Intelligence in IoT-enabled Smart Cities PDF
Intelligence in IoT-enabled Smart Cities PDF
Intelligence in IoT-enabled Smart Cities PDF
in IoT-enabled Smart
Cities
Intelligence in IoT-enabled Smart Cities
by
Fadi Al-Turjman
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Preface
Author
1 Introduction
FADI AL-TURJMAN
Index
Preface
As one of the most significant topics in IoT-based systems, the Smart Cities and
Smart Sensory platforms have emerged to intelligently address major challenges
in our daily life. These challenges can vary from cost and energy efficiency to
availability and service quality. It is our aim to focus on both design and
implementation aspects in the application of smart cities that are enabled by
intelligent wireless sensor networks and other enabling technologies in the IoT
era. Wireless sensor networks are a key enabling technology and should be smart
enough to offer multiple sustainable and viable benefits from emerging smart
city paradigms and its interacting technologies such as radio frequency
identification, wireless sensor networks (WSNs), LTE-A, and 5G. This book
provides a comprehensive overview for the use of sensory platforms in
intelligent/smart IoT environments in line with the smart city paradigm. These
platforms integrated with intelligent algorithms can help mobile operators and
service providers afford the next generation of this paradigm. In this book, we
overview the interactions and data access of smart devices and provide a review
of their applications in smart IoT-based systems.
Fadi Al-Turjman
Prof. Fadi Al-Turjman received his Ph.D. degree in computer science from
Queen’s University, Canada, in 2011. He is a Professor with Antalya Bilim
University, Turkey. He is a leading authority in the areas of smart/cognitive,
wireless and mobile networks’ architectures, protocols, deployments, and
performance evaluation. His record spans over 180 publications in journals,
conferences, patents, books, and book chapters, in addition to numerous
keynotes and plenary talks at flagship venues. He has authored/edited more than
12 published books about cognition, security, and wireless sensor networks’
deployments in smart environments with Taylor & Francis, and the Springer
(Top tier publishers in the area). He was a recipient of several recognitions and
best papers’ awards at top international conferences. He led a number of
international symposia and workshops in flag-ship ComSoc conferences. He is
serving as the Lead Guest Editor in several journals, including the IET Wireless
Sensor Systems and Sensors (MDPI and Wiley). He is also the Publication Chair
for the IEEE International Conference on Local Computer Networks.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Fadi Al-Turjman
Contents
Book Outline
References
The population of the world is increasing rapidly. It was 7.6 billion in October
2017. Currently over 200 million people are living in urban cities and this
number is expected to increase up to 5 billion by 2030. Megacities are also
increasing in terms of size and number, and this brings various problems with it.
Environmental deprivation, such as the uncontrolled noise, waste pollution, low
management of consumption of the non-renewable energy resources, deficits in
water supply and waste collection became a very serious problem [1]. Creating
the infrastructure of smart cities is considered a promising future goal for
creating a sustainable environment, where the main components of these cities,
for example, buildings, roads, energy stations, water pools, etc., are all managed
by Internet of Things (IoT) devices which sense, collect, and transmit the
necessary data among them [2]. In other words, a smart city is an urban area
which utilizes various types of electronic data collection sensors to supply
information used to control and manage assets and resources efficiently. In fact,
a smart city has no exact definition. According to Hall R.E. a smart city is “a city
that monitors, and integrates conditions of all its critical infrastructures,
including roads, bridges, tunnels, rails, subways, airports, seaports,
communications, water, power, even major buildings can better optimize its
resources, plan its preventive maintenance activities, and monitor security
aspects while maximizing services to its citizens” [3]. Other definitions found in
the literature are listed in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Definitions of Smart City
Reference Definition
[4] “The use of smart computing technologies to make critical infrastructure components and services of a city—
which include city administration, education, healthcare, public safety, real estate, transportation, and utilities
—more intelligent, interconnected, and efficient.”
[5] “A city well-performing in a forward-looking way in economy, people, governance, mobility, environment, and
living, built on the smart combination of endowments and activities of self-decisive, independent and aware
citizens.”
[6] “A city that gives inspiration, shares cultures, knowledge, and life, a city that motivates its inhabitants to create
and flourish in their own lives.”
[7] “A city where the ICT strengthen the freedom of speech and the accessibility to public information and
services.”
Nowadays, there are lots of smart city projects in developing and developed
countries. Table 1.2 contains a cumulative list of cities that earned high scores
from the Intelligent Community Forum (ICF) from 2007 to 2011 by
accomplishing factors of intelligent communities successfully. These factors are
as follows: innovation, marketing and advocacy, digital inclusion, knowledge,
and broadband connectivity [8].
Table 1.2 List of Smart Cities in Different Regions Worldwide
Region Cities
Asia Shanghai, Tianjin (China); Doha (Qatar); Gangnam District, Seoul, Hwaseong-Dongtan, Sowen (Korea);
Hyderabad, Bangalore, Jaipur, Rajasthan (India); Ichikawa, Mitaka, Yokosuka, Jia Ding (Japan); Kabul
(Afghanistan); Hong Kong; Taipei, Taoyuan Country (Taiwan); Tel-Aviv (Israel)
Africa Cape Town, Nelson Mandela Bay (South Africa)
Europe Besancon, Issy-lex-Moulineaux (France); Birmingham, Dundee, Scotland, Glasgow, Manchester,
Sunderland (UK); Eindhoven (Netherlands); Hammarby Sjostad, Karlskrona, Stockholm (Sweden);
Malta (Malta); Reykjavik (Iceland); Sopron (Hungary); Tallinn (Estonia); Trikala (Greece)
North America US; Albany, Westchester Country (New York); Ashland (Oregon); Arlington Country, Danville, Bristol
(Virginia); Bettendorf (Iowa); Chattanooga (Tennessee); Cleveland, Dublin, Northeast Ohio (Ohio);
Corpus Christi (Texas); Dakota Country (Minnesota); Florida High-Tech Corridor (Florida), LaGrange
(Georgia); Loma Linda (California); San Francisco; Spokane (Washington); Winston-Salem (North
Carolina); Canada; Burlington, Ottawa, Kemora, Strafford, Toronto, Waterloo, Windsor-Essex
(Ontario); Moncton (New Brunswick); Quebec City (Quebec); Winnipeg (Manitoba); Vancouver
(British Columbia); Western Valley (Nova Scotia); Calgary (Alberta)
Middle/South Barceloneta (Puerto Rico); Curitiba, Parana, Pieria, Porto Alleger (Brazil)
America
Oceania Balart, Gold Coast City, Ipswich, Queensland, Victoria, Whittlesea (Australia)
Numerous studies have been done in the field of components of smart cities
and infrastructure of smart cities. Amirhosein et al. [9] examined the different
notions of smart buildings while analyzing from an international perspective. As
a conclusion, the author claims that, smart buildings play a fundamental role in
shaping future cities. He supports the infrastructure of smart buildings because
of their reduced environmental impacts, low operational cost, improved security
systems, etc. In another study by Ibrahim Dinçer et al. [10], the author describes
smart energy systems for a sustainable future by evaluating each of the energy
sources by their efficiencies, environmental performances, and energy and
material sources. He concludes that, if products from the same energy source are
high, greater efficiency can be achieved with lower emission levels. He also
found that, geothermal energy is a cleaner and more efficient resource for the
future. In Robles et al., the authors highlights an Internet of Things (IoT)-based
model for smart water management, monitored from the business perspective.
The model he proposed can be implemented not only in urban cities but also in
rural areas, and agricultural applications. In conclusion, the authors suggest that
the development of IoT with the integration of their models in smart cities can be
feasible, scalable, and industrial. In Snellen and Hollander, the authors have
emphasized the role of smart mobility and transportation as a result of the
development of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in smart
cites as well. He reviewed the effects of technological changes to our society, the
public, and our traditions. People should know what they want and what they
need and start creating new frameworks in order to bridge the policy gap.”
In this book, we overview the advantages of intelligent algorithms and
approaches in smart cities toward further improving the quality of our daily life
while highlighting key design challenges. Accordingly, our main contributions in
this work can be summarized as follows.
References
1. F. Al-Turjman , “5G-enabled Devices and Smart-Spaces in Social-IoT: An Overview”, Elsevier Future
Generation Computer Systems, 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.future.2017.11.035.
2. R. Arshad , S. Zahoor , M. Ali Shah , A. Wahid , and H. Yu . “Green IOT: An Investigation on Energy
Saving Practices for 2020 and Beyond,” IEEE, vol. 5, pp. 15667–15681, 2017.
3. F. Al-Turjman . “Mobile Couriers’ Selection for the Smart-grid in Smart cities’ Pervasive Sensing”,
Elsevier Future Generation Computer Systems, vol. 82, no. 1, pp. 327–341, 2018.
4. F. Al-Turjman and S. Alturjman . “5G/IoT-Enabled UAVs for Multimedia Delivery in Industry-oriented
Applications”, Springer’s Multimedia Tools and Applications Journal, 2018. DOI. 10.1007/s11042-018-
6288-7.
5. R. Giffinger , C. Fertner , H. Kramar , R. Kalasek , and N. Pichler-Milanovic , “Smart Cities: Ranking of
European Medium-Sized Cities,” Centre of Regional Science, Vienna, 2007.
6. F. Al-Turjman , and S. Alturjman, “Context-sensitive Access in Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)
Healthcare Applications”, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 2736–2744,
2018.
7. H. Partridge , “Developing a human perspective to the digital divide in the smart city,” in ALIA 2004
Challenging Ideas, Queensland, 2004.
8. T. Nam and T.A. Pardo . “Conceptualizing Smart City with Dimensions of Technology, People, and
Institutions,” in 12th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research, Maryland, 2011.
9. F. Al-Turjman , “The Road Towards Plant Phenotyping via WSNs: An Overview”, Elsevier Computers &
Electronics in Agriculture, 2018. DOI: 10.1016/j.compag.2018.09.018.
10. C. A. Ibrahim Dincer , “Smatr Energy Systems for a Sustainable Future,” Applied Energy, vol. 194.
225–235, 2017.
11. T. Robles , R. Alcarria, D., Martin, M. Navarro, R. Calero, S. Iglesias, and M. Lopez. “An Internet of
Things-based model for smart water management,” in 28th International Conference on Advanced
Information Networking and Applications Workshops, Victoria, Canada, 2014.
12. D. Snellen and G. de Hollander . “ICT’S change transport and mobility: mind the policy gap!,” in 44th
European Transport Conference 2016, Barcelona, Spain, 2016.
Chapter 2
Energy Consumption Monitoring in IoT-
based Smart Cities
Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Categories of Energy Monitoring System
2.2.1 Indirect Feedback Systems
2.2.2 Direct Feedback Systems
2.2.2.1 In-Home Display Only
2.2.2.2 In-Home Display with Pay-As-You-Go
2.2.2.3 In-Home Display With Time of Use Pricing Policy
2.3 Energy Monitoring Devices
2.3.1 Direct Sensing
2.3.2 Indirect Sensing
2.3.2.1 Magnetic Sensors
2.3.2.2 Light and Acoustic Sensors
2.4 Literature Review
2.4.1 Pilot Projects with IHD Only
2.4.1.1 Hydro-One Project, Canada
2.4.1.2 CEATI Pilot Project, Canada
2.4.1.3 Cost Monitoring Pilot Project, US
2.4.1.4 SDG&E Pilot Project, US
2.4.1.5 ECOIS Project, Japan
2.4.2 Pilot Projects with IHD and Prepay Method
2.4.2.1 SRP “Pay-As-You-Go” M-Power Project, US
2.4.2.2 Woodstock Hydro’s “Pay-As-You-Go,” Canada
2.4.3 Pilot Projects with IHD and Time Varying Rates
2.4.3.1 Hydro One TOU Project, Canada
2.4.3.2 IDP Project, US
2.4.3.3 Home Energy Efficiency Trial, Australia
2.5 Results and Discussions
2.6 Conclusion
References
2.1 Introduction
The Internet of Things (IoT) has been recently recognized as a disruptive
technology for the flying ad hoc network. IoT can be viewed as a network of
networks. There can be a wide range of applications in IoT that supports
logistics and the management of flying ad hoc networks. IoT technology can be
leveraged to achieve cost reductions. IoT technology can be combined with real-
time location systems to get live updates from the factory floor, enabling
manufacturers to continuously monitor machine activity, maintenance needs, and
also product movement during production. Cost reduction can be achieved
across the digital ad hoc networks by making use of these smart machines by
providing data that allows manufacturers to adjust production on the fly.
Manufacturing and assembly lines will receive updated schedules and quality-
related information in real time and instantly. IoT data can be leveraged to
schedule, maintenance, customized production to meet customers’ orders,
proactive, preventative, and predictive repairs, and to sharpen the focus that is
needed to be successful in the digital world. The concept of Industry 4.0 aims at
achieving a smart factory will soon be a reality. Smart products which consist of
the embedded knowledge of their customers’ needs will provide data insights
and analytics about the best way to achieve customer fulfillment. All this
information will lead to more cost-efficient production and product
development.
The use of IoT in ad hoc networks management is increasing at a rapid pace.
Deutsche Bahn, the German Railways and cargo carrier, installed a network-
wide monitoring system to manage its entire rail network which comprises over
1 billion supply chain “nodes”, collecting data on each segment of track, rail car,
station, engine, and switch, and monitoring the condition of all of these things in
real time. The collected data are fed into a control tower that aggregates them
every five seconds to provide near-real-time information across the entire fleet.
Deutsche Bahn has used these data to improve risk management practices such
as real-time rerouting and optimization, considering all existing network traffic
through nodes. Whirlpool is another example of using the IoT for internal supply
chain optimization in routing work and locating misplaced inventory. Instead of
using bar codes or a similar solution, Whirlpool used radio frequency
identification (RFID) tags and readers across a manufacturing plant to give
managers and operators real-time access to information for inbound logistics to
the paint line.
The IoT can be used by the various partners of the supply chain to monitor its
execution process in real time and improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
the energy consumption. Recent developments in the IoT have made it possible
to achieve high visibility in the supply chain. The location of arbitrary individual
things can be determined at any point in time by all appropriate supply chain
partners. For example, the IoT benefits the food and agricultural product supply
chain by improving the visualization and traceability of agriculture products and
ensuring people’s food safety. Industrial deployment of the IoT provides
development of an ideal platform for decentralized management of warehouses
and collaborative warehouse order fulfillment with RFID, ambient intelligence,
and multiagent systems.
Notwithstanding the huge enthusiasm by supply chain managers to use the IoT,
there is still a lack in energy consumption monitoring and optimization.
Observing and monitoring frameworks in this domain can gather and send key
information about the monitored resource condition, hardware execution, testing,
vitality utilization, natural conditions, and enable administrators and mechanized
controllers to react to changes progressively anywhere. These capacities are vital
to key production network exercises where deceivability and traceability of
articles are required.
RFID is a piece of the IoT frameworks identified with inventory network
exercises. RFID permits programmed recognizable proof and information catch
utilizing radio waves, a tag, and a per-user. The tag can store more information
than customary scanner tags. The tag contains information such as the Electronic
Product Code (EPC), a worldwide RFID-based thing distinguishing proof
framework created by the Auto-ID Center. RFID per user can recognize, track,
and screen the items connected with labels all around, naturally, and
progressively, if necessary.
Notwithstanding the RFID, remote advancements have assumed a key part in
mechanical observing and control frameworks. In an average production
network, observing and control applications utilize sensors, GPS, RFID labels,
and sensor systems to limit scattering, robbery, misfortune, and decay in
distribution center, transportation, and store racks [33]. Sensors are utilized to
keep merchandise at the right temperature and shield them from substance spills
that lead to waste [34]. Sensor systems screen movement conditions, and route
gadgets track the area of transportation vehicles to make steering more
proficient. The Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) comprises spatially dispersed
self-sufficient sensor prepared gadgets to screen physical or ecological
conditions and can participate with RFID frameworks to better track the status of
objects, for example, their area, temperature, and developments [35].
WSN has been principally utilized as a part of frosty chain coordinations that
includes the transportation of temperature-sensitive items along an inventory
network through warm and refrigerated bundling strategies [36]. WSN is
additionally utilized for upkeep and for following frameworks. General Electric
(GE) uses sensors in its fly motors, turbines, and wind ranches. By dissecting
information continuously, GE spares time and expenses because of convenient
preventive support. American Airlines additionally utilizes sensors fit for
catching 30 terabytes of information for every flight for administrations, for
example, safeguard upkeep.
