UNIT I

MORDERN PHYSICS

1. INTRODUCTION
2. QUANTUM PHYSICS
2.1. INTRODUCTION
2.2. QUANTUM THEOREM
QUANTUM THEOREM
Quantum theorem, these are theorem putted forward by Mr Plank to explain about the emission and energy of
radiation
The following are important point in the quantum theorem
1. The energy of radiation is not emitted continuously, it is emitted n the discrete packet called quanta.

The behavior at which the energy of radiation is emitted in discrete packet called quanta is called Quantization
of energy. The quanta of light energy are called photons. Therefore photon is the quanta of light energy.
2. The energy of quanta of the radiation is directly proportional to the frequency of radiation.
EαF
𝐸 = 𝐾𝑓, Where 𝑘 = ℎ (planks constant)
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
The value of h is 6.63x10-34Js
If the source emits n quanta (photons), then the total energy emitted is given as
𝐸 = 𝑛ℎ𝑓
NOTE
The planks equation show that radiation are waves this is because the equation contain frequency which is
characteristics of waves.

2.2.1 Rate of photon emission

Recall 𝐸 = 𝑛ℎ𝑓
By differentiating both side
𝑑𝐸 𝑑 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑛
= 𝑑𝑡 (𝑛ℎ𝑓)⇒ 𝑑𝑡 = ℎ𝑓 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑛 𝑃 𝑑𝑛 𝑃 𝑑𝑛
𝑝=𝐸 ⇒ 𝐸 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐸
𝒅𝒏 𝑷
=
𝒅𝒕 𝑬
Where P is the power rating of the source, E energy of photon emitted
Example
Find the energy of radiation whose wave length is 400AO
Soln
𝐶 3𝑥 108 6.63𝑥10−34
From,𝑒 = ℎ𝑓, E=h𝜆 = 400−10

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Examples
The laser used to read information on the hard disc of the computer has wave length of the order 780nm.what
is the energy associated with none photon of this radiation.

Example
The retina of the human eye can detect light when radiant energy incident on it is at least 4x10 -17J.for light of
600nm wavelength, how many photons does this correspond to?
Example
The wavelength range of the visible spectrum extends from violet (400 nm) to red (750 nm). Express these
wavelengths in frequencies (Hz).(1nm = 10–9 m)
Example
Calculate (a) wavenumber and (b) frequency of yellow radiation having wavelength 5800 Å.
Example
Calculate energy of one mole of photons of radiation whose frequency is 5 1O14Hz.( 199.51 kJ /mol)
Example
A 100 watt bulb emits monochromatic light of wavelength 400 nm. Calculate the number of photons emitted
per second by the bulb.( 2.012x10 /s)
2.3. EINSTERN EQUATION FOR THE ENERGY OF RADIATION
Einstein gave equation that were used to determine the energy of the radiation. The equation was as shown
below
𝐸 = 𝑀𝐶 2
Where M=mass of photon and C is the velocity of light.
The Einstein equation show that the radiations are the particles since they have masses.

The nature of the radiation was confusing since some experiment showed that the radiation are wave while
other are particles. Based on this confusion mr Debloglies performed the test and discovered that any matter in
motion is associated with waves these waves are called matter waves, therefore he concluded that every matter
have both wave and particle nature. This this effects is termed as duality nature of matter.

2.3.1 DUALITY NATURE OF MATTER

Duality nature of matter, means that every matter possess both wave and particle nature. This condition was
obtained after combining planks and Einstein equation.
𝐸 = 𝑀𝐶 2 …………………………1.
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓……………………….…...2.
By combining equation 1$2
𝐶
MC2= ℎ𝑓, 𝑀𝐶 2 = h𝜆
On solving the following equation can be obtained.
ℎ
λdebl= 𝑚𝑐 whre mc =momentum(p)
ℎ
λdebl= 𝑝
The wave length is called Debloglies wavelength.
Therefore Debloglies wavelength, is the wave length associated with matter waves. Matter waves are the
waves produced when matter are in motion. Matter in motion is associated with waves called matter waves.
Note
Debloglies concluded that larger objects do not shows the wave nature of the matter because they have larger
momentum therefore produce the wave of very shorter wavelength which is difficult Tobe detected. Any

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 smaller particle such as electron they have low momentum that is why their wave property dominate the particle
properties

2.3.2 DEBLOGRIE WAVE LENGTH OF CHARGED PARTICLE

When charged particle is made to accelerates in the discharge tube, its Debloglieies wave length can be
1
calculated as follows 𝑒𝑉 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2⇒ 2𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2𝑒𝑉 2𝑒𝑉
𝑣2 = ⇒ 𝑣=√ 𝑚
𝑚

2𝑒𝑉 𝑚2 2𝑒𝑉
𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚√ =√ = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉
𝑚 𝑚

ℎ
Thus ⋌𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑙 =
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉

2.4. PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECTS AND ITS APPLICATION

Photo electric effect is the effects at which electrons are emitted from the surface of the metal, when the given
metal is illuminated by Ultra- violet radiation. When a metal is illuminated with ultra-violet radiation, electrons
gain energy enough to eject them against attractive force of the nuclear.to understand the effect two theorem
ware used to explain how the process occurs.

2.4.1 THEOREM ACCOUNTING FOR THE PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECTS.

The following theorem were used to account for the photoelectric effects.
1. Classical theorem
2. Quantum theorem
2.4.2 Classical theorem (wave theorem)
Wave nature of radiations was used to account for the emission of the electrons from the surface of the
metal. The theorem has the following important statement.
1. The energy of radiation is carried in the wave fronts,
2. The electrons in the metal absorbs the energy from the wave until the level exceed the work function of
the metal.
3. When energy of electrons exceed the work function, then the electrons are given out of the surface of the
metal.
2.4.3 The main prediction from this classical explanations
1. The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons was expected to be direct proportional with intensity of
radiation
2. The photo electric effects may occurs at any frequency of light
3. There will be delay between radiation contact and the first emitted electrons.

However all expectation above contradict with the observation made from experiment performed by
albert Einstein. The Einstein observed that.
1. Emission of photo electrons occurs only if the frequency of incident photons exceed a minimum values
called threshold frequency

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2. The emission of phot electrons start immediately the surface become irradiated (provided the frequency
of radiation is above that of threshold frequency)
3. If the incident radiation has frequency above that of the threshold frequency, the number of photo
electrons emitted is directly proportional to the intensity of the radiation.
4. The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons only depend on the frequencies the incident radiation,
therefore if the frequency of the Incident radiation is increased the maximum kinetic energy of each
electrons is increased.
5. The kinetic energy of the photo electrons is independent to the intensity of radiation.

Because of the failure of the classical theorem to account for the observation made by the Einstein,
another theorem based on quantum theorem was developed to account for the photo electric effect.

2.4.4 Quantum theorems. Of photo electric effects.

The photoelectric effect is a Type of Quantum phenomena that shows that light can behave as a particle as well
as a wave (the photoelectric effect can only be explained with regards to light acting as particles or “Quanta”
of energy)

1. emission of photo electrons occurs only if the frequency of incident

photons exceed a minimum values called threshold frequency
2. The emission of phot electrons start immediately the surface become
irradiated (provided thr frequency of radiation is above that of
threshold frequency)
3. If the incident radiation has frequency above that of the threshold
frequency, the number of photo electrons emitted is directly
proportional to the intensity of the radiation.
4. The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons only depend on the
frequencies the incident radiation, therefore if the frequency of the
incident radiation is increased the maximum kinetic energy of each electrons is increased.
5. The kinetic energy of the photo electrons is independent to the intensity of radiation.

