Because they are always pointing the sun,
they are the most efficient of all collector systems; 2. They typically have concentration ratio in
the range of 600–2000, and thus are highly efficient at thermal-energy absorption and power
conversion systems; 3. They have modular collector and receiver units that can either function
independently or as part of a larger system of dishes. The main use of this type of concentrator is
for parabolic dish engines. A parabolic dish-engine system is an electric generator that uses
sunlight instead of crude oil or coal to produce electricity. The major parts of a system are the
solar dish concentrator and the power conversion unit. More details on this system are given in
Section 5.6.3. Parabolic-dish systems that generate electricity from a central power converter
collect the absorbed sunlight from individual receivers and deliver it via a heat-transfer fluid to the
power-conversion systems. The need to circulate heattransfer fluid throughout the collector field
raises design issues such as piping layout, pumping requirements, and thermal losses. Systems
that employ small generators at the focal point of each dish provide energy in the form of
electricity rather than as heated fluid. The power conversion unit includes the thermal receiver and
the heat engine. The thermal receiver absorbs the concentrated beam of solar energy, converts it to
heat, and transfers the heat to the heat engine. A thermal receiver can be a bank of tubes with a
cooling fluid circulating through it. The heat transfer medium usually employed as the working
fluid for an engine is hydrogen or helium. Alternate thermal receivers are heat pipes wherein the
boiling and condensing of an intermediate fluid is used to transfer the heat to the engine. The heat
engine system takes the heat from the thermal receiver and uses it to produce electricity. The
engine-generators have several components; a receiver to absorb the concentrated sunlight to heat
the working fluid of the engine, which then converts the thermal energy into mechanical work; an
alternator attached to the engine to convert the work into electricity, a waste-heat exhaust system
to vent excess heat to the atmosphere, and a control system to match the engine’s operation to the
available solar energy. This distributed parabolic dish system lacks thermal storage capabilities,
but can be hybridised to run on fossil fuel during periods without sunshine. The Stirling engine is
the most common type of heat engine used in dish-engine systems. Other possible power
conversion unit technologies that are evaluated for future applications are microturbines and
concentrating photovoltaics .
Solar Tower or Heliostat field collector
For extremely high inputs of radiant energy, a multiFig.. plicity of flat mirrors, or heliostats, using
altazimuth mounts, can be used to reflect their incident direct solar radiation onto a common
target as shown in Fig. 12. This is called the heliostat field or central receiver collector.