The communication between the utilities and the consumer in supply chain
helps a lot in terms of energy conservation. The behaviors of the consumer vary
not only with the changes in tariff but is also affected if the consumer is aware of
appliance’s consumption. This direct feedback helps in conserving energy as
well as managing the resources for both customer and supplier. In order to
understand the importance of monitoring, let’s take an example of a gas station,
where all members from one family go to refill their car’s fuel tanks but no one
pays after refilling because they have a monthly billing system with the gas
station owner, where they pay a lump sum bill at the end of month. At the end of
the month when the family gets the bill, they don’t know who they must account
for such a large bill from the gas station.
There, our electricity consumption is the same; to simplify it swap the gas
station in the example with the electricity supplier company. Receiving the bill at
the end of the month and not knowing which appliance is contributing how
much to the bill doesn’t help to conserve energy. This is the part where energy
monitoring helps provide a better solution in order to utilize power efficiently
while aiding conservation by monitoring where the energy is being used and
what can be done to reduce the consumption.
Smart Energy Monitoring (Direct Feedback) works on a very basic principle
where the energy being supplied by the provider company enters the home by
Watt Hour Meter (WHM) from where it goes to Load Survey Meter (LSM),
which calculates the total load of the entire building. Further down in the system
are End User Meters (EUMs) installed separately for all the appliances which
calculates the energy consumption for individual appliances. At the end all the
data from the ESMs is collected and distributed to a monitoring server.
Depending on the system the user has, the distribution server can be omitted
from the system. If the user is using In-Home Monitoring Display (IHD) then the
data from all the ESMs will be collected and processed to be illustrated on the
IHD screen, but if the user is connected to a monitoring system provided by the
supplying company then the data will be distributed to the supplier, conditioned,
and then later the user will be informed about the consumption and given
conservation tips (see Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1 Smart energy monitoring scheme; (a) In-house monitoring system, and (b) supplier
controlled monitoring system, where WHM is Watt Hour Meter, LSM is Load Survey Meter, EUM is
the End User Meter, and NCU is the Network Control Unit.
Figure 2.2 In-home information display terminal.
Energy conservation is a big challenge for both the customer and the supplier,
but the beneficiaries of conservation are again, both. The consumers who
participate in energy conservation gets the benefit of a direct decrease in their
electricity bills as well as a lower carbon footprint. On the other hand, at the
supplier level, conservation of energy means a continuous monitoring on
consumption growth which may yield economic benefits by saving the
expenditures on extra capacity investments as well as peak shifting helping to
ensure continuous supply. In addition, it may also help the country by lowering
the GHG emissions and relying on renewable resources.
A detailed review study of different pilot projects and responses is conducted
to compare different monitoring systems, make conclusions from the results, and
to suggest which is the better monitoring system. Also, the impact and
effectiveness of general energy monitoring is discussed. Section 2.2 of the
chapter categorizes and discusses the energy monitoring systems based on
feedback system as well as subcategorizing them based on type of pricing
policies. Section 2.3 briefly lists the devices used for sensing in a monitoring
system. Section 2.4 discusses in detail the background research in a similar field
and the results of pilot projects in different regions of the world. Sections 2.5 and
2.6 contain the conclusion of the results and the discussion, respectively.
2.6 Conclusion
A number of research studies and pilot projects have been conducted across the
world, all suggesting the same result i.e., the energy monitoring system has been
a very beneficial system in terms of energy conservation as the real-time
feedback to the consumer induces a behavior change around consumption and
conservation. [14]. Different scenarios have been discussed in the chapter to
compare and contrast the results to evaluate the impact and effectiveness of
smart energy monitoring.
TOU pricing policy being very effective when introduced with IHD, yields
incremental conservation results. On the other hand, the prepay method also has
its own benefits, but making a hybrid system with prepay method, TOU pricing
policy, and introduced with IHD for energy monitoring is more likely to yield
the highest amount of conservation among all categories.
Though the pilot projects have been very successful and most of them
triggered a high positive response from consumers, they are mostly implemented
in the United States, Canada, and Scandinavian countries. The question remains:
Is the monitoring system feasible for the rest of the world? These projects were
highly monitored and controlled over a specified and limited number of
experimental groups, which makes its feasibility on a larger scale questionable.
*Antalya Bilim University, Antalya, Turkey
†University of Waterloo, ON, Canada
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33. G. Singh and F. Al-Turjman , “A Data Delivery Framework for Cognitive Information-Centric Sensor
Networks in Smart Outdoor Monitoring”, Elsevier Computer Communications Journal, vol. 74, no. 1
(2016): 38–51.
34. F. Al-Turjman , H. Hassanein, and M. Ibnkahla, “Towards prolonged lifetime for deployed WSNs in
outdoor environment monitoring”, Elsevier Ad Hoc Networks Journal, vol. 24, no. A (2015): 172–185.
35. F. Al-Turjman and A. Radwan, “Data Delivery in Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks: Challenging
& Defying in the IoT Era”, IEEE Wireless Communications Magazine, vol. 24, no. 5 (2017): 126–131.
36. M. Z. Hasan , H. Al-Rizzo and F. Al-Turjman, “A Survey on Multipath Routing Protocols for QoS
Assurances in Real-Time Multimedia Wireless Sensor Networks”, IEEE Communications Surveys and
Tutorials, vol. 19, no. 3 (2017): 1424–1456.
Chapter 3
Smart Homes in the Crowd of IoT-based
Cities
Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Smart Home Sensors
3.2.1 Motion Sensors
3.2.2 Physical Sensors
3.2.3 Chemical Sensors
3.2.4 Leak/Moisture Detection
3.2.5 Remote Sensors
3.2.6 Biosensors
3.3 Protocols for Smart Home Devices
3.3.1 How Home Automation Protocols Work
3.3.2 Differences Between Home Automation Protocols
3.4 Applications
3.5 Cloud Architecture for Smart Homes
3.5.1 Peer-to-Peer Networks
3.5.2 Web Service
3.6 Architecture of Smart-Home-Based Cloud
3.6.1 Service Layer
3.6.2 Platform Layer
3.6.3 Infrastructure Layer
3.7 User-Friendly Location Discovery (ULD)
3.8 Conclusion
References
3.1 Introduction
A smart home is an application enabled by ubiquitous computing in which the
home environment is monitored by ambient intelligence to provide context-
aware services and facilitate remote home control [1]. Furthermore, it is
considered to be a combination of several enabling technologies such as sensors,
multimedia devices, communication protocols, and systems. From a different
perspective, a smart home is merely a residence equipped with different Internet-
connected devices that are used to remotely monitor and manage the appliances
and systems installed in the home, such as lighting and heating, to mention just a
few examples. Such a smart residence would be useful in managing the daily
lives of the inhabitants. With the recent developments in the Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) and the reduction in the costs of low-
powered electronics, a new technology has drawn the attention of the research
community, namely the Internet of Things (IoT).
IoT is a revolutionizing technology, intending to connect the entire world by
connecting physical smart devices used for sensing, processing, and actuating [2,
3]. By integrating Machine to Machine (M2M) communication technologies
with the smart devices, these devices can connect and interact without any
human intervention. As a result, IoT is believed to enable a fully conductive
environment that can influence the life of society in different aspects such as the
everyday activities of individuals and businesses, economy applications,
healthcare applications, energy applications, the controlling of traffic and roads,
and even political systems, to mention a few. Moreover, the “Things” are merely
the devices and objects connected to a common interface with the ability to
communicate with each other. By integrating the three core components of the
IoT, namely the Internet, the things, and the connectivity, the value of IoT is to
close the gap between both the physical and the digital worlds in the self-
reinforcing and self-improving systems. The concept of smart homes is
considered as an IoT-based application enabled by connecting the home
appliances to the Internet. The home system’s main goal is to provide security,
monitoring, and control of all devices in homes over a cloud.
To achieve security, the system detects any threats in the home such as gas
leaks, water leaks, and fires (it alarms the residents to prevent any losses of lives
or properties). In addition, the system provides instant detection of any robberies
happening. The controller manages all the devices installed in the home and it
can remotely control these devices with the aid of smartphones. In addition, the
system is compatible with all kinds of devices with the ability to manage their
running time. Amazon Web Server has built IoT specific services, such as AWS
Greengrass, and AWS IoT. These services help people to collect and send data to
the cloud, to load and analyze data, and to manage devices. AWS IoT is a
managed cloud platform which allows the connected devices to easily and
securely interact with each other and with cloud applications. AWS IoT is a
managed service built for the purpose of connecting the devices to each other
and to the cloud. Moreover, it can handle billions of devices and trillions of
messages, with the ability to reliably and securely process and route these
messages to the AWS endpoints and to other devices.
In this chapter, we will overview the IoT-based smart homes, the sensor types
that can be deployed, the enabling standards, and the cloud architecture of a
smart home. The rest of the chapter is constructed as follows. In Section 3.2, we
will overview the different types of sensors used in smart homes. Section 3.3
discusses the communicating protocols and how they work. In Section 3.4, the
common applications that can be deployed in smart homes are proposed. Section
3.5 discusses the cloud architecture for smart homes, and the chapter is
concluded in Section 3.8. For better readability, the abbreviations used in this
chapter are summarized in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Acronyms Used in This Chapter
Acronym Description
AWS Amazon Web Server
PIR Passive Infrared sensor
MW Microwave
LED Light Emitting Diode
UV Ultraviolet
IoT Internet of Things
AC Air Conditioner
VRF Variable Refrigerant Flow
VRV Variable Refrigerant Volume
UPB Universal Powerline Bus
BLE Bluetooth Low Energy
ISM The Industrial, Scientific, and Medical Radio Band
HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
P2P Peer-to-Peer
WSDL The Web Services Description Language
SaaS Software as a Service
PaaS Platform as a Service
IaaS Infrastructure as a Service
OSGi Open Services Gateway Initiative
XML Extensible Markup Language
SOAP Simple Object Access Protocol
UDDI Universal Description, Discovery, and Integration
HGW Home Gateway
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
ULD User-Friendly Location Discovery
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
Figure 3.1 P2P network diagram.
Figure 3.2 Web service architecture diagram.
Figure 3.4 A high-level architecture for supporting context-aware services in future smart homes [12].
3.8 Conclusion
Smart Home applications provide its homeowners with comfort, security, energy
efficiency (low operating costs), and convenience. The smart home system offers
solutions to problems such as: fire, flood, gas leak, theft, child/elderly care,
smart door, temperature and humidity control, security management, air
conditioning and irrigation control, curtain-shutter control, light controller etc.
Any devices can work in harmony with each other to improve quality of life. In
addition to more security, the smart home system allows you to administer
electrical devices such as TV etc. remotely. Moreover, it provides you with
reports to prevent further energy consumption. You can control all these high
security and comfort services from wherever you have Internet access with a
smartphone, tablet, or computer. For the user, these services will be time
efficient and more secure, because humans cannot remember everything.
Therefore, the automated system can control all housework in an instant of time.
For example, in terms of security management, smart homes are very useful.
Thanks to smart home applications, users can regulate security management.
Therefore, it will be by remote control. It will be cost-efficient and safer.
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Chapter 4
Smart-Grid and Solar Energy Harvesting in
IoT-based Cities
Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Literature Review
4.2.1 Smart Grid
4.3 Advancements in the Smart Grid
4.3.1 Benefits of the Smart Grid to Energy Sector
4.4 Metering Technologies
4.4.1 Pros of Smart Meters versus the Conventional Meter
4.5 Communications Used in Smart Grid
4.5.1 ZigBee
4.5.2 Wireless Mesh
4.5.3 GSM
4.5.4 Cellular Network
4.6 Billing Methods
4.6.1 Net Metering
4.6.2 Feed in Tariff
4.6.3 Time of Use
4.7 Solar Energy
4.7.1 Solar Panels (Photovoltaic Modules, PV)
4.7.2 Solar Thermal (Concentrated Solar Power, CSP)
4.7.2.1 Dish Engine Technology
4.7.2.2 Parabolic Trough
4.7.2.3 Tower Focal Point Concentrated Solar Power
4.8 Storage Facilities
4.8.1 Sodium Sulfur (NAS) Batteries
4.8.2 Flywheel Storage Device
4.9 Optimization of Storage Devices
4.10 Connecting Renewable (Solar) Energy to the Smart Grid
4.11 Grid Topology
4.11.1 Radial Distribution
4.11.2 Meshed Distribution
4.11.3 Looped Distribution
4.12 Conclusion
References
4.1 Introduction
In the twenty-first century, electricity utilization has changed significantly due to
the huge increase in demand. Several uses of the main resources of electricity
production surfaced. Hence the grid of the twentieth century is inadequate now.
The constantly increasing demand for better and effective provision of power
resulted in the development of a more robust, effective, and a two-way grid
system called “smart grid” [1, 2]. Smart grid can be defined as the power
generation network that intelligently integrates the utility generators and the end
users to efficiently transmit and distribute electricity. It also allows electricity
distribution to be sufficient in capacity with good area coverage and to be safe,
economic, reliable, efficient, and sustainable. [1–3].
Also, smart grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from
producers to end users. It consists of generating stations, high voltage
transmission lines, and distribution lines. Issues resulting from connectivity are
solved in practical scenarios using generic approaches [4], against machinery or
human mistakes.
Solar power is radiant energy received from the Sun that is processed using a
range of continuously changing technologies; this includes photovoltaic (PV),
solar thermal energy, solar heating, solar architecture, molten salt power plants,
and artificial photosynthesis [5]. Solar Energy is the changing of radiant energy
collected from sun into electric power, either using PV directly, indirectly using
concentrated solar panels (CSP) or using a combination of both. Concentrated
solar systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of
sunlight into a small beam.
Internet of Things (IoT) is a term mostly given to a set of devices networked
together to sense and collect data from everywhere. The origin of the IoT started
in 1999 when Kevin Ashton first coined the name in the context of supply chain
management. Initially the definition was usually used covering lots of ranges
that involve applications in healthcare, utilities, transport, etc. but later changes
as technology evolved, the focus being to make computers sense information
without the help of humans. When home appliances are connected to a network,
they can interact together in cooperation to give the ideal service as a whole and
not as an individual entity together working as a single device. This concept
referred to as the IoT became very acceptable, useful, and gained applications in
many areas of human endeavor which include:
Abbreviation Description
TWh Terawatt hour
GHG Green House Gas
PV Photovoltaic
CSP Concentrated Solar Panels
IoT Internet of Things
KW Kilowatt
MW Megawatt
FLISR Fault Location Isolation and Service Restoration
FACTS Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System
RES Renewable Energy Sources
AMI Advance Metering Infrastructure
AMR Automatic Meter Reading
WAN Wide Area Network
HAN Home Area Network
3G Third Generations
GSM Global System for Mobile
NIST National Institute for Standards and Technology
ToU Time of Use
CAES Compressed Air Energy Storage
NAS Sodium Sulfur
EVs Electric Vehicles
HEVs Hybrid Electric Vehicles
FHEV Full Hybrid Electric Vehicle
MHEV Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
FCEV Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
PHEV Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
MHV Micro Hybrid Vehicle
V2G Vehicle-to-Grid
Figure 4.1 Different types of meters.
This will bring to an end the usual fixed monthly charge plan where electricity
will be charged based on usage.
Therefore, I declared DPM as the best strategy in energy storage [23]. The
energy saved during the summertime can be referred to as produced energy [24].
4.10 Connecting Renewable (Solar) Energy to the Smart Grid
As solar technology continues to improve in efficiency and becomes more
popular the cost is expected to decrease significantly. Thus, the payback period
of a PV system that stands at an average of 20 years could drop to 10 years. This
means that even without government incentives it will be cheap to own a PV
system which could be cheaper when the system is connected to grid as batteries
increase the price due to the fact that they need replacement. Major equipment,
referred to as balance-of-system, to integrate with a state utility smart grid or a
national smart grid are: (1) Power Conditioning Equipment, (2) Safety
Equipment, and (3) Instrumentation and meters. Power Conditioning Equipment
practically changes DC to AC as electronics devices use electricity in AC mode.
