What is a PLC?


A PLC (i.e. Programmable Logic Controller) is a device that was invented to replace the
necessary sequential relay circuits for machine control. The PLC works by looking at its inputs
and depending upon their state, turning on/off its outputs. The user enters a program, usually via
software, that gives the desired results. 

PLCs are used in many "real world" applications. If there is industry present, chances are good
that there is a plc present. If you are involved in machining, packaging, material handling,
automated assembly or countless other industries you are probably already using them. If you are
not, you are wasting money and time. Almost any application that needs some type of electrical
control has a need for a plc. 

For example, let's assume that when a switch turns on we want to turn a solenoid on for 5
seconds and then turn it off regardless of how long the switch is on for. We can do this with a
simple external timer. But what if the process included 10 switches and solenoids? We would
need 10 external timers. What if the process also needed to count how many times the switches
individually turned on? We need a lot of external counters. 

As you can see the bigger the process the more of a need we have for a PLC. We can simply
program the PLC to count its inputs and turn the solenoids on for the specified time. 

This site gives you enough information to be able to write programs far more complicated than
the simple one above. We will take a look at what is considered to be the "top 20" plc instructions.
It can be safely estimated that with a firm understanding of these instructions one can solve more
than 80% of the applications in existence.
That's right, more than 80%! Of course we'll learn more than just these instructions to help you
solve almost ALL your potential plc applications.

PLC History 

In the late 1960's PLCs were first introduced. The primary reason for designing such a device
was eliminating the large cost involved in replacing the complicated relay based machine control
systems. Bedford Associates (Bedford, MA) proposed something called a Modular Digital
Controller (MODICON) to a major US car manufacturer. Other companies at the time proposed
computer based schemes, one of which was based upon the PDP-8. The MODICON 084 brought
the world' s first PLC into commercial production.

When production requirements changed so did the control system. This becomes very expensive
when the change is frequent. Since relays are mechanical devices they also have a limited
lifetime which required strict adhesion to maintenance schedules. Troubleshooting was also quite
tedious when so many relays are involved. Now picture a machine control panel that included
many, possibly hundreds or thousands, of individual relays. The size could be mind boggling.
How about the complicated initial wiring of so many individual devices! These relays would be
individually wired together in a manner that would yield the desired outcome. Were there
problems? You bet! 

These "new controllers" also had to be easily programmed by maintenance and plant engineers.
The lifetime had to be long and programming changes easily performed. They also had to survive
the harsh industrial environment. That' s a lot to ask! The answers were to use a programming
technique most people were already familiar with and replace mechanical parts with solid-state
ones.

In the mid70' s the dominant PLC technologies were sequencer state -machines and the bit-slice
based CPU. The AMD 2901 and 2903 were quite popular in Modicon and A-B PLCs.
Conventional microprocessors lacked the power to quickly solve PLC logic in all but the smallest
PLCs. As conventional microprocessors evolved, larger and larger PLCs were being based upon
them. However, even today some are still based upon the 2903.(ref A-B' s PLC -3) Modicon has
yet to build a faster PLC than their 984A/B/X which was based upon the 2901. 

Communications abilities began to appear in approximately 1973. The first such system was
Modicon' s Modbus. The PLC could now talk to other PLCs and they could be far away from the
actual machine they were controlling. They could also now be used to send and receive varying
voltages to allow them to enter the analog world. Unfortunately, the lack of standardization
coupled with continually changing technology has made PLC communications a nightmare of
incompatible protocols and physical networks. Still, it was a great decade for the PLC! 

The 80' s saw an attempt to standardize communica tions with General Motor' s manufacturing
automation protocol(MAP). It was also a time for reducing the size of the PLC and making them
software programmable through symbolic programming on personal computers instead of
dedicated programming terminals or handheld programmers. Today the world' s smallest PLC is
about the size of a single control relay! 

The 90' s have seen a gradual reduction in the introduction of new protocols, and the
modernization of the physical layers of some of the more popular protocols that survived the
1980' s. The latest standard IEC
( 1131-3) has tried to merge plc programming languages under
one international standard. We now have PLCs that are programmable in function block
diagrams, instruction lists, C and structured text all at the same time! PC' s are also being used to
replace PLCs in some applications. The original company who commissioned the MODICON 084
has actually switched to a PC based control system. 

e will tell. 
What will the 00' s bring? Only tim
 The Guts Inside
The PLC mainly consists of a CPU, memory areas, and appropriate circuits to receive
input/output data. We can actually consider the PLC to be a box full of hundreds or thousands of
separate relays, counters, timers and data storage locations. Do these counters, timers, etc.
really exist? No, they don' t "physically" exist but rather they are simulated and can be considered
software counters, timers, etc. These internal relays are simulated through bit locations in
registers. (more on that later)


What does each part do? 

• INPUT RELAYS-(contacts)These are connected to the outside world. They physically

exist and receive signals from switches, sensors, etc. Typically they are not relays but
rather they are transistors.
• INTERNAL UTILITY RELAYS-(contacts) These do not receive signals from the outside
world nor do they physically exist. They are simulated relays and are what enables a PLC
to eliminate external relays. There are also some special relays that are dedicated to
performing only one task. Some are always on while some are always off. Some are on
only once during power-on and are typically used for initializing data that was stored.
• COUNTERS-These again do not physically exist. They are simulated counters and they
can be programmed to count pulses. Typically these counters can count up, down or both
up and down. Since they are simulated they are limited in their counting speed. Some
manufacturers also include high-speed counters that are hardware based. We can think
of these as physically existing. Most times these counters can count up, down or up and
down.
• TIMERS-These also do not physically exist. They come in many varieties and
increments. The most common type is an on-delay type. Others include off-delay and
both retentive and non-retentive types. Increments vary from 1ms through 1s.
• OUTPUT RELAYS-(coils)These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist
and send on/off signals to solenoids, lights, etc. They can be transistors, relays, or triacs
depending upon the model chosen.
• DATA STORAGE-Typically there are registers assigned to simply store data. They are
usually used as temporary storage for math or data manipulation. They can also typically
be used to store data when power is removed from the PLC. Upon power-up they will still
have the same contents as before power was removed. Very convenient and necessary!!

PLC Operation
A PLC works by continually scanning a program. We can think of this scan cycle as consisting
of 3 important steps. There are typically more than 3 but we can focus on the important parts and
not worry about the others. Typically the others are checking the system and updating the current
internal counter and timer values. 


Step 1-CHECK INPUT STATUS-First the PLC takes a look at each input to determine if it is on or
off. In other words, is the sensor connected to the first input on? How about the second input?
How about the third... It records this data into its memory to be used during the next step. 

Step 2-EXECUTE PROGRAM-Next the PLC executes your program one instruction at a time.
Maybe your program said that if the first input was on then it should turn on the first output. Since
it already knows which inputs are on/off from the previous step it will be able to decide whether
the first output should be turned on based on the state of the first input. It will store the execution
results for use later during the next step. 

Step 3-UPDATE OUTPUT STATUS-Finally the PLC updates the status of the outputs. It updates
the outputs based on which inputs were on during the first step and the results of executing your
program during the second step. Based on the example in step 2 it would now turn on the first
output because the first input was on and your program said to turn on the first output when this
condition is true. 

After the third step the PLC goes back to step one and repeats the steps continuously. One scan
time is defined as the time it takes to execute the 3 steps listed above.

Response Time
The total response time of the PLC is a fact we have to consider when shopping for a PLC. Just
like our brains, the PLC takes a certain amount of time to react to changes. In many applications
speed is not a concern, in others though... 

If you take a moment to look away from this text you might see a picture on the wall. Your eyes
actually see the picture before your brain says "Oh, there' s a picture onthe wall". In this example
your eyes can be considered the sensor. The eyes are connected to the input circuit of your
brain. The input circuit of your brain takes a certain amount of time to realize that your eyes saw
something. (If you have been drinking alcohol this input response time would be longer!)
Eventually your brain realizes that the eyes have seen something and it processes the data. It
then sends an output signal to your mouth. Your mouth receives this data and begins to respond
to it. Eventually your mouth utters the words "Gee, that' s a really ugly picture!".
Notice in this example we had to respond to 3 things: 

INPUT- It took a certain amount of time for the brain to notice the input
signal from the eyes. 

EXECUTION- It took a certain amount of time to process the

information received from the eyes. Consider the program to be: If the
eyes see an ugly picture then output appropriate words to the mouth.  
OUTPUT- The mouth receives a signal from the brain and eventually
spits (no pun intended) out the words "Gee, that' s a really ugly picture!"


Response Time Concerns

Now that we know about response time, here' s what it really means to
the application. The PLC can only see an input turn on/off when it' s
looking. In other words, it only looks at its inputs during the check input
status part of the scan. 


In the diagram, input 1 is not seen until scan 2. This is because when input 1 turned on, scan 1
had already finished looking at the inputs.
Input 2 is not seen until scan 3. This is also because when the input turned on scan 2 had already
finished looking at the inputs.
Input 3 is never seen. This is because when scan 3 was looking at the inputs, signal 3 was not on
yet. It turns off before scan 4 looks at the inputs. Therefore signal 3 is never seen by the plc. 
 To avoid this we say that the input should be on
for at least 1 input delay time + one scan time.

But what if it was not possible for the input to be on this long? Then the plc doesn' t see the inp
ut
turn on. Therefore it becomes a paper weight! Not true... of course there must be a way to get
around this. Actually there are 2 ways. 

Pulse stretch function. This function extends the length

of the input signal until the plc looks at the inputs during
the next scan.( i.e. it stretches the duration of the pulse.) 


Interrupt function. This function interrupts the scan to
process a special routine that you have written. i.e. As
soon as the input turns on, regardless of where the scan
currently is, the plc immediately stops what its doing and
executes an interrupt routine. (A routine can be thought
of as a mini program outside of the main program.) After
its done executing the interrupt routine, it goes back to
the point it left off at and continues on with the normal 
scan process. 

Now let' s consider the longest time for an output to actually turn on. Let' s sume
as that when a
switch turns on we need to turn on a load connected to the plc output.
The diagram below shows the longest delay (worst case because the input is not seen until scan
2) for the output to turn on after the input has turned on.
The maximum delay is thus 2 scan cycles - 1 input delay time. 


It's not so difficult, now is it ? 
 Relays
Now that we understand how the PLC processes inputs, outputs, and the actual program we are
almost ready to start writing a program. But first lets see how a relay actually works. After all, the
main purpose of a plc is to replace "real-world" relays. 

We can think of a relay as an electromagnetic switch. Apply a voltage to the coil and a magnetic
field is generated. This magnetic field sucks the contacts of the relay in, causing them to make a
connection. These contacts can be considered to be a switch. They allow current to flow between
2 points thereby closing the circuit. 

Let' s considerthe following example. Here we simply turn on a bell (Lunch time!) whenever a
switch is closed. We have 3 real-world parts. A switch, a relay and a bell. Whenever the switch
closes we apply a current to a bell causing it to sound. 


Notice in the picture that we have 2 separate circuits. The bottom(blue) indicates the DC part.
The top(red) indicates the AC part. 

Here we are using a dc relay to control an AC circuit. That' s the fun of elays!
r When the switch is
open no current can flow through the coil of the relay. As soon as the switch is closed, however,
current runs through the coil causing a magnetic field to build up. This magnetic field causes the
contacts of the relay to close. Now AC current flows through the bell and we hear it. Lunch time! 

A typical industrial relay

Replacing Relays
Next, lets use a plc in place of the relay. (Note that this might not be very cost effective for this
application but it does demonstrate the basics we need.) The first thing that' s necessary is to
create what' s called a ladder diagram. After seeing a few of these it will become obvious why its
called a ladder diagram. We have to create one of these because, unfortunately, a plc doesn' t
understand a schematic diagram. It only recognizes code. Fortunately most PLCs have software
which convert ladder diagrams into code. This shields us from actually learning the plc' s code.

First step- We have to translate all of the items we' re using into symbols the plc understands.
The plc doesn' t understand terms like switch, relay, bell, etc. It prefers input, output, coil, contact,
etc. It doesn' t care what the actual input or output device ac
tually is. It only cares that its an input
or an output. 

