Prof M.

Rashid Khan 2021 MODERN PHYSICS: Quantum Nature of Light

Spectrum Of Electromagnetic Radiations

Prof M. Rashid Khan

 MDCAT Unit: MODERN PHYSICS

An object which could absorb all the thermal radiations falling on

it, is called black body. But a perfect absorber of thermal
radiations does not exist in nature. However a cavity in a block
metal whose inner surface is blackened with soot is nearer
approach black body. A thermal radiations entering through small
hole of cavity can be completely absorbed after number of
interior reflections.

When a black body is heated up to certain temperature, it emits

all the radiations it has absorbed and are known as black body
radiations.

Prof M. Rashid Khan

Lumer and Pringshim obtained black body radiation spectrum in 1840. They studied black body
radiation spectrum and drew intensity of radiations against their respective wavelengths for cavity
heated up to various temperature ranges as shown in Fig.

Cavity hole
Emergent ray Rock salt prism
Screen

𝜆7
𝜆6
𝛌𝟓 =𝛌𝐦𝐚𝐱
Cavity
𝜆4
𝛌𝟏 <𝝀𝟐 <𝝀𝟑 <𝝀𝟒 <𝛌𝟓 <𝝀𝟔 <𝝀𝟕 𝜆3
𝜆2
𝐈𝟏 <𝐈𝟐 <𝐈𝟑 <𝐈𝟒 <𝐈𝟓 = 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 , 𝐈𝟔 <𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 , 𝐈𝟕 <𝐈𝟔 𝜆1

The intensity-wavelength graphs, are called Intensity Distribution diagram

Prof M. Rashid Khan
 Properties of Black Body Radiations from Intensity Distribution Diagram
1. Intensity of radiations varies with wavelength and there is only one wavelength for which intensity is maximum
denoted as 𝛌𝐦𝐚𝐱 .
2. The wavelength of maximum intensity shift towards shorter wavelength as absolute temperature of cavity is raised.
This fact was observed by Wein and is known as wein’s law. According to wein’s law
𝟏
𝛌𝐦𝐚𝐱 ∝
𝐓
𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝐓= constant
The value of constant is 2.9x𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝑲 and is called wein’s constant.
3. Area under intensity distribution diagram represent energy radiated per unit time per unit area of cavity. The area
under intensity distribution diagram is directly proportional to fourth power of absolute temperature. i.e 𝐀 ∝ 𝐓 𝟒
This fact was observed by Stephen Boltzmann and is known as Stephen Boltzmann law. According to Stephen’s law
𝐄 ∝ 𝐓𝟒
𝐄 = 𝛔 𝐓𝟒
Where 𝝈 is constant of proportionality known as Stephen Boltzmann constant. Its value is 5.67x𝟏𝟎−𝟖 W𝐦𝟐 𝐊 −𝟒

Prof M. Rashid Khan

Max Plank’s Quantum Theory Of Black Body Radiations
Many Scientists tried to explain Intensity-distribution diagrams on the basis of wave theory of
radiations but failed. Max Plank presented a new theory in 1911, to explain characteristics curves of
black body radiations, known as plank’s quantum theory. This theory is based upon following
assumptions.
1. Energy from cavity is not emitted continuously but rather in discrete steps in the form of packets
or bundles of energy, called quanta.
2. Energy of quanta is proportional to frequency of radiation. Or Mathematically
E∝f
𝐶
E = h f= h
𝜆
Where h is constant of proportionality, known as planks constant to be determined experimentally.
Its experimental value is 6.63× 10−34 J s.

Plank’s assumed that granular nature of radiations from a hot body

is due to some property of atoms producing it.