The major power conditioning equipments are:
Some electric appliances can operate regardless of the electricity quality while
others need stabilizers to operate. Inverters are devices required to stabilize the
intermittent electricity so that it harmonizes with the requirements of the load in
the grid. Safety equipment are devices that provides protection to stand alone or
homeowner’s system and on-grid integrated electricity generated through a solar
or a wind source from being destroyed or endangering people during natural
occurrences like storm, lightening, power surges, or a fault that can result from
faulty equipment. Instrumentation and meters are equipment that provides a
homeowner with the ability to view and manage their electricity in the form of
solar energy, the battery voltage of their system, the quantity of electricity one is
consuming, and also the strength of the battery in terms of charge/discharge.
Figure 4.4 Radial topology.
Figure 4.6 Looped topology.
4.12 Conclusion
The standard of energy provision of any country is universally accepted to be the
yard stick in measuring that country’s development, be it either underdeveloped,
developing, or developed. It is therefore necessary for Nigeria to take the right
steps toward bettering the energy availability to its citizens. Presently most
Nigerians produces their own electricity which is mostly from fuel generators
with few producing from roof-top solar PV. It was reported that, just 37
universities in the country, use over a thousand generators. Nigeria is rated
globally as the highest importer of generators. We believe that, if homeowners
can get credit by their local power companies for the electricity produced at their
homes through “net-metering” or “feed-in tariff” programs it will encourage
more homeowners to participate and eventually increase greatly the energy
generation and significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emissions.
The IoT smart grid promises to break these two entry barriers by offering low-
cost flexible solutions and using new communication solutions coming from the
Internet world, thereby providing more efficient energy production and
utilization which will significantly provide the most needed security for the
power sector infrastructure against external attack.
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Chapter 5
Smart Meters for the Smart-Cities’ Grid
Contents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Overview of Related Surveys
5.3 Advanced Metering Infrastructure Technology
5.3.1 Smart Meter Internal Structure
5.3.1.1 Microcontroller
5.3.1.2 Power Supply Unit
5.3.1.3 Energy Measurement Unit
5.3.2 Wireless Communication in AMI
5.3.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)
5.3.2.2 Neighborhood and Wide Area Networks (NAN and WAN)
5.3.3 Routing Algorithms
5.3.3.1 Delay
5.3.3.2 Lifetime
5.3.3.3 Cost
5.3.3.4 Reliability
5.3.3.5 Throughput
5.4 Smart Meters and Power Quality
5.4.1 Assessment Parameters
5.4.2 Techniques Embedded in SM for PQ Analysis
5.4.2.1 Wavelet Transform (WT)
5.4.2.2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
5.5 Smart Meters and Power Reliability
5.6 Open Research Issues
5.7 Conclusion
References
5.1 Introduction
Electrical power is considered to be one of the essential factors for the
development of societies through improving life quality. However, the
conditions in the power industry are changing as electricity demand and
renewable integration increase. The increased stress on power demand has
produced a burden on the conventional power production resources. With the
noticeable decline in conventional power resources reserves and the recent
attention on the environmental issues with producing power from fossil fuel
based resources, power utilities and investors are motivated to invest in other
sustainable ways of power production in order to meet the demand. For instance,
one aim of the European 20/20/20 strategy is to increase the share of renewable
energy generation up to 20 percent by 2020 [1]. Renewable resources are
intermittent by nature. The increased penetration of intermittent renewable
distributed generations into the existing power grid makes it challenging for
utilities to deliver reliable and good quality power.
With the recent improvements and advancements in technology, there have
been efforts to introduce the concept of smart cities [2]. In this context, there will
be a noticeable increase in the usage of sensors and sensor networks for
providing useful data that enable the efficient control and management of cities
[2, 3]. The concept of SCs will not only focus on specific services such as traffic
control but will also extend its means to the electric system. With that being said,
sensors and sensing networks play an important role for the enforcing the means
and measures of a smart grid (SG). In other words, smart meter (SM) usage in
SGs ultimately solves most of electrical industry problems [1, 4, 5]. In this way,
the SG will be able to effectively deal with many aspects of power generation,
transmission, and distribution issues. In addition, it will provide better options
for monitoring the status of power delivered to consumers relative to
conventional methods.
SMs provide a powerful way of enhancing the power transaction process
between the source and sink in a SG. The functionalities of SMs in SGs vary
depending on the application objective such as energy demand saving, feedback
to consumers, dynamic pricing, and appliances control, depending on demand
curves, security enhancement, fault/outage detection, supply quality assessment,
etc. [6]. Fault detection and supply performance assessment are two applications
that enhance power reliability and quality in a SG.
This study aims to provide a comprehensive review on the role of SMs in SGs
with an extensive focus on the power quality (PQ) and power reliability (PR)
applications. Another aim is to compare the presented works in literature
considering different metrics. The chapter is organized as follows: Section 5.2
reveals the review papers presented in literature that are associated with the
usage of SMs in SGs, the third section provides an overview on the key enablers
for achieving a successful advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) for SGs,
Section 5.4 and 5.5 compare SM related literature considering different metrics
in the domain of PQ and PR respectively, Section 5.6 reveals the open research
gaps for directing future research, and the last section concludes the thoughts
introduced in the chapter with some possible future work suggestions. The
following table provides the definitions of acronyms used in this chapter.
Figure 5.1 Review on the AMI process in SGs.
Data including voltage and current readings as well as demand curves will be
collected from loads using AMI devices such as SMs, then the data is transferred
using AMI to clouds and then to utilities in order to process the data and manage
transmission and distribution. Then feedback will be sent to consumers for
monitoring their consumption or the quality of the received power.
5.3.1 Smart Meter Internal Structure
A key enabler device in the AMI is SM where it is installed on the consumer side
for collecting real-time voltage and current data. Unlike conventional Automatic
Meter Reading (AMR) where data collection is monthly, SMs provide the ability
of daily data collection [8] via communication networks. Hence, SMs in SGs are
beneficial not only for consumers, but also for utilities and the environment. The
major features of SMs, but not all features, are [15, 16]
■ Energy billing
■ Electricity consumption reduction
■ Consumption curves for both ends
■ Net metering
■ Power reliability monitoring: Outage detection
■ Power quality monitoring: Harmonics and voltage disturbances
classification
■ Power security monitoring: Fraud and theft detection
■ Automated remote control abilities
■ Remote appliance control
■ Interfacing other devices
■ Indirect greenhouse gases reduction as a result of reduced demand
■ Less utility trucks in the streets for outage allocation and PQ tests.
The aforementioned list implies that AMI is able to deal with most of
conventional power systems’ challenges relative to the AMR technology. It can
be said that it is expected to have more complexities in the structure of SMs
since it requires integration of high-tech components to provide the good
functionalities and features as shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 The interior block diagram of a SM [18].
SMs mainly consist of a microcontroller unit (MCU), a power supply unit with
a complimentary battery, voltage and current sensors for active and reactive
energy measurement in the energy metering IC, a real-time clock (RTC), and a
communication facility as listed below [17]:
5.3.1.1 Microcontroller
MCU is considered to be the heart of a SM where most of the major data
processing occurs. Therefore, all operations and functions in the SM are
controlled by the MCU including the following:
Nowadays, most of SMs are equipped with LCD interfaces that enable the
consumers not only to learn their electricity tariffs and energy consumption
patterns but also to learn the quality of power delivered from utilities as well as
the indication of power outages when it occurs. Such functionalities are also
processed by the MCU unit.
5.3.1.2 Power Supply Unit
The SM circuit is supplied with power from the main AC lines through AC-DC
converters and voltage regulators. A supplemental switchover battery is charged
from the main AC lines in order to power the circuit when the connection
between main AC and power supply unit is interrupted or a power outage occurs.
Solar cells and rechargeable batteries can also be used to supply SM with power
during the day [19].
5.3.1.3 Energy Measurement Unit
Based on the voltage and current readings sensed by the voltage and current
sensors, energy measurement units perform signal conditioning, and
computation of active, reactive, and apparent powers. Energy measurement units
can operate as an embedded chip into the MCU or as a standard separated chip
to provide the measurements as voltage or frequency pulses.
5.3.2 Wireless Communication in AMI
Data communication in AMI is an essential part where data are instantly
collected, transferred to the utility to further process it, and then feedback will be
given to the consumers accordingly. In SGs communication areas can be divided
into three main categories. The first is Local Area Network (LAN) which
describe the communication scheme between consumers and SMs. Secondly, the
Neighborhood Area Network (NAN) basically represents a communication
medium that contains flowgates to perform specific processes (such as data
aggregation, encoding) on the data coming from SMs before it is transmitted to
the cloud. The third stage consists of a Wide Area Network (WAN) which is
responsible for communicating data between the cloud in a specific region with
the destination (utility). The schematic is depicted in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3 A review of AMI communication scheme in SGs.
However, there are specific areas that need further considerations in AMI
communication. In AMI infrastructure, big data transmission, data security,
network scalability, and cost effectiveness are among the essential areas that
need more attention [15]. Hence, there is a need for international standards and
regulations to put a framework on communication aspects in AMI. In this regard
there are various standards developed by international institutions such as IEEE
802.15.4, IEC 61970, ISO 1802 [20] in order to insure reliable, secure, and
efficient power delivery to the consumers. Following an analysis on literature,
there have been variety of communication protocols developed [21, 22]
according to international standards that can be used in LAN, NAN, and WAN
regions of the AMI in SGs. The most common used communication protocols in
AMI are listed in Section 5.3.2.1.
5.3.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)
5.3.2.1.1 ZigBee
ZigBee is a communication technology developed according to the IEEE
802.15.4 standard that transmits data at a rate of approximately 250 Kbps on 2.4
GHz frequency [23]. It is well known that ZigBee targets applications that
require short domain communication with a range of 0–100 m. Despite the short
range of coverage, ZigBee proves itself in the low power consumption and
system scalability but at the cost of data transmission rate. Hence, this
technology can perform well in the LAN region of a SG.
5.3.2.1.2 Wi-Fi
Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) is another communication technology that is largely
used nowadays in homes and business areas. It is designed according to IEEE
802.11b/g/n standard with a capability of data transmission at frequencies 2.4
and 5 GHz in the domain of 0–250 m at a rate of 54 Mbps [24]. The domain of
Wi-Fi is larger compared to ZigBee as well as this It also provides a relatively
higher rate of data transmission at the cost of scalability. The security in this
technology is also an advantage since it has a robust authentication procedure.
5.3.2.1.3 Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology can also be categorized under the short range
communication schemes (0–100 m) that is developed according to IEEE
802.15.1 standard to transfer data at a rate of 721 kbps [25] and a frequency of
2.4 GHz. The technology is distinguished by its capability of low power
consumption since it has a limited capability of big data transfer. The widespread
of the technology among users especially in smartphones gives it another
advantage in being integrated in SG LANs.
5.3.2.1.4 Z-Wave
The Z-Wave technology is a radio frequency based communication mainly
designed for in-home appliances remote control which relies on an unlicensed
900 MHz frequency which transmits data at a rate reaching 40 kbps for a range
of 0–30 m [26]. The operating frequency of this technology reduces the risk of
being disrupted by the previously mentioned technologies since they operate on
2.4 GHz frequency which enhances the reliability of this technology.
5.3.2.2 Neighborhood and Wide Area Networks (NAN and WAN)
5.3.2.2.1 Cellular
The cellular technology plays an important role in the AMI of SG. 2G, 3G, and
4G cellular modes that provide the capability of big data transmission that rates
from 14.4 kbps (for 2G) until 100 Mbps (for 4G) at a licensed frequency band
(824 MHz and 1900 MHz) [27]. The technology targets a large area because of
its long domain that ranges between 10–100 km. With that being said, cellular
technology consumes high power for the transmission process.
5.3.2.2.2 WiMAX
This communication technology is developed according to IEEE 802.16 standard
in which it operates at two frequency bands (2–11 and 11–66 GHz) to transmit
data at rate of 70 Mbps for an area domain of approximately 50 km [28]. The
WiMAX has a similar principle to Wi-Fi but differs in the distance of
transmission.
5.3.2.2.3 Sigfox
Sigfox is a developing machine to machine WAN communication solution that
operates on a frequency band of 868 MHz that has the ability to cover 30–50 km
in rural areas and 3–10 km in urban areas to deliver the data at a rate of 100 bps
[29]. An advantage with this technology is noticeable in its low power
consumption for data transmission. The limitation of Wi-Fi technology to be
applied in NAN or WAN is the short area coverage while the cellular provided a
solution for big data transmission in WANs at the cost of power consumption,
Sigfox seems to provide a middle-way solution considering coverage and power
consumption.
5.3.2.2.4 LoRaWAN
LoRaWAN is a recent non-profit organization that is mainly found to be
integrated in Internet of Things (IoT) WAN applications. The technology
operates on a 900 MHz frequency to transmit data at a rate of 50 kbps for
distance ranges between 10–15 km in rural areas and 2–5 km in urban areas [30].
Relative to Sigfox technology considering the trade-off between coverage and
power consumption, LoRaWAN offers a better data rate with reduced power
consumption. Table 5.1 illustrates a summary of communication technologies
used in LAN, NAN, and WAN areas of a SG.
Table 5.1 Acronyms of Definitions Used in this Chapter
Acronym Definition
SG Smart Grid
SM Smart Meter
AMI Advanced
AMR Automatic Meter Reading
PQ Power Quality
PR Power Reliability
Index Description
Sustained Interruption SAIFI System Average Interruption Frequency Index
(SI) SAIDI System Average Interruption Duration Index
CAIDI Customer Average Interruption Duration Index
CTAIDI Customer Total Average Interruption Duration Index
CAIFI Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index
ASAI Average Service Availability Index
Load based (LB) ASIFI Average System Interruption Frequency Index
ASIDI Average System Interruption Duration Index
CEMIn Customer Experiencing Multiple Interruptions
CELID Customer Experiencing Long Interruption Duration
Momentary interruptions MAIFI Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index
(MI) MAIFIE Momentary Average Interruption Event Frequency Index
CEMSMIn Customer Experiencing Multiple Sustained Interruption and Momentary
Interruption Events Index
In this context, SMs also provide the ability of interruption time reduction
relative to conventional meters. Replacement of conventional meters with SMs
in a power distribution utility in Brazil is discussed in [90] considering SAIDI
index and expected energy not supplied (EENS). The study shows a noticeable
annual reduction of both SAIDI and EENS for the period between 2011 and
2015 where they achieved a 16.54 percent reduction in 2015. Unlike a study by
Siirto et al., implemented in Helsinki, Finland shows that the help of SMs
enabled utilities to achieve a percentage reduction of 50 percent in SAIDindex
[89]. AMI technology had more focus in Shang-Wen Luan et al., which develops
a ZigBee based automated reliability system that is able to calculate and display
reliability indices including sustained and load based indices [91]. Following the
focus on employing SMs in calculating reliability indices, Gamroth et al.
propose an evaluation model for Power Reliability Index (PRI) which uses the
PQ data recorded by the SMs [92]. The usefulness of this study is observed in
employing both PQ and reliability considerations to enhance the overall grid
system operation with an intense focus on SMs. This is unlike Mohsenzadeh
et al., which briefly considers the usage of SMs in this regard but attempts to
calculate reliability indices such as ASIDI and ENS as an additional adjective
[93]. Following analysis on this limited literature in the domain of using SMs for
PR indices calculations, applications vary in the indices calculated as well as the
focus on the usage of SMs as summarized in Table 5.7.
Table 5.7 Summary of SM-Based PR Indices Calculation
5.7 Conclusion
The importance of PQ and PR in power grids has brought increased attention to
developing new ways and techniques for their assessment. IoT is believed to
provide a long term solution to help solving such problems as well as providing
the essential building blocks for enhancing the measures of SGs with the help of
AMI and SMs technologies. For this study, we reviewed the effectiveness of
employing these technologies onto conventional power grids for PQ and PR
assessments. The structure of AMI and SM technologies including wireless
communication technology as an enabler for IoT as well as data routing
algorithms are discussed and open research areas are suggested accordingly.
