Transformer Design and Optimization A Literature Survey PDF

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 24, NO.
4, OCTOBER 2009 1999
Transformer Design and Optimization:

A Literature Survey
Eleftherios I. Amoiralis, Member, IEEE, Marina A. Tsili, Member, IEEE, and Antonios G. Kladas, Member, IEEE
Abstract—With the fast-paced changing technologies in the

power industry, new references addressing new technologies are
coming to the market. Based on this fact, there is an urgent need
to keep track of international experiences and activities taking
place in the field of modern transformer design. The complexity
of transformer design demands reliable and rigorous solution
methods. A survey of current research reveals the continued
interest in application of advanced techniques for transformer
design optimization. This paper conducts a literature survey and
reveals general backgrounds of research and developments in the
field of transformer design and optimization for the past 35 years,
based on more than 420 published articles, 50 transformer books,
and 65 standards.
Index Terms—Analytical methods, artificial intelligence, equiv-
alent circuits, experimental methods, hybrid methods, numerical
techniques, standards, survey, transformer books, transformer
design, transformer design optimization, transformer modeling,
transformers.
Fig. 1. Sources of the literature survey.
I. INTRODUCTION
on an extensive number of published papers [3]. The referred
N the last years, research in the area of transformer de-
I sign experienced an expansion. Many papers, standards,
books, and reports about new models have been published in
publications are mainly extracted from IEEE TRANSACTIONS,
IEEE Magazines, IEEE Proceedings, IEE/IET (Institution of
Electrical Engineers, currently Institution of Engineering and
the technical literature due mostly to the improvement of the Technology) Proceedings as well as a few, yet very important
computer power availability, new innovative optimization algo- conferences in an effort to cover the majority of published pa-
rithms, and the greater uncertainty level introduced by the power pers in the transformer design field (Figs. 1 and 2). However, due
sector deregulation. to the amplitude of this field, such a survey, no matter how com-
Transformer design is a complex task in which engineers have prehensive, cannot be exhaustive. The review is divided into six
to ensure that compatibility with the imposed specifications is major sections: 1) Research efforts focusing on the prediction
met, while keeping manufacturing costs low. Moreover, the de- and/or optimization of specific transformer characteristics; 2)
sign methodology may vary significantly according to the trans- techniques adopted for global transformer design optimization,
former type (distribution, power or instrument transformer) and taking into account all of the relevant performance parameters;
its operating frequency (ranging between 50/60 Hz and a few (3) transformer post-design performance and modeling; 4) stan-
megahertz), while many alterations according to the core con- dards governing the transformer qualification; 5) recent trends
structional characteristics, the cooling method, or the type of the on transformer technology; and 6) transformer books giving to
magnetic material may be encountered [1], [2]. This paper pro- the reader a convenient starting point concerning important as-
vides an overview of research, development, and the application pects of transformer engineering. The references are grouped
of various computational methods for transformer design, based and presented according to their methodological approach, how-
ever, no comparative analysis or specific details of the method-
Manuscript received November 14, 2008; revised May 10, 2009 Current ver- ologies are provided in order to keep the survey as compact
sion published September 23, 2009. This paper is part of the 03ED045 Research
Project that is co-financed by E.U.-European Social Fund (75%) and the Greek
and comprehensive as possible. The research focuses mainly on
Ministry of Development-GSRT (25%). Paper no. TPWRD-00839-2008. power and distribution transformers and other types of trans-
E. I. Amoiralis is with the Department of Production Engineering & Man- formers operating at low frequencies, and is not expanded to
agement, Technical University of Crete, Chania GR-73100, Greece (e-mail:
[email protected]).
transformers for high frequency applications, apart from sev-
M. A. Tsili and A. G. Kladas are with the Faculty of Electrical & Com- eral cases of design models and methodologies applicable to this
puter Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Athens GR-15780, range of frequencies.
Greece (e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]). The present bibliographical survey will be particularly useful
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. for: 1) transformer designers and researchers engaged in trans-
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2009.2028763 former design, optimization, and quality-enhancement activities
0885-8977/$26.00 © 2009 IEEE
2000 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 24, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2009
rated power up to 2.5 MVA and a voltage up to 36 kV are re-

ferred to as distribution transformers, while all transformers of
higher ratings are classified as power transformers.
In particular, a power transformer has been defined by
ANSI/IEEE [4] as a transformer that transfers electric energy
in any part of the circuit between the generator and the dis-
tribution primary circuits. Power transformers may be further
classified according to their scope of application, as described
in the following. Transformers that are directly connected to
the generator of a power station are called generator trans-
formers. Their power range goes up to far above 1000 MVA
and their voltage range extends to approximately 1500 kV. The
Fig. 2. Percentage participation of different IEEE Transaction Journals in the connection between the different high-voltage system levels is
overall amount of IEEE Transaction Journals of the survey. made via network transformers (network interconnecting trans-
formers), which are mainly autotransformers (i.e., transformers
where the primary and secondary winding of each phase have
in today’s competitive environment; 2) utility engineers who a common section). Their power range exceeds 1000 MVA and
would like to enrich their educational background about the their voltage range exceeds 1500 kV.
system interaction aspects of transformers in a power system; On the other hand-side, distribution transformers are used in
and 3) undergraduate and postgraduate students who wish to in- the distribution networks in order to transmit energy from the
tegrate traditional transformer theory with modern computing medium voltage network to the low voltage network of the con-
practices. sumers. In particular, a distribution transformer has been defined
The paper is organized as follows: Section II describes the by ANSI/IEEE [4] as a transformer for transferring electrical
various transformer types that are present in the relevant bib- energy from a primary distribution circuit to a secondary dis-
liography as well as the main considerations during the trans- tribution circuit or consumer’s service circuit. In addition, there
former design process. Section III includes the survey overview are various special purpose transformers such as converter trans-
of research dedicated to transformer characteristics, while Sec- formers, test transformers, instrument transformers or telecom-
tion IV provides an overview of the research conducted on trans- munications transformers, which can be both in the range of
former design optimization. Section V lists publications dedi- power transformers and in the range of distribution transformers
cated to modeling transformers for power system studies. Sec- as far as rated power and rated voltage are concerned.
tion VI provides a comprehensive overview of transformer stan- As far as the cooling method is concerned, transformers may
dards that are issued by international organizations. Section VII be designed either as liquid-immersed or dry type transformers.
addresses new considerations in transformer design, under the In liquid-immersed transformers, the insulating medium is min-
light of recent developments in the electric power industry as eral oil or synthetic insulating liquid while in dry type trans-
well as the technologies involved in transformer construction, formers, the cooling is implemented with natural air circulation.
providing an up-to-date review of modern trends in transformer The identification of liquid-immersed transformers according to
design. Section VIII presents a brief description of transformer the cooling method is expressed by a four-letter code (Fig. 3)
books. Finally, Section IX concludes this paper. (IEEE C57.12.00 and IEC 60076-2 standards). The first letter
expresses the internal cooling medium in contact with the wind-
II. TRANSFORMER DESIGN ings (Letter designates the mineral oil or synthetic insulating
liquid with fire point below 300 C, letter designates the in-
A transformer has been defined by ANSI/IEEE [4] as a static sulating liquid with fire point above 300 C, and letter desig-
electric device consisting of a winding, or two or more coupled nates the insulating liquid with no measurable fire point). The
windings, with or without a magnetic core, for introducing second letter identifies the circulation mechanism for internal
mutual coupling between electric circuits. Transformers are cooling medium (Letter designates the natural convection
extensively used in electric power systems to transfer power flow through cooling equipment and in windings, letter des-
by electromagnetic induction between circuits at the same ignates the forced circulation through cooling equipment (i.e.,
frequency, usually with changed values of voltage and cur- coolant pumps) and natural convection flow in windings (also
rent. Transformers are one of the primary components for the called nondirected flow), and letter designates the forced cir-
transmission and distribution of electrical energy. Their design culation through cooling equipment, directed from the cooling
results mainly from the range of application, the construction, equipment into at least the main windings). The third letter ex-
the rated power and the voltage level. presses the external cooling medium (Letter designates the
air and letter designates the water). The fourth letter iden-
A. Transformer Types
tifies the circulation mechanism for external cooling medium
Different kinds of transformer types may be encountered, ac- (Letter designates the natural convection and letter desig-
cording to their use, their cooling method or the construction nates the forced circulation [fans (air cooling) or pumps (water
of their magnetic circuit. A major classification is realized ac- cooling)]). For example, if the internal cooling medium is min-
cording to the power and voltage ratings: transformers with a eral oil, which is circulated with natural flow, and the external
AMOIRALIS et al.: TRANSFORMER DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION: A LITERATURE SURVEY 2001
Fig. 3. Transformer cooling designations.
cooling medium is air, which is circulated with natural convec-

tion, then this cooling method is coded as ONAN (Oil Natural
Air Natural). In power transformers, various cooling methods
are used including oil circulation by pumps, or forced air cir-
culation by fans, or both of the above. As a result, a number of
different cooling methods exist: oil natural air forced (ONAF),
oil forced air natural (OFAN), oil forced air forced (OFAF), oil
forced water forced (OFWF). Combinations such as ONAN/
ONAF, ONAN/OFAN, or ONAN/OFAF are also applicable [5].
Transformer magnetic circuit is constructed in either a

shell or a core structure. They are distinguished from each
other by the manner in which the primary and secondary coils
are placed around the laminated steel core. The shell-type
transformer is one where the windings are completely sur-
rounded by transformer steel in the plane of the coil. In core
type, the windings surround the laminated iron core. There
are two different technologies for stacking the sheets of the
magnetic material of the core, providing a further distinction
to a) stack-core transformers, where the layers of the sheets
of the magnetic material are placed one over the other and
Fig. 4. Transformer survey structure.
the vertical and the horizontal layers are over lapped, and b)
wound-core transformers, where the magnetic circuit is of shell
type and the sheets are wound. Multi-winding transformers, as use of the EC is still common in the manufacturing industry,
well as poly-phase transformers, can be made in either shell due to its simplicity and its ability to provide reliable results,
or core type designs, with a magnetic circuit that consists of especially in cases of standardized geometries; 3) analytical
five (in shell-type transformers) or three legs (in core-type methods (AM), employing analytical formulas for the represen-
transformers), respectively. tation of the transformer electromagnetic field as well as other
B. Transformer Survey Structure operational characteristics (such as the current distribution),
providing alternative modeling with less computational com-
Transformer design must take into account numerous per- plexity compared to numerical methods; 4) stochastic methods,
formance parameters and technical constraints. The research in including artificial-intelligence (AI) techniques, such as genetic
the relevant literature may deal with each one of these param- algorithms (GAs), which have seen increased usage in the
eters separately, or concern the overall transformer optimiza- transformer design area over the last few years; 5) experimental
tion. Fig. 4 presents the main categories of the literature survey, methods (EM), combining data provided by measurements
which define the structure of the survey overview presented in with analytical or other methods, in order to provide efficient
the next Sections. models for the accurate representation of certain transformer
characteristics; 6) hybrid methods (HM) (i.e., combinations of
III. RESEARCH DEDICATED TO SPECIFIC one or more of the methods listed before).
TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS Table I illustrates an overview of the references presented in
The numerous computational methods and engineering Sections III-A–III-I, sorted by the subject and methodological
models proposed for transformer analysis and the accurate pre- approach (based on the six categories defined before). Further
diction of their characteristics can be roughly categorized into details on each reference or group of references are included in
six main groups: 1) numerical techniques (NT) that consist of the following paragraphs, providing the necessary background
some of the most widely used tools for transformer simulation. for their classification. Since several papers were not entirely
Among the proposed techniques of this group, the finite-ele- dedicated to a single transformer characteristic or methodolog-
ment method (FEM) is the most prevalent one; 2) improved ical approach, their classification was based on the main axes of
versions of the transformer equivalent circuit (EC), in order the proposed methodology or the basic aspects of the addressed
to include semiempirical descriptions of the core and winding research problems. The observation of Table I not only facili-
characteristics that affect the accuracy of calculations. The tates researchers in the field to categorize previous works but
TABLE I developed. Detailed modeling of the core magnetic properties

