Ahadzie - PHD Thesis

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A MODEL FOR PREDICTING THE

PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT MANAGERS IN

MASS HOUSE BUILDING PROJECTS IN

GHANA

DIVINE KWAKU AHADZIE, BSc (Hons), MSc.

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the

University of Wolverhampton for the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy

July 2007

This work or any part thereof has not previously been submitted in

any form to the University or to any other body whether for the

purpose of assessment, publication or for any other purpose. Save

for any express acknowledgements, reference and/or

bibliographies cited in the work, I confirm that the intellectual

content of the work is the result of my own efforts and no other

person.

The right of Divine Kwaku Ahadzie to be identified as the author of

this work is asserted in accordance with ss.77 and 78 of Copyright,

Designs and Patent Act 1988. At this date copyright is owned by

the author

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Signature ………………………………….

Date ………………………………………

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ABSTRACT
Presently, within the human resource management (HRM) genre and
including the construction management discipline, the identification
and development of appropriate performance measures is seen as
the only viable means for validating and engendering managerial
excellence. There is also a growing awareness that appropriate
predictive modelling practices can help engender the identification
and development of these measures. Against the background that
project-based sectors of the construction industry in developing
countries need to adopt a proactive approach towards recognising
and embedding performance measures in HRM practices, this thesis
addresses the development of a model for predicting the
performance of project managers (PMs) in mass house building
projects (MHBPs) in Ghana.
A literature review of the significance of performance measures
in the HRM genre is first presented including an evaluation of the
methodologies for measuring the performance of PMs. This is
followed by a review of research and development in the
management of human resources in the construction industry in
developing countries including Ghana.
Informed by the literature, an appropriate theoretical framework
is adopted which draws on the organisational psychology theory of
job performance, the conventional wisdom in project success criteria
and an emerging framework of project lifecycle. Subsequently, a
competency-based multidimensional conceptual model is developed.
The conceptual model reflects both the elements of performance
behaviours and outcomes in predicting the performance of PMs at
the conceptual, design, tender, procurement, construction and
operational phases of the project lifecycle.
Adopting positivism as an appropriate research paradigm,
structured questionnaire survey is used to elicit the relevant data
from property developers in Ghana for the construction phase of the
project lifecycle. Subsequently the data is analysed using one-sample
t-test, factor analysis and multiple regression analysis (stepwise).
From a broad range of competency-based measures used as
independent variables, it is found that, the best predictors of the
PMs’ performance at the “construction phase” of MHBPs are: job
knowledge in site layout techniques for repetitive construction
works; dedication in helping works contractors to achieve works
programme; job knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for
repetitive construction works; effective time management practices
on the house-units; ability to provide effective solution to conflicts
while maintaining good relationships; ease with which the PM is
approachable by works contractors; and volunteering to help works
contractors solve personal problems. These independent variables
explained 74.4% of the variance in the model (at p < 0.0005).
Validation of the model confirmed its goodness of fit and hence
predictive accuracy. The findings suggest that at the construction
phase of MHBPs, PMs who exhibit these behavioural competencies
are likely to achieve higher levels of performance. Accordingly, PMs
who aspire to achieve better managerial performance outcome on

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MHBPs should strive towards developing and improving these
competencies.
It is contended that the developed model could be used by
property developers for the selection and recruitment of potential
PMs and also for developing appropriate training requirements
towards best practice improvement in the implementation of MHBPs.
While the study focuses on Ghana, there is the potential for the
model to be adopted for use by other developing countries towards
the advancement of improved HRM activities in project management
practice.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My greatest acknowledgement goes to Professor David Proverbs,


my director of studies for the immense assistance provided in
terms of guidance, suggestions and encouragements throughout
the research process. The memory he has implanted will forever
remain. I wish to also acknowledge my second supervisor, Prof.
Paul Olomolaiye for the various ways he has also contributed
despite his busy schedule as Dean of school.

My appreciation also goes to Mr William Ahadzie and Dr. Adjei-


Kumi, both of the Department of Building Technology, Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) for their
assistance in helping to collect the relevant data in Ghana.
Subsequently, I must acknowledge two graduates of the Dept. of
Building Technology (KNUST), namely; Miss Barabara Appiah and
Miss Naa Adjeley, for the part they played in delivering and
retrieving the completed questionnaires. May I also acknowledge
Nii Okine-Tieku, an executive member of the Ghana Real Estate
Developers Association (GREDA), for assisting in providing the
registration list of the GREDA. Likewise, my appreciation goes to
all the GREDA members who participated in the survey.

It is also important to recognise my research colleagues, especially


Nii, Obuks, David, Tony, Nuhu, Elias, Raymond, Adams, Boye and
Felix for the times we have shared together. I wish everyone the
best for the future.

I sincerely thank my loving wife, Efuah and my children Senam,


Edinam and Adzo for their understanding, love and support during
this long, tedious and on many occasions strenuous journey. I wish
to also express my gratitude to my good friend, Daniel Anoff and
family for the generosity extended to my family during our stay in
the UK

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Last but not least, I wish to thank the Government of Ghana (GOG)
for providing the scholarship funding.

Dedication

This Thesis is dedicated to all my family members, especially the


memory of my late brother Kofi Ahadzie.

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Table of contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A MODEL FOR PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT

MANAGERS IN MASS HOUSE BUILDING PROJECTS IN GHANA..I

ABSTRACT......................................................................................III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................V

DEDICATION..................................................................................VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................VII

LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................XVI

LIST OF APPENDICES................................................................XVII

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION.......................................1

1.0 INTRODUCTION....................................................................1

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH.....................................1

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM..........................................5

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.......................................................5

1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY................................6

1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY EMPLOYED............................8

1.6 DEFINITION OF PERFORMANCE.......................................10

1.7 MAIN CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE..........................10

1.8 DISSEMINATION OF THE FINDINGS.................................11

1.9 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS.......................................14

1.9 SUMMARY............................................................................17

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Table of contents

CHAPTER 2: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF PERFORMANCE

MEASUREMENT IN THE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

GENRE...........................................................................................19

2.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................19

2.1 PERFORMANCE MEASURES IN THE HUMAN RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT CONTEXT.........................................................20

2.1.1 Towards Defining Performance Measures.....................20

2.1.2 The Significance of Performance Measures in HRM

Practices..................................................................................24

2.1.3 Development of Predictive Models and the Implication

for PMs Performance Measures in Developing Countries.......27

2.1.4 An Overview of Project Management Practices in

Developing Countries...............................................................29

2.1.5 Towards identifying Performance Measures for PMs in

Mass House Building Projects in Developing Countries.........31

2.2 TOWARDS DEVELOPING A DEFINITION OF THE PROJECT

MANAGER...................................................................................33

2.3 MEASURING THE PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT

MANAGERS.................................................................................38

2.3.1 Traditional-Based Approaches.......................................38

2.3.2 Personality-Based Approaches.......................................40

2.3.3 Competency-Based Approaches.....................................42

2.3.3.1 A definition for competency.....................................42

2.3.3.2 Relevance of competency-based approaches..........44

2.4 THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF COMPETENCY-BASED

APPROACHES.............................................................................46

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Table of contents

2.5 EMERGING STUDIES ON PMs BEHAVIOURAL

COMPETENCIES.........................................................................49

2.6 IDENTIFYING AN APPROPRIATE COMPETENCY-BASED

FRAMEWORK .............................................................................54

2.7 SUMMARY............................................................................59

CHAPTER THREE: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND

DEVELOPMENT IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN

RESOURCES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES................................62

3.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................62

3.1 TOWARDS IMPROVING HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES..................................63

3.1.1 A Review of Performance Measurement Literature for

Human Resource Development in Developing Countries........63

3.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MASS HOUSE BUILDING

PROJECTS TOWARDS IMPROVING HUMAN RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES......................................................67

3.3 DEFINING MASS HOUSE BUILDING PROJECTS ..............70

3.4 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MASS HOUSE BUILDING

PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.................................73

3.5 INTRODUCING THE STUDY AREA: THE CONTRUCTION

INDUSTRY IN GHANA................................................................77

3.5.1 The Geographical Location and Economic Profile of

Ghana.......................................................................................78

3.5.2 The Institutional Profile and Significance of the

Construction Industry..............................................................83

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Table of contents

3.5.2.1 The institutional profile...........................................83

3.5.2.2 The significance of the Ghanaian construction

industry.................................................................................84

3.5.3 The Housing Sector ......................................................86

3.5.4 Evolution of Management Practices in Mass House

Building Projects in Ghana......................................................88

3.5.5 Project Management Practices in Mass House Building

Projects in Ghana.....................................................................91

3.5.6 The Contribution of Project Managers to the delivery

Mass House Building Projects.................................................92

3.5.7 Towards Assessing the Performance of Project Managers

in Mass House Building Projects in Ghana..............................97

3.6 THE WAY FORWARD FOR PMs’ PERFOMANCE MEASURES

IN GHANA AND THE RELEVANCE FOR OTHER DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES................................................................................99

3.7 SUMMARY..........................................................................100

CHAPTER FOUR: DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTUAL MODEL .104

4.0 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................104

4.1 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT PERFORMANCE..............104