2.5. EINSTERN PHOTO ELETRIC EQUATION

1. Electromagnetic radiation consists of packets (quanta) of energy, known as photons.
The energy of each photon can be found using the following
Formula, 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
Where h = Planck’s constant 6.63x10−34 ,f is the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation

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 2. When light is incident on a metal surface, an electron at the surface absorbs a Single photon from the
incident light and therefore Gains energy equal to ℎ𝑓, as calculated using the formula above
3. An electron can leave the metal surface if the energy gained from the single photon exceeds the work
function) of the metal. This is the minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the metal’s surface
4. Hence it can be seen that the maximum kinetic energy of a n emitted electron follows:
𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 ℎ𝑓 − 𝑤0  𝑤
5. The Work Function of metal is related to the Threshold frequency: 𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛  ℎ𝑜
then the equation can be the following
1
ℎ𝑓 − 𝑤0 = 2 𝑀𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥2

Note
An emitted electron may have energy less than the maximum kinetic energy predicted by the formula. This
happens when the electron is not removed from the surface, but from deep within the metal. In order for
the electron to escape from the metal, it has to work its way up to the surface, doing work and losing energy in
the process. As a result, the energy it has on leaving the surface of the metal will be less than the energy it
absorbed from the photon minus the work function. (Remember that one photon hits one electron giving it
all the energy it had

2.6. DETERMINATION OF THE MAXIMUM KINETIC ENERGY OF PHOTO

ELECTRONS
The experiment was arranged as shown in the figure
below, when light strike the metal x, the metal emit
electrons, electrons leaves the surface to the electrode Y
kept at negative potential this leads to the flow of an
electric current to the external circuits. However as the
negative potential of plate y is increased the amount of
current decreases until reach zero.

The decrease in current in the circuits is due to obstruction offered by the negative potential to an
electrons as the result the electrons with some energy fail to reach the plate Y, but some manage to to
reach, however it will reach appoint where even electron of maximum kinetic energy get obstructed,
at this point the current will be zero. this negative potential which stop electrons of maximum kinetic
energy is called STOPING POTENTIAL
The work done by electron in moving against the stopping potential (against electric field) is equal to
maximum kinetic energy of the electrons
1 2
𝑒𝑉𝑠 = 2 𝑀𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
From Einstein photo electric effects equations,
1 2
ℎ𝑓 =W + 2 𝑀𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 , by substuting ke.
Then ℎ𝑓 =W +e𝑉𝑠
ℎ 𝑤
On re arranging, 𝑉 𝑠 = 𝑒 f - - 𝑒

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 For the different value of the frequency of the incident radiation, the
corresponding value of 𝑉𝑠 was measuring. On plotting the graph of 𝑉𝑠
against frequency, the graph with nature shown below was obtained.
We can use the graph to find several things:
1. The x-intercept of the graph represents the threshold frequency of
the metal. An emitted election will have zero kinetic energy if it has
just absorbed a photon of the threshold frequency.
2. They-intercept represents the negative value of the work function
of that material. Photons with zero frequency have no energy. The
receiving electrons would have gained no energy and therefore
would need a certain amount of energy to be emitted – this is the
work function.
3. Looking at the graph the gradient represents the change in energy
divided by the change in frequency; that is how much the
maximum kinetic energy would increase if the frequency increased by 1Hz.

2.7. APPLICATION OF PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECTS

It is used to construct photo cells. A device which converts light energy into electrical energy is called
photoelectric cell. It is also known as .Photoelectric cell are mainly of three types

1. Photo-emissive cell
2. Photo-conductive cell
3. Photo-voltaic cell

2.7.1 Photo-emissive cell

It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz bulb containing anode A and cathode C.
The cathode is semi-cylindrical metal on which layer of photo-sensitive material is
coated. When light incident on the cathode, it emits photo-electrons which are attracted by
the anode. The photoelectrons constitute a small current which flows through the external
circuit.
The current produced is called photo current
MGNITUDE OF PHOTO CURRENT
𝑑𝑄
Recall 𝑖 = , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑛
𝑖= =𝑖=𝑒 ,
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒏
𝒊= 𝒆
𝒅𝒕
Also
𝑖 𝑑𝑛
= ,
𝑒 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒏 𝒊
=
𝒅𝒕 𝒆

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 2.7.2 Photo-conductive cell
It is based on the principle that conductivity of a semiconductor increases with
increase in the intensity of incident light. In this, a thin layer of some
semiconductor (as selenium) is placed below a transparent foil of some metal.
This combination is fixed over an iron plate. When light is incident on the
transparent foil, the electrical resistance of the semiconductor layer is reduced.
Hence a current starts flowing
In the battery circuit connected

2.7.3 Photo-voltaic cell

It consists of a Cu plate coated with a thin layer of cuprous oxide (Cu2O). On
this plate is laid a semitransparent thin film of silver when light fall, the electrons
emitted from the layer of Cu2O and move towards the silver film. Then the silver
film becomes negatively charged and copper plate becomes positively charged.
A potential difference is set up between these two and current is set up in the
external resistance.

2.8. X- RAY PRODUCTION AND ITS APPLICATION

X-rays was discovered by scientist Rontgen that's why they are also called Rontgen rays. Rontgen discovered
that when pressure inside a discharge tube kept 10–3 mm of Hg and potential difference is 25 kV then some
unknown radiations (X-rays) are emitted by anode.
2.8.1 Production of X-rays
There are three essential requirements for the production of X-rays
1. A source of electron
2. An arrangement to accelerate the electrons
3. A target of suitable material of high atomic weight and high melting point on which these high speed
electrons strike.
4. Coolidge X-ray tube
It consists of a highly evacuated glass tube containing cathode and target. The cathode consist of a tungsten
filament. The filament is coated with oxides of barium or strontium to have an emission of electrons
Even at low temperature. The filament is surrounded by a molybdenum cylinder kept at negative potential. The
target (its material of high atomic weight, high melting point and high thermal conductivity) made of

Tungsten or molybdenum is embedded in a copper block. The face of the target is set at 45 o to the incident
electron stream. The filament is heated by passing the current through it. A high potential difference (10 kV
to 80 kV) is applied between the target and cathode to accelerate the electrons which are emitted by filament.
The stream of highly energetic electrons are focused on the target. Most of the energy of the electrons is
converted into heat (above 98%) and only a fraction of the energy of the electrons (about 2%) is used to produce
X-rays. During the operation of the tube, a huge quantity of heat is produced in this target, this heat is conducted
through the copper anode to the cooling fins from where it is dissipated by radiation and convection

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 2.8.2 Intensity of X-rays
Intensity implies the number of X-ray photons produced from the target. The intensity of X-rays emitted is
directly proportional to the electrons emitted per second from the filament and this can be increased by
increasing the filament current. So intensity of X-rays Filament current.
2.8.3 Quality or penetration power of X-rays:
Quality of X-rays implies the penetrating power of X-rays, which can be controlled by varying the potential
difference between the cathode and the target. For large potential difference, energy of bombarding electrons
will be large and hence larger is the penetration power of X-rays.

2.9. TYPES OF X RAY

Depending upon the penetration power, X-rays are of two types

NOTE,
Production of X-ray is the reverse phenomenon of photoelectric effect.in photoelectric effect radiations are
used to emit an electron, but in X-ray electron is used to produce radiation.
2.9.1 Properties of X-rays
1. The wavelength of X-rays is very small in comparison to wavelength of light. Hence they carry Much
more energy (This is the only difference between X-rays and light)
2. X-rays are invisible.
3. They travel in a straight line with speed of light.
4. X-rays are measured in Rontgen (measure of ionization power).
5. X-rays carry no charge so they are not deflected in magnetic field and electric field.
6. They used in the study of crystal structure.
7. They ionize the gases
8. X-rays do not pass through heavy metals and bones.
9. They affect photographic plates.
10. Long exposure to X-rays is injurious for human body.

11. Lead is the best absorber of X-rays.

12. For X-ray photography of human body parts, BaSO4 is the best absorber.

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13. They show all the important properties of light rays like; reflection, refraction, interference, Diffraction
and polarization etc.
2.9.2 Absorption of X-rays
X-rays are absorbed when they incident on substance

The intensity of emergent X- ray 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑢𝑋 , where x=thickness of material, 𝑋 = absorption coefficient
The absorbed intensity𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼0 − 𝐼 ⇒ 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼0 − 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑢𝑋
𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑢𝑋 )
2.9.3 Classification of X-rays.
In X-ray tube, when high speed electrons strikes the target, they penetrate the target. They loses their
Kinetic energy and comes to rest inside the metal. The electron before finally being stopped makes several
Collisions with the atoms in the target. At each collision one of the following two types of X-rays may get
form.
2.9.4 Continuous X-rays
As an electron passes close to the positive nucleus of atom, the electron is
deflected from its path as shown in figure. This results in deceleration of the
electron. The loss in energy of the electron during deceleration is emitted in
the form of X-rays. The X-ray photons emitted so form the continuous X-ray
spectrum.