CLASSIFICATION OF REFERENCES PRESENTED IN SECTION III based on measurements is presented in [12]–[16], while in [17],
BY SUBJECT AND METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
eddy current loss in transformers operated by pulsewidth-modu-
lated inverters is presented. Magnetic anisotropy models for use
in 2-D numerical analysis are developed in [18]–[20]. Igarashi
et al. propose a 2-D FEM method which reduces the number
of unknowns in the finite-element analysis of steel laminations
in [21]. A numerical method for the calculation of the power
losses of nonlinear laminated ferromagnetic cores is developed
in [22], performing a two-step analysis (the first step considers
the anisotropic conductivity of the material, while the second
one introduces its inhomogeneous permeability) and employs
FEM models as a tool for the correction and refinement of re-
sults provided by the first step. Anisotropic magnetic material
properties in conjunction with 2-D FEM are used for the anal-
ysis of transformer magnetic material properties frequency de-
pendence [23]. 2-D FEM modeling combined with 2-D and 3-D
calculations is carried out in [24] in order to derive a dedicated
model of dynamic hysteresis and extra losses in transformer
soft magnetic materials. Excessive core losses and temperature
rises due to the half-turn effect (the phenomenon where the
winding leads are taken out from the different sides of the core
leading to an additional half-turn in one of the core windows in a
single-phase transformer) are studied through 2-D FEM in [25].
Virtual air gaps created in a transformer core by a change in core
permeability in the vicinity of auxiliary windings carrying direct
current (dc) are also investigated by 2-D FEM in [26]. In order
to achieve more detailed analysis and computation of the trans-
former magnetic field, the 3-D analysis becomes necessary, as
proposed in [27]–[31]. Moreover, Koppikar et al. [32] describe
details of statistical analysis used in conjunction with 2-D FEM
for quantifying the effect of various factors affecting flitch plate
loss along with the results of 3-D FEM simulations carried on
also reveals fields that have not yet been covered, proposing fur- slotted and laminated flitch plates. To reduce the computational
ther research areas. complexity of 3-D FEM, a practical modeling method of core
lamination modeling is investigated in [33]. Nakata et al. inves-
tigate the influence of transformer core step lap joints on its loss
A. No-Load Losses
in [34]. Furthermore, a rigorous analytical study using the finite
No-load losses are the continuous losses of a transformer, re- difference method for magnetic-field calculation is performed
gardless of load, namely, they exist whenever the unit is en- by several authors in the literature in order to understand the
ergized [6]. No-load losses are also called iron or core losses role of joints in determining the performance of cores of power
because they are mainly a function of the core materials. The and distribution transformers [35] and to accurately calculate
two main components of no-load losses are eddy currents and the 3-D spatial distribution, components, and total core losses
hysteresis. Hysteresis describes the memory of a magnetic main power transformer stacked cores [36], [37]. A dynamic core
terial. More force is necessary to demagnetize magnetic mate- loss model to estimate core loss in soft ferromagnetic and power
rial than it takes to magnetize it; the magnetic domains in the ferrite materials with arbitrary flux waveforms, for application
material resist realignment. Eddy current losses are small cir- in 2-D and 3-D transient finite-element analysis is proposed in
culating currents in the core material. The steel core is a con- [38].
ductor that carries an alternating magnetic field, which induces In addition, various studies [39]–[46] explore the local flux
circulating currents in the core. These currents through the re- distribution in transformer cores as a function of joint design
sistive conductor generate heat and losses. Cores are typically and its relevance for power loss and noise. It is worth noting
made from cold-rolled, grain-oriented silicon steel laminations. that although transformer joint air gaps have been well studied
A third component of core loss is also present, that cannot be using FEM, they are seldom taken into account in circuit models
directly attributed to eddy current or hysteresis phenomena, and [47].
is often called stray, extra or anomalous loss. The application of AI in loss evaluation is addressed in [48]
FEM has been extensively employed in the no-load losses and [49], where the no-load losses as a function of core de-
prediction problem. The application of two-dimensional (2-D) sign parameters are predicted by means of artificial neural net-
FEM in the calculation of transformer core losses is realized in works (ANNs). Georgilakis et al. [50], [51] also used ANNs
[7] and [8], where tools for the calculation of stray and eddy to reduce the iron losses of assembled transformers while opti-
losses are developed, while in [9]–[11], hysteresis models are mizing the production process of individual cores using Taguchi
methods. In addition, a combination of three AI methods is pre- Moses [73] have carried out experiments on various samples in
sented in [52] and [53], namely, ANNs, decision trees (DTs), order to test the hypothesis that different stacking patterns of
and GAs, in order to minimize iron losses during manufacturing grain oriented silicon steel laminations, cut at small angles to
of wound-core distribution transformers. In [54], the differen- the rolling direction, can reduce the iron core losses in power
tial evolution method is applied to determine the magnetically transformers. Fiorillo et al. have experimentally investigated
nonlinear characteristics of transformers. Hybrid methods, com- the magnetic variables of grain oriented alloys, in order to de-
bining AI techniques with numerical methods, have been em- rive models of magnetization curve, hysteresis loops, and losses
ployed for the calculation and minimization of core losses, as in in any direction [74]. In addition, Marketos and Meydan [75]
[55], where a 3-D permeability tensor FEM is combined with introduced a novel method of fabricating consolidated stacks
simulated annealing in order to define appropriate design vari- of electrical steel into single-phase transformer cores, which
ables of wound cores constructed by a combination of standard can considerably speed up the time required to build the cores
and high magnetization grade steel. by attempting to further reduce the amount of flux that deviates
Accurate calculation of losses is also provided by the devel- from the rolling direction at the corners of transformer cores.
opment of improved equivalent circuits, as proposed in [56], Experimental study of harmonic flux effects in transformer
where a circuit that is able to predict losses under different oper- ferromagnetic materials is realized in [76], while a method
ating conditions is presented. Moreover, a final EC of sufficient for predicting the core losses under the sinusoidal conditions
accuracy, combining hysteresis and eddy current losses contri- with an adequate accuracy from the test results obtained with
butions, is proposed in [57]. In addition, Adly [58] presented the real nonsinusoidal voltage waveform is proposed in [77].
an analytical investigation of the various transformer losses Anisotropic behavior of transformer core loss material is ex-
resulting from semirotating flux excitation. The main feature perimentally studied and interpreted in [78]. Finally, the silicon
of this analysis is that core magnetic properties are accurately steel complex permeability at high frequencies is experimen-
represented and simulated using recently developed vector tally determined in [79].
Preisach-type models of hysteresis. Reference [59] introduces
an accurate Preisach-type model of the hysteretic inductor to B. Load Losses
represent a single-phase transformer for the investigation of the Load losses result from load currents flowing through the
ferroresonance phenomenon, while [60] introduces an accurate transformer [6]. Load losses are also called copper or wire or
transformer core model, using the Preisach theory, to represent winding losses. The two components of the load losses are the
the core magnetization characteristic in order to simulate fer- Joule losses (deriving from the product , where symbol I
roresonance in voltage transformers. An improved magnetic stands for the winding current and symbol R represents the
anisotropy model, by use of tensor reluctivity, to accurately winding resistance) and the stray losses. losses are based
express the phase difference between the magnetic flux density on the measured dc resistance, the bulk of which is due to the
and the magnetic-field intensity is developed in [61]. Guerra winding conductors, and the current at a given load. The stray
and Mota present a nonlinear electric circuit to describe the losses are a term given to the accumulation of the additional
behavior of magnetic cores in low-frequency applications in losses experienced by the transformer, which includes winding
[62]. eddy losses and losses due to the effects of leakage flux entering
Experimental methods, combining data provided by measure- internal metallic structures. Auxiliary losses refer to the power
ments with analytical or other methods, in order to provide ef- required to run auxiliary cooling equipment, such as fans and
ficient models for the accurate representation of hysteresis and pumps, and are not typically included in the total losses.
power losses in the laminations of power transformers, are pro- A review of about 50 papers were conducted by Kulkarni and
posed in [63] and [64], based on data supplied from the steel Khaparde [80], which have dealt with one or more components
manufacturer. Moses [65] reported results in which localized of stray loss from the point of view of estimation and reduction.
flux density and losses have been measured experimentally in In this case, stray losses include eddy and circulating current
model cores and compared with data obtained from an FEM loss in windings, losses in flitch plate, core edge loss, loss due
analysis of the same core geometry. In addition, Girgis et al. to high current field, and frame and tank losses.
[66] carried out an analytical study in an attempt to determine Moreover, a short methodological survey is carried out by
the magnitude of the effects of a number of core production at- Krawczyk and Turowski [81], showing the need of eddy cur-
tributes. Albach et al. [67] present a practical method for pre- rent analysis in electric devices. Robert provides a theoretical
dicting the core losses in magnetic components for an arbi- discussion about the layer copper factor used in winding loss
trary shape of the magnetizing current. Furthermore, Dolinar calculation in [82], focusing on a review of the relevant tech-
[68] determined a magnetically nonlinear iron core model of nical literature.
a three-phase three-limb transformer and compared it with the The FEM analysis is quite commonly used for the eddy loss
classical saturated iron core model [69]. In [70], an experimental calculations [83], [84]. Pern and Yeh [85] are engaged in the for-
investigation of the factors that influence the harmonic content mulation of a finite-element method based on vector magnetic
of magnetizing current (namely the flux density, the degree of potential formulation to simulate the electromagnetic field and
saturation and the core stacking technique) is performed. current distribution in the windings of power transformers with
Many researchers have studied rotational iron losses over the non-negligible circulating current. In addition, the foil-winding
years and a number of techniques for making measurements eddy loss is estimated by Ram [86], and his model is afterwards
have been described in the literature. Stranges and Findlay [71] exploited for the study of the variation of transformer sheet
described an apparatus capable of determining iron losses due winding eddy current loss with frequency [87]. Furthermore,
to rotational flux. In addition, Findlay et al. [72] and Davies and the eddy current field due to both windings and heavy current
leads in large power transformers is analyzed in [88] by using The finite-element method has been extensively employed
an improved FEM method based on scalar magnetic potential in transformer leakage field evaluation. The first research at-
formulation. This formulation is also employed in [89] for the tempts, presented over three decades ago [107], [108], focused
calculation of three-dimensional distributions of eddy-current on 2-D modeling, due to the restricted performance abilities
densities and loss densities in metals near heavy current leads provided by the early development of personal computers. 2-D
in a large transformer. On the other hand, vector magnetic po- FEM remains an efficient tool for leakage field and short-circuit