First we replace the battery with a symbol. This symbol is common to all ladder diagrams. We
draw what are called bus bars. These simply look like two vertical bars. One on each side of the
diagram. Think of the left one as being + voltage and the right one as being ground. Further think
of the current (logic) flow as being from left to right.
Next we give the inputs a symbol. In this basic example we have one real world input. (i.e. the
switch) We give the input that the switch will be connected to, to the symbol shown below. This
symbol can also be used as the contact of a relay.

A contact symbol

Next we give the outputs a symbol. In this example we use one output (i.e. the bell). We give the
output that the bell will be physically connected to the symbol shown below. This symbol is used
as the coil of a relay. 

A coil symbol

The AC supply is an external supply so we don' t put it in our ladder. The plc only cares about

which output it turns on and not what' s physically connected to it.

Second step- We must tell the plc where everything is located. In other words we have to give all
the devices an address. Where is the switch going to be physically connected to the plc? How
about the bell? We start with a blank road map in the PLCs town and give each item an address.
Could you find your friends if you didn' t know th
eir address? You know they live in the same town
but which house? The plc town has a lot of houses (inputs and outputs) but we have to figure out
who lives where (what device is connected where). We' ll get further into the addressing scheme
later. The plc manufacturers each do it a different way! For now let' s say that our input will be
called "0000". The output will be called "500".

Final step- We have to convert the schematic into a logical sequence of events. This is much
easier than it sounds. The program we' re going to write tells the plc what to do when certain
events take place. In our example we have to tell the plc what to do when the operator turns on
the switch. Obviously we want the bell to sound but the plc doesn' t know that. It' s a pretty stupi
d
device, isn' t it!


The picture above is the final converted diagram. Notice that we eliminated the real world relay
from needing a symbol. It' s actually "inferred" from the diagram.Huh? Don' t worry, you' ll see what
we mean as we do more examples. 

Basic Instructions
Now let' s examine some of the basic instructions is greater detail to see more
about what each one does. 

Load 
The load (LD) instruction is a normally open contact. It is sometimes also called examine if
on.(XIO) (as in examine the input to see if its physically on) The symbol for a load instruction is
shown below.

A LoaD (contact) symbol

This is used when an input signal is needed to be present for the symbol to turn on. When the
physical input is on we can say that the instruction is True. We examine the input for an on signal.
If the input is physically on then the symbol is on. An on condition is also referred to as a logic 1
state. 

This symbol normally can be used for internal inputs, external inputs and external output
contacts. Remember that internal relays don' t physically exist. They are simulated (software)
relays. 

LoadBar 
The LoaDBar instruction is a normally closed contact. It is sometimes also called LoaDNot or
examine if closed. (XIC) (as in examine the input to see if its physically closed) The symbol for a
loadbar instruction is shown below. 

A LoaDNot (normally closed contact) symbol

This is used when an input signal does not need to be present for the symbol to turn on. When
the physical input is off we can say that the instruction is True. We examine the input for an off
signal. If the input is physically off then the symbol is on. An off condition is also referred to as a
logic 0 state. 

This symbol normally can be used for internal inputs, external inputs and sometimes, external
output contacts. Remember again that internal relays don' t physically exist. They are simulated
(software) relays. It is the exact opposite of the Load instruction. 

*NOTE- With most PLCs this instruction (Load or Loadbar) MUST be the first symbol on the left of
the ladder. 

Logic State  Load  LoadBar 

 0 False  True 
1 True  False 

Out 
The Out instruction is sometimes also called an OutputEnergize instruction. The output instruction
is like a relay coil. Its symbol looks as shown below.

An OUT (coil) symbol

When there is a path of True instructions preceding this on the ladder rung, it will also be True.
When the instruction is True it is physically On. We can think of this instruction as a normally
open output. This instruction can be used for internal coils and external outputs. 

Outbar 
The Outbar instruction is sometimes also called an OutNot instruction. Some vendors don' t have
this instruction. The outbar instruction is like a normally closed relay coil. Its symbol looks like that
shown below. 

An OUTBar (normally closed coil) symbol

When there is a path of False instructions preceding this on the ladder rung, it will be True. When
the instruction is True it is physically On. We can think of this instruction as a normally closed
output. This instruction can be used for internal coils and external outputs. It is the exact opposite
of the Out instruction.

Logic State  Out  OutBar 

0 False  True 
1 True  False 

A Simple Example
Now let' s compare a simple ladder diagram with its real world external physically connected
relay circuit and SEE the differences. 


In the above circuit, the coil will be energized when there is a closed loop between the + and -
terminals of the battery. We can simulate this same circuit with a ladder diagram. A ladder
diagram consists of individual rungs just like on a real ladder. Each rung must contain one or
more inputs and one or more outputs. The first instruction on a rung must always be an input
instruction and the last instruction on a rung should always be an output (or its equivalent). 


Notice in this simple one rung ladder diagram we have recreated the external circuit above with a
ladder diagram. Here we used the Load and Out instructions. Some manufacturers require that
every ladder diagram include an END instruction on the last rung. Some PLCs also require an
ENDH instruction on the rung after the END rung. 


Next we' ll trace the registers. Registers? Let' s see...

PLC Registers
We' ll now take the previous example and change switch 2 (SW2) to a normally closed symbol
(loadbar instruction). SW1 will be physically OFF and SW2 will be physically ON initially. The
ladder diagram now looks like this:


Notice also that we now gave each symbol (or instruction) an address. This address sets aside a
certain storage area in the PLCs data files so that the status of the instruction (i.e. true/false) can
be stored. Many PLCs use 16 slot or bit storage locations. In the example above we are using
two different storage locations or registers. 

REGISTER 00
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
              1 0
REGISTER 05
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
               0
In the tables above we can see that in register 00, bit 00 (i.e. input 0000) was a logic 0 and bit 01
(i.e. input 0001) was a logic 1. Register 05 shows that bit 00 (i.e. output 0500) was a logic 0. The
logic 0 or 1 indicates whether an instruction is False or True. *Although most of the items in the
register tables above are empty, they should each contain a 0. They were left blank to emphasize
the locations we were concerned with. 

LOGICAL CONDITION OF SYMBOL

LOGIC BITS LD LDB OUT
Logic 0 False True False
Logic 1 True False True

The plc will only energize an output when all conditions on the rung are TRUE. So, looking at the
table above, we see that in the previous example SW1 has to be logic 1 and SW2 must be logic
0. Then and ONLY then will the coil be true (i.e. energized). If any of the instructions on the rung
before the output (coil) are false then the output (coil) will be false (not energized). 

Let' s now look at a truth table of our previous program to further illustrate this important point. Our
truth table will show ALL possible combinations of the status of the two inputs. 

Inputs  Outputs Register Logic Bits

SW1(LD) SW2(LDB) COIL(OUT) SW1(LD) SW2(LDB) COIL(OUT)
False True False 0 0 0
False False False 0 1 0
True True True 1 0 1
True False False 1 1 0

Notice from the chart that as the inputs change their states over time, so will the output. The
output is only true (energized) when all preceding instructions on the rung are true. 

A Level Application
Now that we' ve seen how registers work, let' s process a program like PLCs do to enhance our
understanding of how the program gets scanned.

Let' s consider the following application:

We are controlling lubricating oil being dispensed from a tank. This is possible by using two
sensors. We put one near the bottom and one near the top, as shown in the picture below. 
 
Here, we want the fill motor to pump lubricating oil into the tank until the high level sensor turns
on. At that point we want to turn off the motor until the level falls below the low level sensor. Then
we should turn on the fill motor and repeat the process.

Here we have a need for 3 I/O (i.e. Inputs/Outputs). 2 are inputs (the sensors) and 1 is an output
(the fill motor). Both of our inputs will be NC (normally closed) fiber-optic level sensors. When
they are NOT immersed in liquid they will be ON. When they are immersed in liquid they will be
OFF. 

We will give each input and output device an address. This lets the plc know where they are
physically connected. The addresses are shown in the following tables: 

Inputs Address  Output Address  Internal Utility Relay

Low 0000  Motor 0500  1000
High 0001     

Below is what the ladder diagram will actually look like. Notice that we are using an internal utility
relay in this example. You can use the contacts of these relays as many times as required. Here
they are used twice to simulate a relay with 2 sets of contacts. Remember, these relays DO NOT
physically exist in the plc but rather they are bits in a register that you can use to SIMULATE a
relay. 


We should always remember that the most common reason for using PLCs in our applications is
for replacing real-world relays. The internal utility relays make this action possible. It' s impossible
to indicate how many internal relays are included with each brand of plc. Some include 100' s
while other include 1000' s while still others include 10' s of 1000' s! Typically, plc size (not physical
size but rather I/O size) is the deciding factor. If we are using a micro-plc with a few I/O we don' t
need many internal relays. If however, we are using a large plc with 100' s or 1000' s of I/O we' ll
certainly need many more internal relays.

If ever there is a question as to whether or not the manufacturer supplies enough internal relays,
consult their specification sheets. In all but the largest of large applications, the supplied amount
should be MORE than enough. 

The Program Scan

Let' s watch what happens in this programscan by scan. 


Initially the tank is empty. Therefore, input 0000 is TRUE and input 0001 is also TRUE. 


Scan 1 Scan 2-100

Gradually the tank fills because 500(fill motor) is on. 

After 100 scans the oil level rises above the low level sensor and it becomes open. (i.e. FALSE) 
 Scan 101-1000

Notice that even when the low level sensor is false there is still a path of true logic from left to
right. This is why we used an internal relay. Relay 1000 is latching the output (500) on. It will stay
this way until there is no true logic path from left to right.(i.e. when 0001 becomes false)

After 1000 scans the oil level rises above the high level sensor at it also becomes open (i.e. false) 


Scan 1001 Scan 1002

Since there is no more true logic path, output 500 is no longer energized (true) and therefore the
motor turns off.

After 1050 scans the oil level falls below the high level sensor and it will become true again. 

Scan 1050

Notice that even though the high level sensor became true there still is NO continuous true logic
path and therefore coil 1000 remains false! 
After 2000 scans the oil level falls below the low level sensor and it will also become true again.
At this point the logic will appear the same as SCAN 1 above and the logic will repeat as
illustrated above.

Latch Instructions
Now that we understand how inputs and outputs are processed by the plc, let' s look at a
variation of our regular outputs. Regular output coils are of course an essential part of our
programs but we must remember that they are only TRUE when ALL INSTRUCTIONS before
them on the rung are also TRUE. What happens if they are not? Then of course, the output will
become false.(turn off) 

Think back to the lunch bell example we did a few chapters ago. What would' ve happened if we
couldn' t find a "push on/push off" switch? Then we would' ve had to keep pressing the button for
as long as we wanted the bell to sound. (A momentary switch) The latching instructions let us use
momentary switches and program the plc so that when we push one the output turns on and
when we push another the output turns off.

Maybe now you' re saying to yourself "What the heck is he talking about?". (It' s also what I' m
thinking!) So let' s do a real world e
xample.
Picture the remote control for your TV. It has a button for ON and another for OFF. (mine does,
anyway) When I push the ON button the TV turns on. When I push the OFF button the TV turns
off. I don' t have to keep pushing the ON button to keep theTV on. This would be the function of a
latching instruction. 

The latch instruction is often called a SET or OTL (output latch). The unlatch instruction is often
called a RES (reset), OUT (output unlatch) or RST (reset). The diagram below shows how to use
them in a program.


Here we are using 2 momentary push button switches. One is physically connected to input 0000
while the other is physically connected to input 0001. When the operator pushes switch 0000 the
instruction "set 0500" will become true and output 0500 physically turns on. Even after the
operator stops pushing the switch, the output (0500) will remain on. It is latched on. The only way
to turn off output 0500 is turn on input 0001. This will cause the instruction "res 0500" to become
true thereby unlatching or resetting output 0500.

Click here and view the animation to really learn!

Here' s something to think about. What would happen if input 0000 and 0001 both turn on at the
exact same time. 
Will output 0500 be latched or unlatched? 

To answer this question we have to think about the scanning sequence. The ladder is always
scanned from top to bottom, left to right. The first thing in the scan is to physically look at the
inputs. 0000 and 0001 are both physically on. Next the plc executes the program. Starting from
the top left, input 0000 is true therefore it should set 0500. Next it goes to the next rung and since
input 0001 is true it should reset 0500. The last thing it said was to reset 0500. Therefore on the
last part of the scan when it updates the outputs it will keep 0500 off. (i.e. reset 0500). 