Prof M. Rashid Khan

Einstein’s contribution to quantum theory
Einstein extended the idea of Max Planks and postulated that packets or bundles of energy are
integral part of all electromagnetic radiations which could not be subdivided. The indivisible bundles
of energy, he named as Photon.
Einstein considered a beam of radiation of wavelength 𝜆 as stream of photons, each carrying energy
E = m c2 …………….. (1)
According to quantum theory, the energy of photon is given by
c
E=hf=h .....……….. (2)
λ
Comparing Eq.(1) & Eq.(2)
c
m c2 = h
λ
h
mc=
λ
h
P= .....…… … . (3)
λ
This Eq. suggest that radiations possessing wave aspect (wavelength 𝛌) also possess momentum which is particle
feature.
Energy of one photon = E = hf If nf = constant then
Energy of n photons = n E= nhf 1
n∝
f Prof M. Rashid Khan
 Increasing Frequency

𝐂
𝐄𝛄 = 𝟏 𝐌𝐞𝐕 ………. very high energy ⟹ 𝛌𝛄 = 𝐡 ≈ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 m … very small.
𝐄𝛄
𝐂
From Eq.(3): 𝐏𝛄 = 𝐡 ……. very high and their particle nature dominate over wave nature.
𝛌𝛄
𝐂
𝐄𝐫𝐚𝐝 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝐞𝐕 ……… very low energy ⟹ 𝛌𝐫𝐚𝐝 = 𝐡 ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝟔 m … very large.
𝐄𝐫𝐚𝐝
𝐂
From Eq.(3): 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 = 𝐡 …… negligibly small and their wave nature dominate over particle nature.
𝛌𝐫𝐚𝐝

Radiations of higher frequencies end exhibit particle aspect and their energy depends upon frequency.
Radiations of lower frequencies end exhibit wave behavior and their energy depends on amplitude/intensity.

Prof M. Rashid Khan

Interaction Of Radiations With Matter
Radiations interact with matter and reveal three interesting phenomenon depending
upon their energies E.

For E < 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏 𝐌𝐞𝐕 𝐈. 𝐑 𝐭𝐨 𝐔. 𝑽 Photo electric effect occurs.

For 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏 𝐌𝐞𝐕 ≤ 𝐄 < 𝟏𝐌𝐞𝐕 𝐗 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔 Compton’s effect occurs.

For 𝐄 = 𝟏 𝐌𝐞𝐕 (𝛄 − 𝐞𝐚𝐲𝐬) Pair production occurs.

Certain dies which could not exhibit photoelectric effect with U.V radiations, emit
photoelectrons with low frequency X-rays.

Prof M. Rashid Khan

 Photoelectric Effect
Henritch Hertz experimentally discovered that electrons are emitted out of material surface when
it is exposed to radiation of suitable frequency. This experimental fact is called photoelectric effect
and emitted electrons are known as Photoelectrons.

Photo electric effect initiate from a metal surface with certain minimum
frequency of radiations, called threshold or critical frequency. 𝐟𝐨

Threshold frequency 𝐟𝐨 depends upon nature of material surface. e.g

I.R radiations initiate photoelectric effect from cesium coated oxidized silver.
Visible radiations initiate photoelectric effect from sodium(Na) and potassium(K)
U.V radiations initiate photoelectric effect from dyes.
Prof M. Rashid Khan

Maximum wavelength of radiation that

correspond to threshold frequency, is called cut Minimum energy of radiation required by
off wavelength 𝛌𝐨 electron to come out of material surface,
Threshold frequency and cut off wavelength correspond to threshold frequency 𝐟𝐨 , known
are related as as work function 𝚽. or
𝐟𝐨 =
c 𝚽= h𝐟𝐨
𝛌𝐨
 Experimental Study Of Photoelectric Effect fo =fG
. No photo electrons emit and no photoelectric current is
observed if fin < fo even for intense beam of radiation.
fin
U.V
. Photo electrons emit but no photoelectric current is observed V
if fin = fo . I
B
. Photo electrons emit and photoelectric current is observed if G
Y
fin > fo even for faintest beam of radiation. O
R
. Photo electric current ( no. of photoelectrons) increases I.R
1
proportionally with intensity of fin > fo . I ∝ 2
d
When battery is reversed in the circuit and P.D is increased across C and A, the photoelectric current decreases.
For certain reversed P.D across C and A, the photoelectric current drop to zero.
Minimum value of negative potential at anode A for which fin
photoelectric current in the circuit drop to zero, is called stopping
Prof M. Rashid Khan

potential 𝐕𝐨
Stopping Potential 𝐕𝐨 depends upon A

Material nature of Incident frequency V

cathode C fin > fo
-V
stoppingg potential 𝑉𝑜 is independent of intensity of radiation with fin > fo - +
 IP IP
I2 > I1
I f2 I1
f1