tential is used to determine the magnetic field distribution in impedance evaluation and more recent developments in the
transformer windings considering inhomogeneous current dis- prediction of these parameters are presented in the literature
tribution in [90] and time-periodic nonlinear magnetic fields [109]–[111]. Although the 2-D modeling is convenient and
with eddy currents in [91]. A numerical analysis of losses gen- useful in some design problems, it can be found insufficient for
erated in the tank-wall surrounding the high-current bushings detailed analysis and computation of the transformer magnetic
of pad-mounted transformers using a 3-D FEM is conducted in
field, and therefore the 3-D solution, initially proposed by
[92]. A special type of finite element is developed in [93] for the
Demerdash et al. at the beginning of 1980 [112], becomes
calculation of eddy current losses in transformer tank shields.
necessary [113]–[117]. In this context, formulas for the ex-
3-D eddy current calculation is also conducted by means of in-
tegral equation method in [94], which, as opposed to 3-D FEM, ploitation of 3-D FEM model results in winding flux linkage are
provides less computational complexity. Analytical representa- proposed in [118]. The boundary-element method is another
tions of the electromagnetic field are also used for the predic- numerical technique extensively used for electromagnetic prob-
tion of eddy current losses in transformer tank covers in [95], lems [119]. The main attraction of this method is the simplicity
an investigation that is expanded in [96] by 1) an analytical for- of the data required to solve these problems, along with the
mulation; 2) a three-dimensional finite-element method; 3) from high accuracy obtained with boundary elements. Moreover, the
measured values of the initial temperature rise; and 4) from mea- combination of boundary and finite elements is another widely
sured values of the steady-state temperature rise. Eddy losses used numerical field analysis technique presenting significant
due to high current leads in transformers are calculated by an- advantages in transformer leakage field modeling [120]–[123].
alytical methods as well as 2-D and 3-D FEM in [97]. In [98], To overcome the main numerical techniques drawback,
an accurate 3-D formulation to study the boundary eddy current namely the complexity of the required mesh size, especially
field arising from the heavy winding and terminal lead currents in 3-D configurations, alternative leakage field evaluation
in a compact power transformer is developed. The 3-D reluc- models have been proposed, with the use of a 3-D reluctance
tance network method is also proposed for transformer load loss network method [124], [125], falling into the category of EC
prediction in [99] as a fast low cost tool for obtaining power and representation. An alternative method of transformer leakage
hottest-spot output data. The same method is employed for the field calculation is based on simplified analytical formulas,
assessment of the effectiveness of a laminated flux collector in as in [126], where the calculation of self and mutual imped-
controlling the power losses of the transformer in [100]. Finally, ances between sections of transformer windings is performed
FEM has been employed for the investigation of proximity ef- or [127], where analytical calculations are carried out using
fects on conductor losses in [101]. Maxwell’s differential equations and introducing the vector
Experimental study of load losses is also encountered in
potential, for the components of the magnetic induction in
the relevant literature. When a three-phase three-limb core
two-dimensional field space. Analytical methods are often
type transformer is subjected to the load-loss measurement
employed by transformer manufacturers in order to simplify the
test, it is found that the losses and currents of the phases are
asymmetrical (and unequal). Reference [102] attempts to give time and complexity of the calculations required in automated
a comprehensive explanation for the asymmetry in the loss design process. Tomczuk and Zakrewski and Tomczuk propose
values of the three phases during the load-loss test. Moreover, the integral equation method for the calculation of magnetic
eddy current losses are experimentally determined in order leakage fields in [128] and [129], respectively.
to analyze the derating of single-phase transformers under Stochastic methods are also employed for solving problems
nonlinear loads in [103], [104]. of this category, as by Thilagar and Rao [130], who suggested
an exact EC model for the estimation of all impedance param-
eters of three-winding transformers, with the use of GAs. The
C. Leakage Field and Short-Circuit Impedance suggested method also estimates geometrically a complex pa-
rameter, that is, mutual leakage between secondary and tertiary
The calculation of transformer leakage flux is a prerequisite windings.
to the calculation of reactance, short-circuit impedance, short- In terms of leakage reactance experimental investigation, the
circuit forces, and eddy current losses. A review of the most influence of the test circuit (involving low voltage and single-
common winding arrangements in dual voltage transformers phase excitation) on the respective measurements is presented
(i.e., in transformers with primary or/and secondary windings in [131]. The effects of aluminum magnetic shielding and mild
that can be reconnected in order to produce different operating steel magnetic shunts on the leakage flux in the steel tank of a
voltages) and their impact on short-circuit strength is carried out single-phase transformer are experimentally examined in [132].
in [105]. A further analysis on transformers with tap changers,
resulting to variable volts per turn, is carried out in [106], fo- D. Inrush Current
cusing not only to the leakage field but on losses, noise and Transformer inrush currents are high-magnitude, harmonic-
weight as well. rich currents generated when transformer cores are driven into
saturation during energization. These currents have undesirable concerns during their design, since the ability to overcome the
effects, including potential damage or loss-of-life to the trans- resulting stresses and currents without significant consequences
former and reduced power quality on the system [133]. More- on their operation is a requirement often present in the inter-
over, a significant impact on transformer winding mechanical national technical standards. The accurate representation of this
stress may be observed [134]. It is also shown that under special behavior is mainly realized through numerical techniques due to
conditions, the currents observed after transformer switching on their prevalence in the transformer detailed magnetic field cal-
do not contain enough restraining information (e.g., second har- culation: In [155], 2-D and 3-D FEM are compared in terms of
monic), resulting in protective relay misoperation and posing accurate prediction of exerted forces on shell-type transformers
a great problem for protective relaying of power transformers under short circuit. In [156], a method was developed to apply
[135]. Inrush current prediction is therefore another important 2-D FEM to calculate the parameters for an EC of the trans-
issue during transformer design and various approaches to deal former with an internal short-circuit fault, while in [157] the
with it are present in the technical literature. method is expanded, representing in detail winding insulation
Numerical techniques are present in the above context of deterioration. Winding internal faults are also modeled by 3-D
inrush current prediction, as in [134] and [136], where 2-D FEM in [158] and by coupling the finite-element transformer’s
and 3-D FEM is applied to three-legged power transformers physical model with external electric circuit equations in [159].
for the evaluation of forces on the windings due to inrush 3-D FEM based on scalar and vector magnetic potential formu-
current and their comparison to the respective short-circuit lation is used for transient eddy current and short-circuit forces
forces. However, the majority of the methods used for inrush estimation, in [160] and [161], respectively.
current simulations are based on the derivation of appropriate Equivalent circuit approaches are also employed, although
equivalent circuits, taking into account the core geometry [137] their application is usually coupled to some detailed calcula-
and structural characteristics [138], the core material nonlinear tion, often based on numerical methods [162], in order to ensure
characteristics [139], [140], using real-time measurements better representation of the phenomena occurring during short
[141], [142], adopting proper parameters for the core magnetic circuits.
hysteresis Jiles–Atherton model [143] or by proper simulation Analytical models based on the theory of symmetrical com-
of the voltage sags caused by inrush currents [144]. Other ponents are also used for the simulation of transformer faults
models take into account the effect of transformer energization [163], while the stability of continuously transposed cable wind-
to other parallel connected transformers [145]. Frequency ings under axial short-circuit forces is investigated through an-
domain solution techniques have also been proposed for the alytical formulas in [164] and the vibration analysis of faulted
simulation of inrush current variation, in order to overcome transformers helical windings is performed in [165]. Analytical
numerical problems due to the transient nature of the phenom- methods are proposed in [166] for the calculation of the power
enon [146]. Artificial neural networks have also been employed flow during transformer internal faults.
for the computation of inrush current and the resultant forces Seismic stress is another transient phenomenon with partic-
on the transformer windings [147]. ular interest to transformer engineers, as it can cause severe
Practical methods of elimination of transformer inrush damage including anchorage failure ripping the transformer
current are also proposed in the relevant bibliography as in case and oil leakage, as well as fracture of porcelain bushings.
[148], where proper control strategies of circuit breakers that Therefore, seismic qualification of transformers, focusing on
control transformer switching are presented, or in [149]–[151], high voltage bushings, is another design consideration that is
by means of sequential phase energization (i.e., by energizing explored in [167], [168] by means of 3-D FEM analysis, and in
each phase of the transformer in sequence). Other methods may [169] by a specially developed experimental setup.
be applied during the design stage, by modifying the winding
configuration [152], [153]. F. Noise
Inrush current phenomena may be exploited to estimate trans- Transformers located near a residential area should have
former performance as in [154] where they are used as a crite- sound level as low as possible. Techniques for power trans-
rion to assess core saturation characteristics. former noise control have been proposed over four decades ago
[170]–[173] mainly through experimental study and statistical
E. Dynamic Behavior Under Short Circuits and Seismic Stress analysis of measurements used to determine the principal
factors affecting transformer performance. The sound intensity
The short-circuit current in a transformer creates enormous method for power transformer noise measurements is described
forces on the turns of the windings. The short-circuit currents in and results of its application are demonstrated in [174], while
a large transformer are typically 8 to 10 times larger than rated methods based on this technique are also developed in [175]
and in a small transformer 20 to 25 times larger than rated. The and [176]. In [177] and [178], appropriate conditions for accu-
forces on the windings due to the short-circuit current vary as rate outdoors and indoors measurement of transformer noise
the square of the current, so whereas the forces at rated current are derived and the inherent inaccuracies in the measurements
may be only a few newtons, under short-circuit conditions these are determined, resulting to the proposition of modifications
forces can be tens of thousands of newtons. These mechanical to the existing IEC and IEEE industry standards of measuring
and thermal stresses on the windings must be taken into consid- transformer noise.
eration during the design of the transformer. Transformer be- Since the core magnetic properties and structure are the major
havior under short circuits or internal faults is one of the major factors influencing transformer noise, a lot of research focusses
on the analysis and improvement of the core attributes with re- Finally, the exploitation of measurements and the experience
gard to transformer noise: A simple technique of measuring the from the impact of the operational characteristics on the insula-
dynamic magnetostriction is used to illustrate the effects of im- tion life assessment is often one of the main methods to design
