Schroeder Problems 01.21-22

EFFUSION: GAS LEAKING THROUGH A SMALL HOLE
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Reference: Daniel V. Schroeder, An Introduction to Thermal Physics,
(Addison-Wesley, 2000) - Problems 1.21 - 1.22.
Post date: 2 Jul 2015
Here are a few examples of calculating the pressure on a surface due to
the collisions of a number of molecules (or other small objects) with that
surface.
Example 1. For a macroscopic example, suppose there’s a hailstorm that
sends hailstones of mass 2 g (actually, these would be very big hailstones:
larger than 2 cm3 . They’d probably break the window, but never mind) with
a speed of 15 m/s at a 45◦ angle into a window at a rate of N = 30 per
second. What average pressure do they exert on the window?
The horizontal velocity component is
15
vx = 15 cos 45◦ = √ m s−1 (1)
2
The horizontal momentum is reversed in each collision (assuming the
collisions are elastic), so in one second, the total force exerted on the win-
dow is
15
∆F = 2mvx N = 2 × 0.002 × √ × 30 = 1.275 N (2)
2
The pressure on a window of area A = 0.5 m2 is therefore
∆F
P= = 2.55 N m−2 (3)
A
This is much smaller than atmospheric pressure, which is around 105 N m−2 .
Atmospheric pressure doesn’t break windows, of course, because it’s the
same on both sides of the glass.
If there is a pressure difference on either side of a small hole, gas will
leak out of the hole in a process called effusion. We can get an estimate
of the time taken for gas to leak out of a hole using similar ideas to those
above.
Suppose we have a container of volume V that contains gas at initial pres-
sure P and temperature T . A small hole of area A is made in the container.
1
EFFUSION: GAS LEAKING THROUGH A SMALL HOLE 2
Suppose that the average x component of the velocity of those molecules

that are moving towards the hole is vx . Assuming elastic collisions, each
molecule has its x momentum of mvx reversed, so in time ∆t, the momen-
tum change per unit time as a result of collisions with an area A is the force,
so
∆N (2mvx )
F = = PA (4)
∆t
P A∆t
∆N = (5)
2mvx
We’ve seen from kinetic energy arguments that the mean square of vx is
kT
vx2 = (6)
m
so we can use the rms of vx as an estimate for vx :
r
kT
q
vx ≈ vx = 2 (7)
m
If the area A is now made into the hole, then assuming that there is a
vacuum on the other side of the hole, all the molecules that would have
collided with the hole will now escape from the container, and no molecules
will pass into the container. In that case, the change ∆N in the number of
molecules in the container over time interval ∆t is (using the ideal gas law;
the minus sign is because N decreases)
∆N PA
= − (8)
∆t 2mvx
r
PA m
≈ − (9)
2m kT
r
N kT A m
= − (10)
2mV kT
r
A kT
= − N (11)
2V m
Treating this as a differential equation, we can solve it to get
√ √
−At kT /2V m
N (t) = N (0) e (12)
1
so the characteristic time (after which N drops to e of its initial value) is
r
2V m
τ= (13)
A kT
Note that τ is independent of pressure, which may seem odd, since we

would think that if the pressure inside the container is higher, the gas would
escape faster. It is true that for a higher pressure, more gas will escape in
a given time, but the fraction of the initial quantity of gas that escapes in a
given time will be the same, regardless of the pressure.
Example 2. Suppose we have a 1 litre container at room temperature (in a
vacuum) punctured by a 1 mm2 hole. The average mass of an air molecule
is
28.9697 × 10−3
m= = 4.81 × 10−26 kg (14)
6.02 × 1023
The characteristic time is therefore
s
2 × 10 −3 4.81 × 10−26
τ= = 6.9 s (15)
10−6 1.38 × 10−23 × 293
Example 3. Puncture in a bicycle tire. A typical bicycle tire has a diameter
of around 0.63 m and a cross-sectional diameter of about 0.03 m, so its
volume is around
0.03 2

0.63
V = 2π ×π = 1.4 × 10−3 m3 = 1.4 litres (16)
2 2
Suppose the tire goes flat after 1 hour, so that τ = 3600 s. How big is the
hole?
r
2V m
A = (17)
τ kT
s
2 × 1.4 × 10−3 4.81 × 10−26
= (18)
3600 1.38 × 10−23 × 293
= 2.68 × 10−9 m2 (19)
The hole has a diameter of
r
A
d=2 = 0.058 mm (20)
π
Example 4. Schroeder’s final example cites an episode from Jules Verne’s
novel Around the Moon, in which space travelers eject a dead dog by open-
ing a porthole in the spaceship, throwing the dog out and quickly closing
the window again. This seems risky, but how much air would they actually
lose in doing so?
Suppose it’s a small dog, so the porthole has a diameter of 30 cm, and
the spaceship has a volume of V = 100 m3 (about the size of a smallish
bedroom). The crew is efficient, so they can open the window, toss out the
dog and close the window within 1 second. We get
2
0.3
A = π = 0.071 m2 (21)
2
s
2 × 100 4.81 × 10−26
τ = (22)
0.071 1.38 × 10−23 × 293
= 9.72 s (23)
With t = 1 s, they would retain a fraction of their air given by
N (1)
= e−1/9.72 = 0.9 (24)
N (0)
so they’d lose about 10% of their air. They’d probably survive, but I think
I’d rather use an airlock.

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EFFUSION: GAS LEAKING THROUGH A SMALL HOLE

Link to: physicspages home page.

Suppose that the average x component of the velocity of those molecules

Note that τ is independent of pressure, which may seem odd, since we

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