Gas Turbine

14
Gas Turbine Power Plants
14·1. Introduction
The gas turbine in its simplest form is a heat engine operating
by means of a series of processes consisting of compression of
air drawn from the atmosphere, increase of air temperature by
the combustion of fuel in the air, expansion of hot gases to
atmosphere, the who"le being a continuous flow process. It is
thus similar to gasoline and diesel engines in its working medium
and internal combustion, but is akin to the steam turbine in its
aspect of the steady flow of the working medium. The compression
and expansion processes are carried out in turbomachines, that
is by means of rotating elements in which the energy transfer
between fluid and rotor is effected by means of kinetic action,
rather than by positive displacement as in reciprocating
machinery. Thus in its simplest form a gas turbine consists of a
compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine unit. Air
which acts as a working fluid is compressed in the compressor and
energy is added to it in the combustion chamber. The high energy
fluid is then expands in the turbine and thus mechanical energy
is produced. Part of this energy is used up in driving the compressor,
which is usually mounted on the same shaft as that of turbine,
and rest of the energy may be utilised for various purposes.
Since the compressor is coupled with the turbine shaft, the come
pressor absorbs some of power produced, by the turbine and
hence lowers the efficiency. The network is therefore the difference
between the turbine work and work required by the compressor to
drive it.
The gas turbine prime mover was first used in 1939 for large
central station service. Since then several stations have been
built with gas turbines to drive electric generators. Gas turbine
generators have been built and electrical outputs upto 100 MW.
In some situations gas turbines are the cheapest type of plants
available. These situations are when they are used as intermittent
or peak load plants in combination with the base load plants.
These are particularly useful and economical when the amount
of energy required is a small part of the total energy to be supplied
by the whole system and the lcpad factor of the plant is less
GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS 589
than 15%. In a large system the size of the gas turbine plants
normally employed varies from 10 to 30 MW.
These plants are cheaper in capital cost compared with
steam stations of the same size. Also the fixed charges of these
plants are comparatively lower than those for steam plants.
The thermal efficiency of gas turbine plants is however lower
compared to that of condensing steam 'plants (20 to 25% compared
to 25 to 30%). No doubt a lower thermal efficiency results in
increased fuel costs at low load factors, but this is compensated by
lower fixed charges as well as lower operating and maintenance
charges.
A gas turbine plant has the advantage of high reliability,
flexibility, low start up time and less space requirements. They are
ideally suitable as peak load plants. At some places they are also
used as base load plants.
In India the 70 MW gas turbine plant at Namrup in Assam
works as base load plant with natural gas as fuel. Uran-Gas turbine
power plant in Maharastra is the second power plant established in
the country.
14·2.Application of gas Turbine Plants

Gas turbine plants have the following applications:
1. To drive generators and supply peak loads to steam, diesel
or hydro plants.
2. To work as combination plants.
3. To supply mechanical drive for auxiliaries.
These plants are suited for peak load purposes as already
mentioned because their fuel costs are some what higher while their
initial costs are low when these plants are used with conventional
boilers they may be used for
(a) supercharging or
(b) heat recovery from exhaust gases.
In supercharging system air is supplied to the boilers under
pressure by a compressor mounted on the common shaft with turbine
and gases formed as a result of combustion after coming out of the
boiler; work in the gas turbine before passing through the economiser
and exhausting through the chimney. The turbine drives the
compressor and also generators, producing some additional power
for the station.
590 POWER PLANT TECHNOLOGY
In the exhaust heat recovery cycle the gas turbine plant is

fitted with usual combustor and gets the gas supply from the
combustor. The gases after expanding in the turbine enter the boiler
and transfer part of the heat, to the boiler tubes.
In the supercharging system heat transfer in the boiler increases
by about 7 to 8%, while in the exhaust heat recovery cycle the heat
rates are improved by about 4 to 5%. Also in the later case no
mechanical draught is required because due to pressure of exhaust
gases the furnace is under positive pressure.
The gas turbine is widely used in air craft. There are many
installations in ships as propulsion unit. Attempts are also being
made to develop it as an engine for automobile use. There is a wide
range of industrial applications ranging from petro-chemical, thermal
process industries to generate utility industries.
14·3. Types of Gas Turbine Plants

On the basis of combustion process the gas turbine may be
classified as follows:
1. Continuous combustion of constant pressure type, the cycle
working on this principle is called Joule or Brayton cycle.
\
2. The explosion or constant volume cycle; the cycle working
on this principle is called Atkinson cycle.
Another classification based on the path of the working ~1Jbstance,
it is classified as :
(i) Open cycle gas turbine in which working fluid enters
from atmosphere and exhausts to atmosphere. The working
substance air first is compressed in the compressor, and after
compression, its temperature is raised by burning fuel in it.
The products of combustion along with the excess air are
passed through the turbine, developing power and then exhausted
into the atmosphere. For next cycle, fresh air is taken in the
compressor.
(ii) Closed cycle gas turbine, in which working fluid is confined
within the plant. The air is heated in an air heater (refer Fig. 14·3·1
(b) by burning fuel externally. The working air does not come in
contact with the products of combustion.'The hot air expands in the
turbine and then cooled in a precooler and supplied back to the
compressor. The same working fluid circulates over and again in
the system.
Combustion chamber
Compressor
Air inta~e Gases.

out
(a) Open cycle.

-'-
FUE L
c.c.
Compressor Gas turbine
Heat exchanger
Fig. 14·3·1. Schematic diagram of open cycle and

closed cycle gas turbines.
Gas turbine power plants can be anyone of the following

type.
(a) Simple cycle Gas turbine power plant.
(b) Combined cycle Gas turbine power plant.
(c) Co-generation Gas turbine power plant.
(a) Simple cycle Gas turbine power plant. It is based on
Brayton cycle as stated above in which air is compressed to a higher
pressure with the help of compressor and temperature of air firing
fuel in the combustion chamber before expanding in the turbine.
The difference between work output in expansion process and tl:1e
work input in compression process is the net oqtput of Gas turbine
.which will be converted into electricity.
(b) Combined cycle Gas turbine Power plant. This type

of power plant is combination of simple Brayton cycle gas turbine
and Rankine steam cycle as bottoming cycle. Exhaust gases from
Gas turbine whose temperature is of the order of 550°C are led the
heat recovery steam generator to generate steam which in turn
drives steam turbine producing additional power. This cycle derives
the advantage of higher temperature achieved in Brayton cycle and
lower heat rejection (sink) temperature of Rankine cycle. Gross
efficiency of the order of 47% can be achieved in such combined
cycle power plant which is higher that super critical pressure
conventional power plant.
(c) Co-generation Gas turbine power plant: These power
plants are similar to combinedcyclepower plants; the basic difference
being that the steam generated in the heat recovery steam generator
by the gas turbine exhaust gases is used for process application
either fully or partially instead of generating electricity only.
14.4. Open and Closed Cycle Gas Turbine
(1) Open Cycle Gas Turbine. The arrangement that has
proved most successful in the continuous combustion or constant
pressure gas turbine which is described as follows:
A simple open cycle gas turbine plant consists of the turbine
itself, a compressor mounted on the shaft or coupled to the turbine,
the combustor, and auxiliaries, such as starting device, auxiliary
lubrication system, fuel system, the dust system etc. A modified
plant may have in addition to the above, an intercooler, a regenerator
and a reheater. The arrangement of a simple gas turbine plant is
shown in Fig. 14·4·1.
Com bustion
Fuel
"
/chamber
3
Power
output
Air from
atmosphere Exhaust gas to
atmosphere
(a) Schematic diagram of gas turbine cycle.
(;AS TURBINE POWER PLANTS 593
2
p
i
4
Constant pressure
heat rejection
--- "\r
\
I
~
r-Turbine
work
-----'il,-=- 'ill.,
(b)
4
P.V. diagram.
\ \
3
f,t
\ \
\~';;;;,o~
cp --- ••
(e) T-4J diagram.
}<'ig.14·4·1. Open cycle gas turbine.
It will be noted that the essential components are three in

number, namely, air compressor, a combustion chamber (combustor)
and a turbine. The method of operation is as follows:
Air enters the air compressor in which it is compressed, through
a pressure compression ratio of some 4 or 6 : 1. There are some
installations in which the pressure compression ratio is as high as
10 : 1 or even 18 : 1, although these llre not common. The quantity
of the working fluid and speed required are more, so generally, a
centrifugal ,or an axial compressor is employed.
Centrifugal compressors are often used in small gas turbines.
An axial-flow compressor consists of sets of moving and fixed blades,
resembling a turbine in reverse. In traversing the passages between
the blades, the kinetic (motion) energy of the gas imparted by the
rotation is changed into pressure (internal) energy (i.e. the pressure
of the gas is increased). In the centrifugal compressor, air taken in
near the shaft of a rotating impeller blade is accelerated outward by

centrifugal force. At the periphery, the high-speed air enters a diffuser,
that is, a nozzle designed to convert kinetic energy into pressure
energy.
The compressed air is passed from the air compressor into the
combustion chamber through a duct. If there are several combustion
chambers then the take off volute from the air compressor will have
ducts feeding the combustion chamber equispaced around it. In the
combustion chamber fuel, which is usually a fuel oil, such as gas oil
or kerosene is sprayed inform a burner and is burnt continuously.
Thus the air passing through the combustion chamber has its
temperature and volume increased while its pressure remains
constant. Due to combustion, heat is added to the working fluid
from T2 to T3. The product of combustion from the combustion chamber
are expanded in the turbine from P3 to atmosphere.
It will be noted upon inspecting Fig. 14·4·1 (a) that the turbine
is coupled back to the air compressor by a coupling shaft. On the
other side of tl1e turbine there is a coupling by means of which the
turbine can be coupled to drive some external equipment. From this
it will be observed that, in this case part of the turbine output is
used to drive the air compressor and it is the net output which
appears for driving external equipment.
Due to continuous combustion which occurs in the combustion
chamber, steps are taken to ensure that temperatures do not become
too high. This is usually dealt with by supplying considerable excess
air above the required for complete combustion. A special shroud is
usually built round the burner in order to meter the air to the
combustion space. This ensures that there is good burning of the
fuel and that further air is fixed with the very hot combustion
products further down to the combustion chamber. This brings the
final combustion product temperature down to something workable
before entry to the turbine. The mass (or weight) of air supplied to
the compressor is three to four times the amount required theoretically
for complete combustion (about 50 to 60 parts by weight of air to
one part of fuel). The excess air mixes with the very hot combustion
products and moderates the temperature of the gas somewhat, thus
protecting both the combustor and the turbine blades from damage.
The turbine illustrated in Fig. 14·4·1 (a) is arranged to develop
shaft power. This being the case, the turbine would be designed to
extract as much energy from the combustion products as possible
before they are passed to exhaust.
On the other hand, the gas turbine has a very wide use as ajet
propulsion unit for air craft. The basic element of the jet propulsion
unit are the same. There is however, no power out shaft and the
turbine itself its built just large enough to drive the air compressor
and auxiliaries, such as fuel-pump and oil pump are necessary. In
these circumstances the combustion products will leave the turbine
still with a high energy content. They are then passed rearward of
into a nozzle from which they issue with a high velocity and thus
they provide the necessary thrust for propulsion of the air craft.
Gas turbines are not self starting machine as the reciprocating
internal combustion engine it is necessary only to turn the engine
over one compression, the engine will fire and then it will pick up
speed on its own. The gas turbine will not start simply turning the
burner on. It must first be motored up to some minimum speed,
called the 'coming in speed' before the fuel is turned on.When this
speed has been reached, the fuel is turned on ignited and the turbine
will then pick up speed of its own. The turbine rotor is usually
motored upto 'coming in speed' by a starter motor. This can either
be electrical or some times it is a small turbine.
Gas turbine
AC
C,C.II Combustion Genera"tor
chamber
Exhaust
gases
Fig. 14·4·2. Simple cycle gliB turbine plant.
The speed of the gas turbines varies considerably. It can be as

