A Critical Review of The Effectiveness of Narrative Driven Educational Games

International Journal of Game-Based Learning
Volume 8 • Issue 4 • October-December 2018
A Critical Review of the Effectiveness of

Narrative-Driven Digital Educational Games
Luke Conrad Jackson, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
Joanne O’Mara, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
Julianne Moss, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
Alun C. Jackson, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
ABSTRACT
Digital games are currently viewed, by many within the field of education, as a way to engage and
motivate students, and to assist them in acquiring content knowledge and skills. Despite the growing
interest in using digital games, including serious games, this is the first critical review of the literature
on the effectiveness of digital narrative-driven educational games. Of 2550 articles initially screened,
130 were synthesised in the final review. The results suggest that such games can be more much
more effective than traditional instruction for promoting attitude change, engagement, motivation,
and skill acquisition; slightly more effective in promoting enjoyment and knowledge acquisition; and
equal in fostering behaviour change. As such, they may be viewed as effective and versatile tools for
teaching and learning.
Keywords
E-Learning, Empathy, Media In Education, Multimedia/Hypermedia Systems, Narrative Immersion, Pedagogical
Issues, Simulations, Student Engagement, Virtual Reality
INTRODUCTION
At the turn of the 20th Century, Sigmund Freud (1908) noted that “The child’ s best-loved and most
intense occupation is with his play or games” (p. 421). For Bettelheim (1987), play permitted the child
“… to resolve in symbolic form unsolved problems of the past and to cope directly or symbolically
with present concerns. It is also his most significant tool for preparing himself for the future and its
tasks” (p. 170). Human beings play in structured and unstructured ways. Our earliest play is often
unstructured, with items found at hand, with rules improvised to promote fun and social cohesion.
In this way, we learn how the world works, and better understand our role in it (Brown, 2009).
Structured games have existed for millennia, during which time they have taken on many guises, from
the athletic games of the Ancient Greeks to board games, card games, children’s games, and – most
recently – digital games.
Such games, once maligned within classrooms for their perceived potential to encourage violent
behaviour (Anderson, 2004; Anderson & Bushman, 2002) and addiction (Griffiths, Davies, &
Chappell, 2004), are now viewed by many in a more favourable light. James Paul Gee, one of the
best known and most widely cited proponents digital educational game research, suggests that digital
games, when well-constructed, offer the player/learner information on demand, just in time, and
within a context that they care about (2003). Good games, he suggests, present problems in a logical
DOI: 10.4018/IJGBL.2018100103

Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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order, and allow the player to develop increasingly complex skills through an ascending process of
challenge and mastery, a process that he likens to the development of expertise in any domain. Gee
(2011) has written, also, about the role of narrative in commercial and educational games. He argues
that it is by walking in the shoes of the story’s central character that the player can develop empathy
as well as the ability to critically reflect upon their own behaviour in real life. In this process, such
games have the potential to encourage the player to explore, engage in personal meaning-making and
play with social boundaries (Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, & Gee, 2005).
Despite the rising number of studies that have sought to explore the effectiveness of digital
educational games, a large-scale review has not yet been undertaken to synthesise what is known
about the effectiveness of one of these games’ most potentially powerful facets: narrative. This review
seeks to address this gap in the literature.
Key Definitions
For the purposes of this review, a ‘game’ is defined as “… a system in which players engage in an
artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome” (Salen & Zimmerman,
2004, p. 83). A ‘digital educational game’ refers to a game produced for dissemination via a digital
device for the purpose of educating the player. For a game to be considered narrative-driven, it must
contain all six aspects of narrative as defined by Chatman (1980): events, character/s, setting/s,
structure, point of view, and time. ‘Effectiveness’, within this critical review, refers to the various
educational measures used by researchers as they attempt to discover whether a game has achieved
its desired educational outcome, be that the acquisition of knowledge and/or skills, and/or attitude
or behaviour change.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Many researchers and authors strongly believe in the potential of digital educational games to foster
knowledge transfer, skill acquisition, and attitude or behaviour change, while others have argued
for their effectiveness in term of engagement, motivation, and enjoyment over traditional curricula.
However, gaining a consensus on their effectiveness is difficult. Examining meta-analyses, systematic
and critical reviews of the scientific literature reveals a field in flux: publications are proliferating
quickly (Boyle et al., 2016), yet there are suggestions of publication bias (Sitzmann, 2011). The
application of different standards for study design and measurement continue to present problems
for those who wish to compare cases (All, Castellar, & Van Looy, 2013; Ke, 2009; Tobias, Fletcher,
Dai, & Wind, 2011; Young et al., 2012; Young, Slota, & Lai, 2012). These findings prompted All,
Castellar, and Van Looy to design a set of guidelines which, they hope, will be used to standardise
research on the effectiveness of digital games in future (All, Castellar, & Van Looy, 2016). Similarly,
Clark, Tanner-Smith, & Killingsworth (2016) have called for game researchers to provide “thicker
descriptions” of game-based interventions, to allow for more informed assessments to be made of
the effect of various game elements.
Games and Narrative