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Chapter 6
Intelligent Parking Solutions in the IoT-based
Smart Cities
Contents
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Smart Parking System and Classification
6.2.1 Parking Guidance and Information System (PGIS)
6.2.2 Transit Based Information System (TBIS)
6.2.3 Smart Payment System (SPS)
6.2.4 Centralized Assisted Parking Search (CAPS)
6.2.5 Opportunistically Assisted Parking Search (OAPS)
6.2.5.1 Mobile Storage Node Opportunistically Assisted Parking
Search (MSN-OAPS)
6.2.6 Non-Assisted Parking Search (NAPS)
6.2.7 Car Park Occupancy Information System (COINS)
6.2.8 Parking Reservation System (PRS)
6.2.9 Agent Based Guiding System (ABGS)
6.2.10 Automated Parking
6.2.11 E-Parking
6.3 Sensors Overview
6.3.1 Passive and Active Infrared Sensor
6.3.2 Ultrasonic
6.3.3 Inductive Loop Detector
6.3.4 Magnetometer
6.3.5 Piezoelectric Sensor
6.3.6 Pneumatic Road Tube
6.3.7 Weigh-in-Motion Sensor
6.3.8 Microwave Radar
6.3.9 CCTV & Image Processing
6.3.10 Vehicle License Recognition
6.3.11 RFID
6.3.12 LDR Sensor
6.3.13 Acoustic Sensor
6.4 Errors in Data Collection and System Reliability
6.5 Communication and Deployment
6.6 Software Systems in Smart Parking
6.7 Data Privacy and Security in Smart Parking
6.8 Smart Parking Solutions Deployments
6.9 ANew Application in the Smart Parking System
6.10 Hybrid Solution
6.11 Open Issues
6.12 Conclusion
References
6.1 Introduction
The idea of smart parking was introduced to solve the problem of parking space
and parking management in megacities. With the increasing number of vehicles
on roads and the limited number of parking spaces, vehicle congestion is
inevitable. This congestion would certainly lead to a polluted environment and
driver aggression, especially in peak hours where the flow density is at its
maximum and locating a vacant parking spot is near to impossible. A recent
report by INRIX [1] shows that on average, a typical American driver spends 17
hours a year looking for a parking space; however, looking at a major city such
as New York this figure is much higher. According to the report, New York
drivers spend 107 hours per year searching for parking spots and taking into
account the fuel spent during this period, this results in an unnecessary emission
of harmful gases which can be easily avoided.
Identifying these problems and trying to resolve them in a manner that is
effective and at the same time sustainable is a challenging task, in spite of this,
with the recent technological advancement, an innovative solution is proposed to
once and for all solve the problems of parking spaces in cities. The Smart
Parking System (SPS) is based on analyzing and processing the real-time data
gathered from vehicle detection sensors such as infrared sensors, ultrasonic
sensors, RFID, and many others that are placed in parking spaces to detect
absence or presence of vehicles. These sensors have their benefits and
weaknesses in certain areas where they are deployed. In addition, there may be
issues of data anomalies where the collected information does not conform to the
initial expected pattern. This could potentially lead to a less reliable system and
therefore, reliability check is also another important factor that needs to be
considered. Apart from these physical constraints, one should look at the
security and the privacy issues of the data transmitted and received. Several
factors such as end-to-end communication and data encryptions have to be
considered in advance before implementing any smart applications. The data
collected from the sensors may be used for several features such as, parking
prediction, path optimization, and parking assignment where they could greatly
help to provide an enhanced experience to both the operators of parking spaces
where they could maximize their revenue and to the users of the parking to
easily search, book and pay in advance.
Another approach in real-time monitoring of vehicles that has recently been
discussed and gained attention is Vehicle Ad Hoc Networks (VANET), where
vehicles that encompass the On Board Unit (OBU) communication system can
effectively communicate with other nearby vehicles as well as roadside
infrastructures to provide a real-time parking navigation service and also
information dissemination of parking vacancy to and from each other [2].
A new application that is currently under study is the 5th generation
telecommunication networks (5G for short) that is aiming to power the future of
the Internet of Things (IoT). To put it simply, Uckelman et al. describes the IoT
as the integrated part of the future Internet as a dynamic global network
infrastructure with self-configuring capabilities based on standard and
interoperable communication protocols [3]. As the number of connected devices
increase the need for faster, better, and more efficient wireless communication is
expected and this is where 5G can fill the gap [4]. The current inefficiencies in
existing communication protocols in any IoT application such as SPSs are
expected to be improved with the implementation of these new protocols.
The aim of this survey is to offer an insight into new researchers who seek to
work in the intelligent transportation system. We look at different elements of
the SPS and explain thoroughly the hardware and software aspects of this
application. Therefore, we organized this survey such that Section 6.2 explains
and categorizes the existing SPS by classifying them into different
characteristics. Then we move onto Section 6.3 where we look at an overview of
the current vehicle detection technologies where several parameters such as
scalability, accuracy, and weather sensitivity are explained and compared to each
other. We also introduce some of the issues in data collection and in general
system reliability of SPSs in Section 6.4, by looking at different cases where the
problem can arise. Section 6.5 talks about the legacy and the new long-range low
power wide area network (LPWAN) communication protocols and several of
their deployments in the literature. Moreover, a comprehensive table was
generated where key parameters of each of these protocols are compared.
Software aspects of a SPS that is responsible for managing, analyzing, and
finally distributing the collected information as well as in providing enhanced
features such as parking prediction and path optimization are presented in
Section 6.8. Data privacy and security issues of a SPS are described in Section
6.7 and some small and large scale deployments are reviewed in Section 6.8. The
VANET system which is a fairly new subject is introduced in Section 6.9 where
we look at the advantages and difficulties of this new system in the smart
parking application. Finally, we propose our hybrid solution in Section 6.10
where this solution can make use of many sensors with LAPWAN
communication modules to provide a more reliable, fast, and secure smart
parking scenario.
Note: Stars (*) represent a rating system, one star (*) means poor and the 5 stars (*****) means excellent in
terms of their used metric (e.g., accuracy, scalability, etc.), whereas, for the cost metric, more stars
means more expensive.
The star next to the tick symbol (✓*) indicates only applicable in certain cases (applications) as discussed in
each subsection.
Figure 6.1 Smart parking system architecture, adapted from [8].
6.12 Conclusion
As the population of urban area increases leading to traffic congestions and other
problems, the growing need for parking spots is inevitable. Therefore, to
improve the current parking system and to fix the problem of overcrowded cities
lacking parking spots, smart parking was introduced. A comprehensive survey of
the current SPSs including the major vehicle detection technologies used in these
systems was presented and broken down according to their effectiveness,
security, and communication module. The objective of this survey was to offer
an insight into new research in the intelligent transportation system. We looked
at different elements of a SPS and explained thoroughly the hardware and
software aspect of this application. The software aspect of smart parking was
presented and several features such as parking prediction, path optimization, and
parking assignment and how the collected information can enhance the
experience of parking operators as well as drivers was introduced. Different
tables were generated which compared several key factors of each of the
elements in SPS, sensors, and communication modules. Moreover, an overview
of data security and privacy, as well as the new application on connected
vehicles, were discussed. In the end, a hybrid solution that aimed to solve some
of the current problems in smart parking application was presented. In this
practice, multi-sensors hybrid smart parking can integrate multiple data from
different sensors to provide a reliable, inexpensive, and efficient system. In
future work, more effort should be put on researching innovative smart parking
ideas. More extensive research should be conveyed on the hybrid solutions
models containing state-of-the-art sensors with the integration of LPWAN and
5G communication modules, in addition to energy harvesting possibilities for a
flawless SPS.
* Antalya Bilim University, Antalya, Turkey
† Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
* http://www.libelium.com/products/plug-sense/
* http://www.huawei.com/minisite/iot/en/smart-parking.html
† http://www.zte.com.cn/global/
‡ https://www.nwave.io/parking-technology/
§ https://www.telensa.com/smart-parking/
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Chapter 7
Intelligent Medium Access for Adaptive
Speed Limits in the Smart-Cities’ Framework
Fadi Al-Turjman *
Contents
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Related Work
7.3 Framework Description
7.3.1 Functioning of the System
7.3.2 Registration Phase
7.4 Enriched-rtPS (E-rtPS) with RT-BMAP
7.5 Results and Discussions
7.6 Concluding Remarks
References
7.1 Introduction
Every year, several people die in car accidents/collisions. For example, over 1.2
million died in traffic accidents around the world in 2016 [1]. There are a
number of different reasons for road accidents/collisions in different countries.
Nevertheless, one of the major causes of these road collisions is driving the car
under unpredictable weather conditions. It was noted that fifty percent of the
fatal collisions happen while driving under a speed of 55 km/h [1]. We therefore
need a system where the speed limits are set according to the current weather,
traffic, and road conditions. With the recent revolution in wireless
telecommunications, several advanced solutions relying on wireless
communication standards have been proposed to provide Intelligent
Transportation Systems (ITS) in the Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm. For
instance, Sahoo et al. projected an Automatic Speed Control (ASC) system that
adjusts the speed of the vehicle according to the speed limit on the road [2]. The
feasibility of a smart box called “Telematics,” which has the ability to capture,
analyze, and communicate, is being studied in cooperation with IBM’s
Engineering and Technology Services. Using multiple microprocessors and tiny
sensors attached to the vehicle body, it is able to observe the vehicle’s velocity
for example and compare it to the upper speed limit of the road. In the case that
the speed of the car is higher than the announced limit allowed by authorities,
the box will verbally notify the driver. Moreover, a digital image processing
system has been proposed by Baró et al. [3] that utilizes onboard cameras to read
and recognize signs at the side of the road and send the warning signal to the
driver and/or directly control the car. Different versions of this system have been
investigated intensively all over the world. Results in van de Beek et al. [4] have
shown that this solution is able to cut down the rate of accidents by 35 percent.
In the near future, the speed control system will be very dependent on the
standard of IEEE 802.16 to locate each vehicle and satisfy the demands of the
required real-time services such as voice and video. The standard of IEEE
802.16 is designed and developed to offer specific services for wireless radio
interface [5]. The Task Group (TG) of IEEE 802.16 has significant advantages,
namely, higher data rate, scalability, real-time serviceability, low-cost
maintenance, and cost upgrade [6]. However, the IEEE 802.16 d/e does not have
an appropriate scheduler algorithm for the real-time service [5]. This research
focuses its attention on the IEEE 802.16 system to enhance the reliability of the
emerging vehicular networks. Since an IEEE 802.16 system cannot be distinctly
specific in its resource allocation among the real-time applications, the base
station unfairly allocates and shares the resources, namely, frequency spectrum
and time slots with different types of traffic flows [5].
In IEEE 802.16, there are different Medium Access Control (MAC) scheduling
services, such as Unsolicited Grant Service (UGS), real-time Polling Service
(rtPS), and non-real-time Polling Service (nrtPS) to provide better quality of
services. UGS and rtPS are the two schedulers for the real-time traffic. Each
real-time scheduling mechanism has a parameter to quantify its bandwidth
requirements, namely, delay, and the minimum and maximum transmission rates
[7]. However, these schedulers do not fulfill the requirements for the real-time
services in smart-cities. Hence, the suitability of a Batch Markovian Arrival
Process (BMAP) is analyzed in studies such as Klemm et al. [8] for modeling of
IP traffic, and it is shown that the BMAP model is a better candidate especially
compared to other popular processes such as the Markov Modulated Poisson
Process. Thus, we propose a Real Time-BMAP (RT-BMAP) model for real-time
services. The objective of RT-BMAP is to achieve the required quality of service
with the minimum delay. Accordingly, the major contributions of this chapter are
as follows:
Parameters Values
Frequency 2 GHz
Bandwidth 5 MHz
Number of Cells 19
Distance (Inter-Site) 500 m
Number of RBs 25
Shadowing Standard Deviation 8 dB
Uplink Device Transmission Power 24 bBm
Proximity Distance 10 m
Maximum Power Transmission P 24 dBm
Threshold η 0.8
Channel odel 200Tap, Urban [9]
Path loss [Distance-Dependent] 128.1 + 3.76 log (R) , Rin km
Modulation and Coding Scheme QPSK, 16 QAM, 64 QAM (1/2, 2/3, 3/4)
Figure 7.1 A schematic for the vehicular-cloud in smart-cities.
Existing service categories supported by 802.16, UGS, and rtPS are designed
and developed for the support of real-time (e.g., VoIP) communication flow. The
existing and proposed real-time services can be concisely described as follows:
Service of UGS: This service is intended to provide static-size packet flow to
the real-time applications, such as E-Carrier(E1)/T-Carrier(T1)/Integrated
Services Digital Network (ISDN) technologies, UCTIMS client and real-time
services such as VoIP (without silence detection). To send the voice data packet,
the Base Station (BS) usually communicates the static size to the Mobile
Subscriber Station (MSS). When the real-time application integrates the voice
codec with silence detector, the bandwidth consumption of the application
should be less for the off period. Otherwise, it wastes the resource availability.
Service of rtPS: The service of rtPS is intended to provide variable-size data
packet flow to real-time applications like MPEG-Video Streaming periodically
[5]. The BS puts up a request of bandwidth as polling and the MSS sends a
report of bandwidth demand through the request of BS, thus, the process of
bandwidth request incurs an additional MAC overhead and queuing-delay. The
voice connection process can be negotiated in the requisition process; and called
in a polling or bandwidth request process. As the rtPS service always relies on
the bandwidth request process as a suitable grant size, it is able to transport the
voice data more efficiently than the UGS service. However, this service causes
connection delay and MAC overhead. In addition, the MSS uses a piggyback
request to grant VoIP services, since the voice service is delay sensitive. In this
study, we propose an improved real-time service support E-rtPS.
7.3.2 Registration Phase
RSUs are located in different places along a given road. Local Controllers (LC)
are static base stations in the city. Mobile Controllers (MC) are sensing platforms
attached to vehicles. We use a Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) algorithm to
select an LC at each route. Each MC is considered as a node in the MST, while
all RSUs are considered as terminal nodes, as depicted in Figure 7.2. Each leaf
node is in different layers from the MC. RSUs in the same depth communicate
with each other and select one as LC. This registration phase is summarized in
the following four main steps:
Figure 7.2 Flow chart for the vehicular-cloud.
At the end of this phase, the selected LCs create a localized global view at each
depth from the MC. Therefore, different kinds of controllers are used to reduce
the system burden form the single main controller and reduce overall overhead
and delay.
Figure 7.4 Throughput versus number of voice call sessions.
Figure 7.5 Average packet delay versus number of voice connections.
Contents
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Related Work
8.3 System Model
8.3.1 Problem Formulation
8.3.2 Energy Model
8.3.3 Delay Model
8.3.4 Throughput Model
8.4 Particle Optimization in IIoT
8.5 Performance Evaluation
8.5.1 Simulation Results
8.6 Conclusion
References
8.1 Introduction
Advances in the Internet of Things (IoT) technologies and some new emerging
ICT technologies such as the 5G devices/sensors are converging with a variety of
application fields [1, 2]. Its integration with the industry is envisaged to
revolutionize the current industry by creating smarter machines, building
connectivity between them, and allowing them to communicate with and control
one another for collaborative automation and intelligent optimization. 5G is
expected to be more than a new generation of mobile communications [3]. It is
already considered the unifying fabric that will connect billions of devices in
some of the fastest, most reliable, and most efficient ways possible. Of course,
the impact of such an enabling technology is expected to be revolutionary. The
new infrastructure for communication is expected to transform the world of
connected sensors and reshape industries. Such a revolution would of course
require research and development for the coexistence and device interoperability
of sensors with 5G networks.
Drones, also known as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), have been used
mainly in military applications for many years. However, there has been a recent
increase in the use of UAVs in non-military fields, which is inspired by the 5G
revolution. Such fields include precision agriculture, security and surveillance,
delivery of goods, and provisioned services [1]. For example, Amazon and
Walmart have been working on a new system to deliver goods to customers
through the air. Additionally, China's largest mailing company DHL, has started
delivering around 500 parcels daily using UAVs. Moreover, we can use some
5G-supported UAVs to monitor and send feedback from incidents that happen
along the road, hence, eliminating the need for road support teams. Moreover, a
traffic policeman can be replaced or assisted by a UAV, by having it hovering
over fast-moving vehicles and reporting back traffic violations. Consequently,
the use of UAVs for industry-oriented services can become a reality very soon,
especially after the revolution of communication systems toward realizing the
5G-inspired Internet of Things (5G/IoT) paradigm. A key field of interest for IoT
and sensor networks is the development of wearables that can connect to these
UAVs for various application areas. Having an infrastructure such as 5G which
is developed considering IoT applications in detail causes significant need for
further contributions in terms of data and especially multimedia delivery. 5G is
targeting 10 Gbps data rates in real-time networks [4]. The recent tests in 5G
technology have shown that it is even possible to exceed 1 Tbps in a laboratory
environment. This would mean being able to transmit 33 HD films each up to
2.5–3 hours in a single second. It is typically desirable to have these
infrastructures seamlessly integrated with IoT industrial solutions and there are
recommended prototype sensors for similar applications with the energy and
marginal cost for each added sensor [6].