Minimum wavelength
When the electron loses whole of its energy in a single collision with the atom, an X-ray photon of
1 ℎ𝑐
Maximum energy ℎ𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 is emitted i.𝑒, 𝑒𝑉 = .2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉 = ℎ𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜆
𝑚𝑖𝑛
ℎ𝑐
𝑒𝑉 = ⋌
𝑚𝑖𝑛
Intensity wavelength graph
The continuous X-ray spectra consist of all the wavelengths over a given range. These wavelength are of
different intensities. Following figure shows the intensity variation of
different wavelengths for various accelerating voltages applied to X-ray
tube. For each voltage, the intensity curve starts at a particular minimum
wavelength (min). Rises rapidly to a maximum and then drops gradually.
The wavelength at which the intensity is maximum depends on the
accelerating voltage, being shorter for higher voltage and vice-versa.

2.9.5 Line spectra of X-rays

Few of the fast moving electrons having high velocity penetrate the
Surface atoms of the target material and knock out the tightly bound electrons even from the inner most shells
of the atom. Now when the electron is knocked out, a vacancy is created at that place. To fill this vacancy
electrons from higher shells jump to fill the created vacancies, we know that when an electron jumps from a
higher energy orbit E1 to lower energy orbit E2, it radiates energy (E1 – E2). Thus this energy difference is

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radiated in the form of X-rays of very small but definite wavelength which depends upon the target material.
The X-ray spectrum consist of sharp lines and is called characteristic X-ray spectrum.

K, L, M, series of Line spectra of X-rays

If the electron striking the target eject an electron from the K-shell of the atom, a vacancy is crated in the K-
shell. Immediately an electron from one of the outer shell, say L-shell jumps to the K-shell, emitting an X-ray
photon of energy equal to the energy difference between the two shells. Similarly, if an electron from the M-
shell jumps to the K-shell, X-ray photon of higher energy is emitted. The X-ray photons emitted due to the
Jump of electron from the L, M, N shells to the K-shells gives K, K, Klines of the K-series of the spectrum.

If the electron striking the target ejects an electron from the Shell of the
target atom, an electron from the M, N ….. Shells jumps to the L-shell
so that X-rays photons of lesser energy are emitted. These photons form
the lesser energy emission. These photons form the L-series of the
spectrum. In a similar way the formation of M series, N series etc. may
be explained.

Intensity-wavelength graph
At certain sharply defined wavelengths, the intensity of X-rays is very large
as marked K, K…. As shown in figure. These X-rays are known as
characteristic X-rays. At other wavelengths the intensity varies gradually and
these X-rays are called continuous X-rays.
Mosley's law
Mosley studied the characteristic X-ray spectrum of a number of a heavy
elements and concluded that the spectra of different elements are very similar
and with increasing atomic number, the spectral lines merely shift towards
1
higher frequencies. He also gave the following relation  𝑓 = 𝑎(𝑍 − 𝑏)2

2.10. DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS

Because of the shorter wavelength of an x rays, the small interatomic space in the crystalline lattice can cause
detraction of it. this was stood by the brags.in his experiment brags directed x ray energy into the crystalline
substance and progressively he varied the gracing angle, but at some angles he observed the detraction pattern
on the screen.to account for this he gave conceptual mode of the atom I the crystal. The model is that
The crystalline lattice contain atomic planes separated by definite distance when X –ray is directed to the
crystalline, the reflection of X- ray occur from each plane, so when focused at appoint the reflected X ray had
traveled different distance, so if their path difference is integral multiple of ⋌ of an X-ray radiation constructive
interference occurs otherwise destructive interference, therefore diffraction pattern will be observed.
Consider below.

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 ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶
Form sin 𝜃 = ⇒ ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 = dsin 𝜃
𝑑
Path diffence 𝐵𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ + 𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅ = 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ⇒ 𝐵𝐷
̅̅̅̅ = dsin θ + dsin θ
̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐷 = 2 dsin 𝜃,
But for the constructive interference, ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐷 = 𝑛 ⋌, thus

𝟐 𝐝𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒏 ⋌
The equation above is called Bragg’s law, the law state that, in an x ray diffraction constructive interference
occurs when, 𝟐 𝐝𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒏 ⋌, where n =position of the bright fringe,𝝷=gracing angle, d=distance between
consecutive atomic plane.
The brags law can be used to calculate the wave length of an X-ray, since 𝝷 can be measured and d can be
obtained by using another method.

2.11. APPLICATION OF X -RAY DIFFRACTION

1. To determine the wavelength of an x ray
2. To study the crystalline structure.
2.12. DETERMINATION OF THE ATOMIC PLANE DISTANCE BY ANOTHER
METHOD.
Consider a unit cell of 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 crystal with inter atomic spacing 𝑑 = 𝑎 shown below.

Let one mole of crystal had molar mass 𝑚𝑟 and the density of crystal is .
From Avogadro’s law one mole of any substance contain 𝑁𝐴 molecules.

𝑚
𝑁𝐴 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑟 ⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑁 𝑟
𝐴
𝑚𝑟
𝑚 𝑚 𝑁𝐴
But density of crystal(ρ) = ⇒ 𝑣(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠) = =𝑣=
𝑣 ρ 2ρ
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑚𝑟
𝑁𝐴 𝑚𝑟
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚(𝑣𝑎 ) = ,=
2𝜌 2𝜌𝑁𝑎
1
𝑚𝑟 𝑚𝑟 3
But, 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑑 3 = ⇒𝑑=( )
2𝜌𝑁𝑎 2𝜌𝑁𝑎
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 𝟏
𝒎 𝟑
𝒅 = (𝟐𝝆𝑵𝒓 )
𝒂
Since d can be obtained from the constant factors of crystal, then the wave length of an X –ray can be calculated
can be calculated from the Bragg’s equation.

3. ATOMIC PHYSICS AND LASER PRODUCTION

3.1. ATOMIC MODELS
1.1 ATOMIC MODEL

This section concentrate on different modes proposed by different scientist about the structure of an atom.
Based on the syllabus the following modes will be discussed
1. Dalton atomic model
2. J.J tomthon atomic model
3. Rutherford Atomic model
4. Bohr’s atomic modes

1.1.1 DALTON ATOMIC MODE

After Dalton studying the atom of an element he described an atom as follows

1. Atom is the smallest particle of an element
2. Atom can neither be created or destroyed
3. Atom of the same element have the same mass
4. Atom of different element has different mass.

1.1.2 DRAWBACK(SHORT COMING OF DALTON ATOMIC MODEL

 Atom is no longer smallest particle since experiment shows that it has electrons and proton which are much
smaller than atom.
 Atom can either be created or destroyed. Now a day the nuclear fusion and fission has been observed.
 Atom of the same element can have different mases, this is because some element exist in Isotopy. Isotopes are
due to the fact that the same atom of an element can have different number of neutron
 Atom of different element can have the same masses. This situation is called isobars. Isobar is duet o the fact
that the same atom of an element can have different number of neutron.

1.1.3 .J.J TOM THON ATOMIC MODEL (PLUMB PUDDING MODEL.

During the study of conductivity of electricity through gas tomthon discovered the presence of an electron in
the atom. After various investigation he came up with the following model.
 atoms are uniform spheres of positively charged matter in which electrons are embedded
.the number of electron and proton are equal that is why atom is electrically neutral.

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 The mass of an atom is uniformly distributed.
SUCCESSS OF THE MODEL
The model explained successfully the phenomenon of thermionic emission, photoelectric emission and
ionization.

1.1.3 DRAW BACK OF J.J TOMTHON ATOMIC MODEL

j.j tom thon failed to explain observation made in Rutherford scattering experiment.in this experiment
Rutherford fired the alpha particle toward the gold atom and the following observation was made.

1. It failed to explain why in larger part of an atom the alpha particle passed un deflected
2. Why alpha particle passed closer to the outer part of the atom deflected outward
3. Why alpha particle fired to the center of gold atom directly reflected back at him?
After the failure of the J.J tomthon fail to explain all these observation, the Rutherfold came up with the
following model.
3.2. RUTHERFOLD ATOMIC MODEL
The following are the Ruther fold atomic model
1. Atom has the central part called nuclear where positive charge and the total mass of an atom is
concentrated.
2. The larger part of an atom is empty
3. Electron revolve around the nuclear as the planet revolve around the sun. This account for why they are
not pulled to the nuclear, because if they are in motion the nuclear attractive force will balance with the
centrifugal force hence prevent it from being pulled to the nuclear

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 3.2.1 DRAW BACK OF RUTHERFOLD ATOMIC MODEL
Based on the classical electromagnetic theory, when revolve around the
opposite charge ,the revolving charge will radiates continuously making it
losing Energy hence execute spiral motion toward the center charge,
therefore for the few time the motion will collapse.