low as 3000 rev/min. and as high as 35,000 rev/mm. Reduction gear
boxes are fitted to high-speed turbines for coupling to external
equipment in order to reduce this speed.
Turbine of output as high as 20,000 kW have now been built,
and air consumption as much as 130 kg/s is recorded.
2. Closed Cycle Gas Turbine. In an open cycle gas turbine
plant, the fuel is mixed with air in the combustor and combustion
gases are expanded in the gas turbine; the hot gases cause erosion
and corrosion of turbine blades. To minimize these superior quality
of filel has to be used in the combustion chamber. The trouble or

drawback of an open cycle plant is overcome in a closed cycle plant,
where the fuel does not mix with the working medium air or gas.
Since the close cycle continuously circulates the same working
fluid, air or gases of a higlier density than air, the heat added must
be supplied through a heat exchanger from an external source and
the heat rejected from the system must be through a heat exchanger
and a cooling medium. A schematic sketch of a simple closed cycle
gas turbine is shown in Fig. 14·4·3. Combustion of the fuel takes
place in the air heater and is external to the working medium of the
system. The working fluid leaving the turbine is cooled down by the
cooling water in the precooler and is recirculated to the compressor.
Gases of
combustion
Air heater
Fuel'
Accumulators
-r~Jp",:':,
Cooling medium
Jo'ig. 14·4·3. Simple closed cycle glIS turbine.
The advantages of this system over that of the open cycle are:
L R.educed size. The density of the working fluid is increased
in the closed cycle by placing the system under an initial overall
high pressure. Also since the working- medium is not required to
support combustion, it is not mandatory that it should be air. It is
possible to use a gas of heavier density and higher specific heat
than air, such as the monoatomic gases; krypton, argon, Xenon and
mercury vapour. This increase in the density, red4ces the physical
size of all components and ducts of the system for the same power
output and permits the use of higher temperatures for a given stress
limit. Other working mediums may be helium, hydrogen or neon.
The heat conductivity of hydrogen is about 6-8 times that of air and
therefore requires smaller heat exchangers.
<;AS TURBINE POWER PLANTS 597
2. Fuel. The closed cycle utilizing external heating can use an

inexpensive solid fuel, such as coal.
3. No contamination. Since the working medium does
not contain the gases of combustion the turbine and the generator
are not subjected to carbon deposits and should remain relatively
clean. There is absence of risk of corrosion and abrasion· of the
interior of the turbines. The compressor should remain free of
dust and other foreign deposits since the working medium can
be cleaned before being put into the systems. This means that
\the periodic cleaning of the component is not necessary and the
component efficienciesshould not change appreeiably with continued
operation. Thus continued operation should not reduce the thermal
efficiently.
4. Improved part load efficiency. The control of a closed
cycle system is different from the open cycle. The power output of a
closed cycle gas turbine can be controlled by changing the mass
flow. The system pressure is proportional to the gas mass flow. By
changing the pressure and mass flow, output changes but the
temperature drop remains the same. Constant temperatures lead to
constant heat drop and constant velocities in the turbine blading
and hence the velocity triangles and consequently the turbine and
compressor efficiencies remain constant for every power output. In
case of an open cycle gas turbine the power control is affected by
controlling temperature which affects the efficiency of the turbine
at part load.
5. Fluid friction loss is reduced due to the higher Reyhold's
number.
6. Improvement in the rate of heat transmission.
7. The regulation of the closed cycle gas turbine is simpler.
The power output at constant speed can be varied by adding
or subtracting the working fluid and thus altering the charge
weight.
Disadvantages of the closed cycle as compared to open cycle
gas turbine engine are:
1. The use of high pressure requires a strong heat exchanger.
2. The complexity and cost of the system particularly in the
load control, is increased. Since the system is under an initial high
pressure with a working medium other than air, it is necessary that
the system be gas tight. This add~to the cost and increases the
engineering problems.
_______ ~~ ._. __ .••. _. ••••••• JL •• J..IJ.l.l i, " .
3. It is a dependent system Cooling water must be provided

for the precooler. This eliminates the use of the system as an
'aeronautical' engine. The provision of cooling water is not a problem
in marine propulsion and many land based applications but this is
a disadvantages as compared to an open cycle plant.
4. A heavy, large air heater is required. The air heater is
relatively inefficient compared to the internal combustion chamber
of the open cycle gas turbine engine. Poor combustion efficiency
results due to losses as radiation and other, since heat transfer is
indirect.
Inspite of the disadvantages and complexities of the

closed cycle, it is higher in efficiency, smaller in weight and
space, and is easier to adopt to marine propulsion than the
open cycle gas turbine. It has a comparable or better efficiency
than steam plants of the same power output with a great saving in
weight and space.
14·5. Work Output and Thermal Efficiency of Constant
Pressure Gas Turbine Plant
The ideal gas turbine cycle using isentropic compression and

isentropic expansion is called constant pressure cycle or Brayton or
Joule cycle. Such a cycle is never possible in practice due to
irreversibilities introduced in the operation on account of leakage,
turbulence and internal friction. The actual processes of compression
and expansion are not isentropic, and temperature of air (or gas) at
the end of compression and at the end of expansion are higher than
those in the case of an ideal cycle. The representation on pressure
volume and temperature entropy planes is shown in Fig. 14·5·1.
The actual cycle is represented by points 1, 2', 3, 4' and the ideal by
points 1, 2,3, 4.
Since the compressor is coupled to the turbine then.
Net work output-Turbine output-compressor work ...(14·5·1)
But compressor work = rha CPa (Ti - T1) ...(14·5·2)

where rha = mass of air flow/second
CPa = specific heat of air at constant pressure
T~= final compression absolute temperature~

Tl = intake absolute temperature.
GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS 59f
2 . 2/
--~-_.
\
\
\
3
I
T
/',
l.
.\
IsenlroplC\,
6
Volume -
cp,Entropy _
Fig. 14·5·1. Ideal and actual gas turbine cycles on
P-V and T-f diagrams.
But the final compression temperature is above the normal
adiabatic compression temperature du,e to turbulence as stated above.
The frictionless adiabatic temperature is calculated using gas laws
and is obtained from the equation,
r. -1
T2 = Tl (~)----r;;- ...(14.5.3)
where Ya = adiabatic index for air.
The connection between the frictionless adiabatic compression
temperature T2' and the final compression temperature Ti, is by
means of the adiabatic or isentropic efficiency equation,
. T2-T1
lsentrop1c1]comp= 'r.'2 - T1
()
... 14·5·4
Knowing the isentropic efficiency of the compressor, T2 can be
calculated.
Now to consider the turbine, by a similar analogy to that used for
the air compressor, the turbine output is obtained from the equation.
Turbine output = mt Cpt (T3 - T';) ..(14·5·5)

where mt = mass of the combustion products through turbine
per second /
CPt = specific heat of combustion products ~t constant
pressure
T3= inlet absolute t~perature of the turbine
T'; = exhaust absolute temperature of the turbine;
Now the final exhaust temperature from the turbine will be

above the frictionless adiabatic exhaust temperature as a result of
turbulence, etc., which occurs in the turbine.
In a similar way to that adopted in the case of the air
compressor, so these two temperatures are connected by the equation
. T3 - T4
IsentropIc TJturb - m 3 - T.4
where Isentropic TJturb = Isentropic efficiency at the turbine
T4 = Frictionless adiabatic absolute exhaust
temperature.
T4 may be calculated from the gas law equation
r, - 1
...(14·5· 7)
T4 = T3 (~;)r;-
where It = adiabatic index for the combustion products
through the turbine.
Net Workoutput = mt CPt (T3 - T';) - ma Cpa (Ti - T1) ... (14·5·8)
Now the mass of fuel used is usually small compared with the
mass of air, and hence the mass of the fuel is often neglected. If this
is the case, then
m; = ma = m', say
If the fuel is neglected the it can be considered that

CPt = CPa = Cp say.
Then from Equation (14·5·8).

Net turbine output
= mCp (T3 - T4) - mCp (Ti - T1)
= mCp {(T3 - T4) - (Ti - TJ)} ...(14·5·9)

If m: = mass of air in kg/s, then from equation (14·5·9)
Net power outPUt of the turbine
= mCp {(T3 - T4) - (Ti - T1)}
Substituting for (T3 - T4) and (Ti - T1) in terms of (T3 - T4)
and (T2 - TI)
. 1 p--
=mCpTJt1'a j 1- r r~lI-Tk1'1
1 C [r-
r r 1 -1 ] ...(14·5·10)
where r is the compression ratio, and is the ratio of the two r
specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume. This
expression can be differentiated w.r.t. compression ratio r, keeping
1'a and 1'1 as constants, and equated to zero to find the value of r for
maximum net work.
The energy received in the gas turbine is in the combustion

chamber at constant pressure. In the combustion chamber the
temperature is raised from 1'';' to 1\ If the fuel mass is neglected as
before, then energy received at constant pressure in combustion
chamber
= ritCp (T:l - 1'2) ...(14·5·11)

= change in enthalpy
Now thermal efficiency _ work output

- energy input
Which from equations (14·5·9) and (14·5·10) becomes
mCp {(I:1 - 1't) - (1'2 - I'd}

Thermal 11=
--' mCp(T:1 - 1'2)
= (T:l - 1';) - (1'2 - 1'1)