Makes better sense now, doesn't it?

Counters
A counter is a simple device intended to do one simple thing - count. Using them, however, can
sometimes be a challenge because every manufacturer (for whatever reason) seems to use them
a different way. Rest assured that the following information will let you simply and easily program
anybody' s counters.

What kinds of counters are there? Well, there are up-counters (they only count up 1,2,3...).
These are called CTU,(count up) CNT,C, or CTR. There are down counters (they only count
down 9,8,7,...). These are typically called CTD (count down) when they are a separate instruction.
There are also up-down counters (they count up and/or down 1,2,3,4,3,2,3,4,5,...) These are
typically called UDC(up-down counter) when they are separate instructions. 

Many manufacturers have only one or two types of counters but they can be used to count up,
down or both. Confused yet? Can you say "no standardization"? Don' t worry, the theory is all the
same regardless of what the manufacturers call them. A counter is a counter is a counter... 

To further confuse the issue, most manufacturers also include a limited number of high-speed
counters. These are commonly called HSC (high-speed counter), CTH (CounTer High-speed?) or
whatever.
Typically a high-speed counter is a "hardware" device. The normal counters listed above are
typically "software" counters. In other words they don' t physically exist in the plc but rather they
are simulated in software. Hardware counters do exist in the plc and they are not dependent on
scan time.
A good rule of thumb is simply to always use the normal (software) counters unless the pulses
you are counting will arrive faster than 2X the scan time. (i.e. if the scan time is 2ms and pulses
will be arriving for counting every 4ms or longer then use a software counter. If they arrive faster
than every 4ms (3ms for example) then use the hardware (high-speed) counters. (2xscan time =
2x2ms= 4ms) 

To use them we must know 3 things:

1. Where the pulses that we want to count are coming from. Typically this is from one of the
inputs.(a sensor connected to input 0000 for example)
2. How many pulses we want to count before we react. Let' s count 5 widgets before we box
them, for example.
3. When/how we will reset the counter so it can count again. After we count 5 widgets lets
reset the counter, for example.
When the program is running on the plc the program typically displays the current or
"accumulated" value for us so we can see the current count value. 
Typically counters can count from 0 to 9999, -32,768 to +32,767 or 0 to 65535. Why the weird
numbers? Because most PLCs have 16-bit counters. We' ll get into what this means in a later
chapter but for now suffice it to say that 0-9999 is 16-bit BCD (binary coded decimal) and that -
32,768 to 32767 and 0 to 65535 is 16-bit binary. 
Here are some of the instruction symbols we will encounter (depending on which manufacturer
we choose) and how to use them. Remember that while they may look different they are all used
basically the same way. If we can setup one we can setup any of them. 


In this counter we need 2 inputs.
One goes before the reset line. When this input turns on the current (accumulated) count value
will return to zero.
The second input is the address where the pulses we are counting are coming from. 
For example, if we are counting how many widgets pass in front of the sensor that is physically
connected to input 0001 then we would put normally open contacts with the address 0001 in front
of the pulse line. 
Cxxx is the name of the counter. If we want to call it counter 000 then we would put "C000" here. 
yyyyy is the number of pulses we want to count before doing something. If we want to count 5
widgets before turning on a physical output to box them we would put 5 here. If we wanted to
count 100 widgets then we would put 100 here, etc. When the counter is finished (i.e we counted
yyyyy widgets) it will turn on a separate set of contacts that we also label Cxxx. 
Note that the counter accumulated value ONLY changes at the off to on transition of the pulse
input. 


Here' s the symbol on a ladder showing how we set up a coun ter (we' ll name it counter 000) to
count 100 widgets from input 0001 before turning on output 500. Sensor 0002 resets the counter. 
Below is one symbol we may encounter for an up-down counter. We' ll use the same abbreviation
as we did for the example above.(i.e. UDCxxx and yyyyy)


In this up-down counter we need to assign 3 inputs. The reset input has the same function as
above. However, instead of having only one input for the pulse counting we now have 2. One is
for counting up and the other is for counting down. In this example we will call the counter
UDC000 and we will give it a preset value of 1000. (we' ll count 1000 total pulses) For inputs we' ll
use a sensor which will turn on input 0001 when it sees a target and another sensor at input 0003
will also turn on when it sees a target. When input 0001 turns on we count up and when input
0003 turns on we count down. When we reach 1000 pulses we will turn on output 500. Again note
that the counter accumulated value ONLY changes at the off to on transition of the pulse input.
The ladder diagram is shown below. 

Click here and view the animation to really learn!

One important thing to note is that counters and timers can' t have the same name (in most
PLCs). This is because they typically use the same registers. We haven' t learned about timers
yet but you might make a note of this for future reference because it' s pretty important.
Well, the counters above might seem difficult to understand but they' re actually quite easy once
we get used to using them. They certainly are an essential tool. They are also one of the least
"standardized" basic instructions that we will see. However, always remember that the theory is
the same from manufacturer to manufacturer! 

Timers
Let' s now see how a timer wo rks. What is a timer? Its exactly what the word says... it is an
instruction that waits a set amount of time before doing something. Sounds simple doesn' t it. 

When we look at the different kinds of timers available the fun begins. As always, different types
of timers are available with different manufacturers. Here are most of them: 

• On-Delay timer-This type of timer simply "delays turning on". In other words, after our
sensor (input) turns on we wait x-seconds before activating a solenoid valve (output).
This is the most common timer. It is often called TON (timer on-delay), TIM (timer) or
TMR (timer).
• Off-Delay timer- This type of timer is the opposite of the on-delay timer listed above.
This timer simply "delays turning off". After our sensor (input) sees a target we turn on a
solenoid (output). When the sensor no longer sees the target we hold the solenoid on for
x-seconds before turning it off. It is called a TOF (timer off-delay) and is less common
than the on-delay type listed above. (i.e. few manufacturers include this type of timer)
• Retentive or Accumulating timer- This type of timer needs 2 inputs. One input starts
the timing event (i.e. the clock starts ticking) and the other resets it. The on/off delay
timers above would be reset if the input sensor wasn' t on/off for the complete timer
duration. This timer however holds or retains the current elapsed time when the sensor
turns off in mid-stream. For example, we want to know how long a sensor is on for during
a 1 hour period. If we use one of the above timers they will keep resetting when the
 sensor turns off/on. This timer however, will give us a total or accumulated time. It is often
called an RTO (retentive timer) or TMRA (accumulating timer).

Let' s now see how to use them. We typically need toknow 2 things:

1. What will enable the timer. Typically this is one of the inputs.(a sensor connected to
input 0000 for example)
2. How long we want to delay before we react. Let' s wait 5 seconds before we turn on a
solenoid, for example.

When the instructions before the timer symbol are true the timer starts "ticking". When the time
elapses the timer will automatically close its contacts. When the program is running on the plc the
program typically displays the elapsed or "accumulated" time for us so we can see the current
value. Typically timers can tick from 0 to 9999 or 0 to 65535 times. 
Why the weird numbers? Again its because most PLCs have 16-bit timers. We' ll get into what this
means in a later chapter but for now suffice it to say that 0-9999 is 16-bit BCD (binary coded
decimal) and that 0 to 65535 is 16-bit binary. Each tick of the clock is equal to x-seconds. 
Typically each manufacturer offers several different ticks. Most manufacturers offer 10 and 100
ms increments (ticks of the clock). An "ms" is a milli-second or 1/1000th of a second. Several
manufacturers also offer 1ms as well as 1 second increments. These different increment timers
work the same as above but sometimes they have different names to show their timebase. Some
are TMH (high speed timer), TMS (super high speed timer) or TMRAF (accumulating fast timer) 
Shown below is a typical timer instruction symbol we will encounter (depending on which
manufacturer we choose) and how to use it. Remember that while they may look different they
are all used basically the same way. If we can setup one we can setup any of them. 


This timer is the on-delay type and is named Txxx. When the enable input is on the timer starts to
tick. When it ticks yyyyy (the preset value) times, it will turn on its contacts that we will use later in
the program. Remember that the duration of a tick (increment) varies with the vendor and the
timebase used. (i.e. a tick might be 1ms or 1 second or...) 

Below is the symbol shown on a ladder diagram: 

In this diagram we wait for input 0001 to turn on. When it does, timer T000 (a 100ms increment
timer) starts ticking. It will tick 100 times. Each tick (increment) is 100ms so the timer will be a
10000ms (i.e. 10 second) timer. 100ticks X 100ms = 10,000ms. When 10 seconds have elapsed,
the T000 contacts close and 500 turns on. When input 0001 turns off(false) the timer T000 will
reset back to 0 causing its contacts to turn off(become false) thereby making output 500 turn back
off. 

Click here and view the animation to really learn!

 An accumulating timer would look similar to this:


This timer is named Txxx. When the enable input is on the timer starts to tick. When it ticks yyyyy
(the preset value) times, it will turn on its contacts that we will use later in the program.
Remember that the duration of a tick (increment) varies with the vendor and the timebase used.
(i.e. a tick might be 1ms or 1 second or...) If however, the enable input turns off before the timer
has completed, the current value will be retained. When the input turns back on, the timer will
continue from where it left off. The only way to force the timer back to its preset value to start
again is to turn on the reset input. 

The symbol is shown in the ladder diagram below. 

In this diagram we wait for input 0002 to turn on. When it does timer T000 (a 10ms increment
timer) starts ticking. It will tick 100 times. Each tick (increment) is 10ms so the timer will be a
1000ms (i.e. 1 second) timer. 100ticks X 10ms = 1,000ms. When 1 second has elapsed, the
T000 contacts close and 500 turns on. If input 0002 turns back off the current elapsed time will be
retained. When 0002 turns back on the timer will continue where it left off. When input 0001 turns
on (true) the timer T000 will reset back to 0 causing its contacts to turn off (become false) thereby
making output 500 turn back off.

Click here and view the animation to really learn!

One important thing to note is that counters and timers can't have the same name (in most
PLCs). This is because they typically use the same registers. 
Always remember that although the symbols may look different they all operate the same way.
Typically the major differences are in the duration of the ticks increments. 

Timer Accuracy
Now that we' ve seen how timers are created and used, let' s learn a little about their precision.
When we are creating a timer that lasts a few seconds, or more, we can typically not be very
concerned about their precision because it' s usually insignificant. However, when we ' re creating
timers that have a duration in the millisecond (1ms= 1/1000 second) range we MUST be
concerned about their precision. 

There are general two types of errors when using a timer. The first is called an input error. The
other is called an output error. The total error is the sum of both the input and output errors. 

• Input error- An error occurs depending upon when the timer input turns on during the
scan cycle. When the input turns on immediately after the plc looks at the status of the
inputs during the scan cycle, the input error will be at its largest. (i.e. more than 1 full
 scan time!). This is because, as you will recall, (see scan time chapter) the inputs are
looked at once during a scan. If it wasn' t on when the plc looked and turns on later in the
scan we obviously have an error. Further we have to wait until the timer instruction is
executed during the program execution part of the scan. If the timer instruction is the last
instruction on the rung it could be quite a big error!
• Output error- An another error occurs depending upon when in the ladder the timer
actually "times out" (expires) and when the plc finishes executing the program to get to
the part of the scan when it updates the outputs. (again, see scan time chapter) This is
because the timer finishes during the program execution but the plc must first finish
executing the remainder of the program before it can turn on the appropriate output.

Below is a diagram illustrating the worst possible input error. You will note from it that the worst
possible input error would be 1 complete scan time + 1 program execution time. Remember
that a program execution time varies from program to program. (depends how many instructions
are in the program!) 


Shown below is a diagram illustrating the worst possible output error. You can see from it that the
worst possible output error would be 1 complete scan time.