Based on that theorem Ruther fold failed to explain about

1. Stability of an atom, why no atom collapsed
2. It failed to explain why atomic spectrum is line not continuous. i.e if
atom radiates continuously we will have continuous spectrum not line
spectrum.
3. It failed to explain how atom are arranged in an atom.
3.3. BOHRS ATOMIC MODEL
Behr’s atomic model combine the concept of Rutherford and the quantum theorem to explain about the
structure of an atom. Bohr’s model was based on the study he made in the hydrogen atom.

Based on that he came up with the following model

1. Electron revolve around the nuclear in the orbit of fixed energy called energy level.
2. As long as the atom is in its energy will never radiates or absorbs radiation
3. Atom absorb radiation when it jump from one energy level to the other energy level
4. Atom radiate when it fall from higher energy level to the lower energy level. This account for the line
spectrum.

𝒉
5. The angular momentum of an electron is quantized.it is integral multiple 𝟐∏
𝒉
𝑀𝑣𝑟 = 𝟐∏
6. The energy level of hydrogen atom can be calculated by using the following formulary
−𝟏𝟑.𝟔𝒆𝑽
𝐸𝑛 = 𝒏𝟐
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4 … … … …

3.3.1 HOW BOHR’S GOT THE FORMULAR FORCALCULATING ENERGY OF EACH

ENERGY LEVEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM?
To gate the equation bohrs show that the energy of an atom is also an energy of electron.so the total energy of
an electron is equal to energy of an atom
Consider below

Then the energy of an electron

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 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸
𝑚𝑣 2 𝐾𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐾𝑞 2
How to get K.E? from coulumbs law = ⇒ =
𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟2
𝐾𝑞 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐾𝑞 2
𝑚𝑣 2 = ⇒ =
𝑟 2 2𝑟

𝑲𝒒𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟐𝒓
How to get P.E? From coulomb’s law
−𝐾𝑞1 𝑞2 −𝐾𝑞 2
𝑃. 𝐸 = =
𝑟 𝑟
−𝑲𝒒𝟐
𝑷. 𝑬 = 𝒓
𝑲𝒒𝟐 −𝐾𝑞 2 −𝐾𝑞 2
Recall 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸 = + =
𝟐𝒓 𝑟 2𝑟
−𝐾𝑞 2
𝐸 = 2𝑟
How to get r? To get r we use kinetic energy and conservation of angular momentum of electon.from
these equation we find r by eliminating velocity
𝒏𝒉 𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝟐∏, 𝑣 = 𝟐∏𝒎𝒓
𝑛ℎ 2
𝑚𝑣 2 𝐾𝑞 2 𝑚( ) 𝐾𝑞 2
𝟐∏𝒎𝒓
= = =
2 2𝑟 2 2𝑟

𝑛ℎ 2 𝐾𝑞 2 𝑛2 ℎ 2 𝐾𝑞 2
𝑚 (𝟐∏𝒎𝒓) = ⇒ 𝑚 (𝟒∏𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝒓𝟐 ) =
𝑟 𝑟

ℎ2 𝐾𝑞 2 𝑛2 ℎ 2
(𝟒∏𝟐 𝒎𝒓𝟐 ) = ⇒ 𝑟 = 𝟒∏𝟐 𝑲𝑞2 𝒎
𝑟
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑟=
4∏2 𝐾𝑚𝑟 2 𝑞 2

So we substuite the value of r in the total energy equation

−𝐾𝑞2 −𝐾𝑞2 −2𝐾 2 ∏𝟐 𝑞4 𝑚
𝐸= = 𝑛2 ℎ2
=
2𝑟 2𝑥 𝑛2 ℎ 2
𝟒∏𝟐 𝑲𝒎𝒒𝟐
−2𝐾 2 ∏𝟐 𝑞 4 𝑚 1
𝐸 == , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑘 =
𝑛2 ℎ2 4∏є𝑜
2
1
−2 ( ) ∏𝟐 𝑞 4 𝑚
4∏є𝑜
𝐸=
𝑛2 ℎ2
−2𝑞 4 𝑚 𝑞4𝑚
𝐸 == ⇒
16є𝑜 𝑛2 ℎ2 8є2𝑜 𝑛2 ℎ2
4 (1.6𝑥10−19 )4 𝑥
𝑞 𝑚
𝐸= 2 2 2=
8є𝑜 𝑛 ℎ 8𝑥8.85𝑥10−12 𝑥(6.63𝑥10−34 )2 𝑛2
−𝟏𝟑.𝟔𝒆𝑽
𝑬= 𝒏𝟐
NOTE
The bohrs atomic model succefully explained the hydrogen atom but not for atom of mult electrons.
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 3.3.2 DRAW BACK OF BOHRS ATOMIC MODEL
Hensbergy uncertainity principle it is impossible to determine position and momentum of smaller
particle(electron) simultaneously at great accurate.
𝒉
∆𝑥∆𝑝 =
𝟒∏
1. the theorem contradicted with heinsernbergy since he calculated both position and momentum of
electrons
2. It failed to explain for the complex atom with many electrons.
3. It fails to account for the finer detail (doublet, that is two closely spaced lines
4. Further, Bohr’s theory was also unable to explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of
magnetic field (Zeeman effect) or an electric field (Stark effect).
3.4. ATOMIC SPECTRUM
Atomic spectrum is the spectrum of radiation associated b the energy change in an atom.

3.4.1 HOW ATOM EMITS RADIATION?

1. Based on the bohr’s mode atom contain varies energy level, these energy level are quantized
2. The energy of electrons is the energy energy of atom
3. When atom is at its lowest energy level atom is said to be at its ground state. Which is more stable state.
4. When atom gain energy suitable to transit it to any of its high energy level, the atom is said to be at its
excited state which is unstable state.
5. At excited state atom is unstable and hence will fall back to its ground state. When atom fall back to its
ground state it will emits radiation which is equal to the energy gap between the two energy level.

𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝑓

Example
In certain element the atom was felt from energy level 2eV to energy 12eV.what was the frequency of the
radiation emitted by an atom.

𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝑓
𝐸2 −𝐸1 (12−2)𝑥10−19
𝑓= ,𝑓 =
ℎ 6.63𝑥10−34

(12 − 2)𝑥10−19
𝑓=
6.63𝑥10−34
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 3.4.2 Emission and absorption spectrum
There are two types of atomic spectrum, these are
1. Emission spectrum
2. Absorption spectrum

3.5. EMISSION SPECTRUM

Emission spectrum is the types of atomic spectrum formed as the result of excited atom fall from the high
energy level to the lower energy level.

3.6. TYPESOF EMISSION SPECTRUM

1. Line spectra
2. Band spectra
3. Continuous spectrum

3.6.1 LINE SPECTRUM

This is types of spectrum at which there is discrete value of the frequency of radiation produced. These
spectrum is resulted when atom of the gashouse substance are excited, therefore on falling back to its ground
state they emits radiation which contain the discrete value of frequency.

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 3.6.2 BAND SPECTRUM
This is the types of emission spectrum which contain more than one group of line spectra.it is formed as the
result of exiting atom of liquid. Since the atom of liquid are very closer from one another they can be exited
at near the same energy hence produce the band of spectrum.

3.6.3 CONTINEOUS SPECTRUM

This is the types of spectrum which contain all frequencies between the limited ranges of the frequencies. There
is no clear separation between one frequency and another.

Normally it is formed when an atom of solid material are excited.

This is because atom of the solid material are very closer such that all cab excited at nearly equal frequency.

3.6.4 ABSORPTION SPECTRUM

This is the spectrum formed as the result of absorption of the electromagnetic waves by the materials.
When electromagnetic waves is passed through the materials the photon with suitable energy to excite the
given atom to any of its higher energy level will be absorbed. Then when the radiation are dispersed after
passing through the material there will be missed frequencies and the spectrum formed is called absorption
spectrum. These missed frequency are due to photons absorbed by the material.