Abdul Jabbar & Felicia (2015) investigated the link between engagement and two separate variables:
role-play and narrative. A number of studies within their review suggested that role-play was an
effective way of achieving immersion in the game, and that by playing the role of another person
within the game students were better able to develop a sense of responsibility. Of the nine studies
which addressed the use of narrative, the majority found that narratives helped students to relate to
the situations and characters depicted in the game, which led to higher levels of understanding and the
motivation to complete a greater number of missions. They also referred to the potential for rnarrative
to grab and hold the player’s attention, increasing their engagement with the learning materials and
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making tasks seem less boring. Two studies within their review ran counter to these findings, by
suggesting that narrative did not contribute the students’ learning, or to their enjoyment of the games.
Clark, Tanner-Smith, & Killingsworth (2016) conducted a meta-analysis to investigate the
effectiveness of digital games on learning outcomes in game versus non-game conditions and using
augmented versus standard game designs. While they concluded that digital games significantly
enhanced learning within both comparison groups, their assessment of the value of narrative within
games was less positive. Their findings indicated that games with no story or thin story depth (only
setting, scenery, or context) had significantly larger effects relative to those with medium story depth
(involving some evolving story over the course of the game). However, they acknowledged that the
lack of games with thick story depth in their study (n=5) made it difficult to reliably judge such
games’ effectiveness. Perhaps surprisingly, the researchers also discovered that there was a significant
negative relationship between contextualisation (the use of immersive visual and narrative techniques)
and learning outcomes. While these results may at first seem discouraging for those who wish to
create more immersive games for learning, the researchers pointed out that no meta-analysis can
account for all possible design approaches or qualities of implementation, and suggested that future
research should not be limited to the highest-performing game characteristics identified within this
study. They singled out visual and narrative contextualisation in this regard, but reiterated that their
meta-analysis had identified some of the potential challenges for game designers.
To date, only one systematic review has been undertaken specifically investigating the
effectiveness of using storylines within digital learning materials. Elena Novak (2015) located more
than 70 articles, reports, dissertations, books, and conference presentations relating to the use of
storylines, narrative, fantasy, or story structure in such materials, and deemed 11 to be suitable for
synthesis. The studies included in the review were restricted to those containing both control and
experimental groups, and were selected from a period of approximately 35 years, with four of the
resources profiled being published between the early 1980s and the late 1990s. Within this relatively
small sample, Novak found mixed results for storyline-related instructional effectiveness, with a
number of studies suggesting that including a storyline either decreased or had no effect on learning,
while one experimental study with elementary students showed positive learning outcomes.
METHOD
This critical review is different from the systematic and critical reviews aforementioned because it
focuses entirely upon narrative-driven digital games, including primarily educational games, Serious
Games, COTS games and Simulations used for educational purposes. These games can be aimed at
any age, available via any delivery mode, in any genre, and which are designed to be played in any
context. However, this review differs from its predecessors in two other distinct ways.
Firstly, while the researchers acknowledge the value of future studies adopting the sort of rigorous,
scientific approach suggested by All, Nuñez Castellar and Van Looy (2016), this critical review has
been designed to include quantitative, qualitative and mixed method studies so long as they have
been peer-reviewed and report their findings clearly. The decision to adopt this approach was in
direct response to the search strategy adopted by some previous researchers, who have been highly
restrictive in the articles they would accept for inclusion. Because of this, they have been unable to
consider a number of studies where the findings – even if less scientifically rigorous in their design
or measurements – may nonetheless be of value for understanding why narrative-driven educational
games have, or have not, achieved their educational aims.
Secondly, the decision has been made in the present review not to impose a definition of
‘effectiveness’ upon the studies, but to allow the term to be defined by the original designers of each
study, in order to increase the sensitivity of the search for literature. In practical terms, this means
that a study is deemed ‘effective’ if it has achieved all of its educational aims, whatever they may
be. It is deemed to be ‘negative’ if none of these aims were achieved, or if – in the case of a study
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using a control condition – the game condition actually learned less than the control. It is considered
‘mixed’ if some but not all of the educational aims were achieved.
While many large-scale reviews have considered studies which aim to achieve one educational
outcome through the use of digital educational games (referred to, typically, as ‘knowledge
acquisition’), this review takes in studies that measure attitude change, behaviour change, engagement,
enjoyment, knowledge acquisition, motivation, skill acquisition, or ‘other’ (which usually refers to
affective states such as flow or curiosity, as well as traits such as identity formation). The importance
of this approach lies in the notion that reviews which consider only one of these dimensions are not
only going to find fewer studies to synthesise, but are likely to brand a study as ineffective in achieving
its educational aims when in fact it was partially effective. It is only by interrogating the data in this
granular fashion that one can begin to appreciate which aspects of education games are most readily
able to address, and which might remain a challenge.
A critical review methodology was selected to locate and analyse these studies because it is both
flexible and rigorous, while allowing for critical judgment to be exercised by the author. As Grant
and Booth (2009) explain:
A critical review provides an opportunity to ‘take stock’ and evaluate what is of value from the
previous body of work. It may also attempt to resolve competing schools of thought. As such, it may
provide a ‘launch pad’ for a new phase of conceptual development and subsequent ‘testing’. (p. 3)
In order to strengthen the findings, and allow for other studies to be reviewed over time, primary
sources were located and synthesised based upon the principles of the Preferred Reporting Items for
Critical Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Statement (Moher et al., 2009). This Statement aims
to standardise and encourage best-practice in systematic and meta-reviews by providing reviewers with
a clear and precise methodology for conducting reviews, including a checklist (Moher et al., 2009,
pp. 876-877). The principles of this procedure were adhered to when literature was collected and
reported on, with detailed descriptions provided on the search strategy used; inclusion and exclusion
criteria; and data extraction methods, all of which are illustrated by a Prisma Flow Diagram (Moher et
al., 2009, p. 877). The discussion is predominantly narrative in structure to allow for the explication
and comparison of results.
Search Strategy
For the initial screening process, inclusion criteria included quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method
research; studies conducted in the developed world in any educational setting; and studies reporting
the use of narrative-driven digital games for the purpose of education. Based upon these criteria, six
education and technology-related databases were searched, using the search terms ((narrat* OR stor*
OR fantasy) AND (digital OR computer OR video OR internet OR mobile OR app) AND (educat*
OR serious OR applied) AND game AND effect* NOT toy NOT “digital storytelling”). Limiters
included studies published in the English language, in scholarly (peer-reviewed) journals, from 2000-
2016. Ultimately, this process elicited a total of 2,502 articles. Other sources of potentially relevant
studies were reviewed for inclusion, including five of the top 25 highest-impact Education, Social
Science, Computer Science, and Computer-human Interaction-related journals for 2014, as defined
by SCImago Journal & Country Rank, a portal that includes the journals and country scientific
indicators developed from the information contained in the Scopus® database (Elsevier B.V.). These
publications, which had an h-index of between 35 and 93, were hand-searched. The combined total of
articles located by this process was 2694. After this initial search phase was complete, all references
were exported into an EndNote library, where 144 duplicates were eliminated. This yielded 2550
articles to be retained for screening using Covidence, a web-based software platform designed to
streamline the production of systematic reviews.
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Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The title and abstract of each article uploaded to Covidence was read to assess whether it met the criteria
for inclusion. A paper was excluded if it reported on educational games that were not digital, such
paper-based or board games, or on game-like experiences that were not games, including simulations
or transmedia campaigns that did not incorporate a game. Similarly, a study was excluded if it sought
to measure the effectiveness of games in which only limited aspects of narrative were present, such
as character and/or setting. A study was excluded if it attempted to measure the effectiveness not
of the game as whole but of a particular mechanic (such as the use of ‘narrative agents’) or social
dynamic (single-player versus multiplayer) on a particular game. In such studies, ‘effectiveness’ is
often measured not against a control group who has not played the game, but against other players
playing the same game under different conditions, meaning that the label of ‘effective’ is relative,
and therefore relevant, only to that study.
After the titles and abstracts of 2550 references were screened, 2282 were deemed irrelevant, while
268 were deemed suitable for further examination. After examining the full text of these references,
130 were found to meet the inclusion criteria, while 138 were excluded with reasons recorded.
Data Extraction
The resulting data were grouped into a single table (can be found at the following webpage: http://
www.lukecjackson.com/s/Review-of-Effectiveness_Appendix.docx), that was designed to outline
the process by which a game’s effectiveness was tested. This table contains the following categories:
Authors; Country of Origin; Game Purpose; Mode of delivery; Context for Play; Players per Game;
Game Genre; Subject Area/s; and Overall Outcome. It also contains Educational Outcomes, including
Attitude Change, Behaviour Change, Engagement, Enjoyment, Knowledge Acquisition, Motivation,
Skill Acquisition, and Other; Participant age; Number of participants; Duration of Intervention;
Method; and Results.
Data Analysis
This critical review was designed to answer the question, “How effective are narrative-driven, digital
educational games in achieving their educational aims?” In order to fully address this central question,
it has been necessary to investigate a number of sub-questions, which form the basis of the Results
and Discussion section.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Understanding the Effectiveness of Game Play Elements