Based upon the above information we can now see that the total worst possible timer error would
be equal to:
1 scan time + 1 program execution time + 1 scan time
= 2 scan times + 1 program execution time. 
What does this really mean? It means that even though most manufacturers currently have timers
with 1ms increments they really shouldn' t be used for durations less than a few mil liseconds. This
assumes that your scan time is 1ms. If your scan time is 5ms you had better not use a timer with
a duration less than about 15ms. The point is however, just so that we will know what errors we
can expect. If we know what error to expect, we can then think about whether this amount of error
is acceptable for our application. In most applications this error is insignificant but in some high
speed or very precise applications this error can be VERY significant.
We should also note that the above errors are only the "software errors". There is also a
hardware input error as well as a hardware output error. 
The hardware input error is caused by the time it takes for the plc to actually realize that the input
is on when it scans its inputs. Typically this duration is about 10ms. This is because many PLCs
require that an input should be physically on for a few scans before it determines its physically on.
(to eliminate noise or "bouncing" inputs) 
The hardware output error is caused by the time it takes from when the plc tells its output to
physically turn on until the moment it actually does. Typically a transistor takes about 0.5ms
whereas a mechanical relay takes about 10ms. 
The error keeps on growing doesn' t it! If it becomes too big for the app lication, consider using an
external "hardware" timer. 
 One-shots
A one-shot is an interesting and invaluable programming tool. At first glance it might be difficult
to figure out why such an instruction is needed. After we understand what this instruction does
and how to use it, however, the necessity will become clear. 

A one-shot is used to make something happen for ONLY 1 SCAN. (you do remember what a
scan is, right??) Most manufacturers have one-shots that react to an off to on transition and a
different type that reacts to an on to off transition. Some names for the instructions could be
difu/difd (differentiate up/down), sotu/sotd (single output up/down), osr (one-shot rising) and
others. They all, however, end up with the same result regardless of the name. 

One-shot Instruction

Above is the symbol for a difu (one-shot) instruction. A difd looks the same but inside the symbol
it says "difd". Some of the manufacturers have it in the shape of a box but, regardless of the
symbol, they all function the same way. For those manufacturers that don' t include a differentiate
down instruction, you can get the same effect by putting a NC (normally closed) instruction before
it instead of a NO(normally open) instruction. (i.e. reverse the logic before the difu instruction)

Let' s now setup an application to see how this instruction actually functions in a ladder. This
instruction is most often used with some of the advanced instructions where we do some things
that MUST happen only once. However, since we haven' t gotten that far yet, let' s set up a flip/flop
circuit. In simple terms, a flip/flop turns something around each time an action happens. Here
we' ll use a single pushbutton switch. The first time the operator pushes it we want an output to
turn on. It will remain "latched" on until the next time the operator pushes the button. When he
does, the output turns off. 

Here' s the ladder dia

gram that does just that: 

Now this looks confusing! Actually it' s not if we take it one step at a time.

• Rung 1-When NO (normally open) input 0000 becomes true DIFU 1000 becomes true.
• Rung 2- NO 1000 is true, NO 1001 remains false, NC 1001 remains true, NC 1000 turns
false. Since we have a true path, (NO 1000 & NC 1001) OUT 1001 becomes true.
• Rung 3- NO 1001 is true therefore OUT 500 turns true.

Next Scan 
 • Rung 1- NO 0000 remains true. DIFU 1000 now becomes false. This is because the
DIFU instruction is only true for one scan. (i.e. the rising edge of the logic before it on the
rung)
• Rung 2- NO 1000 is false, NO 1001 remains true, NC 1001 is false, NC 1000 turns true.
Since we STILL have a true path, (NO 1001 & NC 1000) OUT 1001 remains true.
• Rung 3- NO 1001 is true therefore OUT 500 remains true.

After 100 scans, NO 0000 turns off (becomes false). The logic remains in the same state as "next
scan" shown above. (difu doesn' t reacttherefore the logic stays the same on rungs 2 and 3) 
On scan 101 NO 0000 turns back on. (becomes true) 

• Rung 1-When NO (normally open) input 0000 becomes true DIFU 1000 becomes true.
• Rung 2- NO 1000 is true, NO 1001 remains true, NC 1001 becomes false, NC 1000 also
becomes false. Since we no longer have a true path, OUT 1001 becomes false.
• Rung 3- NO 1001 is false therefore OUT 500 becomes false.

Click here and view the animation to really learn!

Executing the program 1 instruction at a time makes this and any program easy to follow. Actually
a larger program that jumps around might be difficult to follow but a pencil drawing of the registers
sure does help! 

Master Controls
Let' s now look at what are called master controls. Master controls can be thought of as
"emergency stop switches". An emergency stop switch typically is a big red button on a machine
that will shut it off in cases of emergency. Next time you' re at the local gas station look near the
door on the outside to see an example of an e-stop.
*IMPORTANT- We' re not implying that this instruction is a substitute for a "hard wired" e -stop
switch. There is no substitute for such a switch! Rather it' s just an easy way to get to understand
them. 

The master control instruction typically is used in pairs with a master control reset. However this
varies by manufacturer. Some use MCR in pairs instead of teaming it with another symbol. It is
commonly abbreviated as MC/MCR (master control/master control reset), MCS/MCR (master
control set/master control reset) or just simply MCR (master control reset). 

Here is one example of how a master control symbol looks. 

Below is an example of a master control reset.


To make things interesting, many manufacturers make them act differently. Let' s nowtake a look
at how it' s used in a ladder diagram. Consider the following example:
 

Here' s how different PLCs will run this program:

Manufacturer X- In this example, rungs 2 and 3 are only executed when input 0000 is on (true).
If input 0000 is not true the plc pretends that the logic between the mc and mcr instructions does
not exist. It would therefore bypass this block of instructions and immediately go to the rung after
the mcr instruction. 

Conversely, if input 0000 is true, the plc would execute rungs 2 and 3 and update the status of
outputs 0500 and 0501 accordingly. So, if input 0000 is true, program execution goes to rung 2. If
input 0001 is true 0500 will be true and hence it will turn on when the plc updates the outputs. If
input 0002 is true (i.e. physically off) 0501 will be true and therefore it will turn on when the plc
updates the outputs.

MCR just tells the plc "that's the end of the mc/mcr block".

In this plc, scan time is not extended when the mc/mcr block is not executed because the plc
pretends the logic in the block doesn' t exist. In other words, the instructions inside the block aren' t
seen by the plc and therefore it doesn' t execute them. 

Click here and view the animation to really learn!

Manufacturer Y- In this example, rungs 2 and 3 are always executed regardless of the status of
input 0000. If input 0000 is not true the plc executes the MC instruction. (i.e. MC becomes true) It
then forces all the input instructions inside the block to be off. If input 0000 is true the MC
instruction is made to be false. 

Then, if input 0000 is true, program execution goes to rung 2. If input 0001 is true 0500 will be
true and hence it will turn on when the plc updates the outputs. If input 0002 is true (i.e. physically
off) 0501 will be true and therefore it will turn on when the plc updates the outputs. MCR just tells
the plc "that' s the end of the mc/mcr block". When input 0000 is false, inputs 0001 and 0002 are
forced off regardless if they' re physically on or off. Therefore, outputs 0500 and 0501 will be false.

The difference between manufacturers X and Y above is that in the Y scheme the scan time will
be the same (well close to the same) regardless if the block is on or off. This is because the plc
sees each instruction whether the block is on or off. 

Most all manufacturers will make a previously latched instruction (one that' s inside the mc/mcr
block) retain its previous condition.
If it was true before, it will remain true.
If it was false before, it will remain false. 

Timers should not be used inside the mc/mcr block because some manufacturers will reset them
to zero when the block is false whereas other manufacturers will have them retain the current
time state.

Counters typically retain their current counted value. 

Here' s the part to note most of all. When the mc/mcr block is off, (i.e. inpu
t 0000 would be false in
the ladder example shown previously) an OUTB (OutBar or OutNot) instruction would not be
physically on. It is forced physically off.

OutBar instruction

In summary, BE CAREFUL! Most manufacturers use the manufacturer Y execution scheme

shown above. When in doubt, however, read the manufacturers instruction manual. Better yet,
just ask them. 

Shift Registers
In many applications it is necessary to store the status of an event that has previously happened.
As we' ve seen in past chapters this is a simple process. But what do we do if we must store many
previous events and act upon them later.
Answer: we call upon the shift register instruction. 

We use a register or group of registers to form a train of bits (cars) to store the previous on/off
status. Each new change in status gets stored in the first bit and the remaining bits get shifted
down the train. Huh? Read on. 

The shift register goes by many names. SFT (ShiFT), BSL (Bit Shift Left), SFR (Shift Forward
Register) are some of the common names. These registers shift the bits to the left. BSR (Bit Shift
Right) and SFRN (Shift Forward Register Not) are some examples of instructions that shift bits to
the right. We should note that not all manufacturers have shift registers that shift data to the right
but most all do have left shifting registers.


A typical shift register instruction has a symbol like that shown above. Notice that the symbol
needs 3 inputs and has some data inside the symbol. 

The reasons for each input are as follows:

 • Data- The data input gathers the true/false statuses that will be shifted down the train.
When the data input is true the first bit (car) in the register (train) will be a 1. This data is
only entered into the register (train) on the rising edge of the clock input.
• Clock- The clock input tells the shift register to "do its thing". On the rising edge of this
input, the shift register shifts the data one location over inside the register and enters the
status of the data input into the first bit. On each rising edge of this input the process will
repeat.
• Reset- The reset input does just what it says. It clears all the bits inside the register we' re
using to 0.

The 1000 inside the shift register symbol is the location of the first bit of our shift register. If we
think of the shift register as a train (a choo-choo train that is) then this bit is the locomotive. The
1003 inside the symbol above is the last bit of our shift register. It is the caboose. Therefore, we
can say that 1001 and 1002 are cars in between the locomotive and the caboose. They are
intermediate bits. So, this shift register has 4 bits.(i.e. 1000,1001,1002,1003) 


Lets examine an application to see why/how we can use the shift register.
Imagine an ice-cream cone machine. We have 4 steps. First we verify the cone is not broken.
Next we put ice cream inside the cone.(turn on output 500) Next we add peanuts.(turn on output
501) And finally we add sprinkles.(turn on output 502) If the cone is broken we obviously don' t
want to add ice cream and the other items. Therefore we have to track the bad cone down our
process line so that we can tell the machine not to add each item. We use a sensor to look at the
bottom of the cone. (input 0000) If its on then the cone is perfect and if its off then the cone is
broken. An encoder tracks the cone going down the conveyor. (input 0001) A push button on the
machine will clear the register. (input 0002)
Here' s what the ladder would look like:


Let' s now follow the shift registeras the operation takes place. Here' s what the 1000 series
register (the register we' re shifting) looks like initially:
10xx Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
            0 0 0 0
A good cone comes in front of the sensor (input 0000). The sensor (data input) turns on. 1000 will
not turn on until the rising edge of the encoder (input 0001). Finally the encoder now generates a
pulse and the status of the data input (cone sensor input 0000) is transferred to bit 1000. The
register now looks like:
10xx Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
            0 0 0 1
As the conveying system moves on, another cone comes in front of the sensor. This time it' s a
broken cone and the sensor remains off. Now the encoder generates another pulse. The old
status of bit 1000 is transferred to bit 1001. The old status of 1001 shifts to 1002. The old status
of 1002 shifts to 1003. And the new status of the data input (cone sensor) is transferred to bit
1000. The register now looks like:
10xx Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
            0 0 1 0
Since the register shows that 1001 is now on, the ladder says that output 0500 will turn on and
ice cream is put in the cone. 
As the conveying system continues to move on, another cone comes in front of the sensor. This
time it' s a good cone and the sensor turns on. Now the encoder generates another pulse. The old
status of bit 1000 is transferred to bit 1001. The old status of 1001 shifts to 1002. The old status
of 1002 shifts to 1003. And the new status of the data input (cone sensor) is transferred to bit
1000. The register now looks like: 
10xx Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
            0 1 0 1

Since the register shows that 1002 is now on the ladder says that output 0501 will turn on and
peanuts are put on the cone. Since 1001 now holds the status of a broken cone, 500 remains off
in the ladder above and no ice-cream is inserted into this cone. As the conveying system
continues to move on, another cone comes in front of the sensor. This time it' s also a good cone
and the sensor turns on. Now the encoder generates another pulse. The old status of bit 1000 is
transferred to bit 1001. The old status of 1001 shifts to 1002. The old status of 1002 shifts to
1003. And the new status of the data input (cone sensor) is transferred to bit 1000. The register
now looks like:
10xx Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
            1 0 1 1

Since the register shows that 1003 is now on the ladder says that output 0502 will turn on and
sprinkles are put on the cone. (Its done, yummy...)Since 1002 now holds the status of a broken
cone, 501 remains off in the ladder above and no peanuts are put onto this cone. Since the
register shows that 1001 is now on the ladder says that output 0500 will turn on and ice cream is
put in that cone. 
As the conveying system continues to move on, another cone comes in front of the sensor. This
time it' s another broken cone and the sensor turns off. Now theencoder generates another pulse.
The old status of bit 1000 is transferred to bit 1001. The old status of 1001 shifts to 1002. The old
status of 1002 shifts to 1003. And the new status of the data input (cone sensor) is transferred to
bit 1000. The register now looks like: 
10xx Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
            0 1 1 0
Notice that the status of our first cone has disappeared. In reality its sitting in location 1004 but it' s
useless for us to draw an application with 16 processes here. Suffice it to say that after the bit is
shifted all the way to the left it disappears and is never seen again. In other words, it has been
shifted out of the register and is erased from memory. Although it' s not drawn, the operation
above would continue on with each bit shifting on the rising edge of the encoder signal. 