...(14·5·12)
(T:l - 1'2)
With TIc = 11t = 100%, the following relationship is obtained for

ideal conditions.
rr
r= (~~)2(r-· I)
)
---~=~------------------
__ -IIIIIIIIlnRII
i.e., the maximum network from the plant, theoretically, the

temperature of t)1e gas at the end of compression is the same as the
temperature at the end of expansion.
Heat supplied to plant = Cp (Ta - Ti)
= mC p (Ta - T2) approximately
= mC p Ta - Tl r) 7
[ r- 1]
= mCpT1
[ ~: - (r)-r-
r- 1] ... (14·5·13)
Thermal efficiency T/th = net work
';C T1
r- 1 1]
[r-r--
... (14·5·14)
From equation (14·5·14) it is evident that thermal efficiency of

gas turbine plant depends upon the ratio of compression, the
efficiencies of compression and expansion, the turbine inlet
temperature and compressor inlet temperature.
The expression (14·5·14) can be differentiated with respect
to r and equated to zero to find the compression ratio for
maximum thermal efficiency. This results in the following expression
for r.
...(14·5·15)
If we assume
nc = 100%, i.e. under ideal conditions
y
Then ry-1 = ~: ... (14·5.16)

The equation gives the optimum compression ratio for maximum
thermal efficiency.
Example 14·5·1. A continuous combustion constant pressure
gas turbine takes in air at 0·95 kg I cm2 (93 kN I m2) with a temperature
of 20°C. A rotary air compressor compresses the air to a pressure of
5·70 kglcm2 (558 kN 1m2), with an isentropic efficiency of 83%. The
compressed air is passed to a combustion chamber in which its
temperature is raised to 867·C. From the combustion chamber the
high temperature air passes into a gas turbine in which it is expanded
to 0·95 kg I cm2 (93 kN I m2) with an isentropic efficiency of 80%. For
an air flow of 10 kg I s and neglecting the fuel mass as small, determine :
(a) the net power output of the plant if the turbine is coupled to
the compressor;
(b) the thermal efficiency of the plant.
Take r= 1·4, Cp = 0·24 keall kg°K)
(= 1·00 kJ / kg oK)
Solution. For the compressor (refer Fig. 14·5·1.)
r-1
T2 = T1 (~~)-r-
1·4 - 1
= 293·50:4
= 293 x 1·5837 = 464°K
Isentropic efficiency for the compressor
T2 - T1
1/c = mJ
.12 - T1
T2 - T1 _ 464 - 293 = 206 K

Ti. - T1 = 1/c - 0.83
.;.
Ti = 206 + 294 = 500 K.

t2 = 500 - 273 = 227°C
For the turbine
r- 1
T4 = T3 (~:)-r-= 510~2~~:: 7200K
Isentropic efficiency of turbine
~1 - T,£
7J - -'--
t- ~1-T4
73 - T'; :: (T3 - T4)rlt
= (1140 - 720) 0·80 = 336 K
T,£= T3 - 336 = 1140 - 336 = 804 K
t" = 531°C
Net power out put (MK8)
= mCp {(T3 - T';) - (Ti - T1)}
= 10 x 0·24 (336·- 206) = 312 kcal/s
= 312 x 427 :: 1776HP. Ans.

75
Net power output (81 system)
= 10 x 1 x (336 - 206) :: 1300 kW Ans.
Thermal Work output

7J:: Energy input
rhCp {(T3 - T4) - (Ti - T1)}
= rhCp (~1- T2)
(~1- T,£)- (Ti - T1) _ 336 - 206 = 0.2031

:: 3I - 1.21
"'~ - 1140 - 500
= 20·31% Aus.
14·6. Methods to Improve Thermal Efficiency of Gas Turbine

Plant.
The efficiency and the specific work output of the simple
gas turbine cycle is quite low inspite of increased component
efficiencies.
GAS TURBINE POWER PLANl'S 605
Some modifications improve the thermal efficiency of a simple

open cycle gas burbine, they are:
(1) Regeneration (4) Gas Temperature
(2) Intercooling and (5) Pressure ratio
(3) Reheating (6) Combined cycle and Co-generation
(1) Regeneration. One of the main reasons for the low
efficiency of a simple gas turbine plant is the large amount of heat
which is rejected in the turbine exhaust. Due to limitations of
maximum turbine inlet temperature ann the pressure ratio which
may be used with it, the turbine exhaust temperature is always
greater than the temperature at the outlet of the compressor. So, if
this temperature difference is used to increase the temperature of
the compressed air before entering the combustion chamber and,
thereby, reducing the heat which must be supplied in the combustion
chamber for a given turbine inlet temperature, an improvement in
efficiency can be attained. This utilization of heat in turbine exhaust
can be affected in a heat exchanger called re-generator. In the re-
generator the heat energy from the exhaust gases is transferred to
the compressed air, before it enters the combustion chamber.
Therefore, by this process there will be a saving in fuel used in the
combustion chamber, if the same final temperature of the combustion
gases is to be attained and also there will be a reduction of waste
heat, thus there will be improvement in the cycle thermal efficiency.
Fig. 14·6·1 shows a schematic diagram of such an arrangement. The
exhaust gases from the turbine pass through the regenerator and
give their heat to the compressed air, before it enters the combustion
chamber, thereby reducing the amount of heat which must be supplied
in combustion chamber to get a given turbine inlet temperature T:l'
Thus regeneration improves fuel economy. The power output will be
slightly reduced because of the pressure losses in regenerator and
its associated pipework.
- 6-
...•..
Heat
exchanger
2
Gas
turbine
----- Generator
Air intake
)
Fig. 14·6·1. Temperature entropy diagram for regenerative cycle.
The energy recovered from the exhaust in actual gas turbines

varies from 50 to 90%. They operate most commonly between 70%
and 80%, recovery. They percentage recovery of the heat exchanger
is called its effectiveness. The thermal efficiency of gas turbines
without heat exchanger is usually in the range of 15% to 20%. With
a heat exchanger fitted, the thermal efficiency is pushed upto the
range 20% to 30%.
The temperature entropy diagram for the turbine arrangement
with heat exchanger is illustrated in Fig. 14·6·2. It will be noted
t
Compressed air
temp. ·lncrease
in combustion
t JChamber
T 4' t
Exhaust temp.
T
l
drop in HE
Max. temp.
J
drop in H.E.
ct>-
Fig. 14·6·2. Temperpture entropy diagram for regenerative cycle.
that the maximum exhaust temperature drop available in the

exchanger = (T4 - Ti), since Ti is the lowest temperature in the
heat exchanger. The effectiveness of the regeneration is defined
as:
e = Effectiveness = Rise in air temperature
Max. possible rise
_ T., - Ti
- T4 - Ti
Or it can be written as
EmCp (T4 - Ti) = mCp (T4 - n) = mCp (T., - Ti) ...(14·6·1) .
assuming Tit and Cp constant throughout then

E (T4 - Ti) = (T4 - T6) = (T5 - Ti) ...(14·6·2)
Equation (14·6·2) will -enable the exhaust temperature from

the exchanger, T6 to be determined. The nett turbine output will be
as before .
...(14·6·3)
However the energy required from the fuel is that required to
increase the temperature from Ts to T3.
...(14·6·4)
This is evidently less than that which would be required if
no heat exchanger was fitted in which case the temperature
increase required from the fuel would be from Ti. to Ts. Thus
with a heat exchanger the thermal efficiency of the plant is
increased.
Thermal 11 = mCp {(7:1 - TI)- (Ti. - TI)} ...(14·6·5)

. r'<p (7:1 -7:,;
and again assuming m and Cp constant throughout,
(T3 - T';)- (Ti. - TJ)

...(14·6·6)
Thermal 1] = (T3_ T5)
Example 14-6·1.In a gas turbine cycle, the compressor compresses
air from 100 kPa and 22°C to 600 kPa. The turbine inlet temperature
is 800°C. It is lmown that a regenerator with 80% effu:iency is available,
the isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and the turbine are 0·90
and 0·85 respectively. Determine the improvement in the efficiency
resulting from the installation of the regenerator. Assume y ]·4 ==
and Cp = ]·03 kJ / kg K.
Solution. Data given

PI = 100 kPa, TI = 273 + 22 = 295 Ie
P2 = 600 kPa, T3 = 273 + 800 = 1073 K
e = regenerator effectiveness = 0·8
1]is comp = 0·90, 1]is turbine = 0·85
First we will determine the thermal efficiency without regenerator

and then with regenerator and calculate the improvement in the
efficiency due to the regenerator.
Referring to figure 14·6·2.
t
~
W
0:
::J
~
<t
0:
W
(L
~
W
1-'
30 Ok
ENTROPY ~
Fig. 14·6·2 K T.S. diagram for cxmplc (14·6·2).

For the isentropic process 1 - 2 and 3 -- 4
T2-
_ TI (~)(7-
PI I)/r
= 295 (0)(14- 1)/1.4 = 492 K
Similarly • T4 = T:I P2
( PI.)(7- I)/r
-. 1073 X 6.4/14 = 643 K
Equation for the isentropic compressor efficiency is
T2 -TI
11i", =- ~--1'
12 -- I on rearrangement
12 _- T 1 + ----
'T" T2 - TI
7Jis C
= 295 + 492...:..-295 = 514 K

0·90
The expression for the isentropic turbine efficiency is

1;1 - T4
T/is turbine =,."1;1 - T4
i.e. T4 = T3 - T/isl (T3 - 1',.,)
= 1073 - 0·85 (1073 - 643) = 707·5 K.

Also E = .0.80 = T.., - Ti.

""4 - rn'
12
T5 = 0·80 (707·5 - 514) + 514 = 669 K

For thermal efficiency without regeneration
Cp (T3 - T4) - Cp (Ti. - T1)
71th = Cp (T3 - T2)
_ (1073 - 707·5) - (514 - 295)

- 1073 - 514
= 0·26 or 26%
Thermal efficiency with regeneration
Cp (T.1- T4) - Cp (Ti. - T1)

71th =
Cp (T.1 - T5)
_ (1073 - 707·5) - (514 - 295)