In order to appreciate the relative effectiveness of the various elements that may influence gameplay
and/or learning, the 130 studies included in this critical review have been categorised by a range of
features that apply to all games, and each of these has been considered individually. Where possible,
brief descriptions of specific game studies which describe the use of such games have been included
for illustrative purposes.
How Many Games Were Effective in Achieving Their Educational Aims?

The results of this critical review show, first and foremost, the high proportion of the 130 studies
which have demonstrated positive or mixed results for the effectiveness of using narrative-driven,
digital games in an attempt to achieve their educational aims (62.3% and 33.8% respectively); this
is compared to only 2.3% of studies in which none of the study’s educational goals were achieved,
and 1.5% of studies in which there was no difference between the results of students playing games
and a control group. It should be noted that, in the majority of cases where a study achieved mixed
results, the researchers did not find an improvement in one area, such as knowledge acquisition, but
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Figure 1. Effectiveness of Narrative-Driven Digital Games
noted gains in other areas, particularly engagement, motivation, and enjoyment. The only exception
was where there were inconsistent results within a single educational outcome when, for instance, the
same study had been undertaken using two games, or two classes of students. The total proportion
of studies listed under each category of effectiveness are shown in Figure 1.
What Type of Studies Have Been Conducted to Investigate

the Effectiveness of These Games?
The methodological and demographic composition of the studies contained in this review represent a
broad spectrum, from rigorous randomised control trials to small-scale interventions with qualitative
analyses of student and teacher data. This reflects the concern, noted in previous reviews into the
effectiveness of games, that there is a lack of homogeneity in the methods employed in measuring
effectiveness (All et al., 2013; Boyle et al., 2012; T. M. Connolly et al., 2012; Jabbar & Felicia, 2015).
The studies selected for synthesis were undertaken by researchers from 28 countries working alone
or in partnership, with five countries accounting for most of the studies compiled for this review.
These are the United States, with American researchers contributing to 51 (or 39.2%) of the total;
Taiwan, who contributed to 16 studies (or 12.3% of the total); and Spain, the Netherlands, and Great
Britain, who contributed to 9, 8, and 7 studies respectively. The dominance in this area of inquiry
by the United States is in keeping with the findings of previous research into the broader area of
effectiveness of digital games (Boyle et al., 2016). Interestingly, of the 130 studies of narrative-driven
digital educational games covered in this review, 64 were undertaken by teams that included game
designers, while only two acknowledged the inclusion of a dedicated writer.
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Effectiveness by Design Purpose

One of the remarkable aspects about the games utilised for these studies of effectiveness was the
high proportion of games whose primary focus is educational (94.6%) compared with Commercial
Off-The-Shelf (COTS) games (4.6%). While COTS games made up a small section of the results, 4
of the 6 studies involving COTS games deemed these games to have been effective in achieving all
of their educational aims, as was the one study to cover both COTS and Educational games. While
these numbers are small, they seem to offer at least tentative support for previous claims that COTS
games can be used effectively in an educational setting (Connolly, et al., 2012; Boyle et al., 2016).
Effectiveness by Subject Area

Reviewing effectiveness by subject area is something that researchers have called for in recent years
(Wouters et al., 2013). The subject areas most often targeted by these interventions were Science
(n=34), Mathematics (n=22), and Work Readiness (n=10). According to the selected articles, they
were effective in 70.6%, 68.2% and 60% of cases respectively. A group of subjects associated with
the Language Arts, including English Language, Literacy, Reading, Vocabulary, and Writing, were
addressed by 20% of the studies selected for synthesis (n=26). They were deemed to have been
effective in a combined 69.2% of cases. These findings, and others, are illustrated in Figure 2.
Effectiveness by Target Age Group

The largest ‘target audiences’ for these studies were players of secondary school age (n=48) and
primary school age (n=38), followed by ‘tertiary’ and ‘mixed ages’ (n=20 and n=18respectively).
Of these four major cohorts, games were found to be least effective with tertiary participants, with
only 45% of studies concluding that games had met all of their educational objectives. Within the
other three cohorts, at least 50% of studies were judged to show that games had been effective for
participants, with studies focusing on primary and secondary school-aged participants the most
favourable (73.7% and 64.6% respectively).
Effectiveness by Genre
Previous research into the effectiveness of both educational and COTS games on students aged 14 or
older has revealed a lack of variation in the game genres used, with most studies focusing on either
simulations or puzzles. These authors have recommended, therefore, that games of different genres
be tested in order to assess their level of success in achieving learning outcomes (T. M. Connolly
et al., 2012). Within the current review, 31 genres (including some hybrids) and categories were
identified. In many cases, the genre had been noted by the authors of the original study; where this
was not the case, the most likely genre was assigned by the authors of this review, based upon the
perceived alignment between the game (as described) and genre hallmarks. It should be noted that,
rather than offering a definitive categorisation, game genres are often fluid, their boundaries blurred
or even contested, making genre selection a fraught process (Apperley, 2006).
The game genre most heavily represented within this selection of studies was the Role-Playing
Game, or RPG, with a total of 21.5%, made up of ‘straight’ RPGs plus RPGs with other elements
such as mystery and strategy, as well as puzzle-based RPGs and Massively Multiplayer Online RPGs,
or MMORPGs. Together, these were deemed to have been effective in a combined total of 71.4%
of cases in which they were tested. Of these sub-categories, RPGs involving mystery (n=6) and
Puzzle-RPGs (n=3) were deemed to have been 100% effective. The second most cited game genre
was Puzzles (including puzzle-based hybrids), which accounted for 19.2% of the total number. They
were also ranked in the middle of three most often cited genres in terms of effectiveness, with 64% of
these games deemed entirely effective. Simulations, which tended to relate mostly to health or work
preparedness, were the third most studied game genre within this cohort at 16.9% of the total, of which
54.5% were deemed to have been completely effective. These findings are illustrated in Figure 3.
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Figure 2. Effectiveness by Subject Area
Effectiveness by Mode of Delivery