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are very critical in the aforementioned
archetype. The integrated 5G and IoT is an extraordinary complex model, where
devices are deployed as consumer elements forming a complex interconnected
system. Conversely, these elements operate within very strict energy constraints,
and hence make the energy left over for fault-tolerance procedure very limited.
Moreover, the emergence of the variety of multimedia IoT applications such as
video streaming from smart homes in smart cities will certainly increase the need
for a fault-tolerant data routing [7].
Nowadays, WSNs function in an autonomous manner with very limited human
control in a UAV-enabled system, where sensors and cameras are
attached/distributed not only in smart environments, but also to flying UAVs in
the industry. Moreover, most of these sensors are positioned in wild outdoor
environments and sometimes even harsh environments. Hence, it is quite
difficult to determine and design a fault-tolerant routing protocol. Because the
communication energy is considerably lower than that used in computations, it is
very important to come up with a fault-tolerant algorithm which is able to
recover from path failures no matter what the added computational energy is. Or
else, any random event may cause the UAV failure in delivering their exchanged
information and interrupt the network functionality.
Accordingly, this necessitates a multipath routing approach that can recover the
failed path. Multipath routing protocols form a good candidate for a more
reliable 5G/IoT paradigm, in which fault-tolerance routing problems are
considered as optimization problems. These optimization problems formulate a
k-disjoined paths to encounter up to k−1 path failure. Exceptional fault-tolerance
routing in UAV-enabled networks needs huge computational power, which as the
problem increases, brings about large control message overhead without
scalability [8]. Coming up with a solution to these problems on each sensor may
require significant capacities in terms of memory and computational resources,
and still produce ordinary results.
To offer quick recovery from failures, we designed a bio-inspired routing
algorithm called Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). Authors in Jiang et al. [9]
note that the use of PSO has produced positive results, due to its simple concept
and high efficiency. Nonetheless, despite the competitive performance, there still
remains a huge challenge of solving the fault-routing problem because of the
convergence issue. However, many of the impulsive convergence traps occur
due to fast convergence features and a diverse loss of particle swarm, and hence,
result in different solutions. In addition, the ability to differentiate between
exploration and exploitation search is another significant challenge that we face
today. Exploration contains the swarm convergence, while exploitation usually
tend to make the swarm particle convergence without leaving the viable area that
eventually leads to premature convergence, hence it is never proper to
overemphasize exploitation or exploration [11]. Due to these challenges that
must be faced, and especially the connectivity issues, we propose a new
approach that is more efficient in recovering failures via multipath routing
capable of attaining Quality of Service (QoS) in terms of energy consumption,
lifetime, delay, and throughput. The proposed multipath routing algorithm is
compared against an existing optimization algorithm, namely Canonical Particle
Swarm (CPS) [12], Fully Multi-Path Swarm (FMPS) [10] and Canonical Particle
Multi-Path Swarm (CPMS) optimization algorithm [11] to offer a different
learning technique for the swarm particles. The aforementioned algorithms are
only different from each other in that they have different learning contrivances
and the likes, otherwise, they are similar to each other. Additionally, increasing
the number of paths requires more messages exchange and communication
overhead [12]. Therefore, we adopted the use of intricate network connections so
as to denote layout of the swarm and use the multipath routing algorithm to
stabilize the trade-off between fault tolerance and communication overheard by
taking advantage of a mixed proactive and reactive routing mechanism that
maintains the best objective function value for the designated paths per particle.
After this, the particles are increased or decreased and then given a velocity that
suits them where the augmented objective function must be used in order to
make a fitting assortment.
In view of IoT solutions for the manufacturing industry from a system and
network perspective, this study endeavors to provide novel data delivery
solutions to gain machine/sensors interoperability and manufacturing flexibility
through production line level machine collaborations focusing on: (1)
sensor/machine functionality and decentralized structure for communication
intensive applications; (2) ubiquitous message trading and learning techniques
for collaborative automations; (3) Swarm-based management for application
level flexibility and adaptation. Due to the aforementioned issues in WSN
technology, and especially the connectivity ones, we propose a new routing
algorithm that is more efficient in considering multipath failures which contain
reconstructive procedures capable of attaining QoS in terms of network lifetime,
energy consumption, delay, and throughput.
It is worth recognizing that there is a chance that this might change during the
dynamic network lifetime. Moreover, unless all constraints are met, there will be
a division in the multipath and the neighborhood will be reconstructed. We can
use the constraints to change the topology of the system which will eventually
lead to solving the optimal power problem. Hasan et al. [25] uses the method of
cut-off value to determine the lower and upper bound of the number of hops and
transmission range. E elec represents the energy derived when using the
transmitter and receiver circuitry. The energy used by the receiver to obtain a
proper signal to noise ratio is represented by ε mp. The amount of energy loss
during transmission is α, and τ n (nu,nv) is the transmission range. To conclude, the
function used to get the minimum amount of energy used in one node to
transport data of length L p for a distant of τ is formulated by:
→
min Z
S. t.
hop =
α τ (n , n ) ( ) ≤ τn (nu , nv )
3εmp
⎷ n u v (8.2)
2Eelecn(nu,nv )
⎧ nd ⎫
Z = Energynsd = L p ⎨∑ 2 [Eelecnsd + ε mp (nsd ) ]⎬
→
⎩ n ⎭
α
(8.3)
n
The above energy value for the selected path can change according to the
selected upper/lower bounds, E min , and E max, respectively. It represents the
minimum and the maximum constants, respectively.
8.3.3 Delay Model
In this research, we consider the delay definition which depends on the hop
count, denoted as φ (ξi , ξj ). φ represents the delay between two nodes, its
definition is determined by the ideal number of hops. Given the optimal number
of hops in Equation (8.3), which represents the minimum delay between two
nodes, we can formulae and optimize the route selection while considering delay
and network resources constraints. This optimization problem, shall consider
both source and intermediate nodes periodically in the immediate neighborhood.
Additionally, if one sensor node gratifies one QoS, the problem converges and
all QoS requirements will be achieved. Consequently, the end-to-end delay for a
given path P between is φSource and ξ Sink is described as:
⎧
⎪ ⎫
⎪
φsourcessink (Lp ) = min ⎨∑ φ (ξi, ξj )⎬ ,
⎩
⎪ ⎭
⎪
(8.4)
ξi
where φSourcesSink denotes the minimum delay that we can achieve when we
send data through paths between ξSource and ξ Sink . This time consists of the time
for transmission, retransmission, staying idle, queuing, propagation, and
processing. And thus, considering
the average delay per sensor node is equal to ξ. Assuming the hop count on a
path between ξSource and ξ Sink is given by η ij and the delay along this path is Lφe .
Δφ −φe
The hop delay constraint can be signified by Lφe = η ij
. Accordingly, we can
rewrite the constraint in Equation (8.5) as
Lφe
Th = ( ) * TR (8.7)
ξ
f (x) ;
2.
→ → →→ → →
X := {x1 , … , xn } := InitParticle ( lb , ub) → ∀p ∈ {1, … , n} : →
x n ψ U ( lb, ub)
3.
→ →
V := {v1 , … , vn} := InitParticleVelocities ( lb , ub) → ∀p ∈ {1, … , n} :
→ → → → → →
v n ψ ( lb − ub) ⊗ U (0, 1) − 12 (ub, lb)
→
4.
5.
P := {→ p n } := Initllocallocallyoptimal (X) → X
p 1, … , →
6.
7.
G := {→ g n} := Initgloballyoptimal (P , T ) → P
g 1, … , →
8.
G := {g1f , … , gnf } := Initgloballyoptimal (P f , T ) → P f
−−−−−−−−−−−−→
up = x * ( →
up + Δ (0, φ2) ⊗ (locallyoptimal p − →
xp )
−−−−−−−−−−−−→
+ Δ (0, φ2 ) ⊗ (locallyoptimal p − →
xp ))
12.
→
x p := →
xp + →
vp
13.end for
14.
Y := EvaluateObjectivefunction (X, f)
15.
16.
G, Gf := Updategloballyoptimal (P , P f , T ) → ∀p ∈ {1, … , n} : →
gp , gpf
17.End while
Parameter Value
Message payload 64 bytes
Data length p 2000 bits
Transmission range 12.00 m
Tx data rate 250 kbps
E elec 50 nJ/bit
Total number of UAVs 50 sensor nodes
ε mp 0.0013 pJ/bitm2
Topology structure Square (1000 m ∗1000 m)
Εfs 10 pJ/bitm2
Figure 8.1 The swarm optimization routing in terms of energy consumption.
According to these figures, FMPS and CPMS algorithms achieve the best
performance when 30 coexisting nodes are assumed. Meanwhile, CPS
performance is shown in Figures 8.4 a, 8.5(a), and 8.6 a in terms of energy
consumption, delay, and throughput, respectively, and has the worst performance
when the number of nodes deployed is more than 30 at the beginning and
becomes better over time. This is because the CPS can construct and select
optimal paths from an unfavorable area in the search space. Specifically, the low
number of generation of paths for the objective functions can be a reason why
the CPS’s convergence is a little bit off from the global optimal solution for a 30
node deployment than with other algorithms.
Figure 8.7 compares the lifetimes of different counts of partitioning nodes,
where a partitioning node is a node that can cause isolation/separation for a set
of nodes in the network. In this figure, we consider a single data source (or
UAV) and the network lifetime definition in 0. Accordingly, lifetime should be
proportional to the ratio of the total deployed nodes’ count N.
Figure 8.7 Node lifetime versus the nodes’ count.
Figure 8.8 illustrates the network lifetime for multiple data sources (or UAVs)
and same setups in Figure 8.7. The only difference is that continuous multimedia
traffic is transmitted by multiple sources to the partitioning nodes. This
assumption makes the performance of the proposed Swarm-based algorithm
easier to assess. Obviously, the network lifetime must be longer than that in the
single source scenario. This is because the network lifetime is relatively
proportional to the ratio of the partitioning nodes to UAVs’ count per region in
the network. It is worth pointing out here that with the same count of partitioning
nodes, the network lifetime decreases when more than one source (UAV) is
transmitting as depicted in Figure 8.8. When more UAVs are involved in
covering a region, more energy is consumed by the network per time unit.
Therefore, the lifetime is expected to decrease when the number of sources
increases. Similarly, in the single source scenario (see Figure 8.7), the lifetime
decreases when the partitioning nodes count increases.
Figure 8.8 Node lifetime versus the nodes’ count.
8.6 Conclusion
IIoT is emerging as a dominant communication paradigm, nowadays, in order to
satisfy the industrial revolution worldwide. In this research, we offer a bio-
inspired swarm algorithm that constructs, recovers, and finds k-disjoint
multipath routes in a network of machines (or UAVs). Two position information,
namely the personal-best position and the global position, are considered in the
form of velocity updates to enhance the performance of the IIoT network. In
order to validate this algorithm, we assessed the multiple objective functions
which consider throughput, average energy consumption, and average end-to-
end delay. Our results show that using the characteristics of all personal-best
information is a valid strategy for the purposes of improving the CPMS
performance. Moreover, the proposed algorithm has also been compared with
similar algorithms, which optimize the energy consumption and average delay
on the explored paths toward the destination. For the future, we see great
potential in and a need to study various aspects of 5G/IoT integration with the
existing sensor network architectures in different levels for more successful
industrial applications. The popularity of 5G, the problem of slicing the Internet
traffic, and the fact that a significant slice is expected to be reserved for sensory
applications encourage further attempts in this domain.
Contents
9.1 Introduction
9.2 B ackground
9.3 Plant Phenotyping (PP) Examples
9.4 WSN Design Aspects in Phenotyping
9.4.1 Deployment
9.4.2 Localization
9.4.3 Medium Access Control (MAC) and Security
9.4.4 Routing
9.4.5 Node-to-Node Energy Efficient Distributed Resource Allocation
9.5 WSNs Prototyping and Implementation in PP
9.5.1 Microcontrollers
9.5.2 FPGA
9.5.3 WSN Prototype Implementation
9.6 Concluding Remarks
References
9.1 Introduction
Plant Phenotyping (PP) is the identification process of the genetic code
differences and the environmental effects on the phenotype (or plant
appearance/behavior). Phenotyping is a significant research direction in plant
biological processes, and is used in both forward and reverse genetic approaches
to obtain fundamental insights or advance crop improvement [1]. Phenotyping
has been vital for many years where small scale farming, herding, and fishing
were the principal means of existence for eras before the finding of oil and gas.
Although the relative significance of these activities has decayed in recent years,
governments are attempting to revive the animal and plant agriculture to provide
a reasonable degree of self-support in food production. Moreover, they have
recently issued a number of phenotyping projects such as medical phenotyping
[1], Mediterranean fever in Turkish population [2], familial Mediterranean fever
[3], and Alpha-Thalassemia Mutations [4]. Moreover, food supplies imports in
Turkey, for example, recently decreased by 7.1 percent [5] while it can be much
more effective when the Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) technology is utilized.
Also worth mentioning is that the agricultural raw materials trading shortage is
about $5 million [6]. In Qatar for example, they import over 90 percent of their
food supplies, and the agricultural trading shortage is about US $1.2 billion [7].
Moreover, Qatar and many other similar countries are still providing less than 8
percent of their own poultry, 4 percent of their cattle, 7 percent of their sheep,
and 6 percent of their own liquid fresh milk from domestic sources [7]. These
numbers are expected to increase in the coming few years due to increasing
population growth.
In general, the development of agriculture worldwide is facing major obstacles
due to the scarcity of water, the problem of irrigation, use of fertilizers, seed
breeding, machinery, pesticides, soil treatment, and soil analysis complications
[6]. Therefore, reviving the agricultural sector requires the application of a novel
farming model that has high economic efficiency, optimal use of scarce
resources, minimum impact on the environment, and should be sustainable. One
key strategic solution is to deploy Advanced Farming Management Systems
(AFMS) to observe, measure, and respond to inter- and intra-field variability in
the farms. PP arises as one of the key state-of-the-art technologies that can be
adopted to build AFMS, which can introduce a significant increase to the crops,
poultry, and livestock productivity by effectively managing the available
resources and providing the optimum quantitates in terms of water, food,
temperature, humidity, fertilizers, etc. The integration of PP will allow the
farmers to establish comprehensive and informative records of their farms and
crops, improve the decision-making process, and enable better management of
their farms. Consequently, using PP can be one of the pivotal solutions for the
aforementioned challenges. However, the process of taking phenotypic
measurements had to be performed in laboratories under costly and time
consuming conditions.
And so, in this survey article, we overview the existing attempts in WSNs
toward realizing smart agriculture applications in general and PP in specific. We
discuss key design factors in deploying WSNs under harsh operational
conditions in outdoor environments. Moreover, we assess and evaluate the
existing solutions and key enabling technologies that can realize the PP in
practice in the near future.
The rest of this article is organized as follows. In Section 9.2, we discuss the
PP project in detail in addition to providing some real examples from the field in
Section 9.3. Next we introduce and discuss key design aspects related to PP
testbeds in Section 9.4. In Section 9.5, we discuss the possibility of prototyping
and implementing a custom WSN for PP in practice using the existing enabling
technologies. Finally, we conclude this work with a few recommendations
regarding possible future work in Section 9.6.
9.2 B ackground
The concept of PP, which was alternatively called site-specific management, is
not new. The application of PP started more than 20 years ago [8]. The PP is
generally associated with the application of crop production input elements
based on the assessment of the variability of need for a particular input. The
nature of the variability can be either temporal or spatial. The inputs are usually
the regular daily requirements of the farms such as seeds, fertilizers, insecticides,
drainage tiles, and subsoiling. The input can vary by rate (quantity) or type (e.g.,
two kinds of herbicide). PP suggests that the application of the input does not
have to be uniform across the field, but the analyses of variability are essential to
enable such an application. Based on this definition of PP, a grower who spot-
sprays a field for weed control, or alters fertilizer quantities for a sandy knoll in
his fields, is applying PP. Scheduling of irrigation, fertigation, and banding of
fertilizers can be classified as PP practices as well. More recently, PP has
progressed to include the use of advanced technologies such as Global
Positioning Systems (GPS), yield monitors, field mapping and record archiving,
variable rate application, and planting equipment. It is worth noting that PP
should not be understood as the incorporation of advanced automated equipment
in agriculture, but the gathering and effective use of information obtained from
the field. Information collection and exploitation is the core of PP. Therefore, PP
will not replace humans, but it will increase the capability and requirement for
more highly trained farmers and engineers. Relatively speaking, very few groups
of farmers in the world presently have such proficiency.. The PP can also be
applied to livestock; however, it is commonly called Precision Livestock
Farming (PLF). PLF enables the recognition of each individual animal. Using
PLF has enabled farmers to record several aspects of each animal, such as age,
pedigree, production, growth, health status, and feed conversion. The result is
significantly higher reproduction outcomes, high-quality food and general safety,
animal farming that is highly efficient and sustainable, healthy animals, and a
low impact of livestock production on the environment [9].