- 1073 - 669
= 0·36 or 36%
The improvement in the thermal efficiency of the plant, due to
regenerator instaJJation is
= 0·36 - 0·26 = 38m
0.26 70
(2) Intercooling. A regenerator, as discussed above does not

change the work output of a gas turbine cycle. Two possible methods
for increasing the work output are:
(i) by reducing the work of compression, and
(ii) by increasing the work done by the turbine.
IntercooJing is used for decreasing the workdone on the
compressor. One of the ways to achieve this is to cool the air after it
has been partiaJJy compressed, and this is accomplished by employing
multi-stage compression and intercooJing between stages. Usually 2
to 3 stages of compression are used. IntercooJing improves the thermal
efficiency, air rate and work ratio. Thus, if intercooling is used the
size of the turbine and compressor can be reduced for the same
output or alternatively greater work can be obtained from the plant
of the same size.
Fig. 14·6·3 shows the schematic diagram of a two stage intercooled
gas turbine and Fig. 14·6·4 shows the indicator diagram for a two
Combustion
chamber
Compressor
2 3
Exhaust
Intercoole r
Fig. 14·6·3. Schematic diagram of a two-stage intercooled gas turbine.
S
Entropy,¢ _
Fig. 14·6·4. T-¢ diagram for t\\O stage intcrcoolcd gas turbine cycle.
stage compressor with intercooler. By employing multistage

compression with intercooling between stages, the compression process
in the compressor can be made to approach isothermal compression
which requires less powr~r than the adiabatic compression. In the
ideal state of intercooling the fluid should be cooled to its ambient
temperature, i.e. the temperature of the fluid before compression, in
each'stage ; and there should be no loss of pressure in the system.
Also the maximum advantage of intercooling is obtained when the
pressure ratio for each stage is the same. Maximum advantage of
intercooling occurs when pressure ratio is high, compression efficiency
is low and regeneration is employed.
(3) Reheating. It is arfother method of increasing the specific

work output of the cycle. An intercooling improves compressor
performance, reheating improves the output from the turbine due
to multiple heating. The gain in work output is obtained be cause of
divergence of constant pressure lines on T • diagram, with an
¢>
increase in temperature. Thus for the same expansion ratio if the

exhaust from one stage is reheated in a separate combustion chamber
and expanded, more output will be obtained than that obtained by
expansion in a single stage. Fig. 14·6·5 shows the schematic diagram
of a reheat gas turbine plant and Fig. 14·6·6 the corresponding T-¢>
diagram.
Reheater
Compressor HP lP
Turbine Turbine
Generator
6"
Fig. 14·6·5. Schematic diagram of a reheat gas turbine plant.
-4>
Fig. 14·6·6. T-~ diagram of reheat cycle.
Reheating involves extra equipment of combustors and high

temperature resistance material for construction which adds to cost.
Also, the complication of spliting the turbine and of producing suitlable
controls may offsets much of the gain by use of reheater in m~ny
cases.
In order to increase the thermal efficiency of a Brayton cycle,

we can inaease the pressure ratio. However, as the pressure ratio
is increased, the t<!mperature at the outlet of the compressor increases,
causing problems with seals and metal fatigue. Also, the physical
size of a compressor incr~ases with the increase in the pressure
ratio. To minimize such problems, compression is accomplished in
two or more stages. Ideally, in intercooling the compressed air at
the exit of one stage is cooled to the inlet temperature of that stage
and then compressed in the next stage. The compressor work required
may be reduced by dividing the compression into two or more stages,
and to cool the air or working fluid between them. Most of the heat
of compression may then be removed by inter-cooling. The effect
of i.nter cooling, when carried to the theoretical limits, is to have
the work of compression approach an isothermal process (i.e.,
compression at a constant temperature). Ideally, intercooling
the compressed air at the exit of one stage is cooled to the inlet
temperature of that stage and then compressed in the next stage.
'i'he total work of compression in the cycle is the sum of the work
for each compression stage. From a practical stand point, however,
the effect of inter-cooling is to reduce the work of compression required
to achieve a given pressure. The reduction of compressor work achieved
in this manner results in an increase in the overall gas turbine
output and usually improves the overall plant efficiency.
In a reverse manner, the output of the turbine may be increased
by dividing the expansion of the working media into a number
of steps and the gas reheated between them. The reheating of the
gas or working media back to the limiting turbine-inlet temperature
allows a greater portion of the expansion to take place at higher
temperatures. The theoretical limit of reheating would of course, be
an isothermal expansion at the turbine inlet temperature. Again,
from a practical stand point, the result of reheating is an increase
in the output of the turbine through the same expansion pressure
range although it has a negligible effect upon the overall efficiency.
However, when reheating is properly utilised in conjunction with
regeneration, the increase in overall efficiency is appreciable.
The mechanical components and T-S diagram for the Brayton
cycle with intercooling and reheat is shown in l<'ig.(14·6·7). As can
be seen from the T-S d'iagram in the figure, both intercooling and
reheat increase the network available from the cycle. For the cycle
shown in Fig. (b).
The thermal efficiency of the cycle with intercooling and reheat
can then be calculated in the usual manner. If the compressor and
the turbines have isentropic efficiencies of less than 100 percent
and if there is also regeneration, the analysis becomes a bit more
complex but presents no extraordinary difficulty.
(a)
t--
11
:::!
w
t--
ENTROPY S ~
(b)
Fig. 14·6·7. Brayton cycle with inter cooling and reheater.

(a) Mechanical components, (b) T-S. diagram.
We = (h4 - h3) + (hz - hi)
WT = (hn - N;) + (h7 - hS)
qin = (hn - h4) + (h7 - N;)

The open cycle gas turbine with regenerator, intercooler, and

reheater is shown in Fig. (14·6·8) with T. S. diagram.
REGENERATOR
GENERATOR
8 TURBINE
INTERCOOLER
REHEATER
CaOUNG' MEDIAM
(a)
ENTROPY ..•S
(b)
Fig. 14·6·S. Brayton cycle with regenerator, intercooler, and rcheater.
(a) Mechanical components (b) T-B diagram.
We = (112- hi) + (h4 - h3)
Wr = (~ - h7) + (hs - 119)
qin = (~ - ~) + (hs - h7)
The thermal efficiency of the cycle is expressed as
_ [(~ - h7) + (hs - h9)J-=.[(h2 - hi) + (h4 - h3)) ... (14·6·7)

17th - (~ _ ~) + (hs - h7)
Gas Temperature. The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine, as

defined earlier, depends in the first place on the intake gas
temperature, which should be as high as possible. In practice, this
temperature is limited by the potential for blade damage. Gas
temperatures are commonly in the range from 800 to 900°C. By the
use of special alloys and protective refractory coatings for the blades,
the temperature can be increased to about 1250°C or so. For still
higher temperature, it would probably be necessary to use special
means of cooling the blades. However, the increase in thermal
efficiency resulting from an increase in gas temperature must be
balanced against the greater cost of the turbine.
(5) Pressure ratio. The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine
is related to the pressure ratio (i.e. the pressure in the combustor
relative to the ex.haust gas pressure). Upto a point, an increase in
the pressure ratio, to about 10 at moderate gas intake temperatures
or to 20 at high temperatures, is accompanied by an increase in
efficiency once again, however, the increased cost of the equipment
must be taken into account.
Combined cycle and Cogeneration. Another approach to
increasing the efficiency of fuel utilization would be in a combined -
cycle or cogeneration system. The still hot exhaust gas from the
turbine provides the heat for generating steam in a waste heat
boiler. The steam is then used to operate a steam turbine i.e. combined-
cycle generation. Alternatively, the hot gas might be used to produce
process heat i.e. cogeneration.
Example 14·6.2. In a two stage gas turbine cycle with ideal
inter cooling and reheat, the pressure ratio in each stage is 3·5. The
inlet conditions are 300 K and 100 k pa and the temperature at the
inlet to the turbines is 1300 K. A regenerator with an efficiency of
70% is used to improve the efficiency. Determine the compressor
work, the turbine work, and the thermal efficiency of the cycle; Take
r = 1·4, and Cp = 1·03 kJ / kg K.
Solution. T.8. diagram for Two-stage regenerative gas

turbine cycle with ideal intercooling and reheat is shown in
Fig. (14·6·7).
For isentropic process 1·2
We haveT2 = TI ( '7/PI)(r- I)/r

= 300 X (3·5)°·4/1.4 = 429·10 K
also
= T4
Ideal intercooling and reheating is to be considered.
(r- I)
Likewise T7 = Tg = T6 (3'5f -r-
= 1300 (3·5)-04/14
= 908·80 K.
The compressor input is
We = Cp [(T4 - T3) + (T2 - T1)]
= 2 Cp (T2- T1)
= 2 x 1·03 (429·10 - 300)
= 265·95 kJ/kg Ans.
The turbine output is
WI = Cp [(T6- T7) + (T8 - Tg)]
= 2 Cp (T6 - T7)
= 2 x 1·03 (1300 - 908·80)
= 805·70 kJ/kg Ans.
For the regenerator
0.7 = (1:<; - T4)
(Tg - T4)
or T5 = 0·7 (908·80 - 429·10) + 429·10

= 764·90 K.
The heat supplied is given by

qif/t'=(h6- h5) + (h8- h7)
= Cp [(T6 -+ (T8 - T7)]

T5)
= 1·03 [(1300 - 764·90) + (1300 - 908·80)]
= 954kJ/kg
Now thermal efficiency can be calculated

Turbine work - compressor work
11th = Heat input
= WT - We
805·70 - 265·95
954
= 0·565 or 56·5% Ans.
14·7. Main Components of A Gas Turbine Plant

The basic gas turbine components are:
(1) Compressor,
(2) Combustion chamber,
(3) Turbine and
(4) Heat exchangers.
1. Compressor. A gas turbine compressor should be able to
handle a relatively large volume of air or working media and delivering
it at 4 to 6 atmospheric pressure with the highest possible efficiencies,
moreover, the compressor should be such as can be coupled to the
turbine shaft which runs at very high speed ranging from about 600
rpm to 40,000 rpm. On the above basic requirements, only a centrifugal
or axial compressors can be employed. Reciprocating compressors
can not be used, because it sutTers from a number of disadvantages,
such as, inertia of moving parts, sliding friction of the piston inside
the cylinder, limitations in speed, etc. and are not considered suitable
for use in gas turbine plants. However, a version of this compressor
in the 'free piston' design, which eliminates use of crank shaft and
connecting rods and is at present being developed for use in these
plants.
The centrifugal compressor consists of a rotor called impeller
provided with vanes and moving in a casing or scroll. The inlet
section at the hub of the impeller on one side, called the inducer, is
curved to minimize entry losses and is provided with vanes to direct
the air to the eye. A schematic diagram of a radial bladed centrifugal
compressor is shown in Fig. 14·7·1. Air is given a whirling motion
at high velocity by the impeller and is thrown out of it by centrifugal
force. The static pressure of air increases to the tip. A stationary I
passage surrounding the impeller diffuser helps to convert most o~
the velocity head into pressure head as the air has a high velocity
when it leaves the impeller. The impeller converts the mechanical
Diffuser
throat
(a)
Collector
Depth of
vaned
diffuser Vaneless
diffuser
(b) (e)
Fig. 14·7·1. Schematic of a centrifugal compressor.
energy imparted to air by the rotation of the impeller into pressure