Click here and view the animation to really learn!

The shift register is most commonly used in conveyor systems, labeling or bottling applications,
etc. Sometimes it' s also conveniently used when the operation must be delayed in a fast moving
bottling line. For example, a solenoid can' t immedia tely kick out a bad can of beer when the
sensor says its bad. By the time the solenoid would react the can would have already passed by.
So typically the solenoid is located further down the conveyor line and a shift register tracks the
can to be kicked out later when it' s more convenient.
A shift register is often very difficult to understand. When in doubt, re-read the above and you' ll
understand it soon enough.

Getting and Moving Data

Let' s now start working with some data. This is what can be considere d to be getting into the
"advanced" functions of a plc. This is also the point where we' ll see some marked differences
between many of the manufacturers functionality and implementation. On the lines that follow
we' ll explore two of the most popular waysot get and manipulate data. 

Why do we want to get or acquire data? The answer is simple. Let' s say that we are using one
of the manufacturers optional modules. Perhaps it' s an A/D module. This module acquires Analog
signals from the outside world (a varying voltage or current) and converts the signal to something
the plc can understand (a digital signal i.e. 1' s and 0' s). Manufacturers automatically store this
data into memory locations for us. However, we have to get the data out of there and move it
some place else otherwise the next analog sample will replace the one we just took. In other
words, move it or lose it! Something else we might want to do is store a constant (i.e. fancy word
for a number), get some binary data off the input terminals ( maybe a thumbwheel switch is
connected there, for example), do some math and store the result in a different location, etc... 

As was stated before there are typically 2 common instruction "sets" to accomplish this. Some
manufacturers use a single instruction to do the entire operation while others use two separate
instructions. The two are used together to accomplish the final result. Let' s now look briefly at
each instruction. 

The single instruction is commonly called MOV (move). Some vendors also include a MOVN
(move not). It has the same function of MOV but it transfers the data in inverted form. (i.e. if the
bit was a 1, a 0 is stored/moved or if the bit was a 0, a 1 is stored/moved). The MOV typically
looks like that shown below. 

MOV instruction symbol

The paired instruction typically is called LDA (LoaD Accumulator) and STA (STore Accumulator).
The accumulator is simply a register inside the CPU where the plc stores data temporarily while
its working. The LDA instruction typically looks like that shown below, while the STA instruction
looks like that shown below to the right.


Regardless of whether we use the one symbol or two symbol instruction set (we have no choice
as it depends on whose plc we use) they work the same way.

s from us.
Let' s see the single instruction first. The MOV instruction needs to know 2 thing

• Source (xxxx)- This is where the data we want to move is located. We could write a
constant here (2222 for example). This would mean our source data is the number 2222.
We could also write a location or address of where the data we want to move is located.
If we wrote DM100 this would move the data that is located in data memory 100.
• Destination (yyyy)- This is the location where the data will be moved to. We write an
address here. For example if we write DM201 here the data would be moved into data
memory 201. We could also write 0500 here. This would mean that the data would be
moved to the physical outputs. 0500 would have the least significant bit, 0501 would have
the next bit... 0515 would have the most significant bit. This would be useful if we had a
binary display connected to the outputs and we wanted to display the value inside a
counter for the machine operator at all times (for example).


The ladder diagram to do this would look similar to that shown above. 
Notice that we are also using a "difu" instruction here. The reason is simply because if we didn' t
the data would be moved during each and every scan. Sometimes this is a good thing (for
example if we are acquiring data from an A/D module) but other times it' s not (for example an
external display would be unreadable because the data changes too much). 
The ladder shows that each time real world input 0000 becomes true, difu will become true for
only one scan. At this time LoaD 1000 will be true and the plc will move the data from data
memory 200 and put it into data memory 201.
Simple but effective. If, instead of DM200, we had written 2222 in the symbol we would have
moved (written) the number (constant) 2222 into DM201.
The two symbol instruction works in the same method but looks different. To use them we must
also supply two things, one for each instruction:

• LDA- this instruction is similar to the source of a MOV instruction. This is where the data
we want to move is located. We could write a constant here (2222 for example). This
would mean our source data is the number 2222. We could also write a location or
address of where the data we want to move is located. If we wrote DM100 this would
move the data that is located in data memory 100.
• STA- this instruction is similar to the destination of a MOV instruction. We write an
address here. For example if we write DM201 here the data would be moved into data
memory 201. We could also write 0500 here. This would mean that the data would be
moved to the physical outputs. 0500 would have the least significant bit, 0501 would have
the next bit... 0515 would have the most significant bit. This would be useful if we had a
 binary display connected to the outputs and we wanted to display the value inside a
counter for the machine operator at all times (for example).


The ladder diagram to do this would look similar to that shown above. Here again we notice that
we are using a one-shot so that the move only occurs once for each time input 0000 becomes
true. In this ladder we are moving the constant 2222 into data memory 200. The "#" is used by
some manufactures to symbolize a decimal number. If we just used 2222 this plc would think it
meant address 2222. PLCs are all the same... but they are all different. 

Click here and view the animation to really learn!

We can think of this instruction as the gateway to advanced instructions. I' m sure you' ll find it
useful and invaluable as we' ll see in future. Many advanced functions are impossible without this
instruction! 

Math Instructions
Let' s now look at using some basic math functions on our data. Many times in our applications
we must execute some type of mathematical formula on our data. It' s a rare occurrence when our
data is actually exactly what we needed. 

As an example, let's say we are manufacturing widgets. We don' t want to display the total number
we' ve made today, but rather we want to display how many more we need to make today to meet
our quota. Lets say our quota for today is 1000 pieces. We' ll say X is our current pro
duction.
Therefore, we can figure that 1000-X=widgets left to make. To implement this formula we
obviously need some math capability.

In general, PLCs almost always include these math functions:

• Addition- The capability to add one piece of data to another. It is commonly called ADD.
• Subtraction- The capability to subtract one piece of data from another. It is commonly
called SUB.
• Multiplication- The capability to multiply one piece of data by another. It is commonly
called MUL.
• Division- The capability to divide one piece of data from another. It is commonly called
DIV.

As we saw with the MOV instruction there are generally two common methods used by the
majority of plc makers. The first method includes a single instruction that asks us for a few key
pieces of information. This method typically requires:

• Source A- This is the address of the first piece of data we will use in our formula. In other
words it' s the location in memory of where the first "number" is that we use in the formula.
 • Source B- This is the address of the second piece of data we will use in our formula. In
other words it' s the location in memory of where the second "number" is that we use in
the formula. -NOTE: typically we can only work with 2 pieces of data at a time. In other
words we can' t work directly with a formula like 1+2+3. We would have to break it up into
pieces. Like 1+2=X then X+3= our result.
• Destination- This is the address where the result of our formula will be put. For example,
if 1+2=3, (I hope it still does!), the 3 would automatically be put into this destination
memory location.

ADD symbol
The instructions above typically have a symbol that looks like that shown above. Of course, the
word ADD would be replaced by SUB, MUL, DIV, etc. In this symbol, The source A is DM100, the
source B is DM101 and the destination is DM102. Therefore, the formula is simply whatever
value is in DM100 + whatever value is in DM101. The result is automatically stored into DM102. 


Shown above is how to use math functions on a ladder diagram. Please note that once again we
are using a one-shot instruction. As we' ve seen before, this is because if we d
idn' t use it we
would execute the formula on every scan. Odds are good that we' d only want to execute the
function one time when input 0000 becomes true. If we had previously put the number 100 into
DM100 and 200 into DM101, the number 300 would be stored in DM102.(i.e. 100+200=300,
right??) 

ADD symbol (dual method)

The dual instruction method would use a symbol similar to that shown above. In this method, we
give this symbol only the Source B location. The Source A location is given by the LDA
instruction. The Destination would be included in the STA instruction. 


Shown above is a ladder diagram showing what we mean.
The results are the same as the single instruction method shown above. 

Click here and view the animation to really learn!

What would happen if we had a result that was greater than the value that could be stored in a
memory location? 
Typically the memory locations are 16-bit locations. (more about number types in a later chapter)
In plain words this means that if the number is greater than 65535 (2^16=65536) it is too big to fit.
Then we get what' s called an overflow. Typically the plc turns on an internal relay that tells us an
overflow has happened. Depending on the plc, we would have different data in the destination
location. (DM102 from example) Most PLCs put the remainder here. 
Some use 32-bit math which solves the problem. (except for really big numbers!) If we' re doing
division, for example, and we divide by zero (illegal) the overflow bit typically turns on as well.
Suffice it to say, check the overflow bit in your ladder and if its true, plan appropriately. 
Many PLCs also include other math capabilities. Some of these functions could include: 

• Square roots
• Scaling
• Absolute value
• Sine
• Cosine
• Tangent
• Natural logarithm
• Base 10 logarithm
• X^Y (X to the power of Y)
• Arcsine (tan, cos)
• and more....check with the manufacturer to be sure.

Some PLCs can use floating point math as well. Floating point math is simply using decimal
points. In other words, we could say that 10 divided by 3 is 3.333333 (floating point). Or we could
say that 10 divided by 3 is 3 with a remainder of 1(long division). Many micro/mini PLCs don' t
include floating point math. Most larger systems typically do. 
Understand the theory and we can always learn how our manufacturer of choice does it. 

Number Systems
Before we get too far ahead of ourselves, let' s take a look at the various number systems used
by PLCs. 

Many number systems are used by PLCs. Binary and Binary Coded Decimal are popular while
octal and hexadecimal systems are also common.

Let' s look at each:

As we do, consider the following formula (Math again!):

Nbase= Ddigit * R^unit + .... D1R^1 + D0R^0 

where D=the value of the digit and R= # of digit symbols used in the given number system.
The "*" means multiplication. ( 5 * 10 = 50)
The "^" means "to the power of".
As you' ll recallany number raised to the power of 0 is 1. 10^1=10, 10^2 is 10x10=100, 10^3 is
10x10x10=1000, 10^4 is 10x10x10x10=10000... 

This lets us convert from any number system back into decimal. Huh? Read on... 

• Decimal- This is the numbering system we use in everyday life. (well most of us do
anyway!) We can think of this as base 10 counting. It can be called as base 10 because
each digit can have 10 different states. (i.e. 0-9) Since this is not easy to implement in an
electronic system it is seldom, if ever, used. If we use the formula above we can find out
 what the number 456 is. From the formula:
Nbase= Ddigit * R^unit + .... D1R^1 + D0R^0
we have (since we're doing base 10, R=10)

N10= D410^2 + D510^1 + D610^0

= 4*100 + 5*10 + 6*
= 400 + 50 + 6
= 456.