By far the most frequently used technology for delivering digital games was a computer, with 70.8%
(n=92) of all games accessed in this way. Games accessed via computer may be played on a desktop
or laptop, PC or Macintosh, and may be pre-loaded onto the system or network, or be accessed over
the internet via a browser. Perhaps it is not surprising that, with such a high percentage of the games
delivered in this mode, the percentage of games deemed to have been ‘effective’, ‘mixed’, ‘negative’,
or to have made ‘no difference’ on computer (68.5%, 27.2%, 3.3%, and 1.1% respectively) closely
correlates with the totals for all games.
The second most frequently used mode of delivery was mobile application (or ‘app’), which
constituted 6.9% of the total (n=9), only 55.6% of which were deemed to have achieved all of
their educational aims. All of these studies were published after 2010, which indicates that mobile
applications are still an emerging trend in educational games research. Their success rate was lower
than the related category of Augmented Reality Games (8.5% of the total), which were deemed
effective in 63.6% of cases, with the remainder achieving mixed results.
Effectiveness by Context for Play

Perhaps not surprisingly, given the high proportion of games created specifically for educational
purposes, 108 (or 83.1%) of the games reported on within these studies were primarily tested in a school
or institutional setting, such as a classrooms, school library, computer laboratory, or a combination
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Figure 3. Effectiveness by Genre
of locations. Of these games, 64.8% achieved all of their educational aims, 30.6% showed mixed
results, 2.8% achieved none of their educational aims, and 1.9% were no different to the control group
against which they were measured. The high proportion of games tested within educational settings
is understandable, given the practical considerations associated with monitoring and measuring play
that goes on outside the classroom. This may account for the relatively small number of studies in
which students played entirely at home (n=5). Games designed to be played in a specific location,
such as on a city street or in a meeting, made up 11.5% of the total (n=15), with the percentage
deemed entirely effective in just 46.7% of cases, while the majority (53.3%) achieved mixed results.
Effectiveness by Players Per Game

The majority of games tested within the selected studies were single player games (n=76), followed
by multiplayer games (n=22), then games designed to be played in groups of two or more (n=21),
with a small number of games offering both single player and multiplayer ‘modes’ (n=6). Findings
suggest that multiplayer games can be even more effective than single player ‘campaigns’ in achieving
the desired educational outcomes (77.3% compared with 64.5%). While games aimed at groups must
be played ‘on site’, so that players can be in close physical proximity, this is not necessarily the case
for multiplayer games, many of which can be played via a network or the internet, making it possible
for learners to play the game whether they are at an educational institution, at home, or - if they are
rolled out to various industries – presumably at separate workstations on the job. However, some
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caution must be exercised when viewing the results of these data. In many cases, the intended number
of players for the game may have differed from the actual number of players, due to local factors
which affected implementation. Similar issues were noted in other studies, where students might
play the game independently, but then share information or strategise about how to solve in-game
tasks outside of the game (Liao, Chen, Cheng, Chen, & Chan, 2011; Lim, 2008), making it difficult
to ascertain exactly how much of the positive or negative influence of the game could be attributed
to in-game, rather than environmental, factors.
Effectiveness by Educational Outcome/s