and kinetic energy. The pressure rise in the impeller is due to
diffusion action (i.e. the relative velocity decreases from inlet to
outlet due to diverging channel area) and the centrifugal action (i.e.
the air enters at lower diameter and comes out at higher diameter).
The rest of the kinetic energy available at the tip of the impeller is
converted into pressure energy in the vaneless and vaned diffuser.
The vane less diffuser converts some part of the kinetic energy into
pressure energy and stabilizes the flow so that it enters the bleded
diffuser without shock. From the vaned diffuser the air is collected
in the volute casing and comes out from the outlet pipe. For the gas
turbine (instead of putting the volute casing), a 90° bend is provided
to take air to the combustion chambers. The present day practice is
to design the centrifugal compressor such that about half the pressure
rise occurs in the impeller and half in the diffuser.
The impeller blades are made in two types, the radial blades
and the backward curved blades. Radial bladed impeller is suitable
where low weight and dimension are required, whereas the backward
turned blade is suitable where higher efficiency is preferred. In the
gas turbine radial bladed impeller is used due to lighter construction
and less stressed impeller. A pressure ratio of 4·5 : 1 may be obtained
in a single stage centrifugal compressor. In a multistage centrifugal
two or more impellers operating in series on a single shaft are
provided in a single casing. The effect of multi-staging is to increase
the delivery pressure of air, as air compressed in one stage of machine
is fed into the next stage for further compression and pressure is
multiplied in each stage. The overall efficiency of a multistage
compressor is lower than the efficiency of individual stages. Labyrinth
packings provide sealing effect on the air and prevent leakage between
the impellers of various stages and from inside the compressor to
outside through shaft end connections. The compressor discharge
can be controlled by varying the speed.
The centrifugal compressor is superior to the axial flow
compressor in that a high pressure ratio can be obtained in a short
rugged single stage machine. It is relatively insensitive to surface
deposits, has a wider stability range and less expensive. However
the efficiency is lower, the diameter greater and it is not as readily
adoptable to multistaging.
For higher pressure ratios multistage centrifugal compressor
does not prove to be as useful as an equivalent axial flow compressor.
Therefore, when high pressure ratios are needed, axial compressor
is advantageous and it always used for industrial gas turbine
installations. Although, the axial compressor is heavier than the
centrifugal compressor but it has higher efficiency than the centrifugal
compressor.
The axil fZow compressor consist of a rotor and a stator as
shown in Fig. 14·7·2. The rotor (i.e. moving element) consists of
rows of moving blades and the stator (i.e. stationary component)
consists of a rows
energy imparted of stationary
to air by the rotorblades. Some into
is converted partpressure
of the kinetic
energy (
in the rotor due to diffusion action and the rest is converted in the
Rotating blades
Guide Stat ionary

blades blades
ROTOR
Casing
Fig. 14·7·2. Arrangement of rotor and stator in axiall10w compressor.
stator. The stat,or blades also redirects the air into an angle suitable
for entry to the succeeding rows of moving blades. The rotor as well
as the stator blade channels are of diverging type. A row of moving
blade with a succeeding row of stationery blades is called a stage of
axial compressor. Blades are usually made of air foil section.
The important characteristics of the axial flow compressor are
its high peak efficiencies, adoptability to multi staging to obtain higher
overall pressure ratio, high flow rate capabilities, and relatively
small diameter. However, the axial flow compressor is sensitive to
changes in air flow and rpm, which results in a rapid drop off in
efficiency, i.e. the stability range of speeds for good efficiencies is
smal1. These latter characteristics limit the part load capabilities;
of this type of compressor and are considered undesirable in some
installations.
(3) Combustion Chamber (Combustor) : Generally the air
fuel ratio in open gas turbine varies from 50 : 1 to 250 : 1, to keep
the turbine inlet temperature down to permissible limits. The
combustion process taking place inside the combustion chamber is
quite important because it is in this process that energy, which is
later converted into work by the turbine is supplied. Therefore, the
combustion chamber should provide thorough mixing of fuel and air
as well as combustion products and air so that complete combustion
and uniform temperature distribution in the combustion gases may
be achieved. Combustion slwuld take place at high efficiency because
losses incurred in the combustion process have a direct effect on the
thermal efficiency of the gas turbine cycle. Further the pressure
losses in the combustion chamber should be low and the combustion
chamber should provide sufficient volume and length for complete
combustion of the fuel. Hence requirements of a comhustion chamber

are:
(a) lower pressure loss;
(b) high combustion efficiency;
(c) good flame stability;
(d) low carbon deposit in the combustion chamber, turbine
and regenerators;
(e) low weight and frontal area;
(n reliability and serviceability with reasonal1ife, and
(g) through mixing of cold air with the hot products of
combustion.
The types of construction of the combustion chambers in use
are in general:
(1) tubular or 'can' counter flow.
(2) tubular or can straight-through flow, and
(3) annular parallel flow.
Although theoretically the annular chamber possesses advantages
over the 'can type', this has not been realized in practice. Also, for
test and for replacement of burned out chambers, the 'can' type is
cheaper and more practical. For these two reasons, the 'can' type
predominates in current practice.
A typical combustion chamber design employs an outer cylindrical
shell with a conical inner sleeve which is provided with ports or
slots along its length. At the cone apex is fitted a nozzle through
which fuel is sprayed in a conical pattern into the sleeve, with an
igniting device or sparking nearly. (Refer Fig. 14·7·3.) A few air
ports provided close to the location of the nozzle, supply the combustion
air directly to the fuel and are fitted with vanes to produce a whirling
motion of oil and thereby to create turbulence. The rest of thE. air
admitted ahead of the combustion zone serves to cool the combustion
chamber and the outlet gases.
I /T- '--'--,,----
".
Nozzle
Outer shell
\"
\
Gases
--I --~UL~-~~~'~~
conic~~::eve
~
;~~:~:gt ~~:I
Fig. 14·7·3. Arrangement of a combustor.
The combustion chamber in the open cycle gas turbine engine

is the most efficient component of the gas turbine. Efficiencies of
between 95 and 98 percent are obtained over a fairly large operating
range. The combustion chamber of a closed cycle gas turbine engine
is actually a heat exchanger. The heat added to the working fluid
air or gases of higher density, must be supplied through a heat
exchanger from an external source. The working media is thus not
contaminated with the products of combustion. The problem has
been to design an efficient heat exchanger of a practical size, capable
of supplying the heat addition required. However cheaper fuels such
as soft coal may be used in the heat exchanger of a closed cycle gas
turbine.
(3) The gas turbine. The construction and shape of the gas
turbine blades are very similar to that of steam turbines. It differs
only in the blading material, the means for cooling the bearings and
highly stressed parts, the thermal distortion due to higher
temperatures, and high ratio of blade length to wheel diameter to
accommodate large gas flows. The main requirements for the gas
turbines are light weight, high efficiency, ability to operate at high
temperatures for long periods, reliability and serviceability. Special
cooling arrangements for the blades may some times be used in gas
turbines. These include supply of cooling air near the rim or use of
different materials for rim and hub sections. The blade speed is
selected on the strength consideration of the wheel.
The arrangement of the rotor and stator blades in the gas
turbine is similar to that of steam turbine. As in the case of steam
turbines, gas turbines may be irripulse or reaction. If the entire
pressure drop of the turbine occurs across the fixed blades, the
design is impulse type, while if this drop takes place in the moving
blades, the fixed blades serving only as deflectors, the design is
called reaction type.
Generally the blades are made of Nimic 80 alloy (heat resisting).
(4) Heat Exchangers. Regenerator and the intercooler are
the heat exchangers used in gas turbine plants. In the heat exchangers,
heat transfer takes place between exhaust gases and cool incoming
air, while in the int.ercooler the heat transfer occurs between the
hot air under compression and cooling water. Since water has a
much better heat transfer coefficient than do air and gases, the
surface required for the same amount of heat transfer is much less
in the case of the intercooler than for the regenerator.
The regenerator is generally shell and tube construction, with
gas flowing inside the tubes and air flowing outside, in opposite
direction.
14·8. Auxiliaries and Controls

Gas turbine engines need additional equipment to serve the
main comP9nents ; these include; starting motor or engine, auxiliary
lubricating oil pump, fuel control system, oil coolers and filters,
inlet and exhaust mumers (silencers), air and gas ducts and plant
control panel. In addition there are also automatic devices for alarm
and shut down.
The starting motor or engine drives the gas turbine ana
compressor through a clutch and step up gear. The starting gear is
mounted on the shaft at one end. The clutch is often made to work
under air pressure. The rotation of the turbine-compressor shaft,
for about 5 minutes at speed of 500 to 1000 rpm results inelimination
of un burnt fuel from the air-gas flow system. Speed is then increased
to 4000 to 5000 rpm and fuel is allowed to enter the compressor
where it is made to ignite and gases produced are passed on to the
turbine. The turbine then slowly starts under influence of the gases,
and at about 6000 rpm, the starting motor is shutdown and clutch
disconnected automatically. Feeding in additional fuel brings the
turbine upto rated speed.
Often the drive for the lubricating oil pump is taken from the
starting-up gear. High pressure oil from the pump is supplied to the
hydraulic control system and low-pressure lubricating oil for the
gas turbine, gears and driven apparatus. A separate motor-driver
pump usually acts as stand-by if main pump fails. A failure of the
lubricating pump system results in stopping of the unit automatically.
The fuel feed is made responsive to the speed governor, for
generator drive. A reduction in speed (when load increases) opens
the fuel valves to restore normal speed. A rise in speed (when load
decreases) closes the fuel valves to lower the rate of fuel feed and
restore speed.
The duct system includes the main connection between the
compressor and combustor, and between the combustor and the
turbine in the simple cycle plant, and an addition of other such
connection when additional heat exchangers are employed. Compressor
inlet air usually enters t.he gas turbine unit from outdoors through
a filter and duct. The filter proves necessary because a slight build-
up of solids (fouling) on compressor blading can seriously reduce its
efficiency. Both filter and ducts must be sized to minimize air-pressure
drop. Any undue loss in pressure directly reduces the capacity of
the unit. The exhaust duct and stack must also be size to minimize
pressure drop because this loss raises the turbine-exhaust pressure
and reduces turbine capacity and efficiency. Exhaust gas from the
stack must not be allowed to recirculate to the compressor intake;

this can be minimized by increasing stack height, which also raises
pressure loss. Another important point regarding ducts in to support
them suitably so that vibrations are reduced to minimum. They
should be stift enough to resists vibration caused by the air and
gas-Cows. Furthermore, the ducts should be capable of taking up
the expansion at joints due to changes in temperature, and so adequate
expansion joints should be incorporated wherever necessary. The
exhaust duct and connections between combustor and turbine, in
particular, should be capable of standing high temperatures (about
500°C for simple open cycle turbines and 350°C for regenerative
cycle).
Filters of various types are used on air compressor inlets. They
may be oil bath type or dry type. The viscous types are use a filtering
material dipped in oil that catches air-brone particles as they pass
through. They dry type filters use glass fibres as the trapping agent.
The air capacity through the filter should not increase about 2 mI
see, which gives a pressure drop of about 13 to 19 mm of water
gauge.
Silencers may be used at the inlet and exhaust of air and gas
respectively. The air velocity through the inlet muller may be about
60 mlsec.
14·9.Fuels for Gas Turbine Plants