4.2 THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK...................................108

4.2.1 Organisational Psychology Theory of Job Performance

...............................................................................................110

4.2.2 Conventional Wisdom in Project Success Criteria.......117

4.2.3 Developing a Project Success framework for Mass

House Building Projects.........................................................122

4.2.4 Framework for Project Lifecycle.................................126


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Table of contents

4.3 DEVELOPING A ROBUST COMPETENCY- BASED

CONCEPTUAL MODEL.............................................................128

4.3.1 A Competency-Based Conceptual Model for the Project

lifecycle..................................................................................129

4.3.2 An Abridged Competency-Based Conceptual Model for

the Construction Phase..........................................................134

4.4 SUMMARY..........................................................................136

CHAPTER FIVE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..........................139

5.0 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................139

5.1 EPISTEMOLOGY, METHODOLOGY AND METHODS........139

5.2 CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY ......................................................................141

5.1.1 Methodological Paradigms..........................................142

5.1.2 The Research Paradigm Adopted.................................147

5.2 THE RESEARCH METHOD................................................149

5.2.1 Presenting the Survey Instrument...............................151

5.2.2 The Survey Instrument Design....................................156

5.2.2.1 Demographic..........................................................156

5.2.2.2 Criteria for Performance Outcome (dependent

variables)............................................................................157

5.2.2.3 Contextual performance behaviours (independent

variables)............................................................................158

5.2.2.4 Task performance behaviours (independent

variables)............................................................................163

5.2.3 Ethical Considerations.................................................166

5.3.3 Pilot study....................................................................167


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Table of contents

5.3 DATA COLLECTION...........................................................170

5.3.1 Introducing the Survey Participants............................170

5.3.2 The Sampling Frame ...................................................171

5.3.3 Towards Establishing an Appropriate Sample Size.....172

5.3.4 Commentary on the Fieldwork in Ghana.....................175

5.3.5 Data Entry and Editing ...............................................178

5.3.6 Questionniare for evaluating aspects of output of results

...............................................................................................179

5. 4 SUMMARY.........................................................................180

CHAPTER SIX: PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF DATA ELICITED

FROM MEMBERS OF THE GHANA REAL ESTATE DEVELOPERS

ASSOCIATION..............................................................................183

6.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................183

6.1 ANALYSIS OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC DATA.......................183

6.2 STANDARDIZED OPINION OF RESPONDENTS ON THE

PERFORMANCE LEVEL OF PMs in MHBPs in GHANA ..........187

6.3 ANALYSIS OF DEPENDENT VARIABLES..........................188

6.3.1 One Sample T-test for Ranking Dependent Variables..189

6.3.2 Factor Analysis of Dependent Variables......................198

6.4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS...............................................211

6.4.1 Component 1: Environmental-safety criteria ..............211

6.4.2 Component 2, Customer satisfaction ..........................213

6.4.3 Component 3: Quality .................................................216

6.4.4 Component 4: Cost-time criteria.................................218

6.5 SUMMARY..........................................................................220

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Table of contents

CHAPTER SEVEN........................................................................222

CHAPTER SEVEN: DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPETENCY-BASED

PREDICTIVE MODEL...................................................................223

7.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................223

7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF PERFORMANCE OUTCOME INDEX 224

7.2 THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE............................................227

7.3 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS................................228

.............................................................................................229

7.2. 2 Stepwise Selection......................................................230

7.2.2 Test of goodness of fit..................................................239

7.2.3 Residual Analysis.........................................................242

7.3 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS.......................................246

7.3.1 Convergence of Findings with the Theoretical

Framework Adopted..............................................................247

7.3.2 The Significance of the Competency Profiles towards

Engendering the Performance of PMs in MHBPs .................255

7.3.2.1 Task performance beahviours................................257

7.3.3.2 The Contextual performance behaviours..............260

7.4 RECOMMENDED APPLICATION OF THE COMPETENCY-

BASED PROFILES ....................................................................266

7.4.1 Team Deployment and Job-Matching...........................266

7.4.2 Recruitment and Selection..........................................267

7.4.3 Career Development and Succession ........................268

7.4.4 Curriculum Development.............................................271

7.5 SUMMARY..........................................................................271

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Table of contents

CHAPTER EIGHT: VALIDATION OF THE COMPETENCY- BASED

PREDICTIVE MODEL...................................................................274

8.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................274

8.1 THE CONCEPT OF VALIDATION.......................................274

8.2 EXTERNAL VALIDATION...................................................277

8.2.1 Background to the External Validation Analysis..........277

8.2.2 Test Results for External Validation.............................280

8.2.2.1 Predictive accuracy across samples......................280

8.2.2.2 Feedback from experts on the potential relevance of

the findings viz. recommended application........................283

8.3 INTERNAL VALIDATION...................................................294

8.3.1. Convergence 1: Literature search, Questionnaire

development and Analysis.....................................................295

8.3.1.1 Literature search and questionnaire development

............................................................................................295

8.3.1.2 Literature and Questionnaire analysis..................295

8.3.2 Convergence 2: Questionnaire analysis and academic

validity....................................................................................300

8.3.3 Academic validity and literature search......................301

8.4 SUMMARY .........................................................................303

CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 306

9.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................306

9.1 DEFINITION OF THE PROJECT MANAGER......................307

9.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS...................................................308

9.3 REVIEW OF OBJECTIVES..................................................308

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Table of contents

9.4 CONCLUSIONS..................................................................318

9.5 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE...................................319

9.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE FINDINGS ...................................322

9.8 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH.........324

9.9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INDUSTRY............................326

9.9 SUMMARY..........................................................................328

REFERENCES..............................................................................331

BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................388

APPENDICES...............................................................................399

LIST OF FIGURES

xv
List of figures

LIST OF TABLES

xvi
Tables

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: GENERAL ATTRIBUTES FOR EVALUATING THE

PMS’ PERFORMANCE.................................................................400

APPENDIX 2: POTENTIAL DIMENSIONS OF MANAGEMENT

SKILLS PROFILE-INDUSTRIAL/PSYCHO PERSPECTIVE...........403

APPENDIX 3: POTENTIAL DIMENSION OF PROJECT MANAGERS’

SKILLS PROFILE IN CONSTRUCTION.......................................404

APPENDIX 4: RESEARCH INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION

......................................................................................................410

APPENDIX 5: PRIOR NOTIFICATION TO POTENTIAL

RESPONDENTS...........................................................................421

APPENDIX 6: HISTOGRAM FOR HEALTH AND SAFETY OF

INDIVIDUAL HOUSE-UNITS.......................................................422

APPENDIX 7: HISTOGRAM OF RISK CONTAINMENT...............422

APPENDIX 8: HISTOGRAM OF OVERALL HEALTH AND SAFETY

MEASURES..................................................................................423

APPENDIX 9: HISTOGRAM OF OVERALL CUSTOMER/CLIENT

SATISFACTION.............................................................................424

APPENDIX 10: HISTOGRAM OF OVERALL PROJECT QUALITY.424

APPENDIX 11: HISTOGRAM OF QUALITY OF INDIVIDUAL

HOUSE-UNITS.............................................................................425

APPENDIX 12: HISTOGRAM OF RATE OF DELIVERY OF

INDIVIDUAL HOUSE-UNITS.......................................................425

xvii
Tables

APPENDIX 13: HISTOGRAM OF RISK CONTAINMENT.............426

APPENDIX 14: GUIDE TO CORRELATION MATRIX/CORRELATION

MATRIX........................................................................................427

APPENDIX 15: CORRELATION MATRIX OF REGRESSION

ANALYSIS.....................................................................................430

APPENDIX 16: QUESTIONNIARE FOR VALIDATION OF THE

POTENTIAL RECOMMENDED APPLICATION OF A MODEL FOR

PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT MANAGERS IN

MHBPS IN GHANA......................................................................431

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Appendices

CHAPTER ONE

xix
General introduction

Chapter 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter, which is an overview of the thesis presents the

research context in terms of the background of the study and

statement of the research problem to be addressed. The

justification and scope of the research and the main research

questions posed are also illuminated. Subsequently, the aim and

objectives are presented followed by a summary of the research

methodology adopted. Thereafter, a statement of the contribution

to knowledge and the significance of the research findings are

described. The chapter concludes with an explanation of the

organisation of the thesis including sub-themes under each

chapter.

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH

Improving human resource management (HRM) through the

application of performance measures has been recognised as one

of the most critical elements for organisational competitiveness

and improvements (Austin and Vallinova, 1992; Picketts, 1998;

Roberts, 1998; Garavan et al, 2002). Presently, within the HRM

genre, the identification and development of appropriate

performance measures is widely held as the only viable option for

providing evaluative criteria, against which managerial

1
General introduction

performance can be validated (see for example Conway, 2000;

Abraham et al, 2001; Scullen et al, 2003; Ford, 2004). Accordingly,

in project-based industries such as construction, performance

measures are gradually being affirmed as a viable option for

engendering superior performance levels of project managers

(PMs) (Dainty et al, 2003; 2004). To this effect, the contemporary

view is that appropriate modelling practices represent a

potentially practicable option for developing the relevant metrics

towards engendering the appropriate professional development of

PMs (Dainty et al, 2004; Cheng et al, 2005; Dainty et al, 2005).