proving the stress sensitivity of steel and reducing core vibration an insulation system and predict its ability to withstand any tran-
by a suitable bonding technique which can also reduce trans- sient phenomena during the transformer life [199].
former noise in [179]. 3-D FEM structural dynamic analysis Insulation condition assessment is a widely covered topic,
is used for the examination of the influence of core lamination and various published works deal with this subject. A theoret-
upon transformer noise in [180], while vibro-acoustic modelling ical discussion on the aging of oil-impregnated paper in power
is also proposed for further analysis. Finally, the relevance of transformers is carried out in [200], while [201]–[203] and [204]
the core magnetic properties for the generation of audible noise present experimental methods to determine cellulose and oil
in transformer cores is analytically and experimentally investi- aging. Transformer oil breakdown is experimentally and the-
gated in [181]. oretically analyzed in [205]. Effects of moisture and aging on
Methods of noise level reduction are also proposed in the the oilpaper insulation of transformers are investigated by re-
bibliography, through the addition of equipment in transformer turn voltage measurements (i.e., the voltage that is built up be-
substations [182], [183]. More recent approaches perform noise tween the electrodes on a dielectric after the application of direct
level optimization by means of a reverse calculation method voltage for a long period of time) in [206]. An analytical model
and Linear Programming using an empirical formula for esti- establishing the time to failure of the insulation of transformers
mating noise levels at the boundary points around the substa- given their operating history is developed in [207], based on
tion premises [184]. The design and the manufacture of a trans- hourly load and ambient temperature measurements that extract
former with low sound level require indepth analysis of noise the operating profile of the equipment and IEEE life consump-
sources. Core, windings and cooling equipment are three main tion models to assess the consumed life of insulation. Partial
factors of noise, with the first factor the paramount one. To de- discharge measurements are used to determine dielectric char-
termine a method for the optimum design of the noise-reduc- acteristics of transformer oils in [208], [209] and [210]. Fre-
tion transformer, noise attenuation of a simple structured proto- quency response of oil-impregnated pressboard and paper are
type transformer that utilizes C-cores is quantitatively discussed used for estimating moisture in transformer insulation in [211]
based on the EC analysis [185], [186]. Similar work is pre- and [212]. Experimental investigation of bushing insulation is
sented in [187]. A recently developed calculation scheme for the analyzed in [213]. Methods to overcome the insulating mate-
computer modelling of the load-controlled noise of liquid-in- rials degradation with time in service are also proposed, as in
sulated three-phase power transformers is presented in [188]. [214], where the use of synthetic minerals for the absorption of
This modelling scheme allows the precise and efficient compu- moisture in paper insulation is discussed.
tation of the coupled electromagnetic, mechanical and acoustic
fields. The equations are solved by using the FEM as well as the H. Cooling
boundary-element method (BEM). Transformer cooling is one of the most important parameters
governing a transformer’s life expectancy. The total temperature
G. Insulation is the sum of the ambient and the temperature rise. The temper-
ature rise in a transformer is intrinsic to that of a transformer at
The insulation of a transformer is linked to its ability to with- a fixed load. The design of the cooling system is based on the
stand surge phenomena and overvoltages likely to occur during hottest-spot temperature value, and different methods for its pre-
its operation. For this purpose, the related work may deal with diction are proposed in the literature, along with the overall tem-
the analysis of such phenomena, so as to design an adequate perature distribution prediction, according to the transformer
transformer insulation system. Other factors that affect trans- cooling method. Furthermore, the improved knowledge of trans-
former insulation life are vibration or mechanical stress, repeti- former thermal characteristics can allow transformer engineers
tive expansion and contraction, exposure to moisture and other to achieve enhanced designs and manufacturers are particularly
contaminants, and electrical and mechanical stress due to over- interested in its accurate prediction.
voltage and short-circuit currents. The finite difference method is proposed by Pierce [215] for
Numerical methods are more scarcely applied for the simula- hottest-spot temperature prediction in dry-type transformers.
tion of the aforementioned phenomena, and are mainly used for 2-D FEM thermal calculation is proposed in [216] for the
the calculation of the transformer electric field [189]–[191]. On calculation of core hottest-spot temperature in power and dis-
the other hand, the majority of research is based on EC repre- tribution transformers. Moreover, it is employed to model the
sentation for transformer analysis under overvoltages, with re- effect of harmonic currents in the winding temperature [217]
spect to their geometrical characteristics [192], their dynamic and to perform heat transfer analysis and obtain the steady
behavior [193], their frequency-response characteristics [194] state and the transient temperature distribution of gas
or the characteristics of the network where they are connected cooled-insulated power transformers [218]. Most recent trends
[195]. Other attempts to model the insulation structure of trans- in thermal modeling employ coupled electromagnetic-thermal
formers and the quantitative analysis of its dielectric response finite-element models [219], [220]. In [221] a 3-D FEM model
are also encountered [196], [197]. Hybrid methods, combining using a magnetic scalar potential formulation is combined with
finite-element simulations for the derivation of EC parameters a mixed analytical and numerical form of the electrical circuit
have also been proposed [198]. equation to take into account the skin and proximity effects in
the windings, resulting to current densities that are used as in- transformer cooling is dependent on the hydrodynamic proper-
puts to a steady state thermal FEM. In [222] a method that relies ties of oil, hydraulic models for mass flow distribution have been
on the combination of analytical calculations, 2-D thermal and proposed in the literature, so as to provide detailed representa-
3-D electromagnetic FEM is presented for transformer thermal tion of the oil flow and pressure in ONAN transformers, as a
modeling. Rosas et al. propose the finite volume method as a function of the number and configuration of the cooling ducts
means of predicting the improvement of the cooling process [251], [252]. Hydraulic models are combined with heat convec-
of liquid-immersed electrical transformers using heat pipes tion models in [253] and [254].
[223]. For the proper representation of the cooling medium The variation of transformer loading directly affects its
circulation, which affects the transformer thermal performance, thermal performance and must be correlated to the transformer
thermal FEM is often coupled to computational fluid dynamics time constants in order to derive safe conclusions for the re-
(CFD), in 2-D [224], [225] or 3-D models [226], [227]. Cou- sulting thermal loading. Therefore, several works have focused
pled fluid flow, heat transfer and electromagnetic numerical on developing proper load models, suitable for adoption in
analysis is also encountered in the relevant litterature [228], transformer thermal studies. In [255], a probabilistic model is
further enhancing the accuracy in the prediction of transformer presented by using load profiles, where variance and covariance
temperature. are included. A methodology for specifying the winter and
Transformer thermal performance is usually predicted summer peak-load limits for substation transformers that carry
through analytical formulas that use approximations and con- a temperature-sensitive load, taking into account the random
stants derived from experimental results. Significant research nature of load and ambient temperature as well as their cor-
effort is focusing on the improvement of these formulas and the relation is presented in [256]. Residential loading profiles are
derivation of more efficient calculation methods. In [229] the extracted in [257], through statistical processing of measured
authors present analytical methods for estimating the tempera- data, proposing a methodology for sizing the transformers to
ture and its distribution at different points of the transformer, serve these kinds of loads. In [258] a risk-based probabilistic
while in [230] they extend this work, taking into account the method is presented to assess transformer loading capability,
thermal inhomogeniety of the windings. This method is later taking into account the probabilistic nature of time-varying
employed to perform an elapsed life assessment study by ac- loads and ambient temperature. Finally, a method for the eval-
quiring insulation-aging data under accelerated thermal stresses uation of cyclic loading of power transformers is presented in
in [231]. Calculation methodologies of top oil temperatures and [259].
hottest-spot temperatures are evaluated in [232] by comparison Particle swarm method, neural networks, and neurofuzzy
to respective measured values in power transformers. Two networks are also encountered in the relevant research field
different thermal analytical models to predict temperature rises [260]–[263]. Monte Carlo methods are also used for sensitivity
in an OFAF transformer at OFAN cooling mode in service analysis of transformer hottest-spot and equivalent aging in
are presented and experimentally investigated in [233]. In [264].
[234], new thermal loading guides are proposed, based on test Experimental investigation of thermal distribution of cast-
results in factories and measured data in the field that are used resin and liquid-filled transformers is carried out in [265] and
to determine parameters of thermal differential equations. A [266], respectively. Experimental data are used for the improve-
mathematical model of the winding hottest-spot response to ment of analytical equations that predict thermal distribution of
step changes in the load current of power transformers is pre- liquid-filled transformers in [267] and [268]. Transformer oil
sented in [235]. Ryder presents an analytical model to predict characteristics before and after modifications of the forced-oil
winding temperature gradient in power transformers, based cooling system are experimentally studied in [269].
on electrical analogy in [236]. The analytical assessment of
the impact of ambient temperature rise, as a result of climate
change, to distribution transformer loss of life is performed I. DC Bias
in [237]. In [238] and [239], four top-oil thermal models that
require only parameters available from heat-run data and need DC current can flow in alternating-current (ac) power lines if
only measurements utilities routinely monitor are presented and a dc potential difference exists between the various grounding
compared. Finally, a short review of developments in analytical points. Such a difference can be caused by a geomagnetic storm
thermal models is presented in [240]. [geomagnetically induced current (GIC)] or the injection of dc
Different kinds of equivalent thermal circuits are encountered current by one of the ground electrodes of a dc link [270]. DC
in the literature, dependent on the geometry of the core and flowing through the earthed neutrals of transformer windings
windings and the type of cooling. Appropriate equivalent cir- causes a dc component in the magnetising current. Owing to
cuits are developed in [241] for the core rise temperature calcu- nonlinearity, the waveform of this current is strongly distorted.
lation and power transformer thermal distribution [242]–[244]. The prediction and impact of this phenomenon has been studied
In [245] and [246], the parameters of the proposed liquid-im- with finite-element method [271]–[275] and equivalent mag-
mersed transformer thermal model are derived with the use of netic circuits [276]–[280]. The experimental study of the phe-
GAs. Dynamic thermal models are also proposed in the litera- nomenon has also been performed, by field tests in a power and
ture [247]–[249], taking proper account of oil viscosity changes distribution transformer in [281] and [282], respectively, and
and loss variation with temperature, while in [250] a reliability by reactive power measurements in various distribution trans-
analysis of various dynamic thermal models is carried out. Since former ratings in [283].
TABLE II on, more research in transformer design using computers