Gas turbines can use a wide variety of fuels, solid, liquid and
gases. The ideal fuel is ofcourse natural gas but this is not always
available. Natural gas which is mainly methane has a very high
calorific value and is generally used for auxiliary power generation
within the oil fields. Blast furnace and producer gas can also be
used for these plants.
Liquid fuels of petroleum origin such as distillate oils or residual
fuels (including fuel oils, furnace oils, boiler fuel oils) are most
commonly used for such plants. These fuels are generally costly.
When using such fuels one has to be very careful that the fuel used
possess proper volatility, viscosity and calorific value. Moisture and
suspended impurities should not be there, as they may clog the
small passage ofthe.nozzles and damage valves and plungers of the
fuel pumps. Residual oil usually contain sodium, vanadium, and
calcium as part of the ash constituent. They corrode hot metals and
build up hard deposits that choke gas passage in the blading. Residual
oil may be treated by heating it, then mixing it, then mixing it with
5% of water. Two centrifuges in series receive the mixture to remove
the water that takes with it most of the sodi urn originally in oil.
The increased use of heavy oils has been limited by the effect
of vanadium corrosion and deposits build up on blades. Distillate
fuels burns more easy than doresiduals fuels. Therefore when starting
the unit for cold initially distillate fuels feed into the combustor
after which residual fuels may be fed. In cold climate it may be
necessary to preheat the residual fuels.
Solid fuels (for example pulverised coal) may be used but they
create coal handling and ash handling problems. The efficiency of
coal fired gas turbine plant is lower than that of oil fired plant.
Present day gas turbine plants use mainly natural gas liquid petroleum
fuels.
14·10. Plant Layout

In the case of a gas turbine plant the main building is the
turbine house in which major portion of the plant as well as auxiliaries
are installed. In many respects it is similar to the steam plant
turbine house.
The fuel oil storage tanks are arranged outside but adjoining
the turbine house. In some installations even heat exchangers are
placed out doors.
The rotating parts of the plant form a very small part of the
total volume of the plant since it is the intercoolers, combustion
chambers, heat exchangers, waste heat boilers and interconnecting
ducts work which have to be arranged and accommodated. It is
these components which occupy the major portion of the total space.
Heat exchanger
Air LP
filter Turbine
,. I, \
" \
Intercooler. ~-,:\ ____ 1
//
/"
--' /"
Alternator
--[,../ I I H.P
--//1 I
g~~
Turbine
--- -'''0- CombusflO
chamber
motor
Fig. 14·10.1. Layout of a gas turbine power plant..

A typical layout of gas turbine plant is shown in Fig. 14·10·1.
626 POWER PLANT TECHNOLOG'Y
The purpose of the air filter is to clean air. From this air filter air
flows to the L.P. compressor. From there the compressed air enters
H.P. compressor via intercooler. The air leaving the H.P. compressor
enters heat exchanger, the- hot air from there flows to the combustion
chamber. Products of combustion are first expanded in H.P. turbine
and than in L.P. turbine.
The layout of a gas turbine plant has a very important
effect on the overall performance of the plant. Since there may be a
loss of as much as 20% of power developed in the interconnecting
ducts with a large number of sharp bends. Great care has therefore
to be exercised in the design and layout of the air as well as gas
circuits.
14·11.Comparison of Gas Turbine Plants with Other Plants

(A) Comparison with Steam Power Plants
1. Space requirement for a gas turbine plant is smaller
compared to a condensing steam plant of equal size.
2. A gas turbine plant can be started quickly and has a
short starting time in comparison to steam plant.
3. The capital cost of a gas turbine plant is lower than that
of a comparable steam power plant.
4. The circulating water consumption is less in comparsion
to that of a steam turbine plant of the same size. This
makes site selection easier. In water scarcity areas they
have great application.
5. These plants can be readily located in cities and industrial
centres very near to the areas of heavy power demand.
6. The gas turbine plant uses fewer auxiliaries compared
with steam plant. Therefore smaller size of the gas turbine
components enables complete work tested units to be
transported to the site.
7. Storage of fuel is much smaller and its handling is easy.
8. The fuel consumption during starting and shutting-down
periods is low.
9. Foundations and buildings are less costly.
10. Time for installation required is less
11. Number of personnel required for operation is hardly
one-third compared with that for a steam plant of same
size.
12. Problems of coal and ash handling as encounter in case, of

steam plants are eliminated in open cycle gas turbine
plants using gas or liquid fuel.
13. The components and circuits of a gas turbine plant may
be arranged to give the most economic results in any given
situation. This is not possible in case of steam power plant.
14. A gas turbine plant becomes more economical for operating
below a given load factor as saving on the capital charges
outweighs the additional cost of fuel.
15. The heat rate of gas turbine is gerierally higher than the
heat rate of steam turbine.
16. Specific weight of steam turbine is generally more than
twice of the specific weight of gas turbine.
17. The operation of turbine is simpler and its capital and
maintenance costs are lower than those of steam turbine
plant.
(B) Comparison with Diesel Power Plants

1. As compared to diesel power plants, gas turbine have higher
mechanical efficiency due to fewer sliding parts in
construction. While the adiabatic expansion of gases in
the cylinder of diesel engine is incomplete, the gas turbine
allows for a more or less complete expansion of gases
which increases power output.
2. Gas turbine plants have easier maintenance and reduced
attendance charges.
3. Gas turbine plants have lower cost of buildings and smaller
site area.
4. Gas turbine being rotating machine is well balanced at all
speeds, so less vibrations.
5. There is greater flexibility in design of a gas turbine plant
as the processes of compression, combustion and expansion
occur independent units unlike diesel plant in which
operations occurs in the cylinder of the engine.
6. The gas turbine is a compact powerful machine and specific
weights are low, as 15 kglh.p. (20 kgIkW), as compared to
85 kglh.p. (112 kglkW) for diesel engine.
7. The gas turbine, is able to operate with lower graaeR of
fuel oils than is possible with diesel engines. Also low
grade waste gases may be utiliz~ as fuel.
8. Heat rate of a gas turbine is generally better than the

heat rate of a diesel engine.
9. Water requirements are much less in gas turbine plant in
contrast to a diesel plant.
However, the gas turbine plant has lower thermal efficiency as
compared with a diesel plant, as a great deal of its power output is
used to run the compressor. The diesel plant is somewhat easier to
start and needs less elaborate cooling arrangements.
14·12. Combination Gas Turbine Cycle

Gas turbines after several advantages for Jifferent type of service
peak load, emergency standby, base load, hydrostation stand-by etc.
In some of th.ese services the quick starting ability makes the gas
turbine plant desirable.
The combination gas turbine-steam turbme cycles aims at
utilizing the heat of exhaust gases from the gas turbine and thus, to
improve the ov~rall plant efficiency. The heat content of gas turbine
exhaust is quite substantial. Gas turbine exhaust has a temperature
of around 500°C. The oxygen content in this exhaust is around 16%
compared with 21% in atmospheric air. A simple cycle gas turbine
plant wastes this energy to atmosphere, while a regenerative gas
turbine plant recovers much of this heat to raise overall thermal
efficiency. But instead we can use the gas turbine exhaust as a heat
source for a steam plant cycle.
The combined steam and gas turbine cycle provides the highest
efficiency turbine system available at the present time. The efficiency
of the combined cycle is higher than efficiency of a standard
regenerative cycle gas turbine.
There are three popular designs of the combination cycles:
1. Gas turbine exhaust gases used for feed water heating,
2. Employing the exhaust gases as combustion air. in the
steam boiler, and
3. Employing the gases from a suppercharged boiler to expand
in the gas turbine.
Fig. 14·12·1. shows a combined cycle in which the gas turbine
exhaust passes through a heat exchanger to feed water for the boiler
of the system plant. When this arrangement is used, bleeding of
steam from the steam turbine (for the purpose of fed water heating)
is not necessary. The full steam supply to the steam turbine is
available for expansion and producing mechanical power.
GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS 62fl
To
Fuel to stacks
combustor Feed water
heater
Air in
Turbine exhaust
Fig. 14·12·1. Use of exhaust gases to heat feed water of steam cycle.
If bleeding is also used, the requirement of bled steam is much

less than what would be required when no feedwater heating with
exhaust gases is employed. Arrangement is shown in figure, using
both exhaust gases and bled steam for the feedwater heating. Further
the gas inlet temperature to turbine can be increased and this results
in an overall increase in efficiency of the plant.
Fig. 14·12·2 shows a combined cycle in which the gas turbine
exhaust is used as preheated air for the boiler of the steam plant.
To stock Baiter
G.T.
rG
Generator
Air in
Gas turbine 12xhoust
Fig. 14·12·2. Combined gas and steam plant (Heat reccvery boiler).
The gas turbine exhaust has around 16% oxygen which is enough to
support combustion in the boiler. Supplementary fuel and air can
be fed to the boiler, which would be larger than the conventional
boiler. About 5% improvement in plant heat rate can be obtained by
the use of combined cycle.
Fig. 14·12·3 shows a flow diagram for the supercharged boiler.
Here the combustors of the gas turbine unit are replaced by a steam
generator having a supercharged fumace, and the gas-turbine exhaust,
heats the feedwater before it enters the boiler. The heat transfer
rate in the boiler are increased due to the high density of air. So,
the boiler weight get reduced by as much as about 50%. Heat rate
also gets improved by about 7 to 8 per cent. The station capacity is
also increased and there is only a slight increase in the cooling
water arrangement.
To stack
Feed water
Flue gases Feed water
Exhaust
gases
Alternator Star(lng
motor
tU~brne
~~F=()
Fig. 14·12·3. Flow diagram of supercharged boiler cycle.
14·13. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Gas Turbine

Power plants.
Advantages
(1) Low Installation cost. Presently, the installation cost /