Figure 9.1 Examples of disease symptoms caused by bacterial plant pathogens discovered by
phenotyping [10].
Figure 9.2 Scheme of grow-chamber-based automated high-throughput phenotyping platform [11].
Figure 9.3 Different categories of imaging systems for remote sensing evaluation of vegetation are
detailed below with examples of prototypes capable of being carried by UAPs of limited payload.
Examples of false-color images taken with different categories of cameras: (a) RGB/CIR, (b)
multispectral, (c) hyperspectral, and (d) thermal imaging [12].
Figure 9.4 The illustrative figure presenting outcome of simultaneous analysis of control and salt-
stressed Arabidopsis plants, using RGB, hyperspectral, and Chl fluorescence imaging [11].
Figure 9.5 A scheme for the multi-color fluorescence imaging system and the chlorophyll fluorescence
emission of green leaves as induced blue, red, and green excitation light [13].
Figure 9.6 Example of a hierarchical node configuration with three levels. The red nodes are the base
nodes. The blue are the enhancement nodes level-1 and the green nodes are the enhancement nodes
level-2.
The typical choices are to use an off-the-shelf WSN node with a built-in
processing unit, a microcontroller ,or a FPGA unit as the processing unit. Some
of the commonly used off-the-shelf WSN nodes include Mica2, Mica2Dot,
MicaZ, Fleck 3node, and TinyNode mote. These WSN nodes contain a
microcontroller, which is used as the processing unit, along with most of the
other blocks depicted in Figure 9.7 on the same board. The WSN can be setup by
programming the microcontrollers and thus this choice provides the best time-to-
market but on the downside it does not provide the flexibility to change
components. The other two choices, i.e., microcontroller and FPGA-based
processing units overcome this problem and are discussed in detail in the
following sections.
Figure 9.7 A high-level block diagram of a sensing node.
9.5.1 Microcontrollers
Nowadays, microcontrollers include their own memory (both volatile and non-
volatile) units and various typically used standard modules like Analog-to-
Digital converters, UART, timers, and counters. Thus, a WSN node can be
constructed using a microcontroller by integrating such a microcontroller with a
communicating unit and sensors. A wide range of microcontrollers dedicated for
WSN applications are available [42] and can have 4 to 32 data bits, 512 Bytes to
128 KB RAM, 1 to 6 timers, power dissipation as low as 1.9 mW and the
appropriate choice can be made based on the requirements.
9.5.2 FPGA
The FPGA technology provides the ability to develop customized WSN nodes
and a dedicated single-purpose processor can be developed in HDL along with
the required timers, counters, and communication protocols such as UART and
USB. Moreover, the soft-core of an already developed general purpose or an
application processor can also be tweaked to meet the design requirements. The
major challenge in this regard is the comparatively high power dissipation. For
this purpose, ultra-low-power FPGA units need to be used for WSN node
development. The main benefit of using FPGA compared to microcontrollers for
implementing WSN nodes is their performance as has been demonstrated in
Hamila et al. [43]. The high performance feature of FPGAs can be leveraged
upon to build on-chip image processing sensors [44] for WSN nodes.
9.5.3 WSN Prototype Implementation
In general, we recommend using Flash-based FPGA, such as ACTEL Fusion
FPGA module, for developing the desired SNs in WSNs designed for PP. The
availability of Flash would allow using low power sleep modes instead of the
wake-up reconfiguration that is required in the other types of FPGAs. We also
recommend using the ARM Cortex M1 core on our FPGA and this decision is
mainly motivated by the high performance and small size of this core, which is
desirable for PP applications. This processor also provides high and a low speed
buses. For the analog components, like ADC and multiplexer, numerous off-the-
shelf components can be placed on the same board as the FPGA. The required
filters can be implemented on the FPGA. These FPGA-based SNs will be
remotely accessed by researchers and/or public users via the internet connection
as shown in Figure 9.7. Moreover, advances in cloud computing will empower
such kind of light-weight networks, i.e., the WSNs, by offloading the heavy
analysis and processing part up to the High Performance Computing (HPC)
machines to filter and process raw data coming directly from the field.
Accordingly, farmers and researchers can collect comprehensive and precise
yield data without significant efforts and inexpensively as shown in Figure 9.8.
Yield maps can be generated in real-time subsequent to data collection to
identify yield general patterns within fields. These maps allow recognizing
within-field spatial variability for variable rate applications, empowering farmers
to estimate the economic revenues of different farming management plans.
Furthermore, they are essential for field-level developments such as leveling the
land, timing of irrigation systems, drainage, building fences, and for off the field
data usage.
Figure 9.8 WSN architecture for PP applications.
Figure 9.9 A block diagram of the WSN nodes in the Cloud.
It’s worth pointing out that the initial deployment and routing based decisions
for the WSN nodes and the configuration of wireless communications related
components can make significant differences for the evaluation process in PP.
Starting the evaluation process by employing the prototype straight from the
beginning and checking various strategies can be quite costly especially in terms
of time and efforts. Therefore, similar to the existing studies in the literature, we
believe that it can be ideal to use simulation tools prior to deployment in an
attempt to have a degree of optimization beforehand.
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Chapter 10
Intelligent Positioning for Precision
Agriculture (PA) in Smart-cities
Contents
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Literature Review
10.3 Enhanced Radial Basis Neural Network Function (RBNNF)-Based
Approach
10.4 Experimental Results and Discussion
10.4.1 Setup and Simulation Environment
10.4.2 Metrics and Parameters
10.4.3 Simulation Cases
10.5 Conclusions
References
10.1 Introduction
Positioning systems used in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) deployed for
gathering data in smart-cities’ Precision Agriculture (PA), viz. smart farming and
crop harvesting is a challenging problem where wireless nodes equipped with
sensors and GPS modules are subject to several risks. Firstly, these nodes may
be covered and lose the line of sight with the satellite by extreme weather
conditions such as rain and snow. Secondly, the wireless communication
channels are highly affected by the growing plants and areas of dense trees. This
makes data source positioning one of the most challenging issues to be
considered in the PA applications.
Global Positioning System (GPS) provides positioning, velocity, and time
information with consistent and acceptable accuracy when there is direct line of
sight to four or more satellites [1, 2]. However, GPS may suffer from outages,
jamming, and multipath effects in urban areas, canyons, and rural foliage
canopies as in PA applications. Inertial Navigation System (INS), on the other
hand, is self-contained meaning it is immune to external interference, but its
accuracy deteriorates in the long term due to sensor’s bias, drift, scale factor
instability, and misalignment [3–5]. By integrating the GPS and INS signals, a
complementary solution can be obtained that is often more accurate than that of
each independent system [3]. Kalman Filter (KF) is traditionally used to
optimally fuse the position and velocity information from both INS and GPS
[6–9]. However, cost and space constraints are the two primary obstacles that
have prevented the utilization of either navigation or tactical grade INS inside
the node in WSNs utilized in PA applications. There are several inadequacies in
the KF technique. Such inadequacies include: (1) Observability problems, (2)
Error modeling challenges, and (3) Poor prediction during GPS outages. In order
to avoid these problems, and to provide an integrated system that can be
independent from the underlying navigation system, and design, an Artificial
Intelligent (AI) solution has been used to solve this problem. In general, the
main objective of AI is to learn the pattern of the data and build the path
accordingly. The objective is to use this knowledge, when GPS signal is not
available, to predict the trajectory path. The network model of the multilayer
perceptron architecture is based on Neural Network (NN) units which compute a
nonlinear function of the scalar product of the input vector and the weight vector.
An alternative architecture of a NN is one in which the distance between the
input vector and a certain prototype vector, determines the activation of a hidden
NN unit.
In this chapter, we propose an enhanced Radial Basis Neural Network Function
(RBNNF)-based positioning system to integrate INS and GPS. The presented
system will enable more efficient positioning in agriculture applications in a
real-time manner. The system involves training the network in real time, when
the GPS signal is available, and predicting proper positioning, when GPS signal
is not available.
The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. In the next section, a
literature review is presented. Section 10.3 describes system models used to
implement the RBNNF system. In Section 10.4, we discuss the methodology
followed in this system. Experimental results and discussions are detailed in
Section 10.5. Finally, conclusions are provided in Section 10.6.
In line 9 above, RBFNN module for INS/GPS integration takes the INS
position at the input and provides the corresponding position error at the output.
In line 4 above, the proper choice of the window size is essential to guarantee
delivery of the desired accuracy while ensuring system robustness in real time.
There is a trade-off in choosing small or large window sizes. For instance, large
window size is beneficial in capturing the most recent node dynamics, thus the
RBFNN module becomes more reliable during long GPS outages.
Large window size may complicate the update procedure and result in long
training time, which is not suitable for real-time implementation. On the other
hand, the reduced level of the non-stationary nature of INS and GPS data in case
of small window size makes the RBFNN update procedure faster and more
robust for real-time operation. However, small window size may cause the
system to become less reliable in case of relatively long GPS outages exceeding
the double of its size.
In line 6, the difference in measurement (between INS and GPS) is further
divided by 2 and the absolute value of the result is stored and used in line 11 to
predict the error in INS position. This modification of the algorithm is designed
to reduce the difference in error. This error is calculated at line 6 above.
However, this causes the error to increase over time [6]. In the modified
algorithm, this error is divided and the absolute error is stored. This modification
caused slowdown of the increase in prediction error over time. The enhancement
is exhibited by showing the degree at which the error is stable, before it starts to
increase. More stable error has been reached, and less adrift INS error prediction
has been obtained.
Figure 10.1 Predicted RBFNN Trajectory—Case 1.
Figure 10.2 GPS Trajectory—Case1.
Figure 10.3 Prediction Error Plot—Longitude vs Epoch# Case1.
Figure 10.4 Prediction Error Plot—Latitude vs Epoch# Case1.
Figure 10.6 GPS Trajectory—Case 2.
Figure 10.7 Prediction Error Plot—Longitude vs. Epoch# Case2.
Figure 10.8 Prediction Error Plot—Latitude vs Epoch# Case2.
Trajectory (Figure 10.9) shows a large degree of accuracy, better than GPS
path (Figure 10.10). Average Lon Error = 19.5 m, Std. Dev. = 28.6 m. This
exhibits good level accuracy, reflecting similar dynamic of recent GPS signal
trained by the NN. For Latitude, it’s 105.4 m, Std. Dev. 122.7 m. Not as good
results. Error graph (Figure 10.11) shows good stability at first, then modest and
slow increase, reflecting the similar dynamic of recent GPS signal trained by the
NN. For Latitude it’s 105.4 m, Std. Dev. 122.7 m. The graph (Figure 10.12)
shows steep upward increase, due to capturing the most recent dynamic of GPS.
Figure 10.9 Predicted Trajectory—Case3.
Figure 10.10 GPS Trajectory—Case3.
Figure 10.11 Prediction Error Plot—Longitude vs Epoch# Case3.
Figure 10.12 Prediction Error Plot—Latitude vs Epoch# Case3.
Also, the size of training window is critical for proper training of RBFNN and
therefore, best prediction of INS position errors. For example, the first case
(Figure 10.13) shows great drift away from path, due to a change in dynamics of
GPS. While in (Figure 10.14) much better results were obtained due to capturing
dynamics in a limited range.
Figure 10.13 Predicted Trajectory—window size 50 s.
Figure 10.14 Predicted Trajectory—window size 30 s.
10.5 Conclusions
In this chapter, the real-time INS and GPS integration in navigation utilizing
RBFNN, has been simulated and implemented. This architecture is based on
predicting the INS position error and continuously removing it from its
corresponding INS position. The simulation was employed in real time using
MATLAB.
Results showed the ability of the RBFNN-based module to reduce the INS
position error and prevent its growth even in the long term. We saw in the cases
that error is stabilized and takes a pattern in time. In addition, the proposed
RBFNN module was able to accurately predict the INS position errors during
GPS outages. This was the objective of the system as introduced early in this
chapter. Results point to success in achieving these objectives, of being able to
predict, in real time, the proper position of a vehicle, based on learning the
dynamics of the most recent GPS signal, with a good degree of accuracy.
The simulation proved that the integration technique is a reliable, robust, and
self-adaptive system that requires no prior knowledge of the navigation system
utilized. A Future research could focus on what are reasons where dynamics of
GPS caused that error in the second case, above predicting the path. Moreover, it
could also investigate the 3rd dimension (altitude) which was not covered in this
chapter. Another area of improvement in future research, is further reducing the
increase in prediction error over time.
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2013): 1025–1034.
Chapter 11
Security Issues in VANET-based Smart-cities
Contents
11.1 Introduction
11.2 System Model
11.2.1 Network Model
11.2.2 VANET Application
11.2.3 Message Requirements
11.2.4 Message Constraints
11.2.5 Trust and Privacy
11.3 Attacks in VANETs
11.3.1 Attacker Classification
11.3.2 Attacks
11.4 D efenses
11.4.1 Public Key
11.4.2 Hybrid and Symmetric
11.4.3 Certificate Revocation
11.4.4 ID-Based Cryptography
11.5 Research Opportunities
11.6 Conclusion
References
11.1 Introduction
Considering the rate at which VANETs have been developing and the benefits
expected from vehicular interconnections with millions of vehicles in traffic
worldwide, it is most likely that they will be the most concrete and common
usage of mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) [1, 2]. With the future possibility
of seamless connectivity expected from 5G with high backward compatibility
and highly integrative design [3], proper implementation and dissemination of
Onboard Units (OBUs), geolocational devices such as GPS or GLONASS
(Global Navigation Satellite System) receivers, combined with the ever-
increasing communicational potential, create significant opportunities be they
economic or technological, but also raises interesting research challenges and
important ethical questions [4, 5].
The increasing connectivity between numerous elements has made efficient
security protocols and applications a prime subject of study. With the massive
amount of data that can be produced by modern vehicles that should be treated in
a timely manner, efficiency is without a doubt paramount in a system where an
error or an attack can result in the loss of human life. One of the primary
constraints of VANETs compared to most systems is making sure life-critical
information is delivered on time while establishing the liability of the users and
simultaneously protecting the privacy of the drivers to its fullest extent.
Balancing both the constraints of this medium with effective security requires us
to fulfill numerous parameters without exceeding the need of one and vice versa.
VANETs by their nature have some advantages and disadvantages compared to
most MANETs and IoT networks. Detailed analysis of the properties of VANETs
needs to be established to develop flexible and modular solutions [6].
The type of communication transmitted in the network has different constraints
and urgency in accordance with the content of the communicated information.
The way security is applied needs to be in proportion to the confidentiality
required for that specific message. This creates a need to classify different levels
of communication before even broadcasting them. Proper privacy enforcement
requires cooperation between the governmental institutions and private
companies. The ethical and technical applications, both theoretical and practical,
needed for effective treatment of information while conserving enough privacy
needs in-depth discussions. Understanding the nature of potential attacks and
disturbances both intentional and accidental has made it a requirement for
researchers on the topic to classify them according to different criteria.
In the first section, we will detail our system model by defining what are the
characteristics, both positive and negative, of VANET. We will also discuss the
message constraints and the message types that will be delivered across the
network to identify critical and constrained messages. The second section
contains a general attacker classification, attacks discussed in the literature, and
potential defense methods that have been applied in particular to them. The third
part contains the overall classification of defense methods and the presentation
of some of the techniques that fall under that particular umbrella. The last part
contains some potential areas of research and development that are found to be
lacking or understudied in the security software protocols of VANETs and that
could lead to interesting results in the future.
11.4 D efenses
Existing security and privacy schemes for VANETs can be overall classified into
four broad approaches. They all contain different schemes and protocols to
ensure the safety of VANETs. The presented protocols main objective is
protecting the messages rather than safeguarding the systems themselves against
an attacker once it has infiltrated or falsified the transmitted broadcasts.