Example when light waves is passed through the hydrogen gas the photon of light with suitable energy to
promote atom to any of its high energy level will be absorbed therefore on dispersing these light there will be
dark line on the white background, these spectrum is called absorption spectrum.

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3.7. HYDROGEN SPECTRUM.
Hydrogen spectrum, is the spectrum of radiation emitted by the excited hydrogen atom when it fall back to
its ground start.
 Hydrogen atom like other atom has energy levels, the energy of each level of hydrogen atom are calculated
by using bohr’s formulae
−13.6𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛2
The minus sign implies that, the energy level increase as you go away from the nuclear.
3.7.1 STRUCURE OF ENERGY LEVEL IN THE HYDROGEN ATOM
By using the equation above when the energy level were drawn as horizontal was looked as shown below.

The diagram above show that the energy level of hydrogen atom converges. They converges because an
electrons near the nuclear need high energy to excite them from lower energy level to the higher energy level
tan that locate far away from the nuclear. This is due to the fact that electron near the nuclear are held by strong
nuclear attractive force than when it is far from the nuclear.

The convergence of the energy level will proceed gradual until reach ascertain limit called convergent limit
this limit show the limit of energy level of an electrons therefore when electron gain energy enough to promote
it’s beyond this limit it will no longer part of an atom and atom become ionized.
3.7.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF CONVERGENT LIMIT
The convergent limit signify that the energy level of an atom are limited therefore when atom is excited beyond
these limit the atom will be ionized.

3.7.3 OBSERVATION OF HYDROGEN SPECTRUM

When the hydrogen spectrum was observed it was found to contain group of spectral line at U.V, Visible and
infrared region as shown below.

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 These spectral line was found due to transition of any higher energy level to particular energy level in the
hydrogen atom. These spectral line observed was given the name which stand after their discover. Example.

1. LYMAN SERIES
These are spectral line which are resulted from electron transition from any of its higher energy level to an
energy level with quantum number n=1

These series are associated with high frequency beyond the visible range of human eye therefore they are
invisible. The higher frequency of this spectral line is due to high energy required to transit electron from
energy level when n=1 to any higher energy level

2. LYMAN SERIES
These are spectral line which are resulted from electron transition from any of its higher energy level to an
energy level with quantum number n=2
These series are associated with optimal frequency within the visible range of human eye therefore they are
visible.
3. LYMAN SERIES
These are spectral line which are resulted from electron transition from any of its higher energy level to an
energy level with quantum number n=3
These series are associated with low frequency below the visible range of human eye therefore they are
invisible
Note
All other series are defined accordingly and they are infrared region hence they invisible
3.7.4 DIAGRAM SHOWING DIFFERENT ELECTRONS TRANSITION IN ATOM AND
THE SPECTRAL LINE FORMED.
Consider the diagram below.

The diagram above show that the energy level of hydrogen atom converges. They converges because an
electrons near the nuclear need high energy to excite them from lower energy level to the higher energy level
tan that locate far away from the nuclear. This is due to the fact that electron near the nuclear are held by strong
nuclear attractive force than when it is far from the nuclear.

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 The convergence of the energy level will proceed gradual until reach ascertain limit called convergent limit
this limit show the limit of energy level of an electrons therefore when electron gain energy enough to
promote it’s beyond this limit it will no longer part of an atom and atom become ionized.
3.7.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF CONVERGENT LIMIT
The convergent limit signify that the energy level of an atom are limited therefore when atom is excited beyond
these limit the atom will be ionized.

3.7.6 ENERGY OF RADIATION EMITTED DUE TO TRANSITION OF ATOM

BETWEEEN TWO ENERGY LEVELS IN HYDROGEN ATOM
Consider the equation below

−13.6𝑒𝑉
E n= 𝑛2
Then
−13.6𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑛1 = ……………………...(i)
𝑛12
−13.6𝑒𝑉
En2 = ……………………....(ii)
𝑛22
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 ∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1
−13.6𝑒𝑉 −13.6𝑒𝑉
∆𝐸 = −
𝑛22 𝑛12
13.6𝑒𝑉 13.6𝑒𝑉
∆𝐸 = −
𝑛21 𝑛22
1 1
∆ 𝐸 = 13.6𝑒𝑉(𝑛 − 𝑛 ) 2 2
1 2

1 1
∆ En= 13.6𝑒𝑉(𝑛12 - 𝑛22 )

3.7.7 WAVE LENTH OF RADIATION AS THE RESULT OF ATOMIC TRANSITION

FROM HIGHER ENERGY LEVEL TO THE LOWER ENERGY LEVEL.
From
1 1
∆ En= 13.6𝑒𝑉(𝑛12 - 𝑛22 )………………………….(i)
From quantum theorem
∆ E= hf……………………………….…(ii)
Substute equation (i) into equation (Ii)

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 1 1
hf=13.6𝑒𝑉(𝑛12 - 𝑛22 )
𝑐 1 1
ℎ 𝜆=13.6𝑒𝑉(𝑛12 - 𝑛22 )
1 13.6𝑒𝑉 1 1
= ( - 𝑛22 )
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 𝑛12
1 13.6𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝑐𝑉 1 1
= ( - )
𝜆 6.63𝑥10−34 𝑥3𝑥108 𝑛12 𝑛22
1 1 1
=1.09𝑥107 (𝑛12 - 𝑛22 )
𝜆
Where,
𝟏
wave number
𝝀
=
But the constant 1.09x107 /m is called reighberg constant represented as RH
1 1 1
Then, =RH( 2
- )
𝜆 𝑛1 𝑛22
NOTE
1. For any spectral line the firs line is due to low energy change in atom therefore the radiation associated with
this transition has lowest energy and hence give the longest wave length. Also the transition any energy
level to the convergent limit is due to the highest energy change in the given spectral line hence give the
shortest wave length.
2. n1=the position of spectral line, n2=n1+#line

3.7.8 Stimulated emission and laser production.

It has been shown experimentally that when atom is exited and locked to excitation state can be unlocked by
sticking it with the photons of equal energy as that of excited atom. This types of emission is called stimulated
emission of radiations
Stimulated emission, is the types of atomic emission at which the excited atom is mate to emit radiation after
stricked with photons of equal energy.
3.7.9 PROPERTIES OF RADIATION MADE BY STIMULATED EMISSION OF
RADIATION
1. Its light waves travel very long distances with e very little divergence.
2. They are coherently
3. They are directional and monochromatic
4. Its intensity remaining almost constant over long distances because of low divergence.
3.7.10 APPLICATION OF STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION
It is used in the production of very intensity beam of light called LASER.
LASER is the intensive beam of light formed by light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
3.7.11 PRODUCTION OF LASER
The following are the requirement for the production of laser light.
1. Laser material, these are material whose atom are Tobe excited to produce laser light.
2. Amplifying material, these are the material which are used in amplifying materials. normaly mirror are
used since multiple reflection of monochromatic light can led to the formation of high intensity beam of
light.
3. Pumping source. Pumping is the process at which atom of the laser material are excited from the external
force to attain population inversion.

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 Population inversion, is the condition which there are more atoms in the material higher energy level than
at ground states.

3.8. HOW DO LASER BEAM ARE PRODUCED?

Laser material get excited by pumping source. Two mirror with different silvering level are placed across the
end of laser material. When the excited atom is stucked by the photons of the same energy they emits
monochromatic light, the light undergo multiple reflection from the mirror and its intensity rises until reach
appoint where the partial silvered mirror will not withstand and light pass through the mirror. This intensive
beam is called Laser beam.

Population inversion, which gives rise to laser action, is brought about in different media by various
mechanisms. In gases, metal vapors, and plasmas, the inversion is brought out by applying a voltage drop
across the elongated gain medium thereby producing an electric field that accelerates the electrons. These
rapidly moving electrons then collide
With gas atoms and excite them to a number of excited energy levels. Some of these levels decay faster than
the others, leaving population inversions with some higher levels. If the population in the excited levels is high
enough, then the gain may be sufficient to make a laser.
I liquid Fluorescent dyes are the best liquid media for lasers; their excited energy levels are populated either
by flash lamps or by lasers.