It was common for studies within this data set to measure more than one educational outcome. Because
of this, it was possible for a study to show little or even negative change in one educational outcome
while demonstrating significant gains (either as commonly referred to or statistically-speaking)
in another. The 130 studies examined within this critical review set out to measure, quantitatively
and/or qualitatively, a total of 287 educational outcomes, including ‘Attitude Change’, ‘Behaviour
Change’, ‘Engagement’, ‘Enjoyment’, ‘Knowledge Acquisition’, ‘Motivation’, ‘Skill Acquisition’, and
‘Other’. It is by understanding the measure of achievement on these learning outcomes that one can
fully appreciate the potential for narrative-driven digital educational games in the classroom. Of the
287 educational outcomes measured within these studies, 224 were deemed to have been effective,
35 mixed, 7 negative, while there were 21 instances in which an educational outcome was deemed
to have been equal to, but no more effective than, the results of a control group. These results are
illustrated in Figure 4.
Given that the vast majority of games included in these studies were aligned with a set curriculum,
it seems logical that the most often tested educational outcome was Knowledge Acquisition, which
was tested in 113 (or 86.9%) of studies. Within these studies, the researchers’ goals for Knowledge
Acquisition were achieved in 79 (or 69.9%) of cases. The next most studied outcome was Engagement,
which was examined in 43 (33.1%) of studies, and was deemed to be effective in 38 (88.4%) of cases.
Motivation was the next most measured outcome, featuring in 34 (or 26.2%) of studies, where it was
demonstrated to have been effective 88.2% of the time. This was closely followed by Skill Acquisition,
which was measured in 33 (or 25.4%) of studies, and was shown to be the most effective of all
educational outcomes at 90.9%. Despite the very high ratings for both Engagement and Motivation,
‘Enjoyment’ (which was measured in 14.6% or 19 studies) was only deemed to have been effective in
68.4% of cases. By contrast, while Attitude Change was only measured in 11.5% of studies (n=15),
it had an effectiveness rating of 86.7%.
The least effective educational outcome, according to the studies in which it was measured
(n=4), was Behaviour Change, which had just a 50% success rate. Gordon and Schirra (2011) used
an RPG at a master planning meeting in Boston’s Chinatown neighbourhood in an attempt to promote
understanding of local issues and community engagement. They observed that, “While playing a
character clearly made an impression on players … it did not translate to an immediate, rational
reframing of the issues within the meeting itself”, and suggested that “role-play, within the magic
circle, is quite effective in altering decisions that get made only within the magic circle. Outside,
different rules apply” (pp. 184-185).
Limitations of the Review

