Electrostatics

Electromagnetic interaction is the most prevalent kind of interaction we

encounter in daily life. Apart from gravity, everything around us –
friction, electronics, industrial machineries, chemical reactions, cell
functioning, our intellect and billion other things are manifestation of
electromagnetic interaction – either at classical or at quantum level.
Relative strength of electromagnetic interaction
fundamental carrier of relative distance
interaction interaction strength scale
strong gluon 1037 10−10 m
E&M photon 1032 ∞
Weak W ±, Z 0 1024 10−13 m
Gravity graviton 1 ∞

A few salient features :

I Electric and magnetic field can travel in vacuum.
I Electric charge is quantized and conserved.
I Magnetic charge or monopole has not yet been found.
I Electric field is stronger than magnetic field by a factor of c.
 A good starting point to study EM interaction is in its simplest settings :
(a) static electric charges : electrostatics
(b) steady flow of electric charges : magnetostatics
A brief history of E&M

∼ 500: Greeks observed something attracted very light objects and named
them electron, those attracting only iron were named magnesia.
1730: C.F. du Fay proposed two types of charge: positive and negative.
1786: Priestly, Cavendish and Coulomb proposed inverse square law of
electrostatics.
1820: Oersted and Ampere demonstrated relation between electricity and
magnetism by deflecting magnetic needle with electric current.
1831: Faraday discovered magnetic induction.
1873: Maxwell theoretically explain all electric and magnetic phenomena
observed till date through Maxwell’s equations.
1905: Einstein proposed special theory of relativity demanding invariance
of Maxwell’s equations in all inertial frames.
Electrostatics
Source charge(s) : stationary point charge, system / distribution of point
charges or continuous distribution of charge responsible for electric field.
• Position vector ~r 0 of the source charge is called source coordinate.
Test charge : charge that probes the electric field, must be weak enough
so as not to disturb the original source charge distribution or modify its
electric field in any significant way.
• Position vector ~r of the test charge is called field coordinate.
Postulates of electrostatics
Coulomb’s law : In vacuum, the force on a test charge Q due to a
single point charge q at rest and |~r| = |~r − ~r 0 | distance away is
1 qQ
~ =
F r̂ where 0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 /N − m2
4π0 r2
Superposition principle : Force on test charge Q due to all other
charges is equal to vector sum of forces due to individual charges and
completely unaffected by presence of other charges,
X
~ = F
F ~1 + F
~2 + . . . ≡ ~m
F
m
Electric field : Force of source charge(s) on unit test charge Q = 1

~ (~r ) ≡ 1 X qm ~ = QE
~
E r̂m ⇒ F
4π0 m r2m

~ (~r ) is a vector field, function of ~r , can be conveniently

Electric field E
viewed as some kind of stress the space (medium or vacuum) surrounding
the source charge(s) experience.
Electric field can be visualized with the help of field lines by tracing out
direction of E~ , converging on − charge and diverging from +.
Magnitude of E ~ is denoted by density of field lines – denser the lines,
stronger the field.
~ = 0.
Field lines never cross each other. If they do, it is where E
Electric field due to continuous charge distribution
• take the limit qm → dq = ρdτ, σda, λdl
• convert Rsum to volume
R
or surface
R
or line integrals as appropriate
P
m qm → V
ρdτ or S
σda or C
λdl
• the integrals are over source coordinate i.e. where the charges are.
Electric fields for volume, surface and line distribution of charge are,
ρ(~r 0 ) σ(~r 0 ) λ(~r 0 )
Z Z Z
1 1 1
~ (~r ) =
E r̂ dτ 0 , r̂ da0 , r̂ dl 0
4π0 V r2 4π0 S r2 4π0 C r2

Example : Find electric field at h above the center of a

circular loop of radius R carrying a uniform line charge
λ. Explore various limits of h → 0, ∞.
λ dl 0 λ dl 0
Z Z
~ (h) 1 1 h
E = 2 2
cos θ n̂ = √ n̂
4π0 h +R 4π0 h + R 2 h2 + R 2
2

1 h
= n̂ 2πRλ
4π0 (h2 + R 2 )3/2
1 2πRλ

~ (h)
E = n̂ h ∝ n̂ h
h→0 4π0 R 2
1 2πRλ n̂

~ (h)
E

= n̂ ∝ 2
h→∞ 4π0 h2 h
~ (h)
dE

R
=0 ⇒ ~ (h)
E when h = √
dh max 2
Example : Find electric field at h above the center of a
flat circular disc of radius R, carrying a uniform surface
charge σ. Explore the limits h, R → ∞.
We borrow the result of electric field of a uniformly charged ring and use
it for a ring of radius and thickness r , dr ,

~ (h) 1 2πr dr σ h
dE = n̂
4π0 (h2 + r 2 )3/2
R
2πσh R
Z 
~ (h) r dr 2πσh 1
E = n̂ = n̂ −√
4π0 0 (h2 + r 2 )3/2 4π0 h2 + r 2 0
 
2πσh 1 1
= n̂ −√
4π0 h h2 + R 2
σ

~ (h)
E = n̂ constant
R→∞ 20
" −1/2 #
R2

2πσh 1 1

~ (h)
E = n̂ − 1+ 2
h→∞ 4π0 h h h
R2 1 πR 2 σ
  
2πσh 1
= n̂ 1− 1− 2 = n̂
4π0 h 2h 4π0 h2
 ~ is a special kind of vector – it
Electrostatic potential : Electric field E
~
is irrotational i.e. ∇ × E (~r ) = 0.
   