3.9. TYPES OF LASER

Ruby Laser
This is the types of laser which use ruby crystal as laser material and
xenon flash tube as pumping source. It also consists of suitable cavity
to reflect the light from flash tube to the ruby rod, and a high voltage
power supply to give electrical energy to the flash tube. One end of
the rode was silvered making it a mirror (almost 100 percent
reflective) to reflect all the rays of light striking it. The other end of
the rod was partially silvered; the laser beam was emitted through
that end. The ruby rod was surrounded by a helical xenon flash lamp
and both of them were held inside a cylindrical cavity, coated with a
reflective material. The light from the xenon flash tube was focused
by the cylindrical cavity onto the rode causing excitation of the atom
in the Materia thus population inversion. When stimulated a n intensive beam of light will be produced an
penetrate the partial silvered side. This beam is called laser.

Gas Lasers
The gas lasers have a gas or a mixture of gases as their light-amplifying substance. Helium-neon, argon ion,
and carbon dioxide lasers are the most widely used gas lasers. In most cases, the gas is contained in a glass or
quartz tube about 25-100 cm long and the gas molecules are excited in an electric glow discharge. With a few
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exceptions, these lasers receive their energy input via collisions of gas atoms with high-energy electrons. This
energy is provided by applying a high voltage between electrodes located within the gaseous- medium to
accelerate the electrons to the necessary high energies. On collision many gas atom get excited an population
invention is achieved. Therefore on stimulating them laser light is produced.
Semiconductor lasers
The semiconductor laser consists of a tiny block (about one square millimetre in area) of gallium arsenide
When the p- and n-type layers are formed in an intimate contact, the interface becomes a p-n junction. When
direct current is applied across the block, the electrons move ii across the junction region from the n-type
material to the ptype material, having excess of holes. In this process of dropping of the electrons into the
holes, recombination takes place leading to the emission of radiation. The photons travelling through the
junction region stimulate more electrons during the transition, releasing more photons in the process. The laser
action takes place along the line of the
junction. Due to the polished ends of the block, the stimulated emission grows enormously and a beam of
coherent light is emitted from one of the two ends.With a gallium arsenide laser, a continuous beam of a few
militates power is easily obtained.

Other types of laser are excimer laser, liquid (dye laser),x-ry laser etc.

3.10. APPLICATION OF LASER LIGHT.

The following are the application of the laser light.
3.10.1 IN HOSPITAL
a.fo the nerves welding
b. for the treatment of different types of cancer.
c. be used for dental treatment Laser beam is useful for charring tooth decay through a painless process called
laser glazing. The beam from a high repetition pulsed laser can be focused on dark decayed areas of teeth
cavities to destroy the infection in the affected areas in a fraction of a second.

3.10.2 IN MILLITARY
In military laser has the following application
1. missile guidance
2. range of air finding
3. ant missile system
4. for reconainses and survilience

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 3.10.3 communication
Laer in communication is used to convey information in form of light through an optical fiber.
3.10.4 Civilian
1. Laser Drilling
2. Laser Cutting

4. NUCLEAR PHYSICS
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Rutherford's ⍺-scattering experiment established that the mass of atom is concentrated with small positively
charged region at the center which is called 'nucleus’. Nuclei are made up of proton and neutron. The number
of protons in a nucleus (called the atomic number or proton number) is represented by the symbol Z. The
number of neutrons (neutron number) is represented by N. The total number of neutrons and protons in a
nucleus is called its mass number Also A = Z + N. Neutrons and proton, when described collectively are called
nucleons. Nucleus contains two types of particles: Protons and neutrons Nuclides are represented as; 𝐴𝑍𝑋where
X denotes the chemical symbol of the element
4.2. EINSTEIN MASS ENERGY RELATION AND UNIT USED IN NUCLEAR
PHYSICS
Einstein give the relationship between the energy associated with the change in mass of the substance. If
the particle lose mass it also lose energy and vice vesra. the change in energy of the substance due to change
in mass is given as.
∆𝐸=∆𝑀𝐶 2
4.3. UNIT IN NUCLEAR PHYSICS
In nuclear physics the unit used to represent mass is Unified atomic mass unit(𝑈. 𝐴. 𝑈) and unit for energy
is an 𝑒𝑉 or 𝑀𝑒𝑉.the change in (𝑈. 𝐴. 𝑈) has relation ship with the change in energy in 𝑀𝑒𝑉.the relationship is
obtained from eintern energy mass relation
4.3.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHANGE IN (𝑼. 𝑨. 𝑼) AND CHANGE IN 𝑴𝒆𝑽
From the definition of unified atomic mass
1
Unified atomic mass, is the 12 of the mass of one 𝐶 12 atom.
1
(𝑈. 𝐴. 𝑈) = (𝐶 12 )
12
But 12𝑔 =6.02𝑥1023 atoms
X? 1atoms
12𝑔 1 12𝑔
𝑥 = 6.02𝑥1013⇒ (𝑈. 𝐴. 𝑈) = 12 (6.02𝑥1013)
1 12𝑔
(𝑈. 𝐴. 𝑈) = ( )
12 6.02𝑥1013

From Einstein energy relation

∆𝐸=∆𝑀𝐶 2

1 12
𝑔
(∆𝐸) = ( ) (3𝑥108 )2
12 6.02𝑥1013
∆𝐸 = 931𝑀𝑒𝑉

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4.4. NUCLEAR FORCES AND BINDING ENERGY
Nuclear force is the strong attractive force which hold nucleons together inside the nuclear o fan atom. The
force is very strong enough to overcome the repulsion force of the proton inside the atom, thus bind them
together. The energy which leads to this force is called bind energy.

4.5. PEOPERTIES OF NUCLEAR FORCES

1. It is strong forces and
2. Has shorter ranges.
4.6. ENERGY CHANGE DURING NUCLEARFORMATION
When nucleon are at far distance only repulsion exist. But as they come closer to each other attractive force
between them exist. Since attractive force is strong than repulsion, thus proton and neutron become binded to
gather into small tiny size called nuclear. When the y are binded together the energy is lost. The energy lost is
equal to energy which hold them together. And it is called binding energy. This lose in energy is accompanied
with lose in mass according to Einstein energy mass relation.
-therefore total mass of proton and neutron is always less than the nuclear mass. The different in mass between
the nuclear and total mass of its particle is called mass defect
Binding energy. Is the energy which bind nucleon together inside the nuclear of an atom?
More clearly:
Nucleus contains mainly two particles – protons and neutrons. Thus, the mass of the nucleus is primarily comes
from the masses of protons and neutrons. But the experiments have shown that the sum of the masses of protons
and neutrons is always greater than experimentally determined nuclear mass. Why is it so? The answer to this
question lies in the way the nature creates nucleus.
When nature creates nucleus, it takes protons and neutrons and binds them together and puts them in a tiny
space called nucleus. In order to bind protons and neutrons together, some energy is needed, which is taken
out of the masses of protons and neutrons. It means that nature is very smart, it does not spend any of its own
energy rather it converts some of the masses of protons and neutrons into an energy and utilizes that energy to
bind the protons and neutrons within the nucleus. If we know how much mass (known as mass defect) is
utilized, we can convert it into binding energy using the Einstein’s equation.
The different is mass of proton and neutron outside the nuclear and when they are inside the nuclear it is called
mass defect.
4.7. DETERMINATION OF BINDING ENERGY
Binding energy =(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡)𝐶 2
Consider 𝐹𝑒 that has an atomic mass of 55.934942 amu (experimental) that is created using 26 protons and 30
neutrons: if mass of proton is 1.007825 and that of neutron is 1.008665.the binding energy can be obtained as.
Mass of 26 protons = 26 x 1.007825 = 26.20345 amu
Mass of 30 neutrons = 30 x 1.008665 = 30.25995 amu Total mass of 26 protons and 30
neutrons is 26.20345 amu + 30.25995 amu = 56.46340 amu

Mass defect =56.46340 amu-55.934942 amu=0.52846 amu negave means mass is lost.