While every attempt has made to be comprehensive in the location and synthesis of relevant research,
the researchers do not claim that this review is exhaustive. It summarises the research on narrative-
driven digital educational games based upon the search terms used, the databases included, and the
time period of the review.
Each study included in this critical review has been reported on using its ‘own terms’ for
assessing effectiveness. While the researchers believe that this has maintained the integrity of the
studies’ original findings, it is important to acknowledge that results can only be descriptive, since
no meta-analysis of the includes studies’ findings is possible.
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Figure 4. Effectiveness by Educational Outcome/s
Although every effort was made, during each screening phase, to include all relevant interventions,
if the study’s authors did not provide enough detail about the game to decide whether it met the
inclusion criteria, the researchers removed the article rather than allowing its results to erroneously
influence the findings. In order to attempt to include as many suitable interventions as possible,
before dismissing a potentially relevant intervention, the researchers visited publicly-accessible web
pages to assess whether the game was, indeed, both educational and narrative-driven. This approach
has ensured that every study that made it into the synthesis reported on an intervention in which the
effectiveness of a narrative-driven educational game was assessed.
Previous studies have noted that educational game- and simulation-related literature suffers
from some publication bias (Sitzmann, 2011). Studies have been selected for review based upon
stringent criteria previously outlined, but the researchers acknowledge that, if not for this bias, a
higher proportion of less effective studies may have been included in a review, and the results may
therefore have looked different.
CONCLUSION
The majority of studies included in this review suggest that narrative-driven, digital educational games
are at least partially effective in most cases, with 62.3% of studies reporting that the game/s they tested
met all of their intended educational outcomes, and a further 33.8% suggesting that games achieved
at least some of their intended outcomes. The number of studies that reported negative findings (in
which the game condition performed worse than a control group) was 2.3% of the total; while 1.5%
of studies reported on games that showed no effect beyond that experienced by a control group.
These findings are more positive than those of Ke (2009), who determined 52.3% of studies were
effective, 26.2% were mixed, 1.5% were negative, and 18.5% showed no difference above the control
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condition. The two biggest differences between the current review and Ke’s qualitative meta-analysis
are in the number of studies determined to be ‘effective’ and to have shown ‘no difference’ from the
control. This is accounted for by the decision, in the current review, to accept, as ‘effective’, any study
reporting positive results that exceed those of the control group, even if the level of achievement is
not statistically significant, in order to allow for a wider range of studies, and results, to be evaluated.
Based upon the findings of this review, it appears that the effectiveness of narrative-driven
digital educational games is not limited to games targeting a specific subject area, learning outcome,
or target age group; to games made in a specific genre, for a particular mode of delivery or context
for play; or to games involving a particular number of players. Nor does success seem to rely upon
games being designed specifically for the purpose of education or – on the other hand – specifically
for entertainment. In short, these findings demonstrate not only the educational effectiveness of
narrative-driven, digital educational games, but their versatility as tools for teaching and learning.
These assertions are in keeping with those of Vogel et. al (2006), who suggested that interactive
games and/or simulations can lead not only to higher levels of knowledge acquisition, but to better
attitudes towards learning, regardless of the gender or age of the player or whether players played
the games on their own or with others.
The high level of effectiveness of games for motivation, at 88.2% of the 34 games in which it was
tested, stands in stark contrast to the findings of Wouters, Van Nimwegen, Van Oostendorp, & Van
Der Spek (2013), whose meta-analysis suggested that serious games were more effective for learning
and retention, but less motivating, than conventional instructional methods. However, while some
games within this review, such as those targeting attitude and behaviour change, might constitute
‘serious games’, many others would not, making the findings difficult to compare.
A key difference between this review and many of those that have preceded it is that, while there
can be a temptation to suggest that a game is either effective or ineffective, almost one third of studies
achieved mixed results. It is only by examining these results in detail that a more complete picture
can be gained of what works, and what does not, in developing narrative-driven, digital educational
games. These results demonstrate that, even when the researchers did not find the expected level of
improvement in one area, such as Knowledge Acquisition, these were contradicted by other positive
findings, particularly in the areas of Skill Acquisition, Engagement, and Motivation. In the case of
location-based games, for example, while they were deemed to have been entirely effective just 46.7%
of the time, closer examination reveals these games were highly engaging and motivating for players.
In the studies in which they were tested, engagement and motivation achieved effectiveness ratings
of 100% (6 of 6 studies) and 88.9% (8 of 9 studies) respectively.