CLASSIFICATION OF REFERENCES PRESENTED IN SECTION IV was pioneered by [285]–[290]. Several design procedures for
BY PROBLEM TYPE AND PROBLEM NAME
low-frequency and high-frequency transformers have appeared
in the literature after the 70’s. Judd and Kressler [291] pre-
sented a technique for designing transformers with given size
and type of structure to have maximum volt-ampere (VA)
output while at the same time insuring the satisfaction of a
number of design constraints. The resulting design technique
eliminates overdesign problems in that the smallest physical
size structure will result consistent with the design objectives.
An improved solution of the described problem was presented
by Hurley et al. [292]. Poloujadoff et al. [293] show the varia-
tion in the price of the transformer depending on the primary
turns, which is an approximately hyperbolic function. Also cost
curves of the transformer against the magnetic flux density and
against the current density are presented. Jeweel [294] does
a functional proposal with students in electrical engineering,
IV. TRANSFORMER DESIGN OPTIMIZATION in which the student designs, builds and tests a 10-VA trans-
former. Grady et al. [295] deal with the teaching of design of
Transformer manufacturers use cost optimization techniques
dry type transformers, based on a computer program, where the
during the design phase to minimize material costs and sat-
user optimizes its design based on trial and error. Furthermore,
isfy the utility’s loss evaluation requirement. The difficulty in
Rubaai [296] describes a computer program yielding an optimal
achieving the optimum balance between the transformer cost
design of a distribution transformer based on user input data
and performance is a complicated task, and the techniques that
(classified in given, independent and dependent). The author
are employed for its solution must be able to deal with the design
includes design transformer formulas used by the program.
considerations of Section III, so as to provide a design optimum,
Andersen [297] presented an optimizing routine, Monica, based
while remaining cost-effective and flexible. The research asso-
on Monte Carlo simulation. Basically, his routine uses random
ciated with design optimization is therefore more restricted in-
numbers to generate feasible designs from which the lowest
volving different mathematical optimization methods.
cost design is chosen. Hernandez and Arjona [298] develop
Whatever the chosen optimization method is, there is also the
an object-oriented knowledge-based distribution transformer
question of how much detail to include in the problem descrip-
design system, in conjunction with FEM, which is used as a
tion. Despite the fact that the goal is to find the lowest cost, one
tool for design performance validation.
might wish that the solution should provide sufficient informa-
Deterministic methods provide robust solutions to the
tion so that an actual design could be produced with little ad-
transformer design optimization problem. In this context,
ditional work. However, it would be unrealistic to expect that
the deterministic method of geometric programming has
the optimum cost design for a transformer would automatically
been proposed in [299] in order to deal with the design opti-
satisfy all of the mechanical, thermal, and electrical constraints
mization problem of both low frequency and high frequency
that require sophisticated design algorithms to evaluate. Based
transformers. Furthermore, the complex optimum overall trans-
on these, our main goal is to present the transformer design opti-
former design problem, which is formulated as a mixed-integer
mization techniques that deal with the minimization of the man-
nonlinear programming problem, by introducing an integrated
ufacturing as well as operating cost. These techniques are sum-
design optimization methodology based on evolutionary al-
marized in Table II according to the category of the addressed
gorithms and numerical electromagnetic and thermal field
optimization problem and they are discussed in the forthcoming
computations, is addressed in [3], [300]. However, the overall
subsections.
manufacturing cost minimization is scarcely addressed in the
technical literature, and the main approaches deal with the
A. Manufacturing Cost Minimization
cost minimization of specific components such as the magnetic
In optimum design of transformers, the main target is to min- material [301], the no-load loss minimization [302], [303]
imize the manufacturing cost. Therefore, the objective function or the load loss minimization [304]. Techniques that include
is a cost function with many terms, including material costs, mathematical models employing analytical formulas, based on
labor costs, and overhead costs. These component costs, as well design constants and approximations for the calculation of the
as the constraint functions, must be expressed in terms of a basic transformer parameters are often the base of the design process
set of design variables. adopted by transformer manufacturers [305].
In order to compete successfully in a global economy, Apart from deterministic methods, Artificial Intelligence
transformer manufacturers need design software capable of techniques have been extensively used in order to cope with
producing manufacturable and optimal designs in a very short the complex problem of transformer design optimization, such
time. Traditionally, the transformer design problem has been as GAs that have been used for transformer cost minimization
surrounded by much transformer designer art. The first trans- [306], performance optimization of cast-resin distribution
former design was made on computer in 1955 [284]. Later transformers with stack-core technology [307] or toroidal core
transformers [308]. Neural network techniques are also em- highest TOC. Therefore, in order to choose the most economical
ployed as a means of design optimization as in [3], [309] and transformer in the long term, the TOC value during the lifespan
[310], where they are used for winding material selection and of the transformer should be taken into account [323]. Moreover,
prediction of transformer losses and reactance, respectively. the external environmental costs [3], [324] should be taken into
Another aspect of transformer design optimization consists consideration as well (i.e., the costs that are associated with var-
in providing design solutions in order to maintain certain as- ious types of emissions resulting from the combustion of fossil
pects of transformer performance within the limits imposed by fuels) so as to compensate for transformer losses.
the technical specifications. In this context, the maintenance of Recently, the impact of transformer environmental external-
short-circuit impedance and losses within the acceptable toler- ities and the contribution of losses to the greenhouse gas emis-
ance is often addressed, as in [121], [311], [312], and [313], sions generated by the global power generation mix has been ad-
[314], respectively. dressed [325]–[327]. Furthermore, ways to promote the policy
In a nutshell, it is clear that the transformer design optimiza- to encourage the use of efficient transformers in the Spanish
tion problem remains an active research area. market are proposed by Frau et al. [328], where incentives to pri-
vate users and electric utilities are introduced, changing Spanish
B. Operating Cost Minimization losses regulation, and allowing utilities to participate in the
Apart from the transformer manufacturing cost, another crite- emissions market. Moreover, an overview of options available
rion used for transformer evaluation and optimization is the total to distribution transformer specifiers, taking advantage of the
owning cost (TOC) taking into account the cost of purchase as efficiency and environmental benefits, has been provided [329].
well as the cost of energy losses throughout the transformer life- However, a methodology to quantify the impact of environ-
time [315]. mental externalities on transformer TOC has not yet been de-
The TOC technique is the most widely used transformer eval- veloped.
uation method for determining the cost-effectiveness of energy-
efficient transformers, providing a balance between cost of pur-
V. POST-DESIGN TRANSFORMER PERFORMANCE
chase and cost of energy losses. The TOC evaluation method has
been developed as a handy tool to reflect the unique financial The main incentive of the research presented in the previous
environment faced by each electric utility when purchasing dis- sections was to develop models for transformer simulation
tribution transformers. According to this method, the variability and adopt methodologies that were able to optimize their
of the cost of electric energy, capacity and financing costs is ex- performance according to their constructional characteristics,
pressed through two evaluation factors, called and factors, providing several criteria for transformer design optimization.
corresponding to the unit cost of no-load and load losses, re- The works presented in this section do not focus on the pre-
spectively. It is important to note that the method that defines diction and evaluation of transformer characteristics during
these two factors varies according to the role of the transformer the design stage, but the derivation of proper models for given
purchaser in the energy market (two major categories can be performance characteristics, to be included in power system
considered: electric utilities and industrial users) and the depth studies or other engineering studies, where transformers are
of the analysis (depending on the accuracy of the representation involved. The relevant research can be divided into two major
of the transformer loading characteristics). It is important to rec- categories: models suitable for harmonic load flow studies and
ognize that the perspective of the electric utility is different from models for electromagnetic transient studies. Table III lists
the perspective of the industrial and commercial users of trans- the relevant publications by category, further classifying them
formers. The transformer loss evaluation procedure for the elec- according to their methodological approach. The acronyms NT,
tric utility involves understanding and assessing the total cost AM, EM, and HM of Table III correspond to the categories
of generation, transmission, and distribution transformer losses, defined in Section III (and included in Table I). It must be
while the transformer loss evaluation procedure for an industrial noted that the majority of the articles concern the derivation of
and commercial user requires an understanding and assessment transformer equivalent circuits; therefore, they are all included
of the electric rates they pay to the electric utility. in the category EC (equivalent circuits) defined in Section III,
An important part of the transformer cost optimization re- a classification that is not explicitly denoted in Table III.
search is devoted to the TOC minimization, as follows. Distribu-
tion transformer TOC optimization is analyzed in [316]–[320]. A. Harmonic Modeling
Since the load losses are directly linked to the type of the con-
sidered load and the specific details of the network at the trans- The research interest on harmonic load flow studies is con-
former installation point, a number of versatile factors should be tinuously growing, due to the increase of nonlinear devices in
incorporated in the TOC analysis. Such an analysis is performed power systems. Since transformers are key elements in these
in depth in [321], [322]. systems, their modeling is an important subject in harmonic
Furthermore, energy losses of transformers throughout their load-flow studies and a number of different approaches have
life cycle increase significantly their operational costs, resulting been proposed in the literature. Stensland et al. develop a trans-
in TOC values much higher than their purchase price. For the former model where the iron and copper losses under low fre-
above reason, the decision for what transformer to purchase quency voltage harmonics may be determined either analyti-
should not be based only on its purchase price. In general, trans- cally or by FEM, suitable for power system studies [330]. Single
formers with the lowest purchase price are also the ones with the and three-phase equivalent circuits taking into account the non-
TABLE III [346] to include the capacitive effects between turns or sections
CLASSIFICATION OF REFERENCES PRESENTED IN SECTION V of a winding. An alternate model for low-frequency electro-
BY SUBJECT AND METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
magnetic transients is proposed in [347] and its more simplified
version is presented in [348]. Papadias et al. present three-phase
transformer models for the study of switching fast electromag-
netic transients in [349]. Distributed equivalent magnetic and
electric circuits are introduced in transformer transient analysis
in [350]. Tokic et al. develop numerical methods to solve the
system of differential equations in state space, describing the
transformer transient behavior in [351], while Tokic and Uglesic
develop an original method of modeling nonlinear elements,
for the elimination of overshooting effects and suppression of
numerical oscillations in transformer transient calculations in
linearity of the core are presented in [331]. Mohammed et al. im-
[352]. Frequency-response analysis is used in [353] to study the
plement a transformer transient FEM coupled to external elec-
transient recovery voltage associated with power transformer
tric circuits and the wavelet packet transfer algorithm for the
terminal faults. Abeywickrama et al. present a 3-D model of
analysis of harmonic behavior of the transformer currents and
electromagnetic (EM)-field distribution in a power transformer
the dc load current [332]. In [333], a complete analytical model
at high frequencies for use in frequency-response analysis in
is developed to calculate the time domain waveform and the har-
[354] and its results are exploited in [355] for high-frequency
monic components of the transformer excitation current. Ma-
modeling of power transformers. In [356], the principles of
soum et al. develop a nonlinear transformer modeling technique
modal analysis are presented, while in [357], modal analysis
for steady-state operation under unbalanced, asymmetric, and
is used to consider frequency-dependent effects of internal
nonsinusoidal operation, capable of computing derating factors
capacitance, inductance, and resistance of windings in order to
in [334].
analyze the transient characteristics of a transformer. In [358],
a model is presented for a multiwinding multiphase transformer
B. Transient and Dynamic Modeling
developed by the nodal inverse inductance matrix, which can
One of the weakest components of modern transient simula- be used for transient and steady-state analysis in complicated
tion software is the transformer model. Many opportunities exist winding arrangements and network configurations, while in
to improve the simulation of its complicated behaviors, which [359] and [360] a multiterminal transformer model is developed
include magnetic saturation of the core, frequency-dependency, for balanced and unbalanced load, respectively. A three-phase
capacitive coupling, and topological correctness of core and coil transformer dynamic model, providing a good compromise
structure [335]. Martinez and Mork present a review of the ex- between accuracy and excessive complexity arising in dynamic
isting models in [335], providing an overview of their main de- simulations is presented in [361], while in [362] frequency-de-
velopments, while Martinez et al. provide guidelines for the es- pendent time-varying resistance of the transformer winding
timation of transformer model parameters for low- and mid-fre- is considered during modeling the response to lightning im-
quency transient simulations in [336]. pulse wave. A model reference approach for classification
In this type of modeling, classical methods to determine trans- of faults that can occur during impulse tests on power trans-
former magnetic circuit and windings such as the ones described formers is proposed in [363]. Stuehm et al. and Mork develop
in Section III are combined with frequency and time domain five-legged wound-core transformer models in [364], [365],
modeling techniques, as presented in the following. while Mork et al. propose a hybrid transformer model based
Woivre et al. propose a model for shell-type transformer on four typically available sources of information: factory
overvoltage study, where the main R, L, and C parameters test reports, design data, basic ratings and direct laboratory
are calculated with analytical and numerical methods, while measurements [366], [367]. In [368], Mork et al. detail the
transient overvoltages of the transformer are calculated from parameter estimation methods developed for the five-legged
frequency response by Fourier transform [337]. Reduction core of the aforementioned hybrid model. Very fast transient
techniques of linear and nonlinear lumped parameters models voltage analysis is performed in [369]–[373]. Mombello and
are proposed by Gutierez et al. [338] and Degeneff et al. Moller present a model with accurate representation of winding
[339], respectively. De Leon and Semlyen introduce a simple losses, developed for the determination of maximal stresses
dynamic hysteresis loss model in [340] and the calculation of during resonance phenomena within transformers [374], while
transformer EC elementary parameters (namely leakage induc- Mombello performs a deep analysis of the behavior of trans-
tance and capacitance) on a turn-to-turn basis in [341] which former winding impedances for high frequencies by analyzing
are used to derive a winding model suitable for transformer the properties of inductance matrices in [375]. In [376], a model
transients in [342]. Moreover, they investigate time domain that reproduces not only the impedance characteristics seen
modeling of eddy currents for electromagnetic transients study from each terminal of a core-type distribution transformer but
in [343] and propose techniques for time step reduction in also the surge-transfer characteristics between the primary and
electromagnetic transient simulation in [344], while in [345], a secondary sides in a wide range of frequencies is presented.
complete three-phase transformer model is proposed based on The coupling of numerical methods with other transient mod-
their previous works in [341]–[343]. This model is improved in eling techniques is proposed by other researchers in the field.
IEC stands for International Electrotechnical Commission,