Then from ∆1um=931Mev

∆-0.52846=?
Binding enemy=−0.52846x 931MeV, negative means energy is released.
Example
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The 42𝐻𝑒 nuclear had the mass of 4.0015.ifthe mass of proton is 1.0073u and that of proton is 1.00087.find the
binding energy of 42𝐻𝑒.
4.8. BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON
Binding energy per nucleon, is the ratio of binding energy to the total nucleon number.
𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Binding energy per nucleon=𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛
Example
The 56
26𝐹𝑒 nuclear had the mass of 55.934942 amu. if the mass of proton is 1.0073u and that of proton is
1.00087.find the binding energy per nucleon of 56
26𝐹𝑒

4.9. STABLE AND UNSTABLE NUCLEAR

Stable nuclear is the nuclear which can with stand its state for long time, this means it is difficult to takes its
nucleon apart. This means that it can’t undergo nuclear transmutation.
And unstable nuclear is the nuclear which can’t exist in its state for long time it undergo transmutation in order
to attain stable state where it can exist for long time.
4.10. CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING STABILITY OF NUCLEAR.
The stability of the nuclear is determined by the following factors
1. Binding energy per nucleon
𝑛
2. Neutron to proton ratio( 𝑧 )

4.11. BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON

Binding energy is the energy released when nuclear of an atom is formed, which is equal to energy required to
keep them apart. The binding energy per nucleon tells how much energy is required to take any single nucleon
from the nuclear. This is key factor used to compere the stability of an atom than binding energy. becouse
binding energy can be seen larger but when distributed to nucleons each nucleon experience low binding energy
and the atom can be unstable apposite to unpredicted.

Therefore Element with high binding energy per nucleon it is difficult to break up and are more stable than of
low binding energy per nucleons.

4.12. GRAPH OF BINDING ENEGY PER NUCLEON AGAINST ATOMIC

NUMBER OF AN ELEMENT.

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 The variation of binding energy per nucleon against mass number of an atom satisfy the variation in stability
of an atom against atomic mass which was experimentally determined. Example the graph show that iron has
highest binding energy per nucleon than all other element element thus more stable than all element, this
explain why iron are many on earth than others.

Element above the iron has graeter number of proton than neutron three repulsion force between protons
become so larger that nonnuclear become easily to break.

𝑛
2. Neutron to proton ratio( 𝑧 )
It appears that neutron to proton (n/p) ratio is the dominant factor in nuclear stability. This ratio is close to 1
for atoms of elements with low atomic number and increases as the atomic number increases. For the light
𝑛
atom (atom with Z<20) If ( 𝑧 )=1.then the atom is stable otherwise unstable.

𝑛
For Havier atom if ( 𝑧 ) > 1 the atom will be stable since it will have more neutron than proton therefore,
repulsion of proton inside the nuclear will be less and can be counteracted with binding energy.

Based on this the other way of predicting the nuclear stability based on whether nucleus contains odd/even
number of protons and neutrons was created.
Example.

1. Nuclides containing odd numbers of both protons and neutrons are the, least stable means more
radioactive.
2. Nuclides containing even numbers of both protons and neutrons are most stable means less radioactive.
3. Nuclides contain odd numbers of protons and even numbers of neutrons are less stable than nuclides
containing even numbers of protons and odd numbers of neutrons.
In general, nuclear stability is greater for nuclides containing even numbers of protons and neutrons or
both.
4.13. HOW DO UNSTABLE NUCLEARA ATTAIN STABILITY?
The unstable atom can attain stability through the process called radioactivity.
Radio activity is the process at which unstable atom decay by emitting radiation. These radiation are alpha,
beta and gamma rays
4.14. TYPES OF RADIO ACIVITY
There are two types of radioactivity
1. Natural radioactivity
2. Artificial radioactivity.

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4.15. 1. NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY
Natural radioactivity, is the types of radioactivity at which the natural occurring unstable atom emits radiation
spontaneously.
⇒Is the spontaneous emission of radiation by unstable atom to attain stability.
⇒Since the radioactivity is associated with the loss in mass (or atom) it is some time called radioactive decay
or disintegration.
4.16. PARTICLES EMITTED DURING RADIOACTIVITY
During radioactivity the following particles are emitted.
1. Alpha particle
2. Better particle
3. Gamma rays.

4.17. DETERMINATION OF RADIOACTIVE ATOM DECAYED OR REMAINED.

The amount of the radioactive decay ca be obtained from the statistical law of chance.
⇒ the statistical law of chance state that, the rate of disintegration of an atom is directly proportional with
amount present originally.
𝑑𝑁
− 𝑑𝑡 ⍺ 𝑁𝑂
𝑑𝑁
− 𝑑𝑡 =𝑘𝑁𝑂 , but K=⋌=decay constant.
𝑑𝑁
− 𝑑𝑡 = ⋌ 𝑁𝑂
𝑑𝑁
⋌= − 𝑑𝑡𝑁 = probability of decay.
𝑜
Rate constant, is the fractional of radioactive atom decayed per second.
𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑁
From− 𝑑𝑡 = ⋌ 𝑁𝑂 ⇒ − 𝑁 = 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑑𝑁
∫ − 𝑁 =∫⋌ 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑁𝑡 𝑑𝑁 𝑡
∫𝑁 − 𝑁 = ∫𝑜 ⋌ 𝑑𝑡
𝑜 0

[ln 𝑁]𝑁 𝑡 𝑡
𝑁𝑜 = − ⋌ [𝑡 ]𝑜
ln 𝑁𝑡 − ln 𝑁𝑜 = − ⋌ (𝑡 − 0)
𝑁
ln 𝑁𝑡 = − ⋌ 𝑡
𝑜
𝑁𝑡
= 𝑒 −⋌𝑡
𝑁𝑜
𝑵𝒕 = 𝑵𝒐 𝒆−⋌𝒕
𝑑𝑁
But 𝑑𝑡 = Activity (A), activity is the rate of disintegration
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 4.17.1 AMOUNT DECAYED
𝑁𝑑 = (𝑁𝑜 − 𝑁𝑡 )⇒𝑁𝑑 = 𝑁𝑂 − 𝑵𝒐 𝒆−⋌𝒕
𝑁𝑑 = 𝑵𝑶 (𝟏 − 𝒆−⋌𝒕 )
4.17.2 ACTIVITY
Activity is the rate of disintegration of an atom.
𝑑𝑁 𝑑
=𝑑𝑡 (𝑵𝒐 𝒆−⋌𝒕 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑁𝑜 𝑑𝑡 𝑒 −⋌𝑡 + 𝑒 −⋌𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑁𝑜
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
= − ⋌ 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −⋌𝑡 + 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
= − ⋌ 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −⋌𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
=(− ⋌ 𝑁𝑜 )𝑒 −⋌𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑨𝒕 =𝑨𝒐 𝒆−⋌𝒕

4.18. HALF LIFE

Half-life is the time taken by the radioactive atom to decay.
Recall 𝑵𝒕 = 𝑵𝒐 𝒆−⋌𝒕
𝑁
at 𝑡 = half-life(T) 𝑁𝑡 = 2𝑜
𝑁𝑜 1
= 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −⋌𝑇 ⇒2 = 𝑒 −⋌𝑇
2
By applying ln both sides
1
ln 2=ln 𝑒 −⋌𝑇
− ln 2=− ⋌ 𝑇⇒ln 2=⋌ 𝑇
𝐥𝐧 𝟐
𝑻= ⋌

4.19. DETERMINATION OF HALF LIFE

By using Geiger Muller tube with some mathematical analysis half-life of radioactive atom can be determined.
Consider below.

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 𝐴𝑟 =4∏𝑥 2
𝑑𝑁 𝐴 𝑑𝑁
( 𝑑𝑡 ) =4∏𝑥 2 ( 𝑑𝑡 )
2 1
𝑑𝑁 4∏𝑥 2 𝑑𝑁
( ) =( )( )
𝑑𝑡 1 𝐴 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑁
But ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑵𝒐 𝒆−⋌𝒕
1
𝐥𝐧 𝟐
⋌= 𝑻
4.20. RADIOACTIVE EQUILIBRIUM.
Suppose a radioactive element A disintegrates to form another radioactive element B which intern disintegrates
to still another element C; such decays are called successive disintegration

𝑑𝑁
Rate of disintegration of A  𝑑𝑡1 − ⋌ 𝑁1  (which is also the rate of formation of B)
𝑑𝑁
Rate of disintegration of B= 𝑑𝑡2 = − ⋌ 𝑁2
Net rate of formation of B = Rate of disintegration of A – Rate of disintegration of B
𝑁1 ⋌1 − 𝑁2 ⋌2

At equilibrium, in radioactive equilibrium, the rate of decay of any radioactive product is just equal to its
rate of production from the previous member.
Then 𝑁1 ⋌1 = 𝑁2 ⋌2