−Vo − Vo2 − Vo1 O +Vo −Vo −Vo +Vo

− Vo2 > − Vo1 − Vo2 > − Vo1 I2 ≠ I1
Φ2 < Φ1 f2 > f1 − Vo2 = − Vo1 = −Vo

Vo corresponds to maximum K.E of photoelectrons. Thus,

Vo ∝ f𝑖𝑛 > f𝑜 By principle of energy conservation
Vo Gain of P. Ep.e = Loss of K. Ep.e
eVo = K. Emax

K. Emax
Prof M. Rashid Khan

K. Emax ∝ Vo ∝ fin > fo

f𝑜 f fin
f𝑜 f fin
Vo = 0 for fin = f𝑜 K.Emax
Slope of K. Emax − f gp=tan θ = = plank’s constant
f−fo
K. Emax (eV)
X – intercept of K. Emax − f = f𝑜 = 1× 1010 Hz
Y– intercept of K. Emax − f = Φ = 1 eV
O 4
1 2 3 fin ( 1010 Hz)
-1
-2
-3

K. Emax (eV)

1 2 3 4
-1 fin ( 1010 Hz)
-2
-3
-4
Prof M. Rashid Khan
 Einstein Explanation Of photoelectric Effect
In Photoelectric experiment, it has observed that the emission and energy of photoelectrons depend on frequency
of incident radiation rather on intensity. Therefore, Einstein explained photoelectric effect by using Quantum
theory of radiations.
Einstein assumed that a beam of radiation consists of stream of photons, each carrying energy E = hf. When the
radiation falls upon metal surface a photon imparts its entire energy hf to an electron, with in metal surface.
Electron with in metal surface requires certain minimum energy to come out of metal, known as work function
Φ = h f𝑜
If 𝐟𝐢𝐧 < 𝐟𝐨 then 𝐄𝐢𝐧 < 𝚽 and no photoelectrons emit even for intense beam
If 𝐟𝐢𝐧 = 𝐟𝐨 then 𝐄𝐢𝐧 = 𝚽 and photoelectrons emit with K.E=0
If 𝐟𝐢𝐧 > 𝐟𝐨 then 𝐄𝐢𝐧 > 𝚽 and photoelectrons emit even for faintest beam
In case fin > f𝑜 , an electron uses a part of photon energy hf, as work function Φ = h f𝑜 . and surplus energy appear
as its maximum K.E (K. Emax ). Thus, according to law of conservation of energy.
E = Φ + K. Emax 2(E − Φ)
hf = h f𝑜 + eVo ⟹ vmax =
m
eVo =K.Emax
h= = slope of K. Emax − f graph
f−f𝑜
This Eq. is in complete agreement with experimental study of photoelectric effect.
For developing this Eq. Einstein was awarded a Nobel prize in 1921. Prof M. Rashid Khan
Q. A radiation of energy 10 eV falls on metal
surface from electrons of max K.E 7 eV are
emitted. What is work function.
E = Φ + K. Emax
Φ = E − K. Emax = 10 eV −7 eV = 3 eV

Q. A radiation of energy 10 eV falls on metal

surface of work function 7 eV. What is stopping
potential?
E = Φ + K. Emax
K. Emax = E − Φ= 10 eV −7 eV = 3 eV
𝑒Vo = K. Emax = 3eV
Vo = 3V

Prof M. Rashid Khan

Compton’s Effect
A.H Compton, in 1920, allowed to incident X-ray beam on
graphite crystal and he observed that frequency of
scattered beam in different directions is less than
frequency of incident beam. This experimental fact is
known as Compton’s effect.
Compton’s effect could not be explained on the basis of h
wave theory of radiations. Pi =
λi Ps<Pi
Compton himself explained the phenomenon by making
use of quantum theory of radiations.
Compton’s assumed that incident beam of X-ray consists
of stream of photons, each carrying energy and
momentum respectively
C
Ei = hfi = h
λi
h
Pi =
λi
A Photon makes an elastic impact with an electron in crystal. During the elastic impact, photon impart some of its
incident energy and momentum to the electron and scattered at certain angle θ with original direction of incident
X-ray beam with scattered energy and momentum respectively.
Prof M. Rashid Khan
 c
Es = hfs = h
λs
h
Ps =
λs
The electron with in crystal uses some of photon energy as work function and recoil with surplus energy with velocity v
at an angle Φ with original direction of X-ray beam as shown in Fig.
Applying law of conservation of energy and law of conservation of momentum, Compton’s derived an Eq.
h
∆λ = (1 − cosθ) ………….. (1)
mo c