• Binary- This is the numbering system computers and PLCs use. It was far easier to
design a system in which only 2 numbers (0 and 1) are manipulated (i.e. used).
The binary system uses the same basic principles as the decimal system. In decimal we
had 10 digits. (0-9) In binary we only have 2 digits (0 and 1). In decimal we count:
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, and instead of going back to zero, we start a new digit and then start
from 0 in the original digit location.
In other words, we start by placing a 1 in the second digit location and begin counting
again in the original location like this 10,11,12,13, ... When again we hit 9, we increment
the second digit and start counting from 0 again in the original digit location. Like
20,21,22,23.... of course this keeps repeating. And when we run out of digits in the
second digit location we create a third digit and again start from scratch.(i.e. 99, 100, 101,
102...)
Binary works the same way. We start with 0 then 1. Since there is no 2 in binary we must
create a new digit.
Therefore we have 0, 1, 10, 11 and again we run out of room. Then we create another
digit like 100, 101, 110, 111. Again we ran out of room so we add another digit... Do you
get the idea?
The general conversion formula may clear things up:
Nbase= Ddigit * R^unit + .... D1R^1 + D0R^0.
Since we' re now doing binary or base 2, R=2. Let' s try to convert the binary number 1101
back into decimal.

N10= D1 * 2^3 + D1 * 2^2 + D0 * 2^1 + D1 * 2^0

= 1*8 + 1*4 + 0*2 + 1*1
= 8 + 4 +0 +1
= 13
(if you don' t see where the 8,4,2, and 1 came from, refer
to the table below).
Now we can see that binary 1101 is the same as decimal 13. Try translating binary 111. You
should get decimal 7. Try binary 10111. You should get decimal 23. 
Here' s a simple binary chart for reference. The top row shows powers of 2 whi
le the bottom row
shows their equivalent decimal value. 
Binary Number Conversions
2^15 2^14 2^13 2^12 2^11 2^10 2^9 2^8 2^7 2^6 2^5 2^4 2^3 2^2 2^1 2^0
32768 16384 8192 4096 2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

• Octal- The binary number system requires a ton of digits to represent a large number.
Consider that binary 11111111 is only decimal 257. A decimal number like 1,000,000 ("1
million") would need a lot of binary digits! Plus it' s also hard for humans to manipulate
such numbers without making mistakes.
Therefore several computer/plc manufacturers started to implement the octal number
system.
This system can be thought of as base8 since it consists of 8 digits. (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7)
So we count like 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,10,11,12...17,20,21,22...27,30,...
 Using the formula again, we can convert an octal number to decimal quite easily.
Nbase= Ddigit * R^unit + .... D1R^1 + D0R^0
So octal 654 would be: (remember that here R=8)

N10= D6 * 8^2 + D5 * 8^1 + D4 * 8^0

= 6*64 + 5*8 + 4*1
= 384 +40 +4
= 428
(if you don' t see where the white 64,8 and 1 came from,
refer to the table below).
Now we can see that octal 321 is the same as decimal 209. Try translating octal 76. You should
get decimal 62. Try octal 100. You should get decimal 64. 
Here' s a simple octal chart for your reference. The top row shows powers of 8 while the bottom
row shows their equivalent decimal value. 
Octal Number Conversions
8^7 8^6 8^5 8^4 8^3 8^2 8^1 8^0
2097152 262144 32768 4096 512 64 8 1
Lastly, the octal system is a convenient way for us to express or write binary numbers in plc
systems. A binary number with a large number of digits can be conveniently written in an octal
form with fewer digits. This is because 1 octal digit actually represents 3 binary digits. 
Believe me that when we start working with register data or address locations in the advanced
chapters it becomes a great way of expressing data. The following chart shows what we' re
referring to:
Binary Number with its Octal Equivalent
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 6 2 3 4 5
From the chart we can see that binary 1110010011100101 is octal 162345. (decimal 58597) As
we can see, when we think of registers, it' s easier to think in octal than in binary. As you' soon
ll
see though, hexadecimal is the best way to think. (really) 

• Hexadecimal-The binary number system requires a ton of digits to represent a large

number. The octal system improves upon this. The hexadecimal system is the best
solution however, because it allows us to use even less digits. It is therefore the most
popular number system used with computers and PLCs. (we should learn each one
though)
The hexadecimal system is also referred to as base 16 or just simply hex. As the name
base 16 implies, it has 16 digits. The digits are
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
So we count like
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F,10,11,12,13,...
1A,1B,1C,1D,1E,1F,20,21... 2A,2B,2C,2D,2E,2F,30...
Using the formula again, we can convert a hex number to decimal quite easily.
Nbase= Ddigit * R^unit + .... D1R^1 + D0R^0
So hex 6A4 would be:(remember here that R=16)

N10= D6 * 16^2 + DA * 16^1 + D4 * 16^0

= 6*256 + A(A=decimal10)*16 + 4*1
= 1536 +160 +4
= 1700
(if you don' t see where the 256,16 and 1 came from,
refer to the table below)
Now we can see that hex FFF is the same as decimal 4095. Try translating hex 76. You should
get decimal 118. Try hex 100. You should get decimal 256.
Here' s a simple hex chart for reference. The top row shows powers of 16 while the bottom row
shows their equivalent decimal value. Notice that the numbers get large rather quickly! 
Hex Number Conversions
16^8 16^7 16^6 16^5 16^4 16^3 16^2 16^1 16^0
4294967296 268435456 16777216 1048576 65536 4096 256 16 1
Finally, the hex system is perhaps the most convenient way for us to express or write binary
numbers in plc systems. A binary number with a large number of digits can be conveniently
written in hex form with fewer digits than octal. This is because 1 hex digit actually represents 4
binary digits. 
Believe me that when we start working with register data or address locations in the advanced
chapters it becomes the best way of expressing data. The following chart shows what we' re
referring to:
Binary Number with its Hex Equivalent
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
7 4 A 5
From the chart we can see that binary 0111010010100101 is hex 74A5. (decimal 29861) As we
can see, when we think of registers, it' s far easier to think in hex than inbinary or octal. 
4 digits go a long way after some practice! 

Boolean Math
Let' s now take a look at some simple "boolean math". Boolean math lets us do some vary basic
functions with the bits in our registers. These basic functions typically include AND, OR and XOR
functions. Each is described below.

• AND- This function enables us to use the truth table below. Here, we can see that the
AND function is very much related to multiplication. We see this because the only time
the Result is true (i.e. 1) is when both operators A AND B are true (i.e. 1).
The AND instruction is useful when your plc doesn' t have a masking function. Oh yeah, a
masking function enables a bit in a register to be "left alone" when working on a bit level.
This is simply because any bit that is ANDed with itself will remain the value it currently
is. For example, if you wanted to clear ( make them 0) only 12 bits in a 16 bit register you
might AND the register with 0' s everywhere except in the 4 bits you wanted to maintain
the status of.

See the truth table below to figure out what we mean. (1 AND 1 = 1, 0 AND 0= 0) 
Result = A AND B
A B Result
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

• OR- This functions based upon the truth table below. Here, we can see that the OR
function is very much related to addition. We see this because the only time the Result is
true (i.e. 1) is when operator A OR B is true (i.e. 1). Obviously, when they are both true
the result is true. (If A OR B is true...)
 Result = A OR B
A B Result
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

• EXOR- This function enables us to use the truth table below. Here, we can see that the
EXOR (XOR) function is not related to anything I can think of ! An easy way to remember
the results of this function is to think that A and B must be one or the other case,
exclusively. Huh?
In other words, they must be opposites of each other. When they are both the same (i.e.
A=B) the result is false (i.e. 0).
This is sometimes useful when you want to compare bits in 2 registers and highlight
which bits are different. It' s als
o needed when we calculate some checksums. A
checksum is commonly used as error checking in some communications protocols.

Result = A XOR B
A B Result
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0
The ladder logic instructions are commonly called AND, ANDA, ANDW, OR, ORA, ORW,
XOR, EORA XORW. 
As we saw with the MOV instruction there are generally two common methods used by the
majority of plc makers. The first method includes a single instruction that asks us for a few key
pieces of information. This method typically requires:

• Source A- This is the address of the first piece of data we will use. In other words its the
location in memory of where the A is.
• Source B- This is the address of the second piece of data we will use. In other words its
the location in memory of where the B is.
• Destination- This is the address where the result will be put. For example, if A AND B =
0 the result (0) would automatically be put into this destination memory location.

AND symbol
The instructions above typically have a symbol that looks like that shown here. Of course, the
word AND would be replaced by OR or XOR. In this symbol, The source A is DM100, the source
B is DM101 and the destination is DM102. Therefore, we have simply created the equation
DM100 AND DM101 = DM102. The result is automatically stored into DM102. 
The boolean functions on a ladder diagram are shown below.
 
Please note that once again we are using a one-shot instruction. As we' ve seen before, this is
because if we didn' t use it, we would execute the instruction on every scan. Odds are good that
we' d only want to execute the function one time when input 0000 becomes true.

AND symbol (dual instruction method)

The dual instruction method would use a symbol similar to that shown above. In this method, we
give this symbol only the Source B location. The Source A location is given by the LDA
instruction. The Destination would be included in the STA instruction. 
Below is a ladder diagram showing what is meant: 


The results are the same as the single instruction method shown above. It should be noted that
although the symbol and ladder diagram above show the AND instruction, OR or EXOR can be
used as well. Simply substitute the word "AND" within the instruction to be either "OR" or
"EXOR". The results will be the same as shown in their respective truth tables.
We should always remember that the theory is most important. If we can understand the theory of
why things happen as they do, we can use anybody' s plc. If we refer to the manufacturers
documentation we can find out the details for the particular plc we are using. Try to find the theory
in that documentation and you might come up short. The details are insignificant while the theory
is very significant. 

DC Inputs
Let' s now take a look at howthe input circuits of a plc work. This will give us a better
understanding of how we should wire them up. Bad things can happen if we wire them up
incorrectly!

Typically, dc input modules are available that will work with 5, 12, 24, and 48 volts. Be sure to
purchase the one that fits your needs based upon the input devices you will use.

We' ll first look at how the dc inputs work. DC input modules allow us to connect either PNP
(sourcing) or NPN (sinking) transistor type devices to them. If we are using a regular switch (i.e.
toggle or pushbutton, etc.) we typically don' t have to worry about whether we wire it as NPN or
PNP. We should note that most PLCs won' t let us mix NPN and PNP devices on the same
module. When we are using a sensor (photo-eye, prox, etc.) we do, however, have to worry about
its output configuration. Always verify whether it's PNP or NPN. (Check with the manufacturer
when unsure) 

The difference between the two types is whether the load (in our case, the plc is the load) is
switched to ground or positive voltage. An NPN type sensor has the load switched to ground
whereas a PNP device has the load switched to positive voltage. 

Below is what the outputs look like for NPN and PNP sensors. 


On the NPN sensor we connect one output to the PLCs input and the other output to the power
supply ground. If the sensor is not powered from the same supply as the plc, we should connect
both grounds together. NPN sensors are most commonly used in North America. 

Many engineers will say that PNP is better (i.e. safer) because the load is switched to ground, but
whatever works for you is best. Just remember to plan for the worst.

On the PNP sensor we connect one output to positive voltage and the other output to the PLCs
input. If the sensor is not powered from the same supply as the plc, we should connect both V+' s
together. PNP sensors are most commonly used in Europe. 


Inside the sensor, the transistor is just acting as a switch. The sensors internal circuit tells the
output transistor to turn on when a target is present. The transistor then closes the circuit
between the 2 connections shown above. (V+ and plc input). 
 
The only things accessible to the user are the terminals labeled COMMON, INPUT 0000, INPUT
0001, INPUTxxxx... The common terminal either gets connected to V+ or ground. Where it' s
connected depends upon the type of sensor used. When using an NPN sensor this terminal is
connected to V+. When using a PNP sensor this terminal is connected to 0V (ground).

A common switch (i.e. limit switch, pushbutton, toggle, etc.) would be connected to the inputs in a
similar fashion. One side of the switch would be connected directly to V+. The other end goes to
the plc input terminal. This assumes the common terminal is connected to 0V (ground). If the
common is connected to V+ then simply connect one end of the switch to 0V (ground) and the
other end to the plc input terminal. 

The photocouplers are used to isolate the PLCs internal circuit from the inputs. This eliminates
the chance of any electrical noise entering the internal circuitry. They work by converting the
electrical input signal to light and then by converting the light back to an electrical signal to be
processed by the internal circuit. 

AC Inputs
Now that we understand how dc inputs work, let' s take a close look at ac inputs. Anac voltage is
non-polarized. Put simply, this means that there is no positive or negative to "worry about".
However, ac voltage can be quite dangerous to work with if we are careless. (Remember when
you stuck the knife in the toaster and got a shock? Be careful) Typically, ac input modules
are available that will work with 24, 48, 110, and 220 volts. Be sure to purchase the one that fits
your needs based upon the input devices (voltage) you will use. 
 OUCH... use care!!