which was officially founded in 1906 in London. The use of IEC
standards is a voluntary matter. Technical committee number 14
(TC14) deals with power transformers. The IEC standards do
not prescribe how to design and produce transformers. There-
fore, it would be meaningless or it would at least be impre-
cise use of language to say that a transformer shall be or is de-
signed and produced according to IEC standards. The IEC trans-
former standards establish a series of performance, safety, ap-
plication, selection and other requirements to be satisfied by the
equipment, including performance tests for their certification.
In this context, they define certain tests the transformers shall
be subjected to before delivery from the factory and state the
Fig. 5. Percentage participation of IEEE, CENELEC, and IEC standards in the
overall amount of standards survey.
acceptance criteria. The purpose of the tests is that transformers
that have passed these tests shall have good prospects of a long
life and high service reliability, when adequately protected and
maintained.
An EC based on winding resonances computed by FEM is pre-
It is important to note that between the standards that are is-
sented in [377] for the simulation of winding electromagnetic
sued by these three institutions, there are some basic differences
oscillations. Mohammed et al. use a circuit coupled FEM anal-
which are not in the scope of this work to emphasize. How-
ysis under sinusoidal waveforms to derive inductances as a func- ever, IEC and IEEE have expressed the intention gradually to
tion of the amplitude of ac flux as well as its phase angle during decrease or remove these basic differences between their stan-
a complete ac cycle for three-phase transformer modeling [378], dards. It is envisaged that a closer co-operation between these
a work which is later expanded to single-phase transformers organizations will make the future standardization work more
[379]. cost efficient.
Experimental methods to define models for electromagnetic
transient studies are also employed, as in [380], which describes A. ANSI/IEEE Standards
the measurement setup for the extraction of a frequency depen-
dent model of a two winding transformer. A three-phase trans-
former model including saturation and based on experimental IEEE Std. C57.12.00-2006—IEEE Standard for Standard
parameters is developed in [381], for the examination of sym- General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution,
metrical and unsymmetrical voltage sag effects on three-legged Power, and Regulating Transformers;
transformers in [382] and [383], respectively. IEEE Std. C57.12.01-2005—IEEE Standard General Re-
quirements for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Trans-
formers, Including Those with Solid-Cast and/or Resin En-
VI. TRANSFORMER STANDARDS
capsulated Windings, Revision of C57.12.01-1998;
A number of transformer relevant standards are listed in this IEEE Std. C57.12.10-1997—American National Standard
section. These standards are issued by the three institutions: for Transformers—230 kV and Below 833/958 through
ANSI/IEEE, CENELEC, and IEC (Fig. 5). 8333/10 417 kVA, Single-Phase, and 750/862 through 60
IEEE stands for The Institute of Electrical and Electronics 000/80 000/100 000 kVA, Three-Phase Without Load Tap
Engineers, Inc. IEEE standards are national standards prepared Changing; and 3750/4687 through 60 000/80 000/100 000
and issued in the United States of America by the IEEE So- kVA with Load Tap Changing-Safety Requirement;
cieties. The use of these standards is wholly voluntary, and it IEEE STD C57.12.20-2005—IEEE standard for overhead-
becomes mandatory only when specified in a contractual rela- type distribution transformers, 500 kVA and smaller: high
tionship or when required by a duly constituted legal authority. voltage, 34 500 V and below; low voltage, 7970/13 800y
The IEEE clearly indicates that the existence of an IEEE Stan- V and below;
dard does not imply that there are no other ways to deal with IEEE Std. C57.12.21-1992—American National Standard
matters related to the scope of the IEEE standard. Requirements for Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type
CENELEC stands from Comité Européen de Normalisa- Self-Cooled, Single-Phase Distribution Transformers
tion Electrotechnique (in English: European Committee for with High Voltage Bushings; High-Voltage, 34500
Electrotechnical Standardization). It was created in 1973. CEN- GRYD/19920 Volts and Below; Low-Voltage, 240/120
ELEC standards (EN standards) are international standards Volts; 167 kVA and Smaller;
prepared by working groups and approved by weighted voting IEEE Std. C57.12.22-1993—American National Standard
among countries being members of the European Union (EU) for Transformers—Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type,
and other countries included in the European Economic Area Self-Cooled Three-Phase Distribution Transformers With
Agreement. Furthermore, CENELEC has issued a number of High-Voltage Bushings, 2500 kVA and Smaller: High
Harmonization Documents (HD), and their formal status is Voltage, 34 500 Grd Y/19 920 Volts and Below; Low
practically the same as that of the EN standards. CENELEC Voltage, 480 Volts and Below, Reaffirmed 1998;
has decided to phase out the Harmonization Documents and IEEE Std. C57.12.23-2002—IEEE Standard for Under-
replace them by EN standards. ground Type, Self-Cooled, Single-Phase, Distribution
Transformers with Separable Insulated High-Voltage Con- Transformers, 501 kVA and Larger, Three-Phase, with
nectors; High Voltage 25 000 V and Below; Low Voltage High-Voltage 601 to 34 500 Volts, Low-Voltage 208Y/120
600 V and Below; 167 kVA and Smaller Revision of to 4160 Volts;
C57.12.23-1992; IEEE Std. C57.12.52-1981—American National Standard
IEEE Std. C57.12.24-2000 Withdrawn—American Na- Requirements for Sealed Dry-Type Power Transformers,
tional Standard for Transformers Underground-Type 501 kVA and Larger, Three-Phase, with High-Voltage 601
Three-Phase Distribution Transformers, 2500 kVA and to 34 500 Volts, Low-Voltage 208Y/120 to 4160 Volts;
Smaller; High Voltage, 34 500 GrdY/19 920 Volts and IEEE Std. C57.12.55-1987—American National Standard
Below; Low Voltage, 480 Volts and Below Requirements; for Transformers—Used in Unit Installations, Including
IEEE Std. C57.12.25-1990—American National Standard Unit Substations-Conformance Standard;
for Transformers—Pad-mounted, Compartmental-type, IEEE Std. C57.12.56-1986—IEEE standard Test Proce-
Self-cooled, Single-phase Distribution Transformers dure for Thermal Evaluation of Insulation Systems for Ven-
with Separable Insulated High-voltage Connectors; High tilated Dry-Type Power and Distribution transformers;
Voltage, 34 500 Grdy/19 920 Volts and Below; Low IEEE Std. C57.12.58-1991—IEEE Guide for conducting
Voltage, 240/120 Volts; 167 kVA and Smaller Require- a transient voltage analysis of a dry-type transformer coil,
ments; Reaffirmed 1996, 2002, 2008;
IEEE Std. C57.12.26-1992—IEEE Standard for IEEE Std. C57.12.59-2001—IEEE Guide for dr-type trans-
Pad-mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-Cooled, former through-fault current duration, Reaffirmed 2006;
Three-Phase Distribution Transformers for Use with IEEE Std. C57.12.60-1998—IEEE Guide for test pro-
Separable Insulated High-Voltage Connectors (34 500 Grd cedures for thermal evaluation of insulation systems for
Y/19 920 V and Below, 2500 kVA and Smaller); solid-cast and resin-encapsulated power and distribution
IEEE Std. C57.12.28-2005—IEEE Std. C57.12.28—2005 transformers;
IEEE Standard for Pad-Mounted Equipment—Enclosure IEEE Std. C57.12.70-2000—IEEE Standard Terminal
Integrity; Markings and Connections for Distribution and Power
IEEE Std. C57.12.29-2005—IEEE Standard for Transformers;
Pad-Mounted Equipment—Enclosure Integrity for Coastal IEEE Std. C57.12.80-2002—IEEE Standard Terminology
Environments; for power and distribution transformers, Revision of
IEEE Std. C57.12.31-2002—IEEE standard for Pole C57.12.80-1978;
Mounted Equipment—Enclosure Integrity; IEEE Std. C57.12.90-2006—IEEE Standard Test Code
IEEE Std. C57.12.32-2002—IEEE Standard for Sub- for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating
mersible Equipment—Enclosure Integrity, Reaffirmed Transformers;
2008; IEEE Std. C57.12.91-2001—IEEE Standard Test Code for
IEEE Std. C57.12.34-2004—IEEE Standard Requirements Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers;
for Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-Cooled,
three-phase distribution transformers (2500 kVA and B. CENELEC Standards
smaller)—High-voltage: 34 500 GrdY/19 920 volts and
below; low-voltage: 480 volts and below;
IEEE Std. C57.12.35-2007—IEEE Standard for Bar EN 60076-1:1997/A12:2002—Part 1: General;
Coding for Distribution Transformers and Step-Voltage EN 60076-2:1997—Part 2: Temperature rise;
Regulators, Revision of C57.12.35-1996; EN 60076-3:2001—Part 3: Insulation levels, dielectric
IEEE Std. C57.12.36-2007—IEEE Standard Require- tests and external clearances in air;
ments for Liquid-Immersed Distribution Substation EN 60076-4:2002—Part 4: Guide to the lightning impulse
Transformers; and switching impulse testing—Power transformers and
IEEE Std. C57.12.37-2006—IEEE Standard for the Elec- reactors;
tronic Reporting of Distribution Transformer Test Data, EN 60076-5:2006—Part 5: Ability to withstand short cir-
Revision of 1388-2000; cuit;
IEEE Std. C57.12.40-2006—IEEE Standard Requirements EN 60076-6:2008—Part 6: Reactors;
for Secondary Network Transformers, Subway and Vault EN 60076-10:2001—Part 10: Determination of sound
Types (Liquid Immersed); levels;
IEEE Std. C57.12.44-2005—IEEE Standard Requirements EN 60076-11:2004—Part 11: Dry-type transformers;
for Secondary Network Protectors, Revision of C57.12.44- EN 60076-13:2006—Part 13: Self-protected liquid-filled
2000; transformers;
IEEE Std. C57.12.50-1981—American National Standard EN 50216-1:2002—Part 1: General;
Requirements for Ventilated Dry-Type Distribution Trans- EN 50216-2:2002—Part 2: Gas and oil actuated relay for
formers, 1 to 500 kVA, Single-Phase, and 15 to 500 kVA, liquid immersed transformers and reactors with conser-
Three-Phase, with High-Voltage 601 to 34 500 Volts, Low- vator;
Voltage 120 to 600 Volts; EN 50216-3:2002—Part 3: Protective relay for hermet-
IEEE Std. C57.12.51-1981—American National Stan- ically sealed liquid-immersed transformers and reactors
dard Requirements for Ventilated Dry-Type Power without gaseous cushion;
EN 50216-4:2002—Part 4: Basic accessories (earthing TABLE IV