~r 1 1 3 1
∇× =∇ × ~r + ∇ × ~r = − 5 ~r × ~r + 3 · 0 = 0
r3 r3 r3 r r

Please note, that the curl is calculated at the field point. From Stoke’s
~ (~r ) around any closed loop is zero
theorem it follows the line integral of E
I Z ~r
~ · d~l = 0 ⇒
E V (~r ) ≡ − ~ · d~l
E
O

The integration is independent of path and O is some agreed standard

reference point. The scalar function V (~r ) is called the electrostatic or
electric potential. The potential difference between points ~p1 and ~p2 is,
Z ~
p2 Z ~
p1 Z ~
p2
V (~p2 ) − V (~p1 ) = − ~ · d~l +
E ~ · d~l = −
E ~ · d~l
E
O O ~
p1

Since V (~p2 ) − V (~p1 ) = dV = ∇V · d~l , and true for any ~p1 , ~p2 , we have
Z ~
p2 Z ~
p2
− ~ · d~l = −
E ∇V · d~l ⇒ ~ (~r ) = −∇V (~r )
E
~
p1 ~
p1
From vector calculus, we know that
   
1 r̂ 1 q 1 q ~ (~r )
∇ = − 2 ⇒ −∇ = r̂ = E
r r 4π0 r 4π0 r 2

This leads to well-known expression for electrostatic potential

ρ(r 0 ) 0
Z
1 q 1
V (r ) = or dτ etc.
4π0 r 4π0 r
~ · d~l, used to define electrostatic potential, is essentially
The quantity E
work done by a unit positive charge against E ~ over a displacement of d~l.
Therefore, work done to move unit positive charge in the field of source
charge q from a → b is the potential difference,
Z b Z b
~ (~r ) · d~l = − 1 q  
V (r ) = − E r̂ · r̂ dr + θ̂rdθ + ϕ̂r sin θdϕ
a 4π0 a r 2
Z b  
1 q 1 q q
= − dr = − = V (rb ) − V (ra )
4π0 a r 2 4π0 rb ra

~ · d~l is independent of path and

R
implying previously stated result that E
depends only on the end points.
We often refer to electrostatic potential at a given point, in that case the
agreed standard reference point O is universally taken at ∞.
Example. Which one can be a possible electric field? For
the possible one, find potential using origin as reference
~ 1 = k[xy x̂ + 2yz ŷ + 3xzẑ] or E
point. E ~ 2 = k[y 2 x̂ + (2xy + z 2 )ŷ + 2yzẑ].
     
~1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇×E = î 3xz − 2yz+ ĵ xy − 3xz + k̂ 2yz − xy
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
 
= k −2y î − 3z ĵ − x k̂ 6= 0 E ~ 1 ⇒ not an electric field
   
~2 ∂ ∂ ∂ 2 ∂
∇×E = î 2yz − (2xy + z 2 ) + ĵ y − 2yz
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
 
∂ 2 ∂ 2
+k̂ (2xy + z ) − y
∂x ∂y
= 0 ⇒ E ~ 2 can be an electric field

~ 2 is, say along the path given below

The potential at (x, y , z) due to E
Z (x,y ,z)
V (x, y , z) = − ~ 2 · d~l along (0, 0, 0) → (x, 0, 0) → (x, y , 0) → (x, y , z)
E
(0,0,0)

First segment is along x-axis (y = 0), d~l = x̂dx and E~ 2 · x̂dx = ky 2 dx = 0.

Second segment is parallel to y -axis (z = 0), d~l = ŷ dy and E~ 2 · ŷ dy = 2kxydy .
Thus the integral over the second segment of the path gives,
Z (x,y ,0)
2k xy dy = k x y 2
(x,0,0)

Third segment is parallel to z-axis, where both x and y are held

constant, d~l = k̂ dz and E~ 2 · k̂dz = 2kyz dz . Thus the integral over the third
segment of the path gives,
Z (x,y ,z)
2k yz dz = k y z 2
(x,y ,0)

Hence, the total potential is

 
V (x, y , z) = −k xy 2 + yz 2 .

Try out these problems from Griffiths (3rd edition)

Problem # 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.25, 2.26, 2.27, 2.28
Example # 2.1, 2.7
Some of these will be done in class / tutorials, but not all. In any case
you may expect any of these to come in the exams.