MW capacity for a conventional fossil fuel power plant of unit size
200/500 MW is nearly Rs 10 millions, whereas, it is only Rs. 6
millions in case of combined cycle power plant of capacity 300 MW
which comprises of two nos. Gas turbine of 100 MW each and a
steam turbine of 100 MW. In case of simple cycle, Gasturbine power
plant installation costJMW capacity is only Rs 35 millions for a unit
of size 100 MW.
(2) Higher Efficiency. Combined cycle plant efficiency is of

the order of 42-47% which are nearly 10-20% more efficient than
fossil fuel conventional power plants.
(3) High Reliability/Availability. Combined cycle power plant

is highly reliable to the extent of 85% to 90%. Some combined cycle
power plants achieved even 95% reliability for years long. As per
the North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC) which collects
and analyses data of such electricity generating plants, simple cycle
Gas turbine power plants achieved a reliability of 95·7%. These
figures are very high when compared to reliability figures of the
order of 65% generally achieved for conventional power plants.
Meantime between failure CMTBF) which is mean operating duration
between two forced outages, for Gas turbine power plant is above
1000 hours whereas it is nearly 500 hrs for conventional power
plants.
(:AS TURBINE POWER PLANTS 631
(4) Low Gestation Time. The installation time for a simple

cycle gas turbine power plant capacity can be installed in 16-18
months and the rest of the capacity which is steam cycle plant can
be added in 12-14 months more. Some manufacturers keep gas turbine
units as off-shelf items, since gas turbines are of standard equipment.
These durations are very much on favourable side when compared
to installation time of 48 and 60 months for conventional 200 MW
and 500 MW plants respectively. This advantage contributes to less
interest charges during construction and escalation of power plant
cost due to inflation, faster returns on the investment and indirectly
helps in improving the national economy in promoting the unrestricted
growth.
(5) Fast Starting Characteristics. Gas turbine power plants
can achieve full load within 20-30 minutes from cold start condition.
Even in combined power plants, two-third (2/3) of full load can be
realised within 20-30 minutes by operating gas turbines in simple
cycle with the help of by-pass stack. Entire combined cycle plant
can be brought to full load within, 1/2 - 2 hrs (one and half-two
hrs). This fast starting characteristics make them favourable to run
as peaking power plants or two shifts in a day mode unlike in
conventional thermal power plants.
(6) Less Water Requirements. Simple cycle gas turbine power
plants need neglibrible amount of cooling water for its auxiliaries
only. However, this water consumption may also'be eliminated by
resorting to air cooling methods. Water consumption is nearly 40%
of the requirement of conventional thermal power plants. In combined
cycle power plants since steam cycle generates only one third (1/3)
of the total power output. If availability of water for condenser
cooling purpose in difficult even for this quantity, air cooled type
condenser can be envisaged. Efficiency deterioration due to higher
condenser back pressure is not as much as in conventional power
plants due to only one-third (1/3) of power output contributed by
steam cycle in combined cycle power plants.
(7) Less Pollution Problems. Gas turbine power plants do
not have dust pollution problem unlike in coal fired power plants.
Thermal pollution is also comparatively less due to higher efficiency
in case of combined cycle plants. There is no ground water/water
pollution around ash disposal area due to ash dumping in coal fired
power plant. Pollution due to blow down from cooling water system
is also less when compared to conventional thermal power plants.
Though gas turbine power plants emit more oxides of nitrogen
(Nox) when compared to conventional thermal power plants. These
emissions can be controlled easily to/the acceptable levels by stearil!
water injection into gas turbine combustion chamber unlike in

conventional thermal power plants.
(8) Flexibility in locating Power plants. Gas turbine power
plants can be located in areas where minimal infrastructural facilities
are available. There is no absolute requirement of site to be connected
by rail road unlike in coal fired power plant to transport vast quantities
of coal to the power plant.
One of the main factors to decide the location of a thermal
power station is availability of sufficient quantity of water for its
consumption in the near vicinity. Since combined cycle power plants
need only 40% of water requirement of conventional thermal power
plant, its flexibility with respect to water availability is more.
Combined cycle power plants can be located even in deserts by
envisaging air cooled condenser with marginal loss in its thermal
efficiency unlike conventional thermal power plants.
The requirement ofland for combined cycle power plant is only
10 to 12% of coal fired power plant of equal capacity. There is no
requirement of land for disposing ash and storing coal. Land
requirement for water storage is also less unless on perennial water
supply facility is existing. Less land requirement and minima] pollution
problems favour these p]ants· to be located near load centres like
cities.
(9) Less man/MW Ratio. Gas turbine power plants need less
man power to erect, operate, and maintain than conventional thermal
power plants. So human management problems are less comparatively.
(10) Clean operating Conditions. These power plants can
be kept in absolutely dean and tidy condition unlike coal fired power
plants which adds to the morale of work force.
Disadvantages
(1) Need of Good Quality Fuels. Gas turbine power plants
can be operated only with gaseous fuels mainly natura] gas or liquid
fuels such as HSD, naptha, natura] Gasoline Liquid (NGL), heavy
residual oils etc., which are scarce in our country and their inevitable
(or unavoidable) requirement in other industries such as petro-
chemical industry, fertilizer industry and transport industry.
Leser Plant Life. Gas turbine power plants have operating
life of around 15-20 years when compared to 25 years for conventional
power plants. Gas turbine power plants life depends mainly on the
type of fuel used and the actual combustion temperatures subjected
over design combustion temperature. With heavy residua] fuels such
as LSHS, HPS etc., gas turbine life deteriorates faster than with
clear fuels such as natural gas, HSD etc.
Uneconomical Partial Load Operation. Gas turbine power
plants efficiency is considerably low when they are operated at partial
loads. However, with inlet guide vane system, efficiency deterioration
can be checked upto 80% ofrated load.
14·14. Prospects of Gas Turbine Power Plants in India

The application of gas turbine power plants can be foreseen in
the following fields in India:
(a) base load gas turbine power plants
(b) peak load gas turbine power plants
(c) Captive power combined cycle plants
(d) Retrofitting of old combined cycle and uneconomical power
plants.
(e) Co-generation gas turbine plants.
Base Load Gas Turbine Power Plants. Power supply situation
in our country is becoming worse year by year due to under utilization
of existing capacity and faster pace of demand growth. Power shortage
can be mitigated on crash programmes by installing combined cycle
utility power plants due to their less gestation periods and low
installation cost in this age of diminishing capital availability. Though,
India has vast coal deposits but these deposits are mainly concentrated
in central and eastern parts. Our coals have less calorific value and
high ash content which cost excessively in transporting to the power
plants located in extreme south, south western regions western regions
and north western region. At present 40% of the rail freight is
mainly due to coal transportation in India. Fortunately some of the
above regions have fairly good other hydro-carbon deposits such as
oil and natural gas.
India's gas reserves have increased five folds during the last
ten years and these are expected to increase further. Present gas
reserves is of the order of 906·31 billion cubic metres by the end of
the seventh plan. To exploit the natural gas reserves, pipe line
networks interconnecting the production and consumption points to
meet the requirements of various industries are being contemplated.
Phase - 1 of this pipe network is based on the proven reserves
while phase II & III are base on the additional proven reserves
through conversion of prognosticated resources. Phase 1 is HBJ
pipe line from Hazira (Gujarat) to Babrala (D.P.) which will supply
N. G. (Natural Gas) to three combined cycle power plants of total

capacity 1600 MW being under execution. There is further scope of
two more combined cycle power plants of total capacity nearly 1000
MW, since plants to install some gas based fertiliser plants along
this pipe line are not materialising. Phase 1A is an extension of
HBJ pipe line from Auraiya to Kapurthala, while phase 1 B is a
pipe line connecting Bombay south terminal to Banglore which will
cater natural gas to combined cycle power plants of capacity 2875
MW. Phase II envisages a pipe line network extension in southern
sector upto 'T'rivandrum and its connection to Northern pipe line
network, which will cater to 13 combined cycle power plants of total
capacity 3875 MW. In phase III, the North East and Eastern part of
the gas fields are proposed to be connected to the gas grid, creating
scope for some more combined cycle power plants.
So, it can be visualised that there is a scope of atleast 10,000
MW capacity gas based combined cycle power plants in India by
2000 AD.
There is scope for simple cycle gas turbine base load power
plants to utilize the associated gas from crude oil wells which will
be flared otherwise in Bombay High region and north eastern region,
mainly due to their low gestation periods and least installation cost.
One example of this type of power plant is Uran Gas Turbine Power
Station (MSEB), with installed capacity of 672 MW. In 1986-87
nearly 2718 million cubic metres of Natural gas was flared which is
colossal wastage of natural resource.
Combined cycle power plants need not depend on the availability
of liquid or gaseous fuels in entire future. Coal can be gasified to
produce lower caloric value gas which can be utilised in pit head
combined cycle power plants most economically for power generation.
Coal gasification technology is on the threshold of commercial
utilization. Uneconomical coal deposits by present technology which
are deep in earth and of less seam thickness, can be exploited
economically only by underground coal gasification technology,
which will enhance scope for pit head combined cycle power plants
further.
Peak Load Gas Turbine Power Plants. These power plants
are mainly simple cycle gas turbine power plants because of their
shorter gestation period, low cost of installation and fast starting
characteristics though their thermal efficiency is relatively
unfavourable. All large load centres in India, need this type of power
plants to stabilize the grid when frequency is falling either due to
overdrawing of power or less feeding to grid due to failure of few
operating power plants. These power plants can also rectify the
complete grid failures very quickly since they can achieve their full
load within 20 minutes restoring partial. Supply to the grid catering
to essential load requirements and to restart the tripped power
plants. Gas turbine units operating on simple cycle will be the ideal
solution to act as spinning reserve to cater to peak demand and
demand-fluctuations of the grid.
The primary fuel for these plants will be gas or liquid fuel. The
generator of these gas turbine power plants can also be utili sed as
synchrounous condenser to improve power factor of the grid, when
gas turbine power plants are not generating power.
Captive Power Combined Cycle Power Plants. When unit
capacities are below 100 MW, combined cycle power plants are best
suitable to generate electricity at lesser cost and than coal fired
conventional thermal power plants even at existing liquid/gaseous
fuel prices in India due to their higher efficiency of the order of 40-
45%, low cost of installationlkW and high reliability. At present,
unit capacities of the order of 100 MW and below are being mainly
installed as captive power plants since most of the regional grids in
India can accommodate larger size single unit of 200 MW and more.
Retrofitting of old and uneconomical power plants. Some
of the power plants which can not generate electricity at economical
cost due to their less design thermal efficiencycan be converted into
combined cycle power plants. This modification can be done by
replacing the existing steam generation by HRSG (Heat recovery
steam generator) and Gas Turbine, such that existing steam cycle
facilities can be utilised as bottoming cycle to the gas turbine.
Sometimes, it is also possible to use Gas turbine exhaust gases as a
practical source of heat energy in already existing coal fired steam
generator by doing moderate alternations in the steam generator.
Co-Generation Gas Turbine Power Plants. Efficiencies of
the order of 80-85% can be achieved in these power plants. These
power plants find its application in process industries like
petrochemical, fertilizers, paper industries etc, where large quantities
of steam and auxiliary power are required. In some applications
instead of producing steam by the gas turbine exhaust gases, exhaust
gases can be used directly for heating\ requirement such as in
centralised adsorption, refl;geration/air-~onditioning
! plants, food
processing, plastic industries etc. The cost of power generated by
these plants is less than the larger size utility coal fired power
projects.
Co-generation systems are not only decentralised but also
integrated systems of energy based on the total energy concept.
These systems are ideally suited for process industries such as sugar,
paper, petrochemicals, fertilizers and several other industries which
require both process heat and electricity.
Several variations in gas turbine co-generation systems such
as supplementary firing and the waste heat recovery boilers to satisfy
the varying or peak energy (either heat or electricity) loads, back
pressure steam turbine in case of the combined cycle, duel fuel
systems etc. are possible making their application broad based. In a
recent study conducted by Haigler Baily & Co. (USA) and National
Productivity council for the Department of Non-conventional Energy
sources, it has been estimated that the two states of Gujarat and
Maharashtra alone have a co-generation potential of more than 2000
MW. The above study has further established that Gas Turbines
with Co-generation are generally more economical than the other
co--generation methods adopted by many of our industries.
Questions
14·1. Describe with the help of a suitable sketch, the operation of a continuous
combustion, constant pressure gas turbine.
14·2. A gas turbine plant delivers 1712 kW (200 hop) and operates such that
inlet pressure and temperature at the compressor is 9·807 N/sq em
(1 kg/sq cm) and 15°C, and that of turbine is 39·23 N/sq.cm. (4 kg/sq.
cm) and 700°C. Calculate the isentropic efficiency of the turbine and
the requisite mass flow of air in kg/sec if the compressor efficiency is
85% and overall thermal efficiency is 21%. (Ans. 81%, 9·57 kg/sec.)
14·3. In a continuous combustion constant pressure, gas turbine, air is take
into a rotary compressor at a pressure of 100 kN/m2 and temperature
18°C. It is compressed through a pressure ratio of 5 : 1 with an isentropic
efficiency of 85%. From the compressor, the compressed air is passed to
a combustion chamber, where its temperature is raised to 810°C. From
the combustion chamber, the high temperature air is passed to a gas
turbine in which it is expanded down to 100 kN/m' with an isentropic
efficiency of 88%. From the turbine, the air is passed to exhaust. If
the air used is 4·5 kg/s and neglecting the mass of fuel as small,
determine,
(a) the net power output of the turbine plant if the turbine is coupled
to the compressor;
(b) the thermal efficiency of the plant. (Ans. 688 kW, 25·7%)
14·4 In a gas turbine plant, working on the Brayton cycle with a regenerator
of 75% effectiveness, the air at the inlet to the compressor is at 0·1
MPa, 30°C, the pressure ratio is 6, and the maximum cycle temperature
is 900°C. If the turbine and compressor have each an efficiency of 80%,
find the percentage incrpase in the cycle efficiency due to regeneration.
(Ans. 42·56%)
14·5. In a gas turbine plant working on the Brayton cycle the air at the inlet
is at 27°C, 0·1 Pa. The pressure ratio is 6·25 and the maximum
temperature is 800°C. The turbine and compressor efficiencies are each