terminal, drain and filling devices, thermometer pocket, CLASSIFICATION OF REFERENCES PRESENTED IN SECTION VII
BY PROBLEM TYPE AND PROBLEM NAME
wheel assembly);
EN 50216-5:2002—Part 5: Liquid level, pressure and
flow indicators, pressure relief devices and dehydrating
breathers;
EN 50216-6:2002—Part 6: Cooling equipment—remov-
able radiators for oil-immersed transformers;
EN 50216-7:2002—Part 7: Electric pumps for transformer
oil;
HD 428.1 S1:1992/A1:1995 Three-phase oil-immersed
distribution transformers 50 Hz, from 50 to 2500 kVA with
highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV—Part
1: General requirements and requirements for transformers
with highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 24 kV;
HD 428.3 S1:1994 Three-phase oil-immersed distribution
transformers 50 Hz, from 50 to 2500 kVA, with highest
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV—Part 3: Sup-
plementary requirements for transformers with highest VII. RECENT TRENDS IN TRANSFORMER TECHNOLOGY
voltage for equipment equal to 36 kV;
HD 428.1 S1:1992 Three-phase oil-immersed distribution In the last decade, rapid changes and developments have been
transformers 50 Hz, from 50 to 2500 kVA with highest made in the field of transformer design. The phenomenal growth
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV—Part 1: Gen- of power systems has put tremendous responsibilities on the
eral requirements and requirements for transformers with transformer industry to supply reliable and cost-effective trans-
highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 24 kV. formers. This section identifies the recent trends in research
and development in materials, insulations systems, accessories,
and diagnostic techniques, by quoting keyworks that address
C. IEC Standards
them, giving pointers to readers desirous of pursuing research
IEC 60076-1 (2000-04) Power transformers—Part 1: Gen- in transformers. The references of this Section are summarized
eral; in Table IV and they are discussed in further detail in the forth-
IEC 60076-2 (1993-04) Power transformers—Part 2: Tem- coming subsections.
perature rise;
IEC 60076-3 (2000-03) Power transformers—Part 3: Insu- A. Magnetic Circuit
lation levels, dielectric tests and external clearances in air; There has been a steady development of core steel material
IEC 60076-4 (2002-06) Power transformers—Part 4: in the last century. The trend of reduction in transformer losses
Guide to the lightning impulse and switching impulse in the last few decades is related to a considerable increase in
testing—power transformers and reactors; energy costs. One of the ways to reduce the core losses is to
IEC 60076-5 (2006-02) Power transformers—Part 5: use better and thinner grades of core steels, but their price is
Ability to withstand short circuit; higher. However, continuous efforts are directed at developing
IEC 60076-6 (in process) Power transformers—Part 6: Re- improved electrical steels with lower iron losses for energy-ef-
actors; ficient transformers. It is well known that low magnetic losses
IEC 60076-7 (2005-12) Power transformers—Part 7: of amorphous material are attributable to the material’s amor-
Loading guide for oil-immersed power transformers; phous condition and small thickness of the ribbon [384], [385].
IEC 60076-8 (1997-11) Power transformers—Part 8: Ap- The core losses can be limited by insulating coatings [386], and
plication guide; various types of coatings have been developed for application
IEC 60076-10 (2005-07) Power transformers—Part 10: to both fully processed and semiprocessed electrical steels. In
Determination of sound levels; addition, Matsuura et al. [387] and Ezure et al. [388] presented
IEC 60076-10-1 (2005-10) Power transformers—Part long-term property reliability for iron-based amorphous alloy
10-1: Determination of sound levels—Application guide; for use in liquid-immersed transformer cores.
IEC 60076-11 (2004-05) Power transformers—Part 11:
Dry-type transformers; B. Windings
IEC 60076-12 (in process) Power transformers—Part 12: The advent of high-temperature superconducting (HTS)
Loading guide for dry-type power transformers; materials has renewed interest in research and development
IEC 60076-13 (2006-05) Power transformers—Part 13: of superconducting transformers. The principal advantages of
Self-protected liquid-filled transformers; HTS transformers are: much lower winding material content
IEC/TS 60076-14 (2004-11) Power transformers—Part 14: and losses, higher overload capacity and possibility of coreless
Design and application of liquid-immersed power trans- design. Some considerations from design point of view are
formers using high-temperature insulation materials; discussed in [389], [390], while in [391] new perspectives of
IEC 60076-15 (in process) Power transformers—Part 15: HTS transformer design are introduced. The development of
Gas-filled power transformers; technology based on liquid nitrogen at temperatures up to 79 K
has reduced the complexity and cost of superconducting trans- between fault and inrush current in transformers, and various
formers [392], [393]. A development of a three-phase 100-kVA methods are evolving [422]. Monitoring methods are also based
superconducting transformer with amorphous core has been on vibro-acoustic measurements [423], oil temperature [424] or
reported in [394]. A high-superconducting coil that simulated spectral thermography have also been developed. A review of
the inner secondary winding of a high-superconducting traction transformer condition assessment methods is provided in [425].
transformer is presented in [395], [396]. Moreover, the mag-
netization losses in HTS pancake windings according to the
VIII. TRANSFORMER BOOKS
operating temperature, is discussed in [397].
It is necessary to make a brief presentation of transformer
C. Insulation books, giving to the reader a convenient starting point. This kind
Transformers in electric power distribution and transmission of review will be extremely helpful and handy not only to under-
systems are expected to function reliably and efficiently in the graduate and postgraduate students but also to the transformer
long term. The quality of the oil in a transformer plays an impor- industrial engineers. The thorough treatment of all-important as-
tant role in performing this function, and the characteristics of pects of transformer engineering given will provide the reader
transformer oil have been examined and reported on for decades. all the appropriate background to pursue research and devel-
The majority of transformers use mineral oil in order to meet opment activities in the field of transformers. Bibliography on
their cooling demands, due to the fact that mineral oil has not transformer books is inspired by the IEEE Power Engineering
only a low price but also very good electrical insulating prop- Society (PES) Transformer Committee (http://www.transform-
erties [398]. However, nowadays, the mineral oil performance erscommittee.org), highlighting a list of 52 books in the domain
cannot meet the modern needs of transformers. of transformers.
Numerous activities have been initiated to try to improve the
properties of mineral oil or to find other substitute liquids Al- • James H. Harlow, Electric Power Transformer Engi-
ternatively to conventional mineral oils, natural esters or veg- neering, 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York, 2007.
etable oils have been used successfully as transformer dielectric • Giorgio Bertagnolli, Short—Circuit Duty of Power Trans-
coolants [399]–[403]. Their application offers some advantages, formers 3rd Revised Edition, ABB Management Services
such as safety against a fire incident, environmental friendliness Ltd. Transformers, Zurich, Switzerland, 2006.
and improved transformer performance. • ABB Transformer and Engineering Services North
The results of Accelerated Aging Tests are discussed in length America, Service Handbook for Power Transformers,
in [404] while in [405] these results suggest that the use of nat- ABB, USA, 2006.
ural esters extends the life of the insulating paper. • ABB Power Technologies Management Ltd. Transformer
Furthermore, mixtures consisting of mineral oil and two Handbook, ABB, Switzerland, 2004.
other kinds of insulating liquids (namely silicon and synthetic • ABB Business Area Power Transformers, Testing of Power
ester oils) are investigated in [406], [407]. Moreover, the “retro- Transformers, ABB, Zurich, 2003.
filling” application (i.e., replacing mineral oil with natural • Hydroelectric Research and Technical Services Group,
esters) is also presented, as a method to extend the remaining Transformers: Basics, Maintenance, and Diagnostics,
thermal life of an aging transformer [408]. US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation,
Last but not least, there is a considerable progress in the tech- Government Printing Office, April 2005.
nology of gas immersed transformers in the last decade. Unlike • Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., Transformers, Mc-
the liquid-immersed transformers, they have gas for the in- Graw-Hill, New York, 2005.
• S. V. Kulkarni, S. A. Khaparde, Transformer Engineering
sulation and cooling purposes [409], [410].
Design & Practice, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 2004.
D. Transformer Monitoring and Diagnostics • M. Horning, J. Kelly, S. Myers, R. Stebbins, Transformer
Maintenance Guide, Third Edition, Transformer Mainte-
Despite the fact that monitoring and diagnostics are not part nance Institute, S. D. Myers Inc., 2004.
of the transformer design process, they are relevant to the main • Indrajit Dasgupta, Design of Transformers, Tata McGraw-
design considerations. For this purpose, an overview of some Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 2002.
key works dealing with the characteristics presented in the pre- • John J. Winders Jr., Power Transformers Principles and
vious Sections is provided in the present Section. Applications, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 2002.
AI techniques and stochastic methods are prevailing in the • Robert M. Del Vecchio, Bertrand Poulin, Pierre T. Feghali,