Fig. 1.2.3- Schematic of central receiver system

By using slightly concave mirror segments on the heliostats, large amounts of thermal energy can
be directed into the cavity of a steam generator to produce steam at high temperature and pressure.
The concentrated heat energy absorbed by the receiver is transferred to a circulating fluid that can
be stored and later used to produce power. Central receivers have several advantages:
1. They collect solar energy optically and transfer it to a single receiver, thusminimizing thermal-
energy transport requirements;
2. They typically achieve concentration ratios of 300–1500 and so are highly efficient both in
collecting energy and in converting it to electricity;
3. They can conveniently store thermal energy;
4. They are quite large (generally more than 10 MW) and thus benefit from economies of scale.
Each heliostat at a central-receiver facility has from 50 to 150 m2 of reflective surface. The
heliostats collect and concentrate sunlight onto the receiver, which absorbs the concentrated
sunlight, transferring its energy to a heat transfer fluid. The heat-transport system, which consists
primarily of pipes, pumps, and valves, directs the transfer fluid in a closed loop between the
receiver, storage, and power-conversion systems. A thermal-storage system typically stores the
collected energy as sensible heat for later delivery to the power-conversion system. The storage
system also decouples the collection of solar energy from its conversion to electricity. The power-
conversion system consists of a steam generator, turbine generator, and support equipment, which
convert the thermal energy into electricity and supply it to the utility grid. In this case incident
sunrays are reflected by large tracking mirrored collectors, which concentrate the energy flux
towards radioactive /convective heat exchangers, where energy is transferred to a working thermal
fluid. After energy collection by the solar system, the conversion of thermal energy to electricity
has many similarities with the conventional fossil-fuelled thermal power plants
The average solar flux impinging on the receiver has values between 200 and 1000 kW/m2. This
high flux allows working at relatively high temperatures of more than 1500 8C and to integrate
thermal energy in more efficient cycles. Central receiver systems can easily integrate in fossil-
fuelled plants for hybrid operation in a wide variety of options and have the potential to operate
more than half the hours of each year at nominal power using thermal energy
storage.
Central receiver systems are considered to have a large potential for mid-term cost reduction of
electricity compared to parabolic trough technology since they allow many intermediate steps
between the integration in a conventional
Rankine cycle up to the higher energy cycles using gas turbines at temperatures above 1000 8C,
and this subsequently leads to higher efficiencies and larger throughputs. Another alternative is to
use Brayton cycle turbines, which require higher temperature than the ones employed in Rankine
cycle. There are three general configurations for the collector and receiver systems. In the first,
heliostats completely surround the receiver tower, and the receiver, which is cylindrical, has an
exterior heat-transfer surface. In the second, the heliostats are located north of the receiver tower
(in the northern hemisphere), and the receiver has an enclosed heat-transfer surface. In the third,
the heliostats are located north of the receiver tower, and the receiver, which is a vertical plane,
has a north-facing heat-transfer surface. In the final analysis, however, it is the selection of the
heat-transfer fluid, thermal-storage medium, and power conversion cycle that defines a central-
receiver plant. The heat-transfer fluid may either be water/steam, liquid sodium, or molten nitrate
salt (sodium nitrate/potassium nitrate), whereas the thermal-storage medium may be oil mixed
with crushed rock, molten nitrate salt, or liquid sodium. All rely on steam-Rankine power-
conversion systems, although a more advanced system has been proposed that would use air as the
heat-transfer fluid, ceramic bricks for thermal storage, and either a steam-Rankine or open-cycle
Brayton power conversion system

Figure- Solar Operated steam-Rankine power-conversion systems

 Figure: Photograph of solar plant

Swiss design firm RAFAA has shared with us their entry to the invited competition for Ivanpah, a
392-megawatt solar thermal power facility currently being built by BrightSource Energy Inc in the
Californian Mojave Desert. The project - which counts NRG Solar, Google and BrightSource as
equity investors - is currently the largest solar plant under construction in the world.For this
project, the RAFAA design team, which includes Rafael Schmidt, Natalie Fabiani, Alessandra
Frank, Katrina Stoll, and David Szabo, collaborated with engineer consultant Schlaich,
Bergermann und Partner from Stuttgart, Germany

1.3 Domestic-Water heating systems; Commercial heating systems used for

process heating installation
A tilted flat plate solar collector with water as heat transfer fluid is used in solar water heater
system. A thermally insulated hot water storage tank is mounted above the collector. The heated
water of the collector rises up to the hot water tank and equal quantity of cold water enters the
collector. The cycle repeats, resulting in all the water of the hot water tank getting heated up.
When water is taken out from hot water outlet, the same is replaced by cold water from cold
water tank, fixed above the hot water tank.
Advantages : It does not require any pumping system
It can be used with auxiliary heating system
 Fig1.3- Solar Water Heating

1.5 Maintenance: Routine Maintenance, Procedure for domestic and commercial water
heater system

Solar energy systems require periodic inspections and routine maintenance to keep them operating
efficiently. Also, from time to time, components may need repair or replacement. You should also
take steps to prevent scaling, corrosion, and freezing.

You might be able to handle some of the inspections and maintenance tasks on your own, but
others may require a qualified technician. Ask for a cost estimate in writing before having any
work done. For some systems, it may be more cost effective to replace, shut off, or remove the
solar system than to have it repaired.