11.4.1 Public Key
A node in the VANET is given a pair of keys, public and secret. A proper Public
Key Infrastructure (PKI) should, in theory, be able to efficiently handle the
management of keys to provide security. Usually, a scheme that contains the use
of a PKI is generally proposed whenever a vehicle has two specific hardware
units: Tamper Proof Hardware (TPH) and EDR to perform cryptographic
processes and record all the events.
Hesham et al. [33] propose a protocol using a dynamic method of key
distribution that can handle key management which does not have a need to store
a large number of keys in its memory for employing PKI, thus reducing the
amount of TPH needed. Using this approach as a basis, member-specific unique
information such as Electronic License Plate (ELP) or chassis number that forms
the Vehicle Authentication Code (VAC) can be employed as a hidden key shared
by a certificate authority (CA) and a member. CAs are responsible for issuing,
renewing, revoking, and distributing public keys [34]. The use of this protocol
grants a strong resistance to DoS, Sybil, and Man-in-the-Middle attacks since it
makes use of ELP and a unique VAC encrypted secret key to protect against
masquerade attempts.
Gazdar et al. [35] propose an effective dynamic cluster-based architecture for a
PKI defense model in VANETs employing a trust model where a value ranging
from 0 to 1 is attributed to them. Based on this value, members can have four
different roles being CA, Member Node (MN), Registration Authority (RA), and
Gateway (GW). RA and CA which are MN that have a trust value that is equal to
1 can issue certificates to the members in the cluster while protecting the CA
against an attacker by avoiding any potential direct contact and exchange
between the CA and an untrusted vehicle. A GW is employed for inter-cluster
communications. Nodes, including MNs, have to demonstrate good cooperation
and comportment to increase their values of trust. In this architecture, a
hierarchical monitoring scheme is employed to observe the comportment of its
members, where a member with higher trust value monitors the vehicles with
lower trust values. The PKI based scheme of Efficient Certificate Management
Scheme (ECMV) [36], provides an effective certificate management control
between different authorities, granting the OBU with the capability of updating
its certificates at any instant regardless of its location. Even if an adversary
manages to infiltrate the network, an ECMV has a solid certificate revocation
protocol to follow to remove the intruder. This scheme has proven to reduce the
complexity of managing certificates to a large extent and can be very effective in
making PKIs scalable and more secure, which in turn makes it ideal for IoT and
VANETs in general.
11.4.2 Hybrid and Symmetric
In these types of schemes, nodes start to communicate only after they agree to
share a secret key that will be employed for securing communications. Most of
the current security schemes available to VANETs are dependent on either
symmetric or public keys to encrypt communications. A potential hybrid system
that employs both public and symmetric keys has been proposed for securing
VANETs [14], using the two different types of communications, being group and
pair-wise. During the group communication, more than two nodes can
communicate whereas the pair-wise communication is employed when two
members need to communicate with one another. The hybrid approach employs
symmetric keys for pair-wise transmissions in an effort to avoid the potential
overhead that happens when using the key pair. It should be noted that
symmetric keys must not be employed during an authentication process as it will
prevent non-repudiation which is a main constraint of VANET messages [15].
11.4.3 Certificate Revocation
In the broader scope of PKI methodology used to provide security to VANETs,
there exists a major category called certificate revocation [34]. Certificate
revocation is usually applied and enforced by the CA in two ways: centralized
and decentralized. The first option employs a centralized authority which is only
responsible for making the revocation decisions whereas, in the second option, a
group of neighboring members of the vehicle to be revoked make the decision.
This scheme is more often than not centralized and requires pervasive
infrastructure and thus cannot be said to be efficient since RSUs need to send the
certificate revocation list to OBUs while the deployment cost is relatively high
compared to most other PKI methods. This RSU dependence could be alleviated
in the near future with the use of 5G technologies and cloud computing and
sharing. For now, a couple of alternative approaches and implementation have
been put forward such as the Distributed Revocation Protocol, the Revocation
Protocol of Tamper Proof device, and the Revocation Protocol using
Compressed Revocation Lists. Another newly proposed scheme is the RSU
aided Certificate Revocation, where a trusted third party grants different secret
keys for each individual RSU so that they can additionally sign the messages
transmitted in its range. Once a member’s certificate is proven to be invalid, CAs
broadcast messages to the RSUs which in turn transmits orders to all vehicles in
range to revoke that particular vehicle’s certificate and to stop communication
with it, effectively isolating the problematic member from the network.
11.4.4 ID-Based Cryptography
PKI and symmetric key cryptography are not always the most optimal schemes
to provide security and robustness to VANETs since they are most of the time
infrastructure dependent and lacking additional layers of protection. An
alternative, the ID-based cryptography, that contains the best features of the
traditionally employed security schemes and protocols are being explored by the
scientific community. ID-based cryptography reduces the required computational
resource cost in the ID-based Signature (IBS) processes and is preferable for
using the ID-based Online/Offline Signature (IBOOS) scheme for authentication
in VANETs. IBOOS has been shown to increase efficiency by dividing the
signing process into two phases, online and offline, in which the verification has
been shown to be more efficient than that of IBS.
Lu et al. [37] propose an ID-based framework that makes use of both IBS and
IBOOS for authentification. It should employ self-defined pseudonyms instead
of any kind of real-world IDs to protect the member’s privacy and
confidentiality. It has proven to be efficient in term of communication overhead,
storage, and processing time. This is achieved by preloading a pool of IDs for
the overall regional RSUs in each vehicle beforehand, which is often very small
in size and is not expected to change as frequently compared to some of the
other approaches that make use of pre-stored IDs of all the potential RSUs. This
is done by using IBS for V2R authentications while IBOOS is employed for
V2V authentications. Evaluation results have shown that this scheme manages to
efficiently preserve the privacy of VANETs.
Pan et al. [38] have put forward a model to quantify the locational privacy by
applying a simple scheme called Random Changing Pseudonyms. Each member
changes its attributed pseudonym after an arbitrary point in time and space. It
should be noted that it is very important to provide unlinkability for the two
successive pseudonyms of any member. If this constraint is not fulfilled an
intruder might potentially be able to locate the tracked member by mapping the
link between the changing pseudonyms. The probability of the pseudonyms
unlinkability is directly affected by the efficiency of the various pseudonym-
shifting schemes in use to protect locational privacy.
11.6 Conclusion
The propagation of VANETs will most likely continue and it will become a
seamless part of our lives in the future. For this to happen, the major concerns
concerning security being privacy for the users, and robustness for the health of
the network, should be guaranteed and the constant development of new
protocols and schemes is a good indicator of how much the scientific community
is aware of this reality. The topics of research concerning software development
and technical subjects abound as demonstrated in the relevant passage and it
should be noted that a lot of such concerns also exist when we take a look at the
more physical part of the equation concerning OBUs and how to effectively
make them tamper proof. The question of liability and government control and
management is a whole other subject that requires the involvement of
policymakers and the consensus of the public to answer and establish where
responsibility begins and ends. With the advent of potentially self-driving
vehicles, establishing an infrastructure, both physical and electronic, where both
human controlled and automated members interact harmoniously will become an
important factor for the proper implementation of automated vehicles and
VANETs.
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Index
A
ABGS, see Agent Based Guiding System (ABGS)
Accelerometer, 31
Acoustic sensor, 14, 107
ACRA, see Artificial Cobweb Routing Algorithm (ACRA)
Active attacker, 209
Active infrared sensors, 102
Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI), 50–51, 65–72, 74, 76, 80–81
routing algorithms and, 72–75
smart meter internal structure, 66–69
wireless communication in, 69–72
Advanced Public Transport System (APTS), 95
Agent Based Guiding System (ABGS), 100–101
AI, see Artificial Intelligent (AI)
AMI, see Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)
AMR, see Automatic Meter Reading (AMR)
APTS, see Advanced Public Transport System (APTS)
Arabidopsis thaliana, 170
Artificial Cobweb Routing Algorithm (ACRA), 73
Artificial Intelligent (AI), 190
ASC, see Automatic Speed Control (ASC)
Auto-ID Center, 9
Automated parking, 101
Automated Vehicle Identification (AVI), 97
Automatic Meter Reading (AMR), 51, 67
Automatic Speed Control (ASC), 130
AVI, see Automated Vehicle Identification (AVI)
B
Balance-of-system, 58
Base-Station (BS), 174
Batch Markovian Arrival Process (BMAP), 130, 137–138, 140
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV), 57
BEV, see Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV)
Biosensors, 33
Albert Z-Wave Smoke Detector, 33
smoke, 33
Bird Mating Optimization (BMO), 73
Black hole attack, 211
BLE, see Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)
Bluetooth, 36–37, 70
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), 36
BMAP, see Batch Markovian Arrival Process (BMAP)
BMO, see Bird Mating Optimization (BMO)
BS, see Base-Station (BS)
C
CA, see Certificate authority (CA)
CAES, see Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
Canonical Particle Multi-Path Swarm (CPMS), 146, 154–156, 158, 163
Canonical Particle Swarm (CPS), 145–146, 152–156, 158
CAPS, see Centralized Assisted Parking Search (CAPS)
Car Park Occupancy Information System (COINS), 99
CCTV & image processing, 105–106
Centralized Assisted Parking Search (CAPS), 98
Certificate authority (CA), 214
Certificate revocation, 215
Channel quality information channel (CQICH), 136
Cheating, with sensor information, 209–210
Chemical sensors, 32–33
Cloud architecture, 28, 29, 37, 65, 66, 69, 109, 113, 116, 121, 132–134, 136, 139, 140, 183, 185, 215, 217
for smart homes, 38–42
Cognitive technology, 33
COINS, see Car Park Occupancy Information System (COINS)
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES), 56
Concentrated solar panels (CSP), 46, 48, 55
CPMS, see Canonical Particle Multi-Path Swarm (CPMS)
CPS, see Canonical Particle Swarm (CPS)
CQICH, see Channel quality information channel (CQICH)
D
Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC), 97
Denial of Service (DoS) attack, 210
Direct feedback system, 10, 12–13
In-Home Display Only (IHD), 13
In-Home Display with Pay-As-You-Go, 13
In-Home Display with Time of Use Pricing Policy, 13
Direct sensing, 13–14
Discrete WT (DWT), 77
DNRPS, see Dynamic Neighborhood Routing Path Selection (DNRPS)
DoS, see Denial of Service (DoS) attack
DPI, see Dynamic Programming with Independent request (DPI)
Drivers’ Records Server (DRS), 132–134
DRS, see Drivers’ Records Server (DRS)see Drivers’ Records Server (DRS)
DSRC, see Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC)
DWT, see Discrete WT (DWT)
Dynamic Neighborhood Routing Path Selection (DNRPS), 73
Dynamic Programming with Independent request (DPI), 58
E
E-parking, 101
E-rtPS, see Enhanced-real time Polling System (E-rtPS)
Earliest Deadline First (EDF), 98
ECMV, see Efficient Certificate Management Scheme (ECMV)
EDF, see Earliest Deadline First (EDF)
EDR, see Event Data Recorder (EDR)
EENS, see Expected energy not supplied (EENS)
Efficient Certificate Management Scheme (ECMV), 214
Electromechanical Technology, 51
Electronic License Plate (ELP), 214
Electronic Product Code (EPC), 9
Electronic tunnel, 210
ELP, see Electronic License Plate (ELP)
End User Meters (ESMs), 10
Energy consumption monitoring
categories, 12–13
direct feedback system, 12–13
indirect feedback system, 12
devices, 13–14
direct sensing, 13–14
indirect sensing, 14
overview, 8–12
Auto-ID Center, 9
Direct Feedback, 10
Electronic Product Code (EPC), 9
End User Meters (ESMs), 10
General Electric (GE), 10
In-Home Monitoring Display (IHD), 10
Internet of Things (IoT), 8
Load Survey Meter (LHM), 10
radio frequency identification (RFID), 9
Watt Hour Meter (WHM), 10
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), 9
Energy efficient and QoS-aware routing protocol (EQRP), 73
Enhanced-real time Polling System (E-rtPS), 131
EPC, see Electronic Product Code (EPC)
EQRP, see Energy efficient and QoS-aware routing protocol (EQRP)
Error and Fault Tolerance (FET), 75
ESMs, see End User Meters (ESMs)
Event Data Recorder (EDR), 206, 214
Expected energy not supplied (EENS), 81
Extended attacker, 209
Extensible Markup Language (XML), 40
F
FACTS, see Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS)
False information, 209
Fault Location Isolation and Service Restoration (FLISR), 49
FCEV, see Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV)
Feed-in tariff, 53, 61
FET, see Error and Fault Tolerance (FET)
FHEV, see Full Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FHEV)
Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), 76, 182
Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS), 50
FLISR, see Fault Location Isolation and Service Restoration (FLISR)
Flywheel storage device, 56–57
spinning mass, 56
FMCW, see Frequency-modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW)
FMPS, see Fully Multi-Path Swarm (FMPS)
FPGA, see Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)
Frequency-modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW), 105
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV), 57
Full Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FHEV), 58
Fully Multi-Path Swarm (FMPS), 146, 152, 155, 156, 158
G
Gateway (GW), 39, 40, 41, 72, 75, 94, 214
GE, see General Electric (GE)
General Electric (GE), 10
Geographic Information System (GIS), 97
GHG, see Green House Gas (GHG)
GIS, see Geographic Information System (GIS)
Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), 204
Global Positioning System (GPS), 97, 98, 113, 117, 190–197, 200, 201
spoofing, 210
GLONASS, see Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)
GPS, see Global Positioning System (GPS)
Green House Gas (GHG), 50
Grid topology, 59–60
looped distribution, 60
meshed distribution, 59–60
radial distribution, 59
GW, see Gateway (GW)
H
Harmonic Distortion (HD), 77
HD, see Harmonic Distortion (HD)
HEVs, see Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
High Performance Computing (HPC), 183
High-Throughput Phenotyping Platforms (HTPPs), 171
Home automation, 34–37
Bluetooth, 36–37
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), 36
Powerline Based, 34–37
Thread, 37
UPB, 37
wired communication technology, 37
Z-Wave, 35
ZigBee, 35–36
Insteon, 36
Home Gateway (HGW), 32, 38, 40, 42
HPC, see High Performance Computing (HPC)
HTPPs, see High-Throughput Phenotyping Platforms (HTPPs)
Hybrid and symmetric approach, 215
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), 57
I
IBOOS, see ID-based Online/Offline Signature (IBOOS)
IBS, see ID-based Signature (IBS)
ICT, see Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
ID-based cryptography, 216
ID-based Online/Offline Signature (IBOOS), 216
ID-based Signature (IBS), 216
IEC, see International Electro-technical Commission (IEC)
IEEE, see Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
IHD, see In-Home Monitoring Display (IHD)
ILD, see Inductive loop detector (ILD)
Illusion attack, 212–213
Impersonation attack, 213
In-Home Display with Pay-As-You-Go, 13
In-Home Display with Time of Use Pricing Policy, 13
In-Home Monitoring Display (IHD), 10, 13
Indirect feedback system, 12
Indirect sensing, 14
light and acoustic sensors, 14
magnetic sensors, 14
Inductive loop detector (ILD), 102–104
Inertial Navigation System (INS), 190
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), 28
Insteon, 36
INS, see Inertial Navigation System (INS)
Insider, 209
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 76
Intelligent IoT for plant phenotyping in agriculture
overview, 168–169
Advanced Farming Management Systems (AFMS), 168
Plant Phenotyping (PP), 168
Plant Phenotyping (PP), 170–173
Arabidopsis thaliana, 170
High-Throughput Phenotyping Platforms (HTPPs), 171
Pseudomonas syringae, 170