Many of the most effective games referred to within the studies that form this critical review
share some key features that can be informative for those who seek to design such games or to select
suitable games for their own students to play. Firstly, players within these games are able to embody
an authentic role, which assists them to view themselves, and each other, as more than just ‘students’
(Chee, 2010; Chee & Tan, 2012; Nash & Shaffer, 2011; Romero-Hall, Watson, Adcock, Bliss, &
Adams Tufts, 2016). In an extension of this phenomenon, the role of ‘player as tutor’ has also been
explored with success, as participants are required to offer their content-related expertise in order to
assist (Marsh et al., 2011) or even nurture their in-game companions (Liao et al., 2011).
Secondly, many effective games allow for, and encourage, communication between players, either
during play, as with multiplayer or team games, or in class-based reflection sessions afterwards. This
interaction with other participants provides players with a way of consolidating subject knowledge
and fostering skills such as problem-solving and critical thinking (Thomas M. Connolly, Stansfield,
& Hainey, 2011; Shih, Shih, Shih, Su, & Chuang, 2010; Squire & Jan, 2007). These findings are
consistent with those of Papastergiou (2009), whose critical review of the empirical evidence on the
use of games in health and physical education revealed that such games have the potential to foster
collaboration and teamwork both in the local and global contexts. In a study of one such game,
Alien Contact! (Dunleavy, Dede, & Mitchell, 2009), researchers designed a “jigsaw pedagogy” in
43
which players worked in teams of four to investigate the reasons behind an alien landing. As they
scoured a location with handheld devices at the ready, each player took on a different role (Chemist,
Cryptologist, Computer Hacker, or FBI Agent), and received different pieces of the puzzle, which
would only make sense when shared with their teammates. Not only was this engaging for students,
but it led to a deeper appreciation of their teammates, as observed by their teacher:
They all took on an identity. They all felt strong ownership that they were an expert at this…and
if they didn’t have roles they may not have been as eager to work together because they really did
need each person. (Dunleavy et al., 2009, p. 15)
In terms of the narrative elements that might be utilised to create effective games, the findings
from this review are quite illuminating. Rieber (1996) called for educational games to employ
‘endogenous’ rather than ‘exogenous’ fantasy elements. This is supported by studies included in
this critical review, which suggest that the drama must be intertwined with, and dependent upon,
the learning tasks (Ke, 2008; ter Vrugte et al., 2015). When narrative, game mechanics and learning
are completely balanced, the player may not even be aware that they are playing a game designed
for learning (Marsh et al., 2011). As the creators and researchers of one such game, Quest Atlantis,
have pointed out, “Possibly due to the immersive simulation context (perceptual immersion) or to the
compelling nature of the story (narrative immersion), literally all students appeared to be engaged,
with actual shouts of glee occurring when the teacher announced that it was time to work …” (Barab,
Sadler, Heiselt, Hickey, & Zuiker, 2007, p. 68).
It seems clear that games would be more likely to keep the player interested by placing the learning
in a context which is meaningful and engaging (Barab, Pettyjohn, Gresalfi, Volk, & Solomou, 2012;
Rubino, Barberis, Xhembulla, & Malnati, 2015). This has been achieved in a number of cases by
adhering to the traditional ‘Hero’s Journey’ (Dickey, 2006; Lopez-Arcos, Padilla-Zea, Paderewski,
Gutierrez, & Abad-Arranz, 2014), while others have stressed the importance of making the dramatic
stakes of the player’s actions clear. Barab et al. (2012) suggest that these stakes have the potential
not only to engage the player’s interest, but to subvert some of the traditional expectations of what
constitutes authentic learning within the contemporary classroom. After introducing Secondary School
students to a game-based intervention with a focus on the ethics of medical research, they concluded
that “… It might be argued that the fictional consequentiality afforded by the game play was more
‘real’ in terms of legitimizing the content and the student than was the real-world potential of doing
better on a future test” (p. 531). Similarly, Tüzün, Yılmaz-Soylu, Karakuş, İnal, & Kızılkaya (2009)
noted that fourth and fifth graders playing such a game, which was designed to teach them about
Geography, demonstrated not only higher levels of knowledge acquisition, but achieved statistically
significant increases in intrinsic motivation and decreases in extrinsic motivation after play, which
translated into less focus on grades as the sole marker of success.
Finally, the findings of this review have reinforced the importance, for players, of having an
emotional connection with the game, allowing them to develop a sense of empathy, which is the key
to fostering critical reflection (Gee, 2011) as well as a range of other learning outcomes, including
knowledge and skill acquisition, engagement, enjoyment, motivation, immersion and identification.
All of these have been shown to increase when the player has someone to care about, whether that
someone is the point-of-view character (Chee, Tan, & Liu, 2010; Lopez-Arcos et al., 2014; Nash
& Shaffer, 2011); another player’s avatar in a multiplayer game (San Chee & Tan, 2012; Zheng,
Young, Wagner, & Brewer, 2009); another person whom the player can talk to, in the real world,
face-to-face during gameplay (Facer et al., 2004; Gordon & Schirra, 2011); or a suitably sympathetic
Non-Playing Character (Christopoulos, Mavridis, Andreadis, & Karigiannis, 2011; Romero-Hall et
al., 2016; Tice et al., 2009).
Suggestions for Further Research

