Chapter 1: Introduction To Public Speaking

By: Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D. and Morgan Hartranft Millersville University, Millersville, PA

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
● Articulate at least three reasons why public speaking skills are important.
● Describe the difference between the linear and the transactional model of
communication.
● List, define, and give an example of each of the components of communication.
● Differentiate between the major types of speeches.
● Identify the eleven core public speaking competencies.
● Apply chapter concepts in final questions and activities.

Introduction to Public Speaking

Humans’ ability to communicate using formalized systems of language sets us apart from other
living creatures on the Earth. Whether these language conventions make us superior to other
creatures is debatable, but there is no question that overall, the most successful and most
powerful people over the centuries have mastered the ability to communicate effectively. In
fact, the skill of speaking is so important that it has been formally taught for thousands of years.

The ironic feature of public speaking is that while we recognize that it is an important skill to
have, many of us do not like or want to give speeches. You may be reading this book because it
was assigned to you in a class, or you may be reading it because you have to give a speech in
your personal or professional life. If you are reading this book because you like public speaking
or you have a burning desire to learn more about it, you’re in the minority​.

The good news about public speaking is that although it may not be on the top of the list of our
favorite activities, ​anyone ​can learn to give effective presentations. What is important is that
the audience understands you and remembers what you have to say. By learning and using the
techniques provided in this reading material, you will discover how to create engaging speeches
and present them using your own delivery style.

Benefits of Public Speaking

According to the Association of American Colleges and Universities, there is a core set of skills
that are necessary “both for a globally engaged democracy and for a dynamic, innovation
fueled economy” (Rhodes, 2010). ​In the category of “Intellectual and practical skills,” ​public
speaking​ ​is listed as one of these core skills.

Public speaking is the process of designing and delivering a message to an ​audience. Effective
public speaking involves understanding your audience and speaking goals, choosing elements
for the speech that will engage your audience with your topic, and delivering your message
skillfully.

Good public speakers understand that they must plan, organize, and revise their material in
order to develop an effective speech. ​This is not particularly surprising given that
communication skills are critical for intellectual development, career trajectory, and civic
engagement. Public speaking is universally applicable to all types of majors and occupations
and is seen by ​U.S. employers as a critical employability skill for job seekers (Rockler-Gladen,
2009). ​No matter what your ambitions and interests are, developing speaking skills will benefit
your personal, professional, and public life.

Personal
People don’t just give presentations on the job and in classes. At times we are called upon to
give speeches in our personal lives. It may be for a special event, such as a toast at a wedding.
We may be asked to give a eulogy at a funeral for a friend or loved one. We may have to
introduce a guest speaker at an event or present or accept an award for service.

Developing the skill to give these types of speeches can help us to fulfill essential roles in our
family and community. Another great personal benefit of public speaking is that it builds
self-confidence. It’s no surprise that speaking in public is scary, but by engaging in the activity
you will build self-confidence through the experience.

Professional
TV announcers, teachers, lawyers, and entertainers must be able to speak well, but most other
professions require, or at the very least, can benefit from the skills found in public speaking. It is
believed 70% of jobs today involve some form of public speaking (Aras, 2012).

With the recent economic shift from manufacturing to service careers, the ability to
communicate with others has become crucial. Top CEOs advise that great leaders must be able
to communicate ideas effectively; they must be able to persuade, build support, negotiate and
speak effectively in public (Farrell, 2013).

The chapters on “Informative Speaking” and “Persuasive Speaking” can help readers
understand how to write presentations that enhance their leadership skills. But before you
even start a career, you have to get a job. Effective speaking skills make you more attractive to
employers, enhancing your chances of securing employment and later advancing within your
career.

Employers, career counselors, and the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE)
all list good communication skills at the top of the list of qualities sought in potential
employees. According to NACE’s executive director, Marilyn Mackes, the Job Outlook 2013
Report found that employers are looking for people who can communicate effectively (Koncz &
Allen, 2012). Monster.com advises, “articulating thoughts clearly and concisely will make a
difference in both a job interview and subsequent job performance” (McKay, 2005).