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis, 170
Xanthomonas euvesicatoria, 170
Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, 170
WSN design aspects, 173–181
deployment, 173–174
localization, 174–175
medium access control and security, 175–177
node-to-node energy efficient, 179–180
routing, 177–179
WSNs prototyping and implementation, 180–184
Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), 182
microcontrollers, 182
prototype implementation, 183–184
Intelligent medium access for adaptive speed limits
Enriched-rtPS (E-rtPS) with RT-BMAP, 136–139
channel quality information channel (CQICH), 136
IP real-time subsystem-network (IRS-N), 136
framework description, 132–136
Drivers’ Records Server (DRS), 132
Management & Control Venter (MCC), 132
Minimum Spanning Tree (MST), 135
Mobile Subscriber Station (MSS), 134
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), 133
Speed Limits Receiver (SLR-x), 132
Speed Limits Transmitters (SLT-x), 132
overview, 130–131
Automatic Speed Control (ASC), 130
Batch Markovian Arrival Process (BMAP), 131
Enhanced-real time Polling System (E-rtPS), 131
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), 130
Medium Access Control (MAC), 130
non-real-time Polling Service (nrtPS), 130
real-time Polling Service (rtPS), 130
Unsolicited Grant Service (UGS), 130
Intelligent parking solutions
classifications, 94–101
Agent Based Guiding System (ABGS), 100–101
automated parking, 101
Car Park Occupancy Information System (COINS), 99
Centralized Assisted Parking Search (CAPS), 98
E-parking, 101
Non-Assisted Parking Search (NAPS), 99
Opportunistically Assisted Parking Search (OAPS), 98–99
Parking Guidance and Information System (PGIS), 95–97
Parking Reservation System (PRS), 100
Smart Payment System (SPS), 97–98
Transit Based Information System (TBIS), 97
communication and deployment, 108–112
data privacy and security, 115–116
Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), 116
deployments, 116–118
errors in data collection and system reliability, 107–108
hybrid model, 119–120
Micro Aerial Vehicle (MAV), 119
new application, 118–119
Onboard Units (OBU), 118
Roadside Unit (RSU), 118
Vehicle to Infrastructure (V2I), 118
Vehicle to Roadside (V2R), 118
Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V), 118
overview, 92–94
On Board Unit (OBU), 93
low power wide area network (LPWAN), 93
Smart Parking System (SPS), 92
Vehicle Ad Hoc Networks (VANET), 93
sensors, 102–107
acoustic, 107
CCTV & image processing, 105–106
inductive loop detector (ILD), 102–104
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), 106–107
magnetometer, 104
microwave radar, 105
passive and active infrared, 102
piezoelectric, 104
pneumatic road tube, 104
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), 106
ultrasonic, 102
vehicle license recognition, 106, 118
weigh-in motions (WIM), 104–105
software systems, 112–115
Internet of vehicle (IOV), 113
real-time availability forecast (RAF), 114
Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG), 113
Intelligent positioning approach for precision agriculture (PA)
experimental results and discussion, 194–200
metrics and parameters, 194–195
setup and simulation environment, 194
simulation cases, 195–200
overview, 190
Artificial Intelligent (AI), 190
Global Positioning System (GPS), 190
Inertial Navigation System (INS), 190
Kalman Filter (KF), 190
Neural Network (NN), 190
Radial Basis Neural Network Function (RBNNF), 190, 192–194
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), 130
Intelligent UAVs for multimedia delivery
overview, 144–146
Canonical Particle Multi-Path Swarm (CPMS), 146
Canonical Particle Swarm (CPS), 145–146
Fully Multi-Path Swarm (FMPS), 146
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), 145
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), 144
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), 144
performance evaluation, 154–160
simulation results, 154–160
PSO in IIoT, 151–153
Fully Particle Multi-path Swarm Optimization (FMPS), 152
system model, 148–151
delay model, 150–151
energy model, 149–150
problem formulation, 149
throughput model, 151
International Electro-technical Commission (IEC), 76
Internet of Things (IoT), 8, 28, 47, 71, 93, 144; see also specific entries
IoT, see Internet of Things (IoT)
IP real-time subsystem-network (IRS-N), 136
IRS-N, see IP real-time subsystem-network (IRS-N)
ITS, see Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)
K
Kalman Filter (KF), 190
KF, see Kalman Filter (KF)
L
LAN, see Local Area Network (LAN)
LDR, see Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Leak/moisture detection, 33
LHM, see Load Survey Meter (LHM)
Light and acoustic sensors, 14
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), 106–107
Load Survey Meter (LHM), 10–11
Local Area Network (LAN), 70–71
Local attacker, 209
Location tracking, 210
Looped distribution, 60
Low power wide area network (LPWAN), 93
Low voltage (LV), 81
LPWAN, see Low power wide area network (LPWAN)
LV, see Low voltage (LV)
M
M2M, see Machine to Machine (M2M)
MAC, see Medium Access Control (MAC)
Machine to Machine (M2M), 28, 71
Malware and spam, 211
Masquerade attack, 209
Magnetic sensors, 14
Magnetometer, 104, 117, 119
Malicious attacker, 209
Management & Control Venter (MCC), 132, 138
Man-in-the-middle attack, 211
MCC, see Management & Control Venter (MCC)see Management & Control Venter (MCC)
MCU, see Microcontroller unit (MCU)
Medium Access Control (MAC), 130, 175
and Security, 175–176
Member Node (MN), 214
Meshed distribution, 59–60
Metering technologies, 51
Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI), 51
Automatic Meter Reading (AMR), 51
Electromechanical Technology, 51
smart meters vs. conventional meter, 51
two-way information, 51
Traditional meters, 51
MHEV, see Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle (MHEV)
MHV, see Micro Hybrid Vehicle (MHV)
Micro Hybrid Vehicle (MHV), 58
Microcontroller unit (MCU), 67–68
Microwave (MW), 29–31, 95, 105
Microwave radar, 105
Frequency-modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW), 105
Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle (MHEV), 58
Minimum Spanning Tree (MST), 135
Mobile Node (MN), 175
Mobile Subscriber Station (MSS), 134
MSS, see Mobile Subscriber Station (MSS)
MST, see Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)
N
NAN, see Neighborhood Area Network (NAN)
NAPS, see Non-Assisted Parking Search (NAPS)
National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST), 52
Neighborhood Area Network (NAN), 69
cellular technology, 71
WiMAX, 71
Net metering, 53, 61, 67
Neural Network (NN), 114, 190, 192–194
Neurofuzzy-based Optimization Multi-constrained Routing (NFMCR), 74
NFMCR, see Neurofuzzy-based Optimization Multi-constrained Routing (NFMCR)
NIST, see National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST)
NN, see Neural Network (NN)
Non-Assisted Parking Search (NAPS), 99
Non-real-time Polling Service (nrtPS), 130
nrtPS, see Non-real-time Polling Service (nrtPS)
O
OAPS, see Opportunistically Assisted Parking Search (OAPS)
OBU, see On Board Unit (OBU)
On Board Unit (OBU), 93, 204
Open Services Gateway Initiative (OSGi), 38–39
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), 74
Opportunistically Assisted Parking Search (OAPS), 98–99
OSGi, see Open Services Gateway Initiative (OSGi)
OSPF, see Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Outsider, 209
P
Packet-loss rate (PLR), 74
Parking Guidance and Information System (PGIS), 95–97
Advanced Public Transport System (APTS), 95
Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC), 97
Global Positioning System (GPS), 97
Variable Message Sign (VMS), 95
Parking Lot Recharge Scheduling (PLRS), 98
Parking Reservation System (PRS), 100
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), 145
Passive attacker, 209
Passive infrared sensors, 31, 102, 117
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks, 39–40
PGIS, see Parking Guidance and Information System (PGIS)
PHEV, see Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)
Photovoltaic (PV), 46, 54, 55, 58, 60
Physical tunnel, 210
Piezoelectric sensors, 104, 105
Piezoelectric device, 28
PKI, see Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
Plant Phenotyping (PP), 168
Arabidopsis thaliana, 170
Pseudomonas syringae, 170
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis, 170
Xanthomonas euvesicatoria, 170
Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, 170
Plausibility Validation Network (PVN), 212
PLF, see Probability of Link Failures (PLF)
PLR, see Packet-loss rate (PLR)
PLRS, see Parking Lot Recharge Scheduling (PLRS)
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV), 58
Pneumatic road tube, 104
Power quality, 75–79
assessment parameters, 76–77
techniques embedded in SM for PQ analysis, 77–79
Power reliability, 65, 79–82
expected energy not supplied (EENS), 81
low voltage (LV), 81
Power Reliability Index (PRI), 81
PRI, see Power Reliability Index (PRI)
Probability of Link Failures (PLF), 174
PRS, see Parking Reservation System (PRS)
Pseudomonas syringae, 170
PSO, see Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
PSTN, see Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) should, 214–215
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), 133
Purposeful/intentional attack, 213
PVN, see Plausibility Validation Network (PVN)
Q
QoS, see Quality-of-Service (QoS)
Quality-of-Service (QoS), 73, 121, 131, 132, 145–152, 175, 178, 179, 185
R
RA, see Registration Authority (RA)
Radial Basis Neural Network Function (RBNNF), 190, 192–194
Radial distribution, 59
Radio frequency identification (RFID), 9–10, 93, 97–98, 106, 118–119
Rational attacker, 209
RBNNF, see Radial Basis Neural Network Function (RBNNF)
Real-time clock (RTC), 67
Real-time Polling Service (rtPS), 130
Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI), 212
Registration Authority (RA), 214
Relay Nodes (RNs), 174
Remote sensors, 33
smart garage door, 33
smart thermostat, 33
Renewable Energy Sources (RES), 50
RFID, see Radio frequency identification (RFID)
RNs, see Relay Nodes (RNs)
Roadside Unit (RSU), 118, 205
Routing algorithms, 72–75
RSSI, see Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI)
RSU, see Roadside Unit (RSU)
RTC, see Real-time clock (RTC)
rtPS, see Real-time Polling Service (rtPS)
S
Sensor Nodes (SNs), 174
Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), 40
Single-Threshold (ST) algorithm, 58
SLPR, see Straight-Line Path Routing (SLPR)
SLT-x, see Speed Limits Transmitters (SLT-x)
Smart-grid and solar energy harvesting; see also Smart meters
advancements, 49–50
benefits, 50
Fault Location Isolation and Service Restoration (FLISR), 49
Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS), 50
Green House Gas (GHG), 50
Renewable Energy Sources (RES), 50
billing methods, 53–54
feed-in tariff, 53
net metering, 53
time of use (ToU), 13, 53
communications, 52
cellular networks, 52
Global System for Mobile communication (GSM), 52
Home Area Network (HAN), 52
Wide Area Network (WAN), 52
Wireless Mesh, 52
ZigBee, 52
connecting renewable energy, 58–59
grid topology, 59–60
looped distribution, 60
meshed distribution, 59–60
radial distribution, 59
metering technologies, 51
Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI), 51
Automatic Meter Reading (AMR), 51
Electromechanical Technology, 51
smart meters vs. conventional meter, 51
Traditional meters, 51
overview, 46–47
concentrated solar panels (CSP), 46
photovoltaic (PV), 46
smart grid, 46
solar energy, 54–55
Solar Panel, 46–47, 54
Solar Thermal, 46, 55
storage facilities, 55–57
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES), 56
flywheel storage device, 56–57
optimization, 57–58
sodium sulfur (NAS) batteries, 56
Smart homes
applications, 38
biosensors, 33
Albert Z-Wave Smoke Detector, 33
smoke, 33
chemical sensors, 32–33
fire/CO detection, 32–33
cloud architecture, 38–42
Infrastructure Layer, 42
Open Services Gateway Initiative (OSGi), 38–39
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks, 39–40
Platform Layer, 42
Service Layer, 42
smart home cloud, 38
web service, 40–41
leak/moisture detection, 33
motion sensors, 29–31
area reflective type, 31
door contacts, 31
dual-technology, 31
glass break, 31
microwave (MW), 31
passive infrared (PIR), 31
photonic sensors, 31
ultrasonic, 31
vibration, 31
video doorbell, 31
window and door control, 29–31
overview, 28–29
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), 28
Machine to Machine (M2M), 28
physical sensors, 31–32
curtain control, 32
flood, 32
gas leak, 32
humidity, 32
irrigation, 32
multimedia control, 32
panic button, 32
security, 32
shake sensor, 32
smart plug, 32
tap, 31–32
temperature, 31
tv control, 32
ventilation, 32
protocols, 34–37
home automation, 34–37
remote sensors, 33
smart garage door, 33
smart thermostat, 33
user-friendly location discovery (ULD), 42
Smart meters, 64
advanced metering infrastructure technology, 66–69
internal structure, 66–69
energy measurement units, 69
microcontroller unit (MCU), 67–68
power supply unit, 68
open research issues, 82–83
overview, 64–65
smart grid (SG), 64
smart meter (SM), 64
power quality, 65, 75–79
assessment parameters, 76–77
techniques embedded in SM for PQ analysis, 77–79
power reliability, 65, 79–82
expected energy not supplied (EENS), 81
low voltage (LV), 81
Power Reliability Index (PRI), 81
routing algorithms, 72–75
wireless communication in AMI, 69–72
Smart Parking System (SPS), 92
Smart Payment System (SPS), 97–98
SNs, see Sensor Nodes (SNs)
SOAP, see Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP)
Sodium sulfur (NAS) batteries, 55–57
Solar energy, 46–47, 54–55, 58–59; see also Smart grid
Solar Panel, 54
Dish Engine Technology, 55
Parabolic Trough, 55
Tower Focal Point Concentrated Solar Power, 55
Solar Thermal, 55
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP), 55
Speed Limits Receiver (SLR-x), 132
Speed Limits Transmitters (SLT-x), 132
Storage facilities, 55–57
Straight-Line Path Routing (SLPR), 73
Sybil attack, 212
T
Tamper Proof Hardware (TPH), 214
TBIS, see Transit Based Information System (TBIS)
Techniques embedded in SM for PQ analysis, 77–79
THD, see Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
Thread Group, 37
Time of use (ToU), 13, 53
MID-PEAK, 53
OFF-PEAK, 53
ON-PEAK, 53
Timing attack, 211
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), 76
ToU, see Time of use (ToU)
TPH, see Tamper Proof Hardware (TPH)
Transit Based Information System (TBIS), 97
Transmission time for remaining path (TTRP), 75
TTRP, see Transmission time for remaining path (TTRP)
U
UAVs, see Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
UGS, see Unsolicited Grant Service (UGS)
ULD, see User-friendly location discovery (ULD)
Ultra Wide Band (UWB), 175
Ultrasonic sensors, 31, 102
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), see Intelligent UAVs for multimedia delivery
Universal power line bus, 37
Unsolicited Grant Service (UGS), 130
User-friendly location discovery (ULD), 42
UWB, see Ultra Wide Band (UWB)
V
VAC, see Vehicle Authentication Code (VAC)
VANET, see Vehicle Ad Hoc Networks (VANET)
Variable Message Sign (VMS), 95
Vehicle Ad Hoc Networks (VANET), 4, 93, 94, 116, 118–119
Vehicle Ad Hoc Networks (VANET), security in, 204–205
attacks, 208–213
classification, 208–209
Plausibility Validation Network (PVN), 212
Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI), 212
defenses, 214–216
certificate revocation, 215
hybrid and symmetric, 215
ID-based cryptography, 216
public key, 214–215
overview, 204–205
Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), 204
Onboard Units (OBUs), 204
research opportunities, 216–217
system model, 205–208
application, 206
message constraints, 207–208
message requirements, 206–207
network model, 205–206
trust and privacy, 208
Vehicle Authentication Code (VAC), 214
Vehicle license recognition, 106, 118
VMS, see Variable Message Sign (VMS)
W
WAN, see Wide Area Network (WAN)
Watt Hour Meter (WHM), 10
Wavelet multiresolution (WMT), 77
Wavelet Packet Transform (WPT), 77
Web service, 38, 40–41
Extensible Markup Language (XML), 40
Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), 40
Web Services Description Language (WSDL), 41
Web Services Description Language (WSDL), 38, 41
Weigh-in motions (WIM), 104–105
WHM, see Watt Hour Meter (WHM)
Wi-Fi, see Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)
Wide Area Network (WAN), 52, 69
LORaWAN, 71
Sigfox, 71
WIM, see Weigh-in motions (WIM)
Wireless communication in AMI, 69–72
bluetooth technology, 70
energy measurement units, 69
Local Area Network (LAN), 69–70
Neighborhood Area Network (NAN), 69
Wide Area Network (WAN), 69
Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi), 70
Z-wave technology, 71
Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi), 70
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), 9–10, 73, 97, 108, 112, 121, 144–149, 168–169, 173–174, 176–177, 179,
180–185, 190
design aspects, 173–181
deployment, 173–174
localization, 174–175
Wormhole attack, 210–211
WMT, see Wavelet multiresolution (WMT)
WPT, see Wavelet Packet Transform (WPT)
WSDL, see Web Services Description Language (WSDL)
WSN, see Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
X
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis, 170
Xanthomonas euvesicatoria, 170
Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, 170
XML, see Extensible Markup Language (XML)
Z
ZigBee, 52, 70
National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST), 52
Z-Wave technology, 34–35, 71