The researchers would join with All, Castellar, and Van Looy (2013) in recommending that ‘best
practices’ be adopted for the design and reporting of future research into the effectiveness of DGBL.
44
In the case of studies reporting on the use of narrative-driven games, we would recommend that
‘best practice’ should allow researchers to isolate particular narrative elements, such as character or
setting, in order to measure their effect upon learning outcomes. In order to adequately investigate
the effect of individual elements, it may be necessary to look beyond a single dimension of learning,
such as ‘knowledge acquisition’, and investigate the way that a particular narrative element, such as
a ‘character’, affects the player’s performance in relation to a range of educational outcomes.
Very few of the games synthesised for this review report on behaviour change as a measure of
effectiveness (n=4). Of those instances where behaviour change was measured it was found to be
effective in two cases, mixed in one case, and to have made no difference in the other. With such
small numbers, it is difficult to make any definitive statement about what whether narrative-driven
digital educational games are an effective approach to teach behaviour change. This is an area that
should be explored further. Given the inherent difficulties noted by Gordon and Schirra (2011)
between translating attitude change within a game to behaviour change outside the ‘magic circle’, it
would seem that such games – if they were to be developed - should focus on behaviour change not in
isolation, but as the final step in a continuum. This continuum, it would seem, should move the player
from a state of engagement and enjoyment, through knowledge and skill acquisition, to motivation
and attitude change, before ideally arriving at the desired change in behaviour. Narrative elements
should work to reinforce the educational aims of the game by engaging the player’s interest, effectively
structuring their experience, and allowing them to empathise with others as they take on new roles.
45
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48
Luke Conrad Jackson is a writer of novels, games and other media, a teacher, and a researcher. His research
explores the nexus of narrative, education, and technology.
Joanne O’Mara is located in Language, Literature and Literacy Education at Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia.
Her research and scholarship focuses on emergent literacies and new textual practices; digital games; drama
pedagogy; and the spatial, social and temporal dimensions of teachers’ work.
Alun C. Jackson is an Honorary Professorial Fellow, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Honorary Professor, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia; Honorary
Professor, Centre on Behavioural Health, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; and Director, Australian
Centre for Heart Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
49

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International Journal of Game-Based Learning

Volume 8 • Issue 4 • October-December 2018

A Critical Review of the Effectiveness of

Games and Narrative

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Understanding the Effectiveness of Game Play Elements

How Many Games Were Effective in Achieving Their Educational Aims?

Figure 1. Effectiveness of Narrative-Driven Digital Games

What Type of Studies Have Been Conducted to Investigate

Effectiveness by Design Purpose

Effectiveness by Subject Area

Effectiveness by Target Age Group

Figure 2. Effectiveness by Subject Area

Effectiveness by Mode of Delivery

Effectiveness by Context for Play

Figure 3. Effectiveness by Genre

Effectiveness by Players Per Game

Effectiveness by Educational Outcome/s

Limitations of the Review

Figure 4. Effectiveness by Educational Outcome/s

Suggestions for Further Research

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