Action is a great restorer and builder of confidence. Inaction is not only the result, but the
cause, of fear. Perhaps the action you take will be successful; perhaps different action or
adjustments will have to follow. But any action is better than no action at all.
~ Norman Vincent Peale

Public
Learning about public speaking will allow you to participate in democracy at its most basic level.
Public speaking is important in creating and sustaining a society, which includes informed,
active participants. Even if you do not plan to run for office, learning about public speaking
helps you to listen more carefully to and critically evaluate others speeches. Listening and
critical thinking allow you to understand public dilemmas, form an opinion about them, and
participate in resolving them. The progress of the past century involving segregation, women’s
rights, and environmental protection are the result of people advancing new ideas and speaking
out to others to persuade them to adopt changes.

Models of Communication
It should be clear by now that public speaking happens all around us in many segments of our
lives. However, to truly understand what is happening within these presentations, we need to
take a step back and look at some of the key components of the communication process.

Linear Model of Communication

The first theoretical model of communication was proposed in 1949 by ​Shannon and Weaver
for Bell Laboratories. This three-part model was intended to capture the radio and television
transmission process. However it was later adapted to human communication and is now
known as the ​Linear Model of Communication​.

The first part of the model is the sender, and this is the person who is speaking. The second part
of the model is the channel, which is the apparatus for carrying the message (i.e., the phone or
TV). The third part of the model is the receiver, and this is the person who picks up the
message.

In this model, communication is seen as a one-way process of transmitting a message from one
person to another person. This model can be found in Figure 1.1. If you think about situations
when you communicate with another person face-to-face or when you give a speech, you
probably realize that this model is inadequate—communication is much more complicated than
firing off a message to others.

Transactional Model of Communication

Models of communication have evolved significantly since Shannon and Weaver first proposed
their well- known conceptual model over sixty years ago. One of the most useful models for
understanding public speaking is ​Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication​. In this
model, communication is seen as an ongoing, circular process. We are constantly affecting and
are affected by those we communicate with.

The transactional model has a number of interdependent processes and components, including
the encoding and decoding processes, the communicator, the message, the channel and noise.
Although not directly addressed in Barnlund’s (2008) original transactional model, participants’
worldviews and the context also play an important role in the communication process. See
Figure 1.2 for an illustration.
Elements of the Communication Process
Encoding and Decoding
Encoding ​refers to the process of taking ideas, thoughts feelings, or mental images, and
associating those with words, and then speaking those words in order to convey a message. So,
if you wanted to explain to your aunt the directions to your new apartment, you would picture
in your mind the landscape, streets and buildings, and then you would select the best words
that describe the route so your aunt could find you.
Decoding ​is the reverse process of encoding. It involves ​listening ​to words, thinking about
them, and converting those words into mental images, thoughts, feelings, and ideas. If your
aunt were trying to find her way to your apartment, she would listen to your words, associate
these words with streets and landmarks that she knows, and then she would form a mental
map of the way to get to you. Using Language Well (Chapter 11) provides additional insight
into the encoding and decoding processes.
Communicator
The term ​communicator ​refers to each person in the interaction or speech setting. It is used
instead of sender and receiver, because when we are communicating with other people, we are
not only sending a message, we are receiving messages from others simultaneously.

When we speak, we observe others’ ​nonverbal behavior ​to see if they understand us, and we
gauge their emotional state. The information we gain from these observations is known as
feedback. Over the telephone, we listen to paralinguistic cues, such as pitch, tone, volume, and
fillers (i.e., “um,” “uh,” “er,” “like,” and so on). ​This means that communication is not a
one-way process.