AC input modules are less common these days than dc input modules. The reason being that
today' s sensors typically have transistor outputs. A transistor will not work with an ac voltage.
Most commonly, the ac voltage is being switched through a limit switch or other switch type. If
your application is using a sensor it probably is operating on a dc voltage. 


We typically connect an ac device to our input module as shown above. Commonly the ac "hot"
wire is connected to the switch while the "neutral" goes to the plc common. The ac ground (3rd
wire where applicable) should be connected to the frame ground terminal of the plc.(not shown)
As is true with dc, ac connections are typically color coded so that the individual wiring the device
knows which wire is which. This coding varies from country to country but in the US is commonly
white (neutral), black (hot) and green (3rd wire ground when applicable). Outside the US it' s
commonly coded as brown (hot), blue (neutral) and green with a yellow stripe (3rd wire ground
where applicable). 

The PLCs ac input module circuit typically looks like this: 

 
The only things accessible to the user are the terminals labeled COMMON, INPUT 0000,
INPUTxxxx... The common terminal gets connected to the neutral wire. 

A common switch (i.e. limit switch, pushbutton, toggle, etc.) would be connected to the input
terminals directly. One side of the switch would be connected directly to INPUT XXX. The other
end goes to the ac hot wire. This assumes the common terminal is connected to neutral. Always
check the manufacturers specifications before wiring, to be sure AND SAFE. 

The photocouplers are used to isolate the PLCs internal circuit from the inputs. This eliminates
the chance of any electrical noise entering the internal circuitry. They work by converting the
electrical input signal to light and then by converting the light back to an electrical signal to be
processed by the internal circuit. 

One last note, typically an ac input takes longer than a dc input for the plc to see. In most cases it
doesn' t matter to the programmer because an ac input device istypically a mechanical switch
and mechanical devices are slowwwwww. It' s quite common for a plc to require that the input be
on for 25 or more milliseconds before it' s seen. This delay is required because of the filtering
which is needed by the plc internal circuit. Remember that the plc internal circuit typically works
with 5 or less volts dc. 

Relay Outputs
By now we should have a good understanding of how the inputs are used. Next up is the output
circuits.

One of the most common types of outputs available is the relay output. A relay can be used with
both AC and DC loads. A load is simply a fancy word for whatever is connected to our outputs.
We call it a load because we are "loading the output" with something. If we connected no load to
the output (i.e. just connect it directly to a power supply) we would certainly damage the outputs.
This would be similar to replacing the lightbulb in the lamp you' re using to read this with a piece of
wire. If you did this, the lamp would draw a tremendous amount of current from the outlet and
certainly pop your circuit breaker or blow your fuse or your brains. (Take our word. Please don't
try it! Extremely dangerous!) 
Some common forms of a load are a solenoid, lamp, motor, etc. These "loads" come in all sizes.
Electrical sizes, that is. Always check the specifications of your load before connecting it to the
plc output. You always want to make sure that the maximum current it will consume is within the
specifications of the plc output. If it is not within the specifications (i.e. draws too much current) it
will probably damage the output. When in doubt, double check with the manufacturer to see if it
can be connected without potential damage. 

Some types of loads are very deceiving. These deceiving loads are called "inductive loads".
These have a tendency to deliver a "back current" when they turn on. This back current is like a
voltage spike coming through the system. 

A good example of an inductive load that most of us see about 6 months per year is an air
conditioning unit. Perhaps in your home you have an air conditioner. (unless you live in the arctic
you probably do!) Have you ever noticed that when the air conditioner "kicks on" the lights dim for
a second or two. Then they return to their normal brightness. This is because when the air
conditioner turns on it tries to draw a lot of current through your wiring system. After this initial
"kick" it requires less current and the lights go back to normal. This could be dangerous to your
PLCs output relays. It can be estimated that this kick is about 30 times the rated current of the
load. Typically a diode, varistor, or other "snubber" circuit should be used to help combat any
damage to the relay. Enough said. Let' s see how we can use these outputs in the "real plc world ". 


Shown above is a typical method of connecting our outputs to the plc relays. Although our
diagram shows the output connected to an AC supply, DC can be used as well. A relay is non-
polarized and typically it can switch either AC or DC. Here the common is connected to one end
of our power supply and the other end of the supply is connected to the load. The other half of our
load gets connected to the actual plc output you have designated within your ladder program. 
 
The relay is internal to the plc. Its circuit diagram typically looks like that shown above. When our
ladder diagram tells the output to turn on, the plc will internally apply a voltage to the relay coil.
This voltage will allow the proper contact to close. When the contact closes, an external current is
allowed to flow through our external circuit. When the ladder diagram tells the plc to turn off the
output, it will simply remove the voltage from the internal circuit thereby enabling the output
contact to release. Our load will than have an open circuit and will therefore be off. Simple, isn't
it? 

Transistor Outputs
The next type of output we should learn about is our transistor type outputs. It is important to
note that a transistor can only switch a dc current. For this reason it cannot be used with an AC
voltage. 

We can think of a transistor as a solid-state switch. Or more simply put, an electrical switch. A
small current applied to the transistors "base" (i.e. input) lets us switch a much larger current
through its output. The plc applies a small current to the transistor base and the transistor output
"closes". When it' s closed, the deviceconnected to the plc output will be turned on. The above is
a very simple explanation of a transistor. There are, of course, more details involved but we don' t
need to get too deep. 

We should also keep in mind that as we saw before with the input circuits, there are generally
more than one type of transistor available. Typically a plc will have either NPN or PNP type
outputs. The "physical" type of transistor used also varies from manufacturer to manufacturer.
Some of the common types available are BJT and MOSFET. A BJT type (Bipolar Junction
Transistor) often has less switching capacity (i.e. it can switch less current) than a MOS-FET
(Metal Oxide Semiconductor- Field Effect Transistor) type. The BJT also has a slightly faster
switching time. Once again, please check the output specifications of the particular plc you are
going to use. Never exceed the manufacturers maximum switching current. 
 
Shown above is how we typically connect our output device to the transistor output. Please note
that this is an NPN type transistor. If it were a PNP type, the common terminal would most
likely be connected to V+ and V- would connect to one end of our load. Note that since this is a
DC type output we must always observe proper polarity for the output. One end of the load is
connected directly to V+ as shown above. 

Let' s take a moment and see what happens inside the output circuit. Shown below is a typical
output circuit diagram for an NPN type output. 


Notice that as we saw with the transistor type inputs, there is a photocoupler isolating the "real
world" from the internal circuit. When the ladder diagram calls for it, the internal circuit turns on
the photocoupler by applying a small voltage to the LED side of the photocoupler. This makes the
LED emit light and the receiving part of the photocoupler will see it and allow current to flow. This
small current will turn on the base of the output transistor connected to output 0500. Therefore,
whatever is connected between COM and 0500 will turn on. When the ladder tells 0500 to turn
off, the LED will stop emitting light and hence the output transistor connected between 0500 and
COM will turn off. 

One other important thing to note is that a transistor typically cannot switch as large a load as a
relay. Check the manufacturers specifications to find the largest load it can safely switch. If the
load current you need to switch exceeds the specification of the output, you can connect the plc
output to an external relay. Then connect the relay to the large load. You may be thinking, "why
not just use a relay in the first place"? The answer is because a relay is not always the correct
choice for every output. A transistor gives you the opportunity to use external relays when and
only when necessary.

In summary, a transistor is fast, switches a small current, has a long lifetime and works with dc
only. Whereas a relay is slow, can switch a large current, has a shorter lifetime and works with ac
or dc. Select the appropriate one based upon your actual application needs. 
 Communications History
By far, the most popular method of communicating with external devices is by using the "RS-
232" communications method. Communication with external devices is viewed by many plc
programmers to be difficult if not "all but impossible" to understand. This is far from true! It' s not
"black art", "witchcraft" or "weird science". Read on...

All plc communication systems have their roots in the old telegraph we may have seen in the old
movies. (Remember the guy working at the train station with the arm band and plastic visor?)
Early attempts to communicate electronically over long distances began as early as the late
1700' s. In 1810 a German man (von Soemmering) was using a device with 26 wires (1 for each
letter of the alphabet) attached to the bottom of an aquarium. When current passed through the
wires, electrolytic action produced small bubbles. By choosing the appropriate wires to energize,
he was able to send encoded messages "via bubbles". (It' s true...really) This then caught the
attention of the military and the race to find a system was on. 

In 1839, 2 Englishmen, Cooke and Wheatstone, had a 13 mile telegraph in use by a British
railroad. Their device had 5 wires powering small electromagnets which deflected low-mass
needles. By applying current to different combinations of 2 wires at a time the needles were
deflected so that they pointed to letters of the alphabet arranged in a matrix. This "2 of 5" code
only allowed 20 combinations so the letters "z,v,u,q,j and c" were omitted. This telegraph was a
big step for the time, but the code was not binary (on/off) but rather it was trinary (the needle
moved left,right,or not at all).


The biggest problems with these devices was the fact that they were parallel (required multiple
wires). Cooke and Wheatstone eventually made a two wire device but the first practical fully serial
binary system generally gets credited to S.F.B. Morse. In Morse code, characters are symbolized
by dots and dashes(binary- 1' s and 0' s). Morse' s first system isn' t like we see today in the movies.
(It' s on displa
y at the Smithsonian in DC if you want to see it) It actually had a needle contacting a
rotating drum of paper that made a continuous mark. By energizing an electromagnet the needle
would "bounce" away from the paper creating a space. Very soon telegraph operators noticed
that they didn' t have to look at the paper to read the code but they could interpret the code by the
sound the needle made when scratching the paper. So this device was replaced by a sounder
that produced click sounds instead of paper etchings. Teleprinters came later, and todays serial
communications devices are more closely related to them. The rest is history... extinct, but history
anyway! 

Incidentally, the terms MARK and SPACE (we' ll see them later) originated from Morse' s original
device. When the needle contacted the paper we called this a MARK and when the needle
bounced it was called a SPACE. His device only produced UPPERCASE letters which wasn' t a
big problem though. Further, the Titanic sinking "standardized" the code of "SOS" which means
"Save Our Ship" or if you were ever in the US military you might know it better as "S*%$ On a
Shingle" which was chipped beef on bread

RS-232 Communications (hardware)

RS-232 communications is the most popular method of plc to external device communications.
Let' s tackle it piece by piece to see how simple it can be when we understand it.

RS-232 is an asynchronous (a marching band must be "in sync" with each other so that when
one steps they all step. They are asynchronous in that they follow the band leader to keep their
timing) communications method. We use a binary system (1' s and 0' s) to transmit our data in the
ASCII format. (American Standard Code for Information Interchange- pronounced ASS-KEY) This
code translates human readable code (letters/numbers) into "computer readable" code (1' s and
0' s). Our plcs serial port is used for transmission/reception of the data. It works by
sending/receiving a voltage. A positive voltage is called a MARK and a negative voltage is
called a SPACE. Typically, the plc works with +/- 15volts. The voltage between +/- 3 volts is
generally not used and is considered noise. 

There are 2 types of RS-232 devices. The first is called a DTE device. This means Data Terminal
Equipment and a common example is a computer. The other type is called a DCE device. DCE
means Data Communications Equipment and a common example is a modem. Your plc may be
either a DTE or DCE device. Check your documentation.