present category. Neural networks are encountered in the ma- Dilipkumar M. Shah, Rajendra Ahuja, Transformer Design
jority of the research dealing with transformer fault diagnosis Principles—With Application to Core-Form Power Trans-
[411]–[415]. They are also employed for liquid-immersed dis- formers, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Canada,
tribution transformer monitoring in [416]. Furthermore, Sto- 2001.
chastic Petri Nets are used for the simulation of the fault di- • Alexander Publications, editor, Distribution Transformer
agnosis process of liquid-immersed transformers and the defi- Handbook, Alexander Publications, Newport Beach, Cali-
nition of the actions followed to repair the transformer [417]. fornia, 2001.
The particle swarm method is used for winding deformation • Axel Krämer, On-Load Tap-Changers for Power Trans-
identification in [418] and dissolved gas analysis in [419]. Fi- formers, Operation Principles, Applications and Selection,
nally, fuzzy systems and expert systems are proposed in [420] MR-Publication, Regensburg, Germany, 2000.
and [421] for the gas analysis and insulation monitoring, respec- • Martin Heathcote, J & P Transformer Book 12th Edition,
tively. Significant research effort has focused on discrimination Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd. Great Britain, 1998.
• Barry W. Kennedy, Energy Efficient Transformers, Mc- • J. Rosslyn, Power Transformers, Chemical Publishing Co.
Graw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, 1998. Inc., New York, 1941.
• Alfred Berutti, P.E., Practical Guide to Applying, In- • L. H. Hill, Transformers 149C, International Textbook Co.,
stalling and Maintaining Transformers, Intertec Pub- Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1937.
lishing Corporation, EC&M Books, Overland Park, • David D. Coffin, Transformers 149B, International Text-
Kansas, 1998. book Co., Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1935
• Stephen L. Herman, Donald E. Singleton, Delmar’s Stan- • G. Camilli, The Testing of Transformers, General Electric
dard Guide to Transformers, Delmar Publishers, New Co., 1929–1930.
York, 1996. • William T. Taylor, Electricity Supply Transformer Sys-
• Eric Lowden, Practical Transformer Design Handbook tems and Their Operation, Charles Griffin and Co. Ltd.,
2nd Edition, Tab Books Inc. Pennsylvania, 1989. London, 1929.
• H. P. Moser, V. Dahinden, et al. Transformerboard II, H. • Emerson G. Reed, Transformer Construction and Opera-
AG, Rapperswil, Switzerland, 1987. tion, McGraw-Hill Co., Inc., New York, 1928
• K. Karsai, D. Kerenyi, L. Kiss, Large Power Transformers, • Emerson G. Reed, Essentials of Transformer Prac-
(Studies in Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Vol. 25), tice—Theory, Design and Operation, D Van Nostrand Co.,
Elsevier Co., New York, 1987. Inc., New York, 1927.
• Bernard Hochart, editor, Power Transformer Handbook, • Alfred Still, Principals of Transformer Design, John Wiley
Butterworths & Co. Ltd., London, 1987. & Sons, Inc., New York, 1919.
• A. W. Goldman, C. G. Pebler, Volume 2 Power Trans- • William T. Taylor, Transformer Practice, Manufacture, As-
formers, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, Cal- sembling, Connections, Operation and Testing, McGraw-
ifornia, 1987. Hill Book Co., Inc. New York, 1913.
• William M. Flanagan, Handbook of Transformer Design & • Frederick Bedell, The Principals of the Transformer, The
Applications—2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New Macmillian Co., New York, 1896.
York, 1986. • Fleming J. A., The Alternate Current Transformer in
• H. P. Moser, V. Dahinden, et al., Transformerboard, H. Theory and Practice, Volume 1, The Induction of Elec-
AG, Rapperswil, Switzerland, 1979. tric Currents, New Edition, The Electrician Printing and
• R. Feinberg, editor, Modern Power Transformer Practice, Publishing Co. Ltd., London, 1896.
Halsted Press, 1979. • Fleming J. A., The Alternate Current Transformer in
• Colonel Wm. T. McLyman, Transformer and Inductor De- Theory and Practice, Volume I1, The Utilization of In-
sign Handbook, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1978. duced Currents, New Edition, The Electrician Printing
• Kenneth L. Gebert, Kenneth R. Edwards, Transformers and Publishing Co. Ltd., London, 1892.
Principles and Applications 2nd Edition, American Tech- • Caryl D. Haskin, Transformers, Bubier Publishing Co.,
nical Publishers, Inc., Illinois, 1974. Lynn, Mass., 1892.
• Power Transformer Department, L. F. Blume, A. Boya- • Friedrich Uppenborn, History of the Transformer, original
jian, Transformer Connections, General Electric, Schnec- translated from German, E & F.N. Spon, New York, 1889.
tady, New York, 1970. (Reprint available from Kessinger Publishing, Montana.)
• Petter I. Fergestad, Transient Oscillations in Transformer
Windings, Naper Boktrykkeri, Kragero, Norway, 1972. IX. CONCLUSION
• M. Waters, The Short-Circuit Strength of Power Trans-
formers, Macdonald & Co., London, 1966. In this paper, an overview of the literature concerning trans-
• R. L. Bean, N. Chacken, Jr, H. R. Moore, E. C. Wentz, former design has been undertaken, focusing on the progress
Transformers for the Electric Power Industry, McGraw- realized in the past four decades. Relevant publications from in-
Hill Book Co., New York, 1959. ternational journals have been selected, covering a broad range
• L. F. Blume, A. Boyajian, G. Camilli, T. C. Lennox, of engineering methods and design considerations. Moreover,
S. Minneci, V. M. Montsinger, Transformer Engi- the most important international standards governing trans-
neering—2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New former performance and qualification requirements have been
York, 1951. presented. In addition, a brief presentation of transformer
• J. B. Gibbs, Transformer Principles & Practice, McGraw- books has been introduced. The difficulties to include and
Hill Book Co., New York, 1950. categorize the majority of the research in such a vast field were
• Eric E. Wild, Transformers, Blackie & Son, 2nd Edition, overcome by a convenient survey structure, taking into account
London, 1948.
various design considerations. This survey provides important
• Carl H. Dunlap, W. A. Siefert, Frank E. Austin, Trans-
information on the main directions of the considered research
formers Principles and Applications, American Technical
and the future trends in the field of transformer design.
Society, Chicago, 1947.
• W. C. Sealey, Transformers Theory and Construction, In-
ternational Textbook Co., Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1946. REFERENCES
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using dissolved gas analysis,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 16, no. 4, She received the Diploma in electrical and computer
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Division of the Public Power Corporation of Greece
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in high- and medium-voltage substation studies. In
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2007, she joined the Hellenic Transmission System
2003. Operator as a Power Systems Engineer. Her research
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loading guides and ANN for oil-immersed distribution transformer modeling as well as the analysis of generating units by renewable energy
condition monitoring,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 22, no. 1, pp. sources.
201–207, Jan. 2007. Dr. Tsili is a member of the Technical Chamber of Greece.
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flaris, “A systematic stochastic petri net based methodology for trans-
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Antonios G. Kladas (M’02) was born in Greece
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in 1959. He received the Diploma in electrical
formation identification using a particle swarm optimizer with passive engineering from the Aristotle University of Thessa-
congregation for power transformers,” Int. J. Innovations Energy Syst. loniki, Thessaloniki, Greece, in 1982 and the D.E.A.
Power, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 46–52, Nov. 2006. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from
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“A probabilistic classifier for transformer dissolved gas analysis with a Paris, France, in 1983 and 1987, respectively. He
particle swarm optimizer,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. was Associate Assistant at the University of Pierre
751–759, Apr. 2008. and Marie Curie from 1984 to 1989. From 1991
[420] Y. Hong-Tzer and L. Chiung-Chou, “Adaptive fuzzy diagnosis system to 1996, he joined the Public Power Corporation
for dissolved gas analysis of power transformers,” IEEE Trans. Power of Greece, where he was engaged in the System
Del., vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 1342–1350, Oct. 1999. Studies Department. Since 1996, he has been with the Department of Electrical
[421] T. K. Saha and P. Purkait, “Investigation of an expert system for the and Computer Engineering of the National Technical University of Athens
condition assessment of transformer insulation based on dielectric re- (NTUA), where he is now Professor. His research interests include transformer
sponse measurements,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 19, no. 3, pp. and electric machine modeling and design as well as the analysis of generating
1127–1134, Jul. 2004. units by renewable energy sources and industrial drives.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 24, NO.

4, OCTOBER 2009 1999

Transformer Design and Optimization:

Abstract—With the fast-paced changing technologies in the

rated power up to 2.5 MVA and a voltage up to 36 kV are re-

Fig. 3. Transformer cooling designations.

cooling medium is air, which is circulated with natural convec-

Transformer magnetic circuit is constructed in either a

TABLE I developed. Detailed modeling of the core magnetic properties

TABLE II on, more research in transformer design using computers

IEC stands for International Electrotechnical Commission,

EN 50216-4:2002—Part 4: Basic accessories (earthing TABLE IV

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