Even in a public speaking situation, we watch and listen to audience members’ responses. If
audience members are interested, agree, and understand us, they may lean forward in their
seats, nod their heads, have positive or neutral facial expressions, and provide favorable vocal
cues (such as laughter, “That’s right,” “Uh huh,” or “Amen!”). If audience members are ​bored,
disagree, or are confused by our message, they may be texting or looking away from us, shake
their heads, have unhappy or confused expressions on their faces, or present oppositional vocal
cues (like groans, “I don’t think so,” “That doesn’t make sense,” or “You’re crazy!”). Thus,
communication is always a transactional process—a give and take of messages.

Message
The ​message ​involves those verbal and nonverbal behaviors enacted by communicators that
are interpreted with meaning by others. The verbal portion of the message refers to the words
that we speak, while the nonverbal portion includes our tone of voice and other non-vocal
components such as personal appearance, posture, gestures and body movements, eye
behavior, the way we use space, and even the way that we smell.

For ​instance, the person who gets up to speak wearing a nice suit will be interpreted more
positively than a person giving the exact same speech wearing sweats and a graphic t-shirt. Or if
a speaker tries to convince others to donate to a charity that builds wells in poor African
villages using a monotone voice, she will not be as effective as the speaker who gives the same
speech but speaks with a solemn tone of voice. If there is ever a conflict between the verbal
and the non-verbal aspects of a message, people will generally believe the nonverbal portion of
the message.

To test this, tighten your muscles, clench your fists at your sides, pull your eyebrows together,
purse your lips, and tell someone in a harsh voice, “NO, I’m NOT angry!” See if they believe your
words or your nonverbal behavior.
The message can also be ​intentional or unintentional​. When the message is intentional, this
means that we have an image in our mind that we wish to communicate to an audience or a
person in a conversation, and we can successfully convey the image from our mind to others’
minds with relative accuracy.

An unintentional message is sent when the message that we wish to convey is not the same as
the message the other person receives. Let’s say you are returning from an outing with your
​ ave a good time but
significant other and she or he asks, “Did you have a good time?” You ​did h
are distracted by a TV commercial when asked, so you reply in a neutral tone, “Sure, I had fun.”
Your significant other may interpret your apathetic tone of voice and lack of eye contact to
mean that you did not enjoy the evening, when in fact you actually did. Thus as communicators,
we cannot always be sure that the message we wish to communicate is interpreted as we
intended.

Channel
The ​channel ​is very simply the means through which the message travels. In face-to-face
communication, the channel involves all of our senses, so the channel is what we see, hear,
touch, smell, and perhaps what we taste. When we’re communicating with someone online,
the channel is the computer; when
texting, the channel is the cell phone;
and when watching a movie on cable,
the channel is the TV.

The channel can have a profound impact

on the way a message is interpreted.
Listening to a recording of a speaker
does not have the same psychological
impact as listening to the same speech in
person or watching that person on
television.

One famous example of this is the 1960 televised presidential debate between John F. Kennedy
and Richard Nixon. According to History.com (2012), on camera, Nixon looked away from the
camera at the reporters asking him questions, he was sweating and pale, he had facial hair
stubble, and he wore a grey suit that faded into the set background. “Chicago mayor Richard J.
Daley reportedly said [of Nixon], ‘My God, they’ve embalmed him before he even died’”
(History.com).

Kennedy, on the other hand, looked into the camera, was tanned, wore a dark suit that made
him stand out from the background, and appeared to be calm after spending the entire
weekend with aides practicing in a hotel room. Most of those who listened to the radio
broadcast of the debate felt that it was a tie or that Nixon had won, while 70% of those
watching the televised debate felt that Kennedy was the winner.

Noise
The next aspect of the model of communication is noise. ​Noise ​refers to anything that
interferes with message transmission or reception (i.e., getting the image from your head into
others’ heads). There are several different types of noise. The first type of noise is ​physiological
noise​, and this refers to bodily processes and states that interfere with a message. For instance,
if a speaker has a headache or the flu, or if audience members are hot or hungry these
conditions may interfere with message accuracy.