80%. Calculate:
(i) the compressor work per kg of air,

(ii) the turbine work per kg of air,
(iii) the heat supplied per kg of air
(iv) the cycle efficiency, and
(v) the turbine exhaust temperature.
(Ana. (i) 259·4 k.Jlkg (ii) 351·68 kJlkg (iii) 569·43 kJlkg
(iv) 16·2% (v) 723 K)
14·6. In a Brayton cycle gas turbine plant, the air from the compressor
passes through a heat exchanger heated by the exhaust gases from the
low pressure turbine, and then into the high pressure combustion
chamber. The high pressure turbine drives the compressor only. The
exhaust gases from the high pressure turbine pass through the low-
pressure combustion chamber to the low pressure turbine which is
coupled to an external load or generator. The following data refer to
the plant.
Pressure compression ratio in the compressor, 4 : 1
Isentropic efficiency of compressor; 0·86
Isentropic efficiency of H.P. turbine, 0·84
Isentropic efficiency of LP turbine, 0·80

Mechanical efficiency of drive to Compressor 0·92
In the heat exchanger 75% of the available heat is transferred to the

air.
Temperature ofthe gases entering HP turbine,

Temperature of gases entering LP turbine,
Atmospheric temperature and pressure are 15°C and 1·03 kg flcm'
(0·1 MPa) respectively.
Assuming that the specific heat of air and gas is 0·24(1·03 kJlkg K).
Determine
(i) the pressure of the gases entering the low pressure turbine;
(ii) the overall efficiency. (Ans. 1·6555 kgllcm' 25·3%)
14·7. Describe briefly a closed cycle gas turbine plant. What are the advantages
of closed cycle? .
14·8. What are the main fuels which arc used for gas turbine'~lant?
14·9.
Describe the recent developments introduced in the sim9;e gas turbine
cyclE)and the result of each on plant heat rate. /
14·10. What are the important considerations to be taken account while deciding
about layout of a gas turbine power plant.
14·11. Describe the controls and auxiliaries necessary in a gas turbine plant.
How is the plant started and what are the safety devices employed?
14·12. What are the fuels used in gas turbine plants and what fuel characteristics
suit such plants best? Discuss the recent trends to use solid fuels in
such plants.
14·13. What are combination cycles and why have these been developed?
Describe the principal combination cycles using gas turbine-cum-steam
plants for power production with advantages of each.
14·14. Compare the gas turbine plants with steam turbine power plants and
diesel power plants.
Objectives Type Questions

14·1. Thermodynamic cycle on which a gas turbine works:
(a) Brayton or Atkinson cycle
(b) Rankine cycle (c) Joule cycle
(d) Erricson cycle.
14·2. Open cycle gas turbine works on cycle.
(a) Brayton or Atkinson (b) Rankine cycle
(c) Joule cycle (d) Erricson cycle.
14·3. The thermal efficiency of gas turbine plants is as compared
to condensing steam plants.
(a) higher (b) lower
(c) same.
14·4. Gas turbines for power generation are normally used .
(a) to supply peak load requirements
(b) to supply base load requirements
(c) both a and b.
14·5. The air fuel ratio in a gas turbine is of the, order of
(a) 7: 1 (b) 15: 1
(c) 50: 1 (d) 120: 1
14·6. The pressure ratio in open cycle gas turbine is of the order of
(a) 12: 1 (b) 9: 1
(c) 18: 1 (d) 6: 1
14·7. For starting gas turbine, the turbine rotor is usually motored
upto 'coming in' speed which is equal to
(a) rated speed of the gas turbine
(b) t of the rated speed of the gas turbine
(c) no relation with speed of the turbine.
14·8. The pressure ratio for an closed cycle gas turbine compared
to open cycle gas turbine of some power is .
(a) low (b) high
(c) same.
14·9. The thermal efficiency of a simple gas turbine for a given
turbine inlet temperature with increase in pressure ratio:
(a) increases (b) decreases
(c) remains same.
14·10. In gas turbines, high thermal efficiency is obtained in .....
(a) open cycle (b) closed cycle
(c) in both the cycles.
14·11. Efficiency of the gas turbine cycles increased by .
(a) regeneration (b) intercooling
(c) reheating (d) all of the above.
14·12. The blades of the gas turbine rotor are made of
(a) carbon steel (b) high alloy steel
(c) stainless steel
(d) high nickel alloy (Nimic 80).
14·13. In a gas turbine plant, a regenerator increases .
(a) work output (b) thermal efficiency
(c) pressure ratio.
14·14. Work output of the gas turbine cycle is increased by
employing ....
(a) inter cooling (b) reheating
(c) regeneration (d) both a and b
(e) a, band c.
14·15. Maximum temperature in a gas turbi~ is of the order

of '
(a) 700°C (b) 1000"C

(c) 1500°C (d) 2000°C.
14·16. The fuel for gas turbine can be .
(a) coal gas (b) blast furnace gas
(c) producer gas (d) pulverized coal
(e) anyone of the above.
~.
..',
14·17. In a gas turbine the type air compressor can be employed.

(a) reciprocating (b) lobe
(c) axial flow (d) centrifugal
(e) cor d any.
14·18. The combustion efficiency of a gas turbine using a good

combustor is of the order of .
(a) 80% (b) 90% (c) 98%.
14·19. Maximum combuxstion pressure in a gas turbine is as

compared to diesel engine.
less
(a)
(d)same.
lower
same
more
(a)
(d)
(b).
(b) 5.
2.
20.
10.
7.
3. 4.
15.
(a) 9.
14.
19.
Capital
higher
(b)
(c) 8. (c)
(b)cost
17.
18.
12.
13. (b) (b)of a gas turbine plant is ............ than that of a
(c) (e)
(c)
(d)
steam power plant of same capacity
(a)

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14

Gas Turbine Power Plants

14·2.Application of gas Turbine Plants

In the exhaust heat recovery cycle the gas turbine plant is

14·3. Types of Gas Turbine Plants

Air inta~e Gases.

(a) Open cycle.

Compressor Gas turbine

Fig. 14·3·1. Schematic diagram of open cycle and

Gas turbine power plants can be anyone of the following

(b) Combined cycle Gas turbine Power plant. This type

}<'ig.14·4·1. Open cycle gas turbine.

It will be noted that the essential components are three in

near the shaft of a rotating impeller blade is accelerated outward by

Fig. 14·4·2. Simple cycle gliB turbine plant.

The speed of the gas turbines varies considerably. It can be as

of filel has to be used in the combustion chamber. The trouble or

2. Fuel. The closed cycle utilizing external heating can use an

598 POWER PLANT TECHNOLOGY

3. It is a dependent system Cooling water must be provided

Inspite of the disadvantages and complexities of the

The ideal gas turbine cycle using isentropic compression and

But compressor work = rha CPa (Ti - T1) ...(14·5·2)

T~= final compression absolute temperature~

Turbine output = mt Cpt (T3 - T';) ..(14·5·5)

Now the final exhaust temperature from the turbine will be

If the fuel is neglected the it can be considered that

Then from Equation (14·5·8).

= mCp (T3 - T4) - mCp (Ti - T1)

= mCp {(T3 - T4) - (Ti - TJ)} ...(14·5·9)

= mCp {(T3 - T4) - (Ti - T1)}

The energy received in the gas turbine is in the combustion

= ritCp (T:l - 1'2) ...(14·5·11)

Now thermal efficiency _ work output

mCp {(I:1 - 1't) - (1'2 - I'd}

= (T:l - 1';) - (1'2 - 1'1)

With TIc = 11t = 100%, the following relationship is obtained for

602 POWER PLANT TECHNOLOGY

i.e., the maximum network from the plant, theoretically, the

Heat supplied to plant = Cp (Ta - Ti)

= mC p (Ta - T2) approximately

Thermal efficiency T/th = net work

From equation (14·5·14) it is evident that thermal efficiency of

Then ry-1 = ~: ... (14·5.16)

T2 - T1 _ 464 - 293 = 206 K

604 POWER PLANT TECHNOLOGY

Ti = 206 + 294 = 500 K.

T,£= T3 - 336 = 1140 - 336 = 804 K

= mCp {(T3 - T';) - (Ti - T1)}

= 10 x 0·24 (336·- 206) = 312 kcal/s

= 312 x 427 :: 1776HP. Ans.

Thermal Work output

rhCp {(T3 - T4) - (Ti - T1)}

= rhCp (~1- T2)

(~1- T,£)- (Ti - T1) _ 336 - 206 = 0.2031

14·6. Methods to Improve Thermal Efficiency of Gas Turbine

Some modifications improve the thermal efficiency of a simple

The energy recovered from the exhaust in actual gas turbines

that the maximum exhaust temperature drop available in the

EmCp (T4 - Ti) = mCp (T4 - n) = mCp (T., - Ti) ...(14·6·1) .