The plc serial port works by turning some pins on while turning other off. These pins each are
dedicated to a specific purpose. The serial port comes in 2 flavors-- a 25-pin type and a 9-pin
type. The pins and their purposes are shown below. (This chart assumes your plc is a DTE
device)

9-PIN  25-PIN  PURPOSE

1 1 frame ground
2 3 receive data (RD)
3 2 transmit data (TD)
4 20  data terminal ready (DTR)
5 7 signal ground
6 6 data set ready (DSR)
7 4 request to send (RTS)
8 5 clear to send (CTS)
9 22  ring indicator (RI) *only for modems*
Each pins purpose in detail:

• frame ground- This pin should be internally connected to the chassis of the device.
• receive data- This pin is where the data from the external device enters the plc serial
port.
• transmit data- This pin is where the data from the plc serial port leaves the plc enroute to
the external device.
• data terminal ready- This pin is a master control for the external device. When this pin is
1 the external device will not transmit or receive data.
• signal ground- Since data is sent as + or - voltage, this pin is the ground that is
referenced.
• data set ready- Usually external devices have this pin as a permanent 0 and the plc
basically uses it to determine that the external device is powered up and ready.
• request to send- This is part of hardware handshaking. When the plc wants to send data
to the external device it sets this pin to a 0. In other words, it sets the pin to a 0 and
basically says "I want to send you data. Is it ok?" The external device says it' s OK to send
data by setting its clear to send pin to 0. The plc then sends the data.
• clear to send- This is the other half of hardware handshaking. As noted above, the
external device sets this pin to 0 when it is ready to receive data from the plc.
• ring indicator- only used when the plc is connected to a modem.

What happens when your plc and external device are both DTE (or both DCE) devices? They
can' t talk to each other, that' s what happens. The picture below shows why 2 same type devices
can' t communicate with each other. 


Notice that in the picture above, the receive data line (pin2) of the first device is connected to the
receive data line of the second device. And the transmit data line (pin3) of the first device is
connected to the transmit data of the second device. It' s like talking through a phone with the
wires reversed. (i.e. your mouth piece is connected directly to the other parties mouthpiece and
your ear piece is connected directly to the other parties earpiece.) Obviously, this won' t work well! 
The solution is to use a null-modem connection as shown below. This is typically done by using a
reverse (null-modem) cable to connect the devices.


To summarize everything, here's a typical communications session. Both devices are
powered up. The plc is DTE and the external device is DCE. 
The external device turns on DSR which tells the plc that' s it' s powered up and "there". The PLC
turns on RTS which is like asking the external device "are you ready to receive some data?" The
external device responds by turning on it' s CTS which says it' s ok to for the plc to send data. The
plc sends the data on its TD terminal and the external device receives it on its RD terminal. Some
data is sent and received. After a while, the external device can' t process the data quick enough.
So, it turns off its CTS terminal and the plc pauses sending data. The external device catches up
and then turns its CTS terminal back on. The plc again starts sending data on its TD terminal and
the external device receives it on its RD terminal. The plc runs out of data to send and turns off its
RTS terminal. The external device sits and waits for more data. 
 RS-232 Communications (software)
Now that we understand the hardware part of the picture, let' s dive right into the software part.
We' ll take a look at each part of the puzzle by defining a few of the common terms.Ever
wondered what phrases like 9600-8-N-1 meant?
Do you use software-handshaking or hardware-handshaking at formal parties for a greeting? If
you're not sure, read on!

• ASCII is a human-readable to computer-readable translation code. (i.e. each

letter/number is translated to 1' s and 0' s) It' s -bit
a 7(a bit is a 1 or a 0) code, so we can
translate 128 characters. (2^7 is 128) Character sets that use the 8th bit do exist but they
are not true ASCII. Below is an ASCII chart showing its "human-readable" representation.
We typically refer to the characters by using hexadecimal terminology. "0" is 30h, "5" is
35h, "E" is 45h, etc. (the "h" simple means hexadecimal)

 most significant bits

 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0   space 0 @ P ` p
1  XON ! 1 A Q a q
2 STX  " 2 B R b r
3 ETX XOFF # 3 C S c s
4   $ 4 D T d t
5  NAK % 5 E U e u
least 6 ACK  & 6 F V f v
sig. 7   ' 7 G W g w
bits 8   ( 8 H X h x
9   ) 9 I Y i y
A LF  * : J Z j z
B   + ; K [ k {
C   , < L \ l |
D CR  - = M ] m }
E   . > N ^ n ~
F   / ? O _ o 

• start bit- In RS-232 the first thing we send is called a start bit. This start bit ("invented"
during WW1 by Kleinschmidt) is a synchronizing bit added just before each character we
are sending. This is considered a SPACE or negative voltage or a 0.
• stop bit- The last thing we send is called a stop bit. This stop bit tells us that the last
character was just sent. Think of it as an end-of -character bit. This is considered a
MARK or positive voltage or a 1. The start and stop bits are commonly called framing bits
because they surround the character we are sending.
 • parity bit- Since most plcs/external equipment are byte-oriented (8 bits=1byte) it seems
natural to handle data as a byte. Although ASCII is a 7-bit code it is rarely transmitted
that way. Typically, the 8th bit is used as a parity bit for error checking. This method of
error checking gets its name from the math idea of parity. (remember the odd-even
property of integers? I didn' t think so.) In simple terms, parity means that all characters
will either have an odd number of 1' s or an even number of 1' s.
Common forms of parity are None, Even, and Odd. (Mark and Space aren' t very common
so I won' t discuss them). Consider these examples:
send "E" (45h or 1000101b(inary))
In parity of None, the parity bit is always 0 so we send 10001010.
In parity of Even we must have an Even number of 1' s in our total character so the
original character currently has 3 1' s 1000101)
( therefore our parity bit we will add must
be a 1. (10001011) Now we have an even number of 1' s.
In Odd parity we need an odd number of 1' s. Since our original character already has an
odd number of 1' s (3 is an odd number, right?) our parity bit will be a 0. (1000101 0)
During transmission, the sender calculates the parity bit and sends it. The receiver
calculates parity for the 7-bit character and compares the result to the parity bit received.
If the calculated and real parity bits don' t match, an error occurred an we act
appropriately.
It' s strange that this parity method is so popular. The reason is becauseit' s only effective
half the time. That is, parity checking can only find errors that effect an odd number of
bits. If the error affected 2 or 4 or 6 bits the method is useless. Typically, errors are
caused by noise which comes in bursts and rarely effects 1 bit. Block redundancy checks
are used in other communication methods to prevent this.
• Baud rate- I' ll perpetuate the incorrect meaning since it' s most commonly used
incorrectly. Think of baud rate as referring to the number of bits per second that are being
transmitted. So 1200 means 1200 bits per second are being sent and 9600 means 9600
bits are being transmitted every second. Common values (speeds) are 1200, 2400, 4800,
9600, 19200, and 38400.
• RS232 data format- (baud rate-data bits-parity-stop bits) This is the way the data format
is typically specified. For example, 9600-8-N-1 means a baud rate of 9600, 8 data bits,
parity of None, and 1 stop bit.

The picture below shows how data leaves the serial port for the character "E" (45h 100 0101b)
and Even parity.


Another important thing that is sometimes used is called software handshaking (flow control). Like
the hardware handshaking we saw in the previous chapter, software handshaking is used to
make sure both devices are ready to send/receive data. The most popular "character flow control"
is called XON/XOFF. It' s very simple to understand. Simply put, the receiver sends the XOFF
character when it wants the transmitter to pause sending data. When it' s ready to receive data
again, it sends the transmitter the XON character. XOFF is sometimes referred to as the holdoff
character and XON as the release character.
The last thing we should know about is delimiters. A delimiter is simply added to the end of a
message to tell the receiver to process the data it has received. The most common is the CR or
the CR and LF pair. The CR (carriage return) is like the old typewriters. (remember them??)
When you reached the end of a line while typing, a bell would sound. You would then grab the
handle and move the carriage back to the start. In other words, you returned the carriage to the
beginning. (This is the same as what a CR delimiter will do if you view it on a computer screen.)
The plc/external device receives this and knows to take the data from its buffer. (where the data
is stored temporarily before being processed) An LF (line feed) is also sometimes sent with the
CR character. If viewed on a computer screen this would look like what happens on the typewriter
when the carriage is returned and the page moves down a line so you don' t type over what you
just typed.
Sometimes an STX and ETX pair is used for transmission/reception as well. STX is "start of text"
and ETX is "end of text". The STX is sent before the data and tells the external device that data is
coming. After all the data has been sent, an ETX character is sent. 
Finally, we might also come across an ACK/NAK pair. This is rarely used but it should be noted
as well. Essentially, the transmitter sends its data. If the receiver gets it without error, it sends
back an ACK character. If there was an error, the receiver sends back a NAK character and the
transmitter resends the data.
RS-232 has a lot of information to absorb, so feel free to reread it. It' s not so difficult if you
take your time and think about each step. Other communication methods get easier!

Using RS-232 with Ladder Logic

Now that we understand what RS-232 is/means let' s see how to use it with our plc.
We should start out as always, remembering that a plc is a plc is a plc... In other words,
understand the theory first and then figure out how our manufacturer of choice "makes it work".
Some manufacturers include RS-232 communication capability in the main processor. Some use
the "programming port" for this. Others require you to purchase (i.e. spend extra $' s) a module to
"talk RS-232" with an external device.
What is an external device, you maybe asking? The answer is difficult because there are so many
external devices. It may be an operator interface, an external computer, a motor controller, a
robot, a vision system, a ... get the point??

To communicate via RS-232 we have to setup a few things. Ask yourself the following questions:

• Where, in data memory, will we store the data to be sent? Essentially we have to store
the data we will send... somewhere. Where else but in our data memory!
• Where, in data memory, will we put the data we receive from the external device?
• How will we tell the plc when it' s time to sendour data (the data we stored in data
memory) out the serial port?
• How will we know when we have received data from our external device?

If you know the above, then the rest is easy. If you don' t know the above, then make something
up and now the rest is easy. Huh??? Simple, pick a memory area to work with and figure out if we
can choose the internal relays to use to send and receive data or if the plc has ones that are
dedicated to this purpose. Sounds too simple?? (No way, it is simple!!)
Before we do it, let' s get some more technical terms out of the way so we' re on the same playing
field. 

• Buffer- A buffer is a fancy technical word that means a plastic bag. In other words, it' s a
temporary storage location where the plc or external device stores data it has received
(or is waiting to send) via RS-232. When I go to the supermarket to buy my favorite tv
dinners, I carry them home in a plastic bag. The plastic bag is not a permanent place for
my food (are tv dinners really food??) but rather a temporary storage place for them until
I get home. When I get home, I take them out of the bag and cook them. The
supermarket was the external device where I got the data (tv dinners) from and my
microwave is the plc. The plastic bag was the buffer (temporary storage place) that was
holding my data (tv dinner) until I took them out to use (i.e cook).
 • String- A string is a cool way of saying "a bunch of characters". The word "hello" is a
string. It' s a bunch of characters (i.e. h
-e-l-l-o) that are connected (strung) together to
mean something useful. "43770" is also a string. Although it makes no sense to us, it may
mean something valuable to your plc or external device. It could be a command that tells
your robot to send out its current coordinates. (or it could simply be the word "hello"
upside down)
• Concatenate- This word is a mouthfull. Simply put, it means to combine 2 strings
together to make one string. An example is combining the 2 strings "laser" and "jet"
together to make one string... "laserjet".

With the mumbo-jumbo out of the way let' s see it in action. Again, the memory locations and
relays vary by manufacturer but the theory is universal. 

1. We assign memory locations DM100 through DM102 to be where we' ll put our data
before we send it out the serial port. Note- Many plcs have dedicated areas of memory
for this and only this purpose.
2. We' ll assign internal relay 1000 to be our send relay. In other words, when we turn on
1000 the plc will send the data in DM100-DM102 out the serial port to our external
device. Note again- Many plcs have dedicated relays (special utility relays) for this and
only this purpose. It' s great when the manufacturer makes our life easy!

We' ll send the string "alr" out the plc serial port to an operator interface when our temp sensor
input turns on. This means our oven has become too hot. When the operator interface receives
this string it will displayed an alarm message for the operator to see. Look back on the ASCII
chart and you' ll see that "alr" is hexadecimal 61, 6C, 72. (a=61, l=6C, r=72) We' ll write these
ASCII characters (in hexadecimal form) into the individual data memory locations. We' ll use
DM100-102. How? Remember the LDA or MOV instruction? We' ll turn on our send relay (1000)
when our temperature sensor (0000) turns on. The ladder is shown below.


Some plcs may not have dedicated internal relays that send out our data through the RS-232
port. We may have to assign them manually. Further, some plcs will have a special instruction to
tell us where the data is stored and when to send the data. This instruction is commonly called
AWT (ASCII Write) or RS. The theory is always the same though. Put the data in a memory
location and then turn on a relay to send the data.