The second type of noise is psychological noise. ​Psychological noise ​refers to mental states or
emotional states that impede message transmission or reception. For example, if someone has
just broken up with a significant other, or if they’re worried about their grandmother who is in
the hospital, or if they are thinking about their shopping list, this may interfere with
communication processes as well.

The third type of noise is actual ​physical noise​, ​and this would be simply the actual sound level
in a room. Loud music playing at a party, a number of voices of people talking excitedly, a
lawnmower right outside the window, or anything that is overly loud will interfere with
communication.

The last type of noise is cultural noise. ​Cultural noise

refers to message interference that results from
differences in peoples’ worldviews. Worldview is
discussed in more detail below, but suffice it to say
that the greater the difference in worldview, the more
difficult it is to understand one another and
communicate effectively.

Worldview
Most people don’t give a lot of thought to the communication process. In the majority of our
interactions with others, we are operating on automatic pilot. Although the encoding and
decoding processes may appear to be fairly straightforward, it is actually much more
complicated than it seems. The reason for this is because we all have different worldviews.
Worldview ​is the overall framework through which an individual sees, thinks about, and
interprets the world and interacts with it.
It is always good to explore the stuff you don’t agree with, to try and understand a different
lifestyle or foreign worldview. I like to be challenged in that way, and always end up learning
something I didn’t know.
~ Laura Linney

It is important to understand worldview because it has a profound impact on the encoding and
decoding processes, and consequently on our ability to be understood by ​others. Try this simple
experiment: ask two or three people to imagine a dog while you imagine a dog at the same
time. “Dog” is a very ​concrete word ​(a
word that describes a tangible object that
can be perceived through the senses), and it
is one of the first words children in the
United States learn in school. Wait a few
seconds and then ask each person what
type of dog he or she was thinking of. Was it
a Chihuahua? Golden ​retriever?
Rottweiler? Or some other dog? Most
likely each person you asked had a
different image in his or her mind than you
had in yours. This is our worldview at work.

To further illustrate, you may tell a co-worker, “I can’t wait to go home this weekend— we are
having lasagna!” Seems like a fairly clear-cut statement, doesn’t it? ​Unfortunately, it is not.
While “lasagna” is also a concrete word, our worldviews cause ​us to interpret each word in the
statement differently. Where is “home?” Who is making the meal? What ingredients will be
used in the lasagna? Is this dish eaten as a regular meal or for a special occasion? Will there be
leftovers? Are friends invited? Since everyone who has eaten lasagna has had a different
experience of the cuisine, we all acquire a different image in our mind when we hear the
statement “…we are having lasagna!”

Complicating matters is the fact that the more abstract the word becomes, the more room
there is for interpretation. ​Abstract words ​(words that refer to ideas or concepts that are
removed from material reality) like “peace,” “love,” “immoral,” “justice,” “freedom,” “success,”
and “honor” can have a number of different meanings; each of which is predicated on one’s
worldview.

Communicators have their own unique worldviews that shape both the encoding and decoding
processes, which means that we can never be completely understood by another person.
People from the Midwest may call carbonated beverages “pop,” while those from the East
Coast may say “soda,” and those from Georgia may say “Coke.” Never take communication for
granted, and never assume your listener will understand you. It takes hard work to make
yourself understood by an audience.

Context is worth 80 IQ points. ~ Alan Kay

Context
The last element of the communication process is the ​context ​in which the speech or
interaction takes place. In the 1980’s context was taught
as the actual physical setting where communication
occurred, such as in a place of worship, an apartment, a
workplace, a noisy restaurant, or a grocery store. People
communicate differently in ​each one of these places as
there are unwritten rules of communication (called
norms​)​ that govern these settings.