4.21. ENERGY OF EMITTED PARTICLE

Consider a nuclear below densitergrated into particle with mass 𝑚1 and 𝑚2

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 1
𝐾𝐸1 = 2 𝑚1 𝑉12 ….. 1.
1
𝐾𝐸2 = 2 𝑚2 𝑉22 ……..……………...2.
Devide equation 1 by 2
1
𝐾𝐸1 𝑚1 𝑉12 𝑚1 𝑉12 𝑚 𝑉2
= 21 ⇒ =(𝑚1 ) (𝑉12 )
𝐾𝐸2 2
𝑚2 𝑉2 𝑚2 2 𝑉2 2 2
2
𝐾𝐸1 𝑚 𝑉 2
= (𝑚1 ) (𝑉1 ) ………………………3.
𝐾𝐸2 2 2
From principle conservation of momentum
0=𝑚1 𝑉1 + 𝑚2 𝑉2
𝑚1 𝑉1 = 𝑚2 𝑉2
𝑚1 𝑉 𝑚 𝑉
= 𝑉2 ⇒ 𝑚2 = 𝑉1
𝑚 2 1 1 2
𝑚2 𝑉1
= 𝑉 ……………….……..4.
𝑚1 2

Substute equation 4 into 3

𝐾𝐸1 𝑚2 2
𝑚1
= (𝑚 ) (𝑚 )
𝐾𝐸2
1 2
𝐾𝐸1 𝑚
= 𝑚2
𝐾𝐸2 1

𝑲𝑬𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑲𝑬𝟐 𝑽𝟐

NOTE: 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸2 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example. A nucleus with mass number 220 initially at rest emits an ⍺-particle. If the Q value of the reaction is
5.5MeV. Calculate the kinetic energy of the ⍺-particle

4.22. ARRIFICIAL RADIOAZCTIVITY

Is the types of radioactivity which occur when a certain stable atom is stimulated to induce radiation.it occurs
as the result of stable atom being distablelised by the human being?

4.23. TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY

There are two types of radioactivity
1. Nuclear fission
2. Nuclear fusion
4.24. NUCLEAR FISSION
Nuclear fission, is the process at which heavier atom is splited into light atoms accompaiined with release of
high amount energy

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4.25. WHY ENERGY IS RELEASED?
From binding energy per nucleon curves it has been shown that when heavier nuclear is splited into light atom,
the atom formed will have high binding energy per nucleon than the heavier one, therefore energy must be
released to provide that extra binding energy.

Example, uranium undergo fission when bombarded with thermal neutron. The neutron which is slow enough
to penetrates and settle inside the nuclear causing instability and thus the nuclear break into two particle.

148
235
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 ⇾ 57𝐾𝑎 + 85 1
35𝐵𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 + 𝑄

The equation above show that When uranium atom is bombarded with it gives 𝐵𝑟 ,𝐾𝑎 and neutron, if the
produced neutron is slowed ic can cause fission of other uranium atom.so uranium will under series of
bombardment. Is series of bombardment of uranium atom is called chain reaction.

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 4.26. CHAIN REACTION
In nuclear fission, three neutrons are produced along with the release of large energy. Under favorable
conditions, these neutrons can cause further fission of other nuclei, producing large number of neutrons. Thus
a chain of nuclear fissions is established which continues until the whole of the uranium is consumed. In the
chain reaction, the number of nuclei undergoing fission increases very fast. So, the energy produced takes a
tremendous magnitude very soon

Note.
Neutron is used instead of proton because it has no charge, therefore it can penetrates deep inside the nuclear
of an atom.
4.27. ENERGY RELEASED DURING FISSION
To find energy released during fission, we find the different in mass between product side and reactant side.
Then we convert the mass difference into energy from energy mass relation.
𝑚𝑑 = 𝑚𝑝 − 𝑚𝑟 ,
if 𝑚𝑑 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
EXAMPLE,
Find the energy released according the equation below
148
235
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 ⇾ 57𝐾𝑎 + 85 1
35𝐵𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 + 𝑄
235
Given 92𝑈 = 235.1𝑈
1
0𝑛 = 1.009𝑈
148
57𝐾𝑎 = 148.0𝑈
85
35𝐵𝑟 = 84.94𝑈
EXAMPLE,
Find weather the energy was released or absorbed from the nuclear reaction below.
206 104 4
i. 82𝑃𝑏 ⇾ 89𝐻𝑔 + 2𝐻𝑒
210 206 4
ii. 84𝑃𝑜 ⇾ 82𝑃𝑏 + 2𝐻𝑒

210
Given 84𝑃𝑜 = 210.04𝑈
206
82𝑃𝑏 = 206.03𝑈
202
80𝐻𝑔 = 202.035𝑈

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 4
2𝐻𝑒 = 4.004𝑈

4.28. NUCLEAR REACTOR.

A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission is carried out through a sustained and controlled chain
reaction. It is also called an atomic pile. It is thus a source of controlled energy which is utilized for many
useful purposes.

4.28.1 PARTS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR

1. Fissionable material (Fuel) : The fissionable material used in the reactor is called the fuel of the
Reactor. Uranium isotope (U235) Thorium isotope (Th232) and Plutonium isotopes (Pu239, Pu240 and Pu241)
are the most commonly used fuels in the reactor.
2. Moderator: Moderator is used to slow down the fast moving neutrons. Most commonly used Moderators
are graphite and heavy water (D2O).
3. Control Material: Control material is used to control the chain reaction and to maintain a stable
rate of reaction. This material controls the number of neutrons available for the fission. For example,
cadmium rods are inserted into the core of the reactor because they can absorb the neutrons. The neutrons
available for fission are controlled by moving the cadmium rods in or out of the core of the reactor.
4. Coolant: Coolant is a cooling material which removes the heat generated due to fission in the
Reactor. Commonly used coolants are water, CO2 nitrogen etc.
5. Protective shield: A protective shield in the form a concrete thick wall surrounds the core of the reactor
to save the persons working around the reactor from the hazardous radiations

4.28.2 Uses of nuclear reactor

1. In electric power generation.
2. To produce radioactive isotopes for their use in medical science, agriculture and industry.
3. In manufacturing of 239 PU which is used in atom bomb.
4. They are used to produce neutron beam of high intensity which is used in the treatment of cancer
and nuclear research.

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 4.29. NUCLEAR FUSION
Nuclear fusion, is the process at which light atoms are fused together to form heavier atom accompanied with
released of energy.
From binding energy per nucleon curves it has been shown that when light nuclear below iron is fused into
heavier atom, the atom formed will have high binding energy per nucleon than the heavier one, and therefore
energy must be released to provide that extra binding energy

For fusion high pressure (≈ 106 atm) and high temperature (of the order of 107 K to 108 K) is required and so
the reaction is called thermonuclear reaction.

The temperature of the order of 108 K required for thermonuclear reactions leads to the complete ionization of
the atom of light elements. The combination of base nuclei and electron cloud is called plasma. The enormous
gravitational field of the sun confines the plasma in the interior of the sun. The main problem to carryout
nuclear fusion in the laboratory is to contain the plasma at a temperature of 108K. No solid container can
tolerate this much temperature. If this problem of containing plasma is solved, then the large quantity of
deuterium present in sea water would be able to serve as in-exhaustible source of energy

Example 2
1𝐻 ⇾ 21𝐻𝑔 + 32𝐻𝑒 + 10𝑛

4.30. ENERGY RELEASED DURING NUCLEAR FUSSION

Find energy released according to equation below
1. 2
1𝐻 ⇾ 21𝐻𝑔 + 32𝐻𝑒 + 10𝑛
2
2. 1𝐻 ⇾ 31𝐻𝑔 + 42𝐻𝑒 + 10𝑛
2
Given 1𝐻 = 2.015𝑈
3
1𝐻𝑒 = 3.017𝑈
1
0𝑛 = 1.009𝑈

4.31. ENERGY OF NUCLEAR FUSION AND NUCLEAR FISSION

Fusion energy is greater than fission energy fission of one uranium atom releases about 200 MeV of energy.
But the fusion of a deuteron 21𝐻 and triton 31𝐻 releases about 17.6 MeV of energy. However the energy released
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per nucleon in fission is about 0.85 MeV but that in fusion is 4.4 MeV. So for the same mass of the fuel, the
energy released in fusion is much larger than in fission.

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