PERIODIC INSPECTION LIST

Here are some suggested inspections of solar system components. Also read your owner's manual
for a suggested maintenance schedule.
 Collector shading -Visually check for shading of the collectors during the day (mid-morning,
noon, and mid-afternoon) on an annual basis. Shading can greatly affect the performance of solar
collectors. Vegetation growth over time or new construction on your house or your neighbor's
property may produce shading that wasn't there when the collectors were installed.

 Collector soiling- Dusty or soiled collectors will perform poorly. Periodic cleaning may be
necessary in dry, dusty climates.

 Collector glazing and seals-Look for cracks in the collector glazing, and check to see if seals are
in good condition. Plastic glazing, if excessively yellowed, may need to be replaced.

 Plumbing, ductwork, and wiring connections-Look for fluid leaks at pipe connections. Check
duct connections and seals. Ducts should be sealed with a mastic compound. All wiring
connections should be tight.

 Piping, duct, and wiring insulation-Look for damage or degradation of insulation covering
pipes, ducts, and wiring.

 Roof penetrations-Flashing and sealant around roof penetrations should be in good condition.

 Support structures-Check all nuts and bolts attaching the collectors to any support structures for
tightness.

 Pressure relief valve (on liquid solar heating collectors)-Make sure the valve is not stuck open or
closed.

 Dampers (in solar air heating systems)-If possible, make sure the dampers open and close
properly.

 Pumps or blowers -Verify that distribution pumps or blowers (fans) are operating. Listen to see if
they come on when the sun is shining on the collectors after mid-morning. If you can't hear a
pump or blower operating, then either the controller has malfunctioned or the pump or blower has.

 Heat transfer fluids -Antifreeze solutions in liquid (hydronic) solar heating collectors need to be
replaced periodically. It's a task best left to a qualified technician. If water with a high mineral
content (i.e., hard water) is circulated in the collectors, mineral buildup in the piping may need to
be removed by adding a de-scaling or mild acidic solution to the water every few years.

 Storage systems-Check storage tanks, etc., for cracks, leaks, rust, or other signs of corrosion.
PREVENTING SCALING AND CORROSION

Two major factors affecting the performance of properly sited and installed solar water heating
systems include scaling (in liquid or hydronic-based systems) and corrosion (in hydronic and air
systems).

Scaling

Domestic water that is high in mineral content (or "hard water") may cause the buildup or scaling
of mineral (calcium) deposits in hydronic solar heating systems. Scale buildup reduces system
performance in a number of ways. If your system uses water as the heat-transfer fluid, scaling can
occur in the collector, distribution piping, and heat exchanger. In systems that use other types
of heat-transfer fluids (such as glycol, an anti-freeze), scaling can occur on the surface of the heat
exchanger that transfers heat from the solar collector to the domestic water. Scaling may also
cause valve and pump failures on the potable water loop.

You can avoid scaling by using water softeners or by circulating a mild acidic solution (such as
vinegar) through the collector or domestic hot water loop every 3–5 years, or as necessary
depending on water conditions. You may need to carefully clean heat exchanger surfaces with
medium-grain sandpaper. A "wrap-around" external heat exchanger is an alternative to a heat
exchanger located inside a storage tank.

Corrosion

Most well-designed solar systems experience minimal corrosion. When they do, it is
usually galvanic corrosion, an electrolytic process caused by two dissimilar metals coming into
contact with each other. One metal has a stronger positive electrical charge and pulls electrons
from the other, causing one of the metals to corrode. The heat-transfer fluid in some solar energy
systems sometimes provides the bridge over which this exchange of electrons occurs.

Oxygen entering into an open loop hydronic solar system will cause rust in any iron or steel
component. Such systems should have copper, bronze, brass, stainless steel, plastic, rubber
components in the plumbing loop, and plastic or glass lined storage tanks.