More recently the concept of context has evolved and expanded to include the type of
relationships we have with others and the communicative rules that govern those relationships.
So you do not speak the same way to your best friend as you do to a small child, your ​parent,
your boss, your doctor, or a police officer. And you may speak to your best friend differently in
your apartment than you do in your parents’ home, and your communication may also change
when you are both out with friends on the weekend. In sum, the context refers to the norms
that govern communication in different situations and relationships.

Conclusion
Our capacity to communicate through systems of language differentiates us from other species,
but the use of that language to communicate effectively is actually harder than anticipated,
particularly in front of an audience. Fortunately, by reading this book, you can learn the skills
required to communicate more effectively one-on-one and in a speaking situation.

The speeches you present will be given in a particular context. In your role as communicator,
you will encode and deliver a message, which will then be decoded by audience members (also
communicators). At the same time you are speaking, you will be receiving verbal and nonverbal
feedback from the audience. The way that the message is decoded will depend entirely on the
amount of noise interfering with the message as well as the worldviews of audience members.

Every new speaker should work to become skilled at the ​eleven core public speaking
competencies. These competencies include: selecting a useful topic, writing an engaging
introduction, organizing the points of the speech, finding effective supporting materials for the
points, adding a conclusion that provides closure, using clear and vivid language, making sure
that one’s vocal expression corresponds to the goals of the speech, using nonverbals that
complement the message, adapting the message to one’s audience, using visual aids
effectively, and using credible evidence and sound reasoning in persuasive messages. Each one
of the competencies just listed is covered in depth in one or more chapters in this book.

The authors of this textbook hope that readers will find the chapters useful in developing their
own communication competence. Whether you are new to giving presentations, or a more
experienced speaker, it is important to remember that the best way to improve your public
speaking skills is through preparation and practice. Although it may take time to learn effective
speaking skills, the effort is well worth the benefits you will reap in your personal, professional,
and public life.

Review Questions and Activities

● What are the personal, professional and public
benefits of enhancing your public speaking skills?
● What is the difference between the linear and
transactional ​model of communication?
● Define and give an original example of each of the
elements of the communication process.
● Which of the elements of the communication
process do you think has the greatest impact on the
way a message is interpreted? Explain

Glossary
Abstract Word
Words that refer to ideas or concepts that are removed from material reality.
Channel
The means through which the message travels.
Communicator
The people in the interaction or speech setting who encode and decode messages
simultaneously.
Concrete Word
A word that describes a tangible object that can be perceived through the senses.
Context
The communication rules that govern different physical settings and/or different types of
relationships.
Cultural Noise
Differences in worldview that cause message interference.
Decoding
The process of listening to words and interpreting the words so they are associated with a
mental image.
Encoding
The process of taking a mental image, associating the image with words, and then speaking
those words.
Listening
The psychological process of interpreting and making sense of the messages we receive.
Message
The words, nonverbal behavior, or other signals transmitted from one person to another.
Noise
Any thing that interferes with the message transmission or the encoding and decoding
processes.
Nonverbal Behavior
All of the messages we send — except for the words we say. Can include appearance, eye
behavior, kinesics (body movement), proxemics (use of space), touch, time, and smell.
Norms
The verbal and nonverbal rules (usually unspoken) that govern communicative behavior.
Psychological Noise
Message interference that results from disturbed or excited mental states.
Physiological Noise
Message interference that results from bodily discomfort.
Physical Noise
Message interference that results when the noise level (as measured in decibels) makes it
difficult to hear a message.
Public Speaking
The act of delivering a speech in front of a live audience.
Worldview
The overall framework through which an individual sees, thinks about, and interprets the world
and interacts with it.

References
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Photo Credits
p. 5 The Kennedy / Nixon Debate 1960 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kenned
y_Nixon_Debate_(1960).jpg By the National Park Service
p. 6 FEMA worker talking to woman http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co
mmons/1/17/FEMA_-_32747_-
_FEMA_Community_Relations_worker_talking_to_a_Ohio_resident.jpg Ficara / FEMA
p. 6 Superfans http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NFL_Superfans.jpg By HMJD02