Where ∆λ = λs − λi , is change in wavelength between scattered and incident X-ray beam, known as Compton’s shift in
wavelength.
h
The quantity has dimension of length and is called Compton's wavelength. its value is
mo c
h 6.63 × 10−34
= −31 8 = 2.43 × 10−12 m = 2.43 pm
mo c (9.1 × 10 )(3 × 10 )

Eq. (1) is in complete agreement with experimental result recoded for scattered beam at various angles.
It can be seen from Eq.(1) that Compton's shift in wavelength depends upon scattering angle θ. Some cases of special
interest are discussed below.

Prof M. Rashid Khan

Case I: If θ = 0𝑜 then
h Case III: If θ = 180𝑜 then
∆λ = (1 − cos0𝑜 ) h
mo c ∆λ = (1 − cos180𝑜 )
h mo c
∆λ = (1 − 1) h
mo c ∆λ = {1 − −1 }
∆λ = 0 mo c
λs − λi = 0 h
∆λ = (1 + 1)
λs = λi mo c
𝑜
At θ = 0 wavelength of scattered beam is 2h
∆λ =
equal to wavelength of incident beam. It mo c
means that a beam of X-ray coming out of the Thus, at θ = 180𝑜 Compton’s shift in wavelength
crystal at θ = 0𝑜 do not collide with an is equal to twice the Compton’s wavelength.
electron in crystal.

Case II: If θ = 90𝑜 then

h
∆λ = (1 − cos90𝑜 )
mo c
h
∆λ = (1 − 0)
mo c
h
∆λ =
mo c
𝑜
Thus, at θ = 90 Compton's shift in wavelength
is equal to Compton's wavelength
Prof M. Rashid Khan
Pair Production
It is an experimental fact that when a γ − ray passes through vicinity of a heavy
nucleus, it disappear and a pair of charge particles is created. This experimental
fact is known as pair production. Pair production is in good agreement with
Einstein Eq. E=mc2 and is also known as materialization of energy.

One of the particle of pair production was identified as an electron. The other
particle has mass and charge equal to that of electron but charge of opposite
nature i.e positive. This particle is basically antiparticle of the electron and is
called antielectron or positron.

In pair production, the energy of γ − ray E=hf completely transform into rest mass energies and kinetic energies
of the electron-positron pair. Thus, according to law of conservation of energy we have
hf = (mo c 2 )−e +(mo c 2 )+e +K. E−e + K. E+e
hf = 2mo c 2 + K. E−e + K. E+e
For minimum energy just to create electron-positron pair
K. E−e = K. E+e = 0
(hf)min = 2mo c 2
(hf)min = 2 × 9.1 × 10−31 kg(3 × 108 ms−1 )2

Prof M. Rashid Khan

 (hf)min = 54.6 × 10−15 J
(hf)min = 54.6 × 10−15 × 6.25 × 1018 eV
(hf)min = 1.02 × 106 eV
(hf)min = 1.02 MeV
Thus, minimum energy associated with single particle of the pair is 0.51 MeV
The conservation laws for charge and linear momentum also remain valid in pair production.
Pair Annihilation
It is converse process of pair production. In this process when an electron and
positron are brought closer to each other, they are annihilated into pair of γ
− rays. Annihilation of matter is also in good agreement with Einstein Eq. E=mc2
in which matter of two particles transform into electromagnetic energy of γ
− ray range.
Following conservation laws hold in pair annihilation.
1. Energy conservation
2. Momentum conservation
3. Charge conservation
According to energy conservation
𝟐𝐡𝐟 = (𝐦𝐨 𝐜 𝟐 )−𝐞 +(𝐦𝐨 𝐜 𝟐 )+𝐞 +𝐊. 𝐄−𝐞 + 𝐊. 𝐄+𝐞
According to momentum conservation
mv+(-mv)=0+0
0=0
According to charge conservation
−𝐞 + 𝐞 = 𝟎 + 𝟎
0=0 Prof M. Rashid Khan