FREEZE PROTECTION

Solar water heating systems, which use liquids as heat-transfer fluids, need protection from
freezing in climates where temperatures fall below 42ºF (6ºC).
 Don't rely on a collector's and the piping's (collector loop's) insulation to keep them from freezing.
The main purpose of the insulation is to reduce heat loss and increase performance. For protecting
the collector and piping from damage due to freezing temperatures, you basically have two
options:

 Use an antifreeze solution as the heat-transfer fluid.

 Drain the collector(s) and piping (collector loop), either manually or automatically, when there's a
chance the temperature might drop below the liquid's freezing point.

Using an Antifreeze Solution

Solar water heating systems that use an antifreeze solution (propylene glycol or ethylene glycol)
as a heat-transfer fluid have effective freeze protection as long as the proper antifreeze
concentration is maintained. Antifreeze fluids degrade over time and normally should be changed
every 3–5 years. Since these systems are pressurized, it is not practical for the average homeowner
to check the condition of the antifreeze solution. If you own this type of system, have a solar
heating professional check it periodically.

Draining the Collector and Piping

Solar water heating systems that use only water as a heat-transfer fluid are the most vulnerable to
freeze damage. "Draindown" or "drainback" systems typically use a controller to drain the
collector loop automatically. Sensors on the collector and storage tank tell the controller when to
shut off the circulation pump, to drain the collector loop, and when to start the pump again.

Improper placement or the use of low-quality sensors can lead to their failure to detect freezing
conditions. The controller may not drain the system, and expensive freeze damage may occur.
Make sure that the sensor(s) have been installed according to the manufacturer's
recommendations, and check the controller at least once a year to be sure that it is operating
correctly.

To ensure that the collector loop drains completely, there should also be a means to prevent a
vacuum from forming inside the collector loop as the liquid drains out. Usually an air vent is
installed at the highest point in the collector loop. It is a good practice to insulate air vents so that
they do not freeze. Also make sure that nothing blocks the airflow into the system when the drain
cycle is active.

Collectors and piping must slope properly to allow the water to drain completely. All collectors
and piping should have a minimum slope of 0.25 inches per foot (2.1 centimeters per meter).
In integral collector storage or "batch" systems, the collector is also the storage tank. Placing large
amounts of insulation around the unglazed parts of the collector and covering the glazing at night
or on cloudy days will help to protect the collector from cold temperatures. However, water in the
collector can freeze over extended periods of very cold weather. The collector supply and return
pipes are also susceptible to freezing, especially if they run through an unheated space or outside.
This can happen even when the pipes are well insulated. It is best to drain the entire system before
freezing temperatures occur to avoid any possible freeze damage.

1.6 Solar Dryers Classification

A solar dryer is another application of solar energy, used immensely in the food and agriculture
industry. Though sun is still used as the direct source for drying food items and clothes in certain
parts of the world. An indirect source of solar power can also be used for the same purpose in the
form of a solar dryer. The main disadvantage of drying directly under the sun is contamination –
dirt, animals, insects etc. Also there is a fear of sudden change in weather conditions like wind or
rain.
When using a solar dryer, you do not have to worry about all this!

Figure 1.6 -A Solar Dryer for drying cocoa seeds

Types of Solar Dryer

A solar dryer can most conveniently be classified as direct or indirect.

Direct Solar Dryer – The item to be dried is exposed directly to solar radiation through a
transparent material that covers the structure. The heat generated from the solar energy is used to
dry the crops or food items and also heats up the surroundings. The main disadvantage of using
the direct mode is that the heat that will be absorbed by the item cannot be controlled. Available in
many sizes, ranging from kilograms to metric tons, the simplicity of the product and its
affordability are its USP.
Indirect Solar Dryer – As the name suggests, this method does not expose the crop directly to
the sunlight. The solar radiation is absorbed and converted into heat by another surface (like a
black top) usually called the collector. Air that will be used for drying is passed over this surface
and gets heated, which is then used to dry the food item inside the dryer. The main advantage of
indirect mode of drying is that the temperatures can be controlled. The sizes can vary from
kilograms to metric tons, but it is expensive and more complex to construct when compared to
direct solar dryers.