While construction represents one of the largest industries in

developing countries, it has remained under-researched and

underdeveloped in relation to the identification and development

of performance measures for effective HRM practices (see for

instance Imbert, 1990; Wachiru, 2000: Rwelamila, 2007).

Historically, the industry has adopted a passive (or at best ad-hoc)

approach towards dealing with the benchmarking of PMs’

performance, resulting in the lack of a systematic framework

towards the development of appropriate best practices (see for

instance Rwelamila, 2007). Against the backdrop that the

development of appropriate performance measures represents a

potentially significant option for engendering managerial

excellence, there is therefore the need for project-based sectors

within the construction domain in developing countries to adopt a

proactive approach towards performance measurement of the key

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General introduction

managerial personnel engaged in the industry. To this end, the

identification and development of appropriate PMs’ performance

measures could be an important step towards the advancement of

improved HRM practices in the construction industry in many

developing countries, especially given the increasingly important

role that PMs are playing in project management practices in

recent times.

Mass house building projects (MHBPs) constitute the single

largest construction sector in terms of employment of human

resources and value-added in most economies (Wells, 1999;

Zawdie and Langford, 2000). Subsequenty, in many developing

countries these projects have, by and large, emerged as the

largest and most established project based sector in project

management practice (see ibid).

Recently in Ghana, several of these large MHBPs have been

constructed and/or are under construction (see Amoa-Mensah,

1999; 2002; President of Ghana, 2005). Furthermore, the

contribution of PMs towards achieving effective managerial

performance on these projects has also recently been underscored

(Amoa-Mensah, 1999; 2002; Ahadzie et al, 2004). However, as a

reflection of the industry in many developing countries, the dearth

of rigorous research activities towards the identification and

development of appropriate performance measures is also evident

(Ahadzie et al, 2004). Identification and development of

3
General introduction

appropriate performance measures could therefore enable PMs

operating in Ghana to have a clear understanding of the significant

skills they should acquire towards improving their own

professional development. Furthermore, property developers could

be provided with the benefit of a structured framework upon

which they can select and recruit PMs who have the appropriate

performance profiles and skills. To this effect, this research could

serve as a foundation towards effective managerial practices in

MHBPs.

Thus, this research is founded on the contention that, if the

significance of performance measures is to be relevant in the

construction industry in developing countries, then the underlying

criteria that would help PMs to reflect positively on best practice

improvement in MHBPs needs to be identified. This research

therefore views the emphasis on MHBPs as a potentially

significant foundation for contributing towards the research

agenda for project-based sectors of the construction industry in

developing countries. Accordingly, while the study focuses on

MHBPs, it is hoped that the findings would be beneficial to other

emerging sectors of the Ghanaian construction industry

particularly in respect to the future development of appropriate

performance benchmarks. While the study is unique to Ghana,

there is also the potential that many project-based sectors of the

construction industry in developing countries will find the findings

useful towards the advancement of improved HRM practices.

4
General introduction

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

“The fundamental concept on which project management is based

is that a single individual - the PM is accountable for the success

of the project” (Goodwin, 1993).

Against the background information presented, the main research

problem was identified thus; while performance measures are

being renewed in the HRM genre including the construction

management discipline as a viable option against which effective

managerial performance can be validated, no rigorous attempt has

been made to develop appropriate measures to assist PMs towards

effective project management practices in developing countries

such as Ghana. As such, aspiring and experienced PMs are

unaware of the performance criteria that can help engender best

practices in their managerial activities. Granted that project

management practices differ across geographical regions

(Crawford, 2005), this lack of recognising and embedding

performance measures as a core HRM activity has the potential of

threatening the development and promotion of effective project

management practices in many construction sectors such as those

relating to the implementation of MHBPs.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

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General introduction

From the foregoing, three main research questions were proposed:

• What should be the appropriate performance framework for

isolating the PMs’ performance domain in MHBPs in

developing countries such as Ghana?

• Given that the skills required by PMs are likely to develop

and change as a project progresses throughout the project

lifecycle, how should these be factored into the performance

framework in MHBPs?

• In recognition of the unique (e.g. weak economic,

technological and structural systems) and relatively difficult

project environment (e.g. lack of economic and purposive

rationality) prevailing in developing countries such as

Ghana, what performance profiles are appropriate for

engendering the professional development of PMs

throughout the whole lifecycle of MHBPs?

1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The questions posed above (in section 1.3) engendered the key

research aim, which was to identify through the development of a

relevant predictive model, appropriate performance measures for

PMs in MHBPs in the Ghanaian construction industry.

6
General introduction

Consequently, the research sought to undertake these specific

objectives:

• To undertake a critical review of recent developments in

HRM practices, in particular, PMs towards developing a

deeper understanding of their key performance measures.

• To undertake a critical review of literature on project

management in developing countries towards identifying the

contribution of PMs in achieving project success.

• To identify an appropriate theoretical framework for

developing a conceptual model suitable for achieving the key

research aim.

• To develop a conceptual model for predicting the

performance of PMs in MHBPs adopting the theoretical

framework identified.

• To develop a robust research design to elicit the relevant

data from experienced practitioners and professionals in the

construction of MHBPs in Ghana

• To employ appropriate statistical analysis to help develop the

substantive model for predicting the potential performance

7
General introduction

of PMs in MHBPs and hence identify the appropriate

performance profiles.

• To test, refine and validate the model towards establishing

its predictive accuracy and potential relevance for practical

application.

• To disseminate broadly the research findings for the benefit

of industry and academia.

1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY EMPLOYED

In addressing the key research questions identified above, it was

important to adopt an appropriate epistemological, ontological and

axiological approach, which would enable appropriate data

collection, analysis and interpretation of the findings for the

benefit of practitioners and researchers. Subsequently, as in all

researches, the study commenced with an extensive literature

review to help provide a thorough understanding of the recent

developments in the methodologies used for measuring the

performance of PMs in the HRM research genre including the

construction management discipline. The literature review

provided profound opportunity to identify an appropriate

theoretical framework for the study.

8
General introduction

Drawing on (in particular) an organisational psychology theory of

managerial job performance, a rigorous conceptual model was

developed to help determine the precise direction of the research.

Consequently, positivism as a research paradigm was adopted to

reflect the epistemological, ontological and axiological approach

involved. To this effect, a quantitative approach was used in

eliciting the relevant data from property developers in Ghana.

Subsequently, postal structured questionnaire survey was used in

eliciting the main data (including piloting) and also in validating

aspects of the findings relating to the potential relevance of the

recommended application of the model. The research paradigm

adopted also enabled statistical tools such as factor analysis and

multiple regression analysis to be used in the interpretation of the

data and discussion of the findings.

It must be noted that an underlying conception of this thesis was

to help provide PMs specializing in the management of MHBPs in

Ghana the opportunity to have a clear understanding of the

competencies that their superiors (in particular their immediate

employers) expect of them towards engendering excellent

managerial practices. Subsequently, managing directors (MDs) of

housebuilding companies in Ghana were approached in eliciting

the relevant data. A detailed discussion of the research

methodology including the rationale for eliciting the data from

MDs is presented in chapter five.

9
General introduction

1.6 DEFINITION OF PERFORMANCE

While there are many variables that affect the outcome of projects,

the performance measures identified in the study reflected the

factors within the control of PMs (i.e.those relating to

improvement in their personal skills). Therefore, for the purposes

of this thesis, the term “performance” is defined as the

behavioural action (i.e. behavioural competencies) that are

relevant to achieving the goals of project-based organisations (see

for instance McCloy et al, 1994; Motowidlo et al, 1997: Brophy and

kiely, 2002). The implication of this definition is that; performance,

behaviour and results are not the same. While behaviour is the

observable things that people do while at work, performance is

seen as behaviour with an evaluative component (ibid).

Alternatively, results are viewed as conditions of things that are

changed by performance and consequently contribute to or detract

from organizational accomplishments (Motowidlo et al, 1997:

Abraham et al, 2001). Furtther details of the explanation of these

terms are provided in chapter four, section 4.3.

1.7 MAIN CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

It is well recognised that the performance domain of PMs is often

influenced by the characteristics of different project types,

industry classifications and project application areas (Ogunlana et

al, 2002; Dainty et al, 2003: Crawford, 2006). It is also recognised

that, the matching of skills to specific project based sectors is

10
General introduction

important for developing the capabilities and prospects of PMs

within these sectors (see for example Egbu, 1999; Ogunlana, 2002:

Lyon, 2003). A prime contribution to knowledge of this study is

that, it has identified a set of competency profiles that can be

mapped and customised onto improving the current and projected

future roles of PMs in MHBPs, especially in the context of

developing countries

Equally, the findings provide an empirically-based evidence for

Ghanaian property developers seeking to recruit, retain and

promote PMs so that they (i.e. the property developers) can make

informed and objective decision towards engaging those with the

appropriate skills and competencies. Refer to section 9.5 for a

more detailed presentation on the contribution to knowledge.

1.8 DISSEMINATION OF THE FINDINGS

The literature review culminated in the write-up of a total of seven

papers which were presented in a number of major international

conferences. These papers have now been published in the

appropriate conference proceedings (see Table 1.1). Papers 1 to 5

represent the results of a rigorous critique of some of the recent

publications on performance measurement and how they fit into

the context of this research. Paper 6 published in the proceedings

of Building and Education Research (Bear 2006) conference

focussed on the development of the underlying conceptual model

11
General introduction

for this study. Similarly, paper 7 published in the proceedings of

the Association of Construction Management reseachers (ARCOM

2006) annual conference focussed on the development of the

research instrument which formed the basis for eliciting the

relevant data for the study.

In addition, three journal papers were submitted for consideration

in construction management journals. These papers address

specific aspects of the empirical findings from the research.

Paper 8 draws on the key findings of the research including the

developed model and discusses the main contribution to

knowledge of the research. Paper 9 proposes a more robust system

for understanding the behavioural competencies of PMs in

general. Paper 10 draws on the dependent variables and uses

factor analysis to explore the potential success criteria of MHBPs.

It is worth mentioning that papers 8 and 10 have since been

accepted for publication (Appendix, 21 and 22/see also

references). Paper 11 emphasises the key findings from the

perspective of the Government of Ghana (GoG) (sponsors of the

research) towards helping to shape future policy direction in

regard to curriculum development for PM education and training

in Ghana.

Whilst it is contended that the dissemination of various aspect of

the research has made some significant contribution towards

propagating the knowledge emerging from the research, it is also

12
General introduction

worth noting that the benefits have indeed been mutual. It is

therefore important to acknowledge that, the reviewers comments

to all the papers currently published and reviewed provided

opportunities for the methodologies, meanings and interpretation

of the research to be challenged which has eventually helped to

enrich the focus and content.

Table 1.1: Publications arising out of the research


Paper Title of paper Conference/Journ Place/Locati Date/Rema
No. al on rks
1 Meeting Housing Globalization and Asian Institute 11-13th
Delivery Targets Construction in of Technology, November,
in Developing Developing Bangkok, 2004
Countries: The Countries Thailand
Contribution of
Project Managers
in Ghana.
2 Construction 5th International University of 17-19th
Performance Postgraduate Salford, (UK) April, 2005
Measurement Research
Systems: Conference
Emerging
Research Needs
3 Project Association of University 7-9th
Managers’ Construction College of September,
Performance Management London, 2005
Measures: A Researchers SOAS, (UK)
Fresh Perspective (ARCOM)
4 Towards Project Built Environment University of 11-14th
Managers and complexity Liverpool (UK) September,
Performance (Becon) 2005
Measures: Some
Methodological
Challenges
5 A conceptual Building Education Polytechnic 14.-
predictive model and Research University of 17thApril,
for evaluating the Conference (BEAR) Hong Kong 2006
performance of
project managers
in Mass House
Building Projects.
6 Redefining International Universiti 13-15th June
performance Conference in Built Teknologi 2006
measurement Environment in the Mara,
systems: a 21st Century Malaysia
multidimensional (ICiBE, 2006)
concept

13
General introduction

Paper Title of paper Conference/Journ Place/Locati Date/Rema


No. al on rks
7 Development of Association of University of 4-7th
Research Construction Central September
Instrument for Management England, 2006
Project Managers Researchers Birmingham
Performance (ARCOM)
Measure in Mass
House Building
Projects
8 A Model for Journal of Tentatively
Predicting the Construction accepted
Performance of Engineering and
Project Managers Management,
in Mass House American Society
Building Projects of Civil Engineers
at the
Construction
Phase
9 Towards International UK In press
Redefining Journal of Project
Performance Management
Measures for
Construction
Project
Managers:
Should
Contextual
Performance
Behaviours be
Distinguished
from Task
Performance
Behaviours?
10 Critical Success International UK In press
Criteria for Mass Journal of Project
House Building Management
Projects in
Developing
Countries
11 Towards Ghana Journal of Ghana Under
Improving the Science and review
Competency of Technology
Project Managers
in Ghana: An
Empirical Study

1.9 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS

The thesis comprises of nine chapters and these have been


organised as follows:

14
General introduction

Chapter one deals with the background to the research including

justification, the problem statement, research questions, aims and

objectives, research methodology and the associated contribution

to knowledge emanating from the research.

Chapter two addresses generic issues relating to HRM with

particular reference to PMs’ performance measures in project-

based sectors of the construction industry. Subsequently, an

appropriate definition of the term PM and performance measures

is provided. Other relevant issues discussed here are

methodologies for measuring the performance of the PM and what

constitutes a robust methodology in regard to measuring and

improving managerial competencies

In chapter three, a critical review of human resources

development (HRD) programmes in developing countries including

the development of project management knowledge in MHBPs is

presented. Thereafter a critical review of the Ghanaian

construction industry, in particular, the housing sector is also

presented. The chapter then traces how management practices

have evolved in MHBPs and the contribution that PMs have made

towards engendering effective managerial performance. Against

this background, the justification for the research in the Ghanaian

context is re-emphasised.

15
General introduction

Chapter four presents the development of the underlying

conceptual model for the study. Issues discussed here include the

various theoretical frameworks, namely: the organisational

psychology theory of job performance: a project success

framework; the development of a project success framework for

MHBPs; framework for project lifecycle. Thereafter, a commentary

on how these frameworks were combined to develop an

appropriate conceptual model is provided.

Chapter five addresses the research methodology adopted. The

research paradigm is described including the design of the

research instrument and method for collecting the relevant data.

Chapter six addresses the preliminary analysis of the data

collected. This includes descriptives analysis of demographic data

and the use of appropriate statistical methods namely, one sample

t-test and factor analysis on the dependent variables. Factor

analysis was used to help reduce the dependent variables to a

manageable size for the subsequent development of the model.

Chapter seven is devoted exclusively to the development of the

substantive model including discussions of the findings and the

potential recommended application. The application of multiple

regression analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA),

multicollinearity test and residual analysis are reported here. An

16
General introduction

in-depth discussion of the theoretical convergence and

significance of the findings is also presented in this chapter.

Chapter eight describes the validation process and the

methodology adopted in the validation procedure, namely external

and internal validation. The validation processes are discussed in

terms of the literary, conceptual and substantive domains of the

research. Results of both the external and internal validation

process lend reasonable support to the reliability and robustness

of the predictive fit of the model and the literature search

respectively.

Finally, in chapter nine, the fundamental objectives of the research

are reviewed and highlighted. Conclusions drawn from the work

are presented and recommendations are made.

1.9 SUMMARY

The background of the study including the problem statement, aim

and objectives, scope and research methodology have been

presented. The significance of the findings, in particular, aspects

relating to the potential contribution to knowledge have been

illuminated. The next chapter, (i.e. chapter two) introduces a

critical review of performance measurement in the HRM genre,

especially those relating to PMs’ performance measures.

17
General introduction

CHAPTER TWO

18
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Chapter 2: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT IN THE HUMAN

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT GENRE

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Chapter one broadly introduced the research aim and objectives

and presented an overview of the organization of the thesis. This

chapter provides a critical review of the development of

performance measures as reflected in the human resource

management (HRM) research and especially in the context of the

construction industry. A working definition of the term project

manager (PM) is then argued in the context of this research.

Thereafter, the methodologies for measuring the performance of

PMs are discussed including a thorough critique of their potential

application in construction. This is then followed by an in-depth

discussion of the emerging importance of competency-based

methodologies in focusing the attention of PMs on continuing

performance improvement. The chapter concludes with an

evaluation of contemporary-based competency frameworks

towards identifying the most appropriate option for satisfying the

objectives of this research.

19
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

2.1 PERFORMANCE MEASURES IN THE HUMAN

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CONTEXT

This section begins by introducing issues relating to the definitions

and significance of performance measures in HRM practices and is

divided into two sub-sections. Sub-section 2.1.1 provides a

chronology of some of the key definitions of performance measures

and then draws on these as a foundation towards establishing an

appropriate working definition for this research. Thereafter, sub-

section 2.1.2 reflects on the significance of performance measures

in the management of human resources. This is followed by a

discussion on the relevance of predictive models towards

identifying the relevant performance measures (section 2.1.3) and

then a justification towards the need for identfifying performance

measures for MHBPs in developing countries (2.1.4).

2.1.1 Towards Defining Performance Measures

Various definitions of performance measures exist in the HRM field

stemming from the different interpretations often given to the

meaning of the term “performance” (see Yassamis et al, 2002). For

instance, a long standing definition provided by Warren (1934)

posited that performance measures could be defined as a standard

for making qualitative comparisons or as the basis for making

judgement (Austin and Vallinova, 1992). English and English

(1958) also postulated four definitions thus: a basis for judgement;

20
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

a behavioural goal by which progress is judged; a measure of

validity; a measure of predictability. Reber (1985) also defined

performance measures as a standard against which judgement,

evaluation or classification can be made. Scott (1917), Bechtoldt

(1947), Weitz (1961) and Zammuto (1984) are among some of the

long standing researchers who have also provided alternative

definitions (see Austin and Vallinova, 1992).

Presently, contemporary researchers of HRM practices are still

saddled with trying to identify what should be a concise definition

(ibid). However, following, a comprehensive review of some of the

key definitions from 1917 to “modern” times, Austin and Vallinova

(1992) contended that performance measures can succinctly be

defined as a measure (directly or indirectly) based on the elements

of performance behaviours and outcomes. Austin and Vallinova

(1992) further contended that the elements involved in

performance measures should make it possible to make

predictions about the performance of individuals for the benefit of

organisational growth. Pierce (1994) and Liu and Walker (1998)

are in agreement with this concept and contend that performance

measures should consist of deliverable outputs supported by

behavioural abilities.

In the construction industry, an appropriate definition of

performance measures (i.e. in the HRM context) also remains

contestable (Brown and Adams, 2000; Dainty et al, 2003; Ahadzie

21
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

et al, 2005a). While traditionally, performance measures have been

conceptualised based on the output-based measures of time, cost

and quality (see for instance Russell et al, 1997; Brown and

Adams, 2000), recently researchers have argued that a more

appropriate conceptualisation should reflect behavioural

competencies (see for example Dullaimi and Langord, 1999; Dainty

et al, 2003; 2004). The proponents of this emerging concept (i.e.

those supporting behavioural competencies) contend that

performance measures founded on key behavioural attributes are

more rigorous in the sense that, they offer a better opportunity for

PMs to engage in continuous performance improvement.

Furthermore, they (see in particular Dainty et al, 2003) argue that

a definition based on behavioural measures is concurrent with the

contemporary ideology in the HRM field, which is to engender

employees’ professional development for best practice

improvement (see also Dainty et al, 2004).

Accordingly, the established view amongst construction

management researchers presently is that, PMs’ performance

measures can implicitly be defined in one of two ways: that is,

either to conceptualise based on output- based measures or

alternatively, to conceptualise based on behavioural measures.

Certainly, the two established concepts as identified above are

valid for defining performance measures depending on which

reference point one is arguing from (see Brown and Adams, 2000;

Dainty et al, 2003), however to define each concept independently

22
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

as it currently appears in construction management practice does

not reflect the mutual perspective overtly recommended by, for

instance, Austin and Vallinova (1992). Thus, PMs’ performance

measures conceptualised solely on one definition or another fails

to capture the performance domain from a broader perspective

and hence are not holistic (Liu and Walker, 1998; Cheng et al,

2003).

Again, while researchers concur that there is the need for

performance measures of PMs to engender continuous

performance improvement, no attempt has been made to explicitly

link the definition to the various distinct phases that exist within

project lifecycles (Ahadzie et al, 2005a). This is against the

background of recent evidences to the effect that, different factors

(e.g. those relating to management support and personality

factors) significantly affects project success and might therefore

be influencing the PMs skills and capabilities at the various phases

of the project lifecycle (see Lim and Mohammed, 1999; Morris et

al, 2000; Belout and Gavreau, 2004). This evidence has convinced

some construction management researchers to recently argue for

a much broader definition that reflects the performance of PMs

throughout the whole life cycle of a project (Ahadzie et al, 2006a)

Subsequently, drawing from the generic definition provided by

Austin and Vallinova (1992), it is contended that performance

measures in construction human resource management (CHRM),

23
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

should appropriately and explicitly be redefined as measures

based on performance behaviours and outcomes. Furthermore, the

behavioural measures should be linked to the various phases of the

project lifecycle. These would then be potentially useful for

predicting and providing continuous feedback to PMs at various

organizational levels and/or phases of the project lifecycle

(Ahadzie et al, 2006a). By introducing the concepts of

organisational levels and/or project phases and by reflecting the

key tenets of contemporary HRM research, it is contended that

this definition is useful in conceptualising the performance of PMs

from a more holistic and/or multi-dimensional perspective

(Ahadzie et al, 2005a; 2006a).

2.1.2 The Significance of Performance Measures in


HRM Practices

As shown through the chronology of the various definitions

provided above, the practical significance of performance

measures in the HRM genre has been recognised since

management research started in the early part of the 20th century.

Indeed, research and development of the relationship between

managerial work and performance measures has been the subject

of systematic HRM research since Henri Fayol published his work

on industrial and general administration in 1916 (Borman and

Brush, 1993). Since then, several published works have attempted

to address the issue of the constructs of the managerial

performance domain in various ways and it is now generally


24
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

acknowledged that the trend is set to continue (Conway, 2000;

Garavan et al, 2000).

Performance measures represent a key process for managers who

want to enhance or maintain organizational effectiveness as it is

their actions that, by and large, affect the use of organizational

resources (Latham et al, 1979; Abraham et al, 2001). Furthermore,

performance measures are often the only potential means for

evaluating the theories of work behaviour; the effective

administration of human resources and the provision of feedback

to management personnel (Austin and Villanova, 1992; Hayes et al,

2000: Woerkom et al, 2002; Gibb, 2003). Thus, performance

measures are essential for providing organizations the basis for

planning management succession and development at the

workplace (Tett et al, 2002: Ford, 2004). To this effect,

performance measures represent the most important human

resource scheme insofar as they represent critical decisions

integral to a variety of human resource actions and outcomes (see

Cawley et al, 1998: Gibb, 2003; Scullen et al, 2003).

In recent times, there has been renewed interest in research into

the development of performance measures as the only viable

option for validating effective managerial performance (see e.g.

Conway, 2000; Tett et al, 2000; Abraham, 2001; Scullen et al,

2003). This research agenda is being driven by the changing

structure of organizations due to increasingly sophisticated

25
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

technological, economic and demographic trends (Gibb, 2003;

Lepine, 2003). Advances in globalisation and communication

technologies have provided impetus for increased technological

transfer which has also made products more stakeholder/customer

focussed. Thus, organisations are being forced to innovate to

remain competitive by largely structuring work activities around

teams rather than individuals (ibid). To enhance and maintain the

competitive edge, successful organizations are therefore relying

on their managers and other key human resource personnel

acquiring a range of skills through the development of appropriate

performance measures (Brophy and Kiely, 2002).

Similarly, in most project-based industries such as construction, it

is becoming increasingly important for organizations to proactively

manage the performance of key management personnel towards

the desired growth and direction of competitive advantage (see

Dainty et al, 2004; 2005). Equally, there is an increasing

acknowledgement that performance measures can be used to

underpin the management profiles and development functions of

PMs (see Cheng et al, 2005). This acknowledgement of the

centrality of performance measures towards the professional

development of PMs reflects a concurrent focus within the HRM

field on the integration of employee improvement mechanisms into

organizational strategy (Dainty et al, 2003). In effect, it is now also

well-recognised within construction management practice that

performance measures are an established recourse to help refocus

26
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

PMs on what it takes to achieve managerial excellence in a

modern competitive work environment.

2.1.3 Development of Predictive Models and the

Implication for PMs Performance Measures in

Developing Countries

Performance measures are also of significance potential value in

HRM for prediction purposes (Austin and Vallinova, 1992: Gellatly

and Irving, 2001). This is because managers in particular are

constantly in search for information that can help them make

prompt decisions concerning the present and future management

of projects (ibid). Subsequently, in trying to identify the

performance profile of managers, researchers now tend to focus

attention on developing the predictive power associated with the

measures involved (Gellatly and Irving, 2001). Indeed, Dainty et al

(2005), for example, re-inforces the notion that, the development

of predictive models is of potential significant value in the

identification of robust performance measures. Mirable (1997) also

noted that performance modelling is by far the most reasonable

approach towards developing job profiles and in assessing an

employee’s level of competency. Thus, insofar as predictive models

can serve as a foundation for the selection and development of the

related measures targeted to the future development of managers,

their predictive power cannot be taken for granted (see for

instance Tett et al, 2000: Gelatly and Irving, 2001). This largely
27
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

explains why researchers in the HRM domain have become

increasingly committed towards identifying the relevant

performance measures by focussing on appropriate predictive

modelling across industries, sectors and various organizational

levels (Tett et al, 2000: Conway, 2000; Dainty et al, 2005).

While the foregoing suggests that performance measures

(including their associated predictive characteristics) are

beneficial in supporting organizations in their HRM activities,

their potential significance are yet to be reflected in the

construction industry of many developing countries (see for

instance Wachiru, 2000). Despite representing one of the largest

sphere of influence, the construction industry in developing

countries has historically adopted a passive approach towards

satisfying the professional needs of the key management personnel

employed in that domain (Ibid). Interestingly, this inertia is

manifested against the backdrop that the problems affecting the

managerial skills of project teams are often largely related to their

competencies (see e.g. Imbert, 1990; Teeraegtgul and

Charoenngham, 2004: Rwelamila, 2007). Granted that effective

HRM is of strategic importance to all organisations, especially in

respect to creating and sustaining competitive egde (see

Huemann, et al, 2007), there is the need for the construction

industry of developing countries to recognise the rewards to be

gained in developing an understanding of the human resource

28
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

(HR) dynamics in project oriented companies and sectors within

the industry.

2.1.4 An Overview of Project Management Practices in

Developing Countries

The implementation of construction projects in developing

countries presents some of the most challenging arenas within

which to apply effective project management techniques (El-

Saaba, 2001). In reality, these projects tend to be characterised by

crisis, uncertainty and suspense which warrants a test of ability on

the performance of PMs in coordinating and controlling a diverse

selction of functional specialist (ibid). Therefore, apart from their

technical knowledge and expertise, PMs are encouraged to

demonstrate a whole range of behavioural skills that can help

engender effective multiorganizational teamwork and

communication towards achieving successful project outcome

(Faniran et al, 2000; El-Saaba, 2001). The identification,

assessment and maintenance of behavioural competencies could

therefore be fundamental towards the optimization of the

performance of contemporary PMs in developing countries (Trejo

et al, 2002).

Indeed, project management as a profession and area of research

continues to expand and develop in many developing countries

(see for instance Kartam et al, 2000). There is also a growing

29
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

awareness that effective project management practices provide a

potentially rigorous concept towards improving project

performance (see for example Struckenbruck and Zomorrodian,

1997; Kuruoglu and Ergen, 2000; Abassi and Al-Mharmah, 2000).

However, while project management competence (i.e. measusing

success in terms of, for example, the iron triangle) is fundamental

to effective project performance, it should also be recognised that

it is PMs who deliver projects and not processes and systems

(Cooke-Davies, 2002). Thus, the effective performance of the PM is

a critical factor towards understanding and improving the related

managerial practices required (Goodwin, 1993). However, granted

that project management practices differ across areas, industries

and sectors (Crawford, 2006), any attempt towards understanding

the PMs’ performance domain has to be undertaken in tandem

with the intricate and complex social, political and cultuaral

interactions prevailing (Abassi & Al-Mharmah, 2000; Faniran et al,

2000; Kartam et al, 2000). Thus, while project management

competence should be supported, PMs’ performance measures

would be significant to help identify, adapt and implement best

practices towards responding effectively to the unique challenges

prevailing in construction environment in developing countries.

Furthermmore, PMs’ performance measures are capable of

providing both a predictve and consultative system which has the

potential for engendering the professional development of PMs.

Thus, to this end, PMs’ performance measures in the construction

industry of developing countries could provide basis for many

30
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

HRM functions, such as developing management expertise,

maintaining management succession and retaining skills of key

managerial performers (see for instance Rwelamila, 2007; Plessis,

2007)

2.1.5 Towards identifying Performance Measures for

PMs in Mass House Building Projects in Developing

Countries

Mass house building projects (MHBPs) represent the largest and

most established project-based sectors in many developing

countries by virtue of the contribution they make to construction

GDP. It is therefore not surprising that the management of these

projects often attracts the largest concentration of human

resource personnel in the construction industry (see for instance

Wells, 1999; Zawdie and Langford, 2000; Wells, 2007). Indeed, the

diverse work activities involved also attract huge socio-economic

interest across all boundaries of the social divide (see Keivani and

Werna, 2001). To this end, effective project management has

become one of the most demanding roles that PMs have to face

towards achieving project success in these projects. However, the

relatively weak technological, socio-economic and organizational

set ups in many developing countries poses unique and

fundamental challenges for aspiring and experienced PMs (see

Ofori, 1989; Keivani and Werna, 2001; Abbasi et al, 2000; Faniran

et al, 2000).

31
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Paradoxically, PMs engaged in the management of these projects

also lack the benefit of any systematic criteria which can help

them achieve excellence in the relatively unique and difficult

environment that they operate. Identification of appropriate

performance measures could therefore initiate an important step

in the development of improved HRM approaches in the sector

towards helping to address effective project management

practices on future housing supply. While the possibility exists for

the potential rewards to be realised, there is the need for the

conceptual and methodological taxonomies to be earnestly

developed in pursuit of appropriate evaluative criteria (Ahadzie et

al, 2005b). This research is therefore founded on the contention

that if the significance of performance measures is to be relevant

in the construction industry in developing countries, then the

underlying criteria that would help PMs reflect positively on their

personal development in MHBPs needs to be identified. Thus, this

research views the emphasis on MHBPs as a potentially significant

foundation for initiating and contributing towards HRM

performance improvement research agenda for the construction

industry in developing countries (Ahadzie et al, 2004).

Following from the foregoing, it was therefore considered

imperative to have a deeper understanding of existing

performance measurement frameworks in the HRM genre so that

an appropriate theoretical perspective can be adopted for

32
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

achieving the objectives of this research. A review of such

frameworks is therefore further provided. However as a priori, the

need to establish a definition of the PM in the context of this

research is first addressed in the following section.

2.2 TOWARDS DEVELOPING A DEFINITION OF THE

PROJECT MANAGER

While the centrality of the critical role of PMs is widely recognised

in the construction industry, it is interesting to note that the

interpretation of the title itself is often far from agreement (see for

instance Brinberg, 1999). In some instances the term has been

used to describe persons/entities that monitor, oversee and/or

provide broad supervision on projects (Lock, 1987). Some

researchers have also attempted to provide an alternative

understanding by distinguishing the roles of the PM from that of

say a project coordinator. However, the same researchers have

acknowledged that the distinction can be very thin depending on

the roles assigned and prevailing (see for instance Odusami et al,

2003). More recently, Jha (2006a; 2006b) also attempted to

provide some further insight and reported that generally the term

PM, project coordinator, construction manager, project

administrator and project controller are often used

interchangeably.

33
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

While this debate may continue for some time, one critical issue

that cannot be overlooked is the suggestion that the title should be

used for one who exercises total authority and also accepts full

responsibility for the management of projects (Lock, 1987).

Equally, Walker (2002) contends that it is important to focus on

what the PM does rather than what should be the precise

definition or title, as this holds the key to achieving project

objectives. Walker (Ibid) further argues that if there should be any

definition at all, such a definition should uphold the principles of

project management, which is to consider the interests of the

client as a priority. However, given that stakeholder interest is

gradually replacing the traditional client focus, PMs are faced with

not only the traditional single client but also “multiple clients”

whose diverse interests also have to be satisfied (see Newcombe,

2003).

The appropriate professional background of the PM also remains a

debatable subject. According to the CIOB (2002), the PM could

come from any professional background but would also need to

have the requisite skills and competence to manage all aspects of

projects from conception to completion. Ogunlana et al (2002)

have also noted that while the PM could come from any

background, generally the consensus is the need to possess some

degree of technical skills relating to the project at hand.

Alternatively, Odusami et al (2003) contends that any construction

34
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

related professional could be a PM provided a good overall

knowledge and experience of the industry is demonstrated.

Presently, what is apparent is that whatever their professional

background and the roles assigned, PMs could be part of an in-

house team, a consultant or contracting organization (see Figure

2.1). Furthermore, whatever the background, the PM will be

expected to work with people from varied professions. Thus, the

human factor including the associated managerial competencies is

crucial and decisive if the PM is to deal effectively with the

numerous competing interests involved (EL-Saaba, 2001; Cooke-

Davies, 2002).

Generally, MHBPs differ from many of the one-off projects often

encountered in the construction industry in many ways (see

chapter three, section 3.3 for details). For instance, unlike the

traditional one-off projects, MHBPs are ofen speculative in nature.

“Speculative” is used in the sense that the acquisition of land,

design of house-units and construction are made without reference

to any specific customer and/or client in mind (see for instance

Roy and Cochrane, 1999). Subsequently, unlike many one-off

projects, the responsibility for the management of the design and

construction of these projects often lie with a single organisation –

the property developer or homebuilder (see for instance

Masterman, 1992).

35
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Indeed in Ghana, the practice in the house building industry is for

the PM to be appointed at an early stage to provide key

management decisions throughout the project lifecycle (i.e. to

provide some advice on the decision to build, help acquire the land

including associated feasibility studies, identify appropriate

procurement routes, supervise and manage physical construction

till completion and provide the necessary advice on facilities

management) (Ahadzie et al, 2004). As such, in the context of this

research, the PM is defined as the individual that has the authority

and responsibility for the management of MHBPs from inception to

completion and who works in the interest of the key stakeholder

(herein identified as the property developer). An appropriate

organisational structure reflecting the PMs’ role in MHBPs in

Ghana is presented later in chapter three (see Figure 3.7).

Client

Project manager:
Client in-house,
consultant or

Design Team: Consultants:


Architects Quantity surveyors
Engineers Planning supervisors
Technology Development surveyors
Town planning
Legal
Contractor Financial/leasing
Design Audit
Health, safety and
environmental
protection
Subcontract Subcontract Facilities management
Highways/traffic
planning
Functional liaison & interrelated Construction manager
Key: working
Project direction & supervision
Contractual relationship

36
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Figure 2.1: Typical project structure involving the project


manager

Source: After CIOB (2002)

As noted by Goodwin (1993), the fundamental concept of project

management is that a single individual (in this case the PM) is

accountable for the success of a project (see also Jiang et al,

1998). That is, by being responsible for the implementation of

MHBPs from inception to completion, PMs in the Ghanaian context

are deemed to be held accountable for the success of these

projects throughout their lifecycle. This not withstanding, it is also

noted that albeit being accountable for the successful outcome of

projects, the effectiveness of the PM is only one of many factors

that impinge on the outcome of projects (see Goodwing, 1993:

Dainty et al, 2003). Yet, the effectiveness of the PM constitutes a

critical parameter among the many variables that may directly or

indirectly affect the outcome of projects (Goodwin, 1993). It is for

this reason that, it is of crucial importance that the skills required

by PMs are clearly understood by key stakeholders in construction

organisations and those aspiring to be PMs (ibid). To this end, the

objective of this study is to focus on the variables that are within

the control of PMs and which have the potential of improving their

own effectiveness in MHBPs. This demands background

knowledge and understanding of the methodologies for measuring

the performance of PMs which are addressed in the next section.

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

2.3 MEASURING THE PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT

MANAGERS

This section considers the methodologies for measuring the

performance of PMs and is grouped into three sub-sections. The

first sub-section discusses traditional-based approaches for

assessing the performance of PMs including the associated

governing variables. This is followed by an evaluation of recent

developments in regard the application of contemporary

methodologies, namely, personality-based approaches. Thereafter,

the third sub-section discusses the emergence of competency-

based approaches and how contemporary researchers have come

to acknowledge these as the most appropriate option for

engendering managerial excellence.

2.3.1 Traditional-Based Approaches

Traditionally, the evaluation of the performance of PMs has been

conceptualised and operationalised based on the iron triangle of

cost, time and quality (Latham et al, 1979; Russell et al, 1996).

However, in recent years, criticisms have come up against these

traditional measures with regard to their suitability for

engendering effective managerial practices. The limitations have

been well documented by a number of authors (see e.g. Latham et

al, 1979; Dullaimi and Langford, 1999: Dainty et al, 2003; Bassioni

et al, 2004). The key problem lies in the fact that, these traditional-

based approaches only provide lagging information in the sense

38
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

that the outcomes of managerial actions/decisions only become

available at project completion (Bassioni et al, 2004). The irony is

that PMs would rather prefer prompt feedback on their

performance so that appropriate changes can be enacted on their

current and future projects. These traditional measures also

provide further limitations because they are influenced by factors

outside the control of PMs. As a result, they are unable to isolate

the contribution of PMs from extraneous influences including that

of other team members. This makes it significantly difficult for

them (PMs) to make any credible assessment towards their own

personal development (Dainty et al, 2003; Cheng et al, 2005).

Indeed, what makes these traditional measures very appealing is

that they are relatively objective and easy to determine (Latham et

al, 1979). However, the consensus points to the fact that they are

often in conflict with the larger corporate objectives and ethics

especially when it comes to achieving cost targets; they contain

elements beyond the control of the PM; they frequently make

accountability of the PM redundant; and most importantly they do

not tell the PM what it is that they are actually doing that is

effective or ineffective (Ibid). Subsequently, Latham et al (1979)

concluded that, these output related approaches are particularly

troublesome for defining, developing and/or maintaining

managerial excellence. In recent times, new and emerging criteria

such as client satisfaction, project participant satisfaction, health

and safety, environmental friendliness and risk containment have

39
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

been integrated into the commonly known traditional variables

(see for instance Kumarsawamy and Thorpe 1996: Ling, 2004).

However, recent findings from the from mainstream project

management literature suggests that the introduction of these new

and emerging criteria (listed above) has not helped in addressing

the key shortcomings of the traditional - based approaches,

because they are still used for assessment at project completion

(Ahadzie et al, 2006c).

2.3.2 Personality-Based Approaches

Personality is the set of traits within individuals that influences

their interactions and adaptation to the physical and social

environment (Larsson and Buss, 2005). Personality-based

approaches are therefore conceptualised and operarionalised

based on the trait descriptive taxonomies of PMs (see for instance

El-Saaba, 2002). Typical examples of such trait-like characteristics

are extroversion, impulsiveness, introversion, initiative, urgency

and leadership (Tett et al, 2000). Many personality psychologists

hypothesise that personality traits are relatively stable and

enduring over time (see Larsson and Buss, 2005) and, this is what

makes personality-based approaches potentially useful for

predictions (ibid). However, while personality-based approaches

have a long history for prediction and can also help engender

continuous performance improvement, it is only in the relatively

recent times that they have seriously been considered for

40
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

measuring the performance of PMs in the construction industry

(see for instance El-Saaba, 2001; Ogunlana, et al, 2002; Odusami

et al, 2003).

The problem with personality-based approaches are that, because

they are founded on a persons traits, they often cause confusion

and misunderstanding at the work place as superiors, peers and

subordinates frequently interpret them differently (Latham et al,

1979; Tett et al, 2000). For example, leadership could be

interpreted by one group to mean: motivating others, team

building and worker concern whilst for another group it may mean

motivating others, directing and strategic planning (Tett et al,

2000). Furthermore, because personality traits are often

genetically inherited, they are not readily amenable to change and

hence not suitable for developing training requirements (Croft,

1996). Thus, whilst personality traits are useful for predicting

human performance (in that they help describe how individuals

differ from each other), they are largely limited for developing

programmes for training purposes (Croft, 1996; Dullaimi et al,

1999; Tett et al, 2000). Against the background that the aim of

training and development is to change behaviours at the

workplace (Cowling and Mialer cited in Olomolaiye and Egbu,

2004) it sounds plausible to reckon that personality–based

approaches are not robustly useful as tools for engendering the

continuing professional development of PMs.

41
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

2.3.3 Competency-Based Approaches

Generally, there is some confusion over the use of the term

competency in construction management research. It is therefore

important to put the meaning of the term in context before

addressing the relevance of competency-based approahces.

2.3.3.1 A definition for competency

Cheng et al (2003) have identified two interpretations in the use of

the term “competency” stemming from the US and UK

explanations. The predominant US interpretation defines

competency as the underlying attributes of a person - largely an

input-based methodology. In contrast, the UK interpretation sees

competency as a set of performances and standards often linked to

output-based measures (i.e. competence). An extant review of

literature by Brophy and Kiely (2002) also revealed three main

positions taken towards the definintion of the terminology. That is,

competency relates to: observable performance; the standard or

quality of the outcome of the person’s performance; the underlying

attributes of the person. To this effect, it is common to find in the

literature that the terms competency and competence are often

used indiscrimately as a synonyms (Dainty et al, 2004). In the

opinion of Cheng et al (2003), the divergent interpretations

adopted by the US and UK has largely led to confusion in the

definition of the terminology.

42
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Nevertheless, following the increasing attention that competency-

based approaches are gradually receiving in construction

management research, it is now becoming clear and accepted that

competency is best used to describe input-based measures

(underlined by behavioural metrics) rather than an externally or

output-based measure (Dainty et al, 2004). There is therefore now

a general acknowledgement by HRM researchers that, the term

competency should be defined as a person related concept that

refers to the dimensions of behavioural action (and underlying

competent performance) as against competence which is a concept

related to some output-based measures (ibid).

Therefore, in the context of this study, competency when used is

interpreted as: “an identifiable aspect of prospective work

behaviour attributable to the individual that is expected to

contribute positively and/or negatively to organisational

effectiveness.” (Tett et al, 2000)

Recently, Crawford (2005) has furthered construction management

reseachers understanding of the terminology by providing three

interesting classifications, namely; input competencies, personal

competencies and output competencies. Input competencies as

defined by Crawford refer to the knowledge and skills that a

person brings to a job. Personal competencies relate to the core

43
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

attributes underlying a person’s capability to execute a job.

Alternatively, output competencies are identified as the

“demonstratable” performance that a person exhibits at the job

place. In Crawford’s (2005) view the overall contributon of these

competencies is important towards achieving competence.

2.3.3.2 Relevance of competency-based approaches

Currently the consensus among HRM reseachers including those

in the construction management discipline is that competency-

based approaches are emerging as the rational basis for an

integrated human resources policy towards organisational

development (Hayes et al, 2000). To this effect, the IPMA website,

for instance, states that “competency models have become a

dramatic recourse in refocusing people on what it takes to

succeed in today’s workplace environment.”(cited in Brophy and

Kiely, 2002)

Competency-based approaches are becoming increasingly

important in HRM practices because they circumvent many of the

problems of the traditional techniques including facilitation and

identification of the appropriate measures towards achieving a

useful accurate prediction (Dainty et al, 2003; 2004). Unlike

functional competences, competency-based approaches can assist

PMs to contribute more effectively to their personal development

44
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

by enabling understanding of effective performance requirements

of the task required (Cheng et al, 2005).

It is therefore not surprising that the research agenda in the

construction management research genre is increasingly being

channelled towards developing appropriate competencies and

competency modelling (see for example Dullaimi and Langford,

1999; Dainty et al 2004; 2005; Skipper, 2006). That is,

identification of an appropriate competency-based predictive

model now represents an established alternative towards helping

PMs to focus on what will make them effective towards achieving

their professional goals (Cheng et al, 2003; 2005). Moreover,

competency-based models acknowledge the centrality of the

development of PMs towards the achievement of strategic

business objectives and so conform more comfortably with the

tenets of HRM orthodoxy (Dainty et al, 2003).

Thus, whilst various approaches are available for identifying and

developing performance measures of PMs, what is emerging is

that, to help enhance the PMs own professional development,

competency-based approaches offers a more potentially useful

methodology because they deal with behavioural measures that

are within the control of the PMs (Tett et al, 2000; Dainty et al,

2003; Fraser and Zakrada-Fraser, 2003). Given that the

performance measures being explored in this research context are

those within the control of PMs, it was therefore decided to further

45
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

explore the strategic importance of competency-based approaches

towards identifying an appropriate theoretical perspective for the

study.

2.4 THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF COMPETENCY-

BASED APPROACHES

As noted above, a key premise of competency-based approaches is

that, performance is essentially the degree to which PMs through

their behavioural competencies can help organizations reach their

intended goals. Thus, in this context, the PMs’ performance is

seen essentially as behaviour with an evaluative component

(Campbell 1983: McCloy et al, 1994; Borman et al, 1997). In the

light of the apparent weaknesses of the two previous

methodologies, it appears that competency-based approaches have

strategically emerged pivotal towards improving HRM practices

largely because:

• They focus primarily on what PMs do that makes them

successful or not. Subsequently, they have significantly more

potential for helping PMs to establish what makes them

effective and/or ineffective and also accountable for their

actions (Latham et al, 1979).

46
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

• They provide the psychological understanding needed for

selecting and predicting human performance (Motowidlo et

al, 1997).

• They resonate with the potential expectation of PMs and

have been shown to maximise developmental efficacy

(Offermann et al, 2004)

• There is the potential for achieving genuine economic value

for firms hence the increasingly important recognition in

their use in the examination of managerial effectiveness

(Spencer, 2001; Dainty et al, 2005)

• Above all, they are amenable for developing more realistic

and practical training requirements

Thus, unlike functional competences, which measure performance

against only output based-measures, competency –based

approaches reflect a cyclical and continuous process of assessing,

planning and taking corrective action on the performance of PMs

(Dainty et al, 2004).

Thus, while personality traits can also be used to predict the

performance of PMs, the scientific usefulness of using behavioural

competencies as operational measures is that these make it

possible to understand the underlying dispositions involved

47
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

towards PMs’ professional development (Borman and Motowidlo,

1993; Larsson and Buss, 2005). This is because competencies

more than general traits are more likely to be expected to be

amenable to change, for example through training (Tett et al,

2000). That is, behavioural competencies can be thought and

learned rather than inherent characteristics such as traits

(Skipper et al, 2006). Put emphatically, a person’s personality

cannot be changed, but, the behavioural action resulting from the

trait can be changed by the person being made aware of them

through training (Croft, 1996).

In effect, it appears that, because of their ability to facilitate the

development of training requirements competency-based

approaches would be expected to provide a better opportunity for

initiating staff training programmes, the development of

comprehensive job descriptions; facilitate decision-making

regarding manpower planning and staffing; and can be very useful

for goal setting (Latham et al, 1979; Pickett, 1998; Dainty et al,

2003; 2004). Therefore, competency-based approaches present a

prima facie case for utilizing and developing the potential of PMs

in order to enhance their competitive capabilities. In this

perspective, it could therefore be argued that, organisations that

use competency-based systems for assessing the performance of

their managers are visionary of high performance achievers

(Abraham et al 2001).

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Thus, for organizations who are keen to support the professional

development of their key management personnel, the implication

is that they define effective managerial performance in explicit

behavioural terms, that is, in terms of the observable episodes that

make managers successful (Latham et al, 1979; Gibb, 2003).

Subsequently, the onus for project organizations who want to

achieve best practice in their key professional staff is to create an

enabling environment for them to aspire and contribute towards

improving their personal skills (Heffenman and Flood, 2000;

Brophy and Kiely, 2002). These underlying attributes in respect to

helping PMs in their personal skills development place

competency-based approaches above the other two methodologies

as a core strategic HRM activity (Hayes et al, 2000; Garavan et al,

2000; Tett et al, 2000 Garavan et al, 2002).

2.5 EMERGING STUDIES ON PMs BEHAVIOURAL

COMPETENCIES

While competency-based approaches are gradually gaining

prominence in construction project management practice and

research, the evidences suggest that the knowledge base is still in

its infancy and would require much further studies (Fraser and

Zakrada-Fraser, 2003; Crawford, 2005). Indeed, in the

construction industry, the genesis of a concerted research agenda

towards improving PMs’ competency appears relatively young (see

.e.g. the work done by Mustapha and Naoum, 1998). Thereafter,

49
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

other relative studies such as those by Fraser (1999), Fraser

(2000) and Edum-Fotwe and McCaffer, (2000) have also been

acknowledged in the literature. The findings of these studies

(among others) provided useful foundation towards appreciating

the significance of personal characteristics in PMs’ effectiveness.

Notwithstanding the significance of the studies however, the

findings failed to provide an empirical understanding of the

competencies identified with respect to, for instance, the various

dimensions of competencies identified by Crwaford (2005).

Interestingly, Boyatzis (1997) has also noted that for a more in-

depth understanding of behavioural competencies, there is the

need to distinguish between any potential competency type and

levels of competencies.

Furthermore, while researchers agree that, where possible, the

use of “theories1” provide a more rigorous approach towards

understanding and advancing project management knowledge (see

Soderland, 2004; Judgev, 2004), these studies were largely based

on general guidelines from the literature (see for instance Fraser,

2000) or what Judgev (2004) describes as “practitioner-driven

normative approaches”. That is, while the findings of the studies

herein cited were indeed informed and supported by mainstream

project management literature, no evidenced-based practice

theory/model was advanced towards validating the conceptual and

empirical bases of the research design. This limitation in the lack


1
Theory as used here means an empirically proven proposition that reasonably
explains the inherent characterisitics of a phenomenon and has the potential for
ascertaining wrong predictions (See Judgev, 2004)

50
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

of a theory potentially limits the theoretical understanding of the

variables used, especially given the inherently complex nature of

behavioural measures (Liu and Walker, 1998; Garavan et al, 2003;

Scullen et al, 2003).

Other contemporary studies worth noting here are those

attributed to Dullaimi and Langford (1999), Dainty et al, (2003;

2004; 2005), Fraser and Zakrada-Fraser (2003), Cheng et al

(2005) and Skipper et al (2006). Perspectively, going by the

classifications of competencies provided by Crawford (2005), these

studies (cited just above) also suffer from the limitations outlined

previously. On a more positive note however, these studies made

some inroads by advancing some form of theory towards validting

the conceptual and empirial bases of their research design. For

instance, Dulaimi and Langford2, (1999) employed the contingency

model of leadership proposed by Fiedler (1967) as the basis for

developing the research instrument for their study. Dainty et al

(2003; 2004; 2005) and Cheng et al (2005) also utilised the well-

established Mcber job competency assessment process initially

developed for industrial psychology by McClelland (1973).

Alternatively, Fraser and Zakrada-Fraser (2003) relied on the

stakeholder theory, which posits that sustenable success rests, to a

great extent, with the systematic consideration of the needs and

goals of all key stakeholders. Skipper et al3 (2006) also relied on

2
In the context of this study the theory was also limited in scope as it was used
for only leadership behaviours
3
In the context of this study the theory was also limited in scope as it was used
for only leadership behaviours

51
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

what they termed the well-acclaimed Leadership Practices

Inventory (LPI) developed by Kouzes and Posner, (2002).

Notwithstanding, the use of evidence-based practice theories by

these researchers (just cited above) however, the way the theories

were advanced and implemented in suffice to suggest that they

might not be particularly useful for explicitly isolating and

explaining the managerial performance domain as, for instance,

evidenced by the various labels of competencies identified. To this

effect, further discussion on the limitation of these papers is

provided in section 2.6 in an effort towards identifying an

appropriate competency-based framework for addressing the

research objectives.

In the interim, it is also important to recognise the study by

Crawford (2005) part of which has already been introduced on

establishing an appropriate definition of competency. While

proposing the various classifications of competency, Crawford

(2005) treated the ideology as a concept and failed to provide an

empirical validation. It is therefore not overtly clear from the

empirical analysis undertaken by Crawford, how the various

variables might uniquely be contributing to the various

competencies. Additionally, the empirical findings (while informed

and supported by project management literature) were not

specifically and explicitly supported by any established theory (see

also Seng and Skitmore, 2004).

52
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Furthermore, it is to be recognised that project management

practice differs across geographical regions and applications areas

(Crawford, 2005). Thus, while there are indeed some useful

lessons to be learnt from the literature cited, it is evident that they

are not particularly appropriate for the situation in developing

countries as they are largely based on conditions prevailing in

developed economies such the UK, the US and Australia. There is

therefore the need for project-based organisations in the

construction industry in developing countries to also strive

towards establishing the appropriate measures, which are in

tandem with their technological, socio-economic, structural and

cultural practices.

However, in demand to the inherently complex nature of

construction projects, particularly, in an increasingly difficult and

unpredictable work environment such as those pertaining in many

developing countries, the behavioural competencies of PMs are

likely to be more complex and divserse than in most other

industries. Subsequently, the view of the author was that, project-

based sectors of the construction industry in developing countries

may require a methodology (in particular supported by an

evidenced-based practice theory) that would offer a much more

detailed analysis and understanding of the complex behavioural

variables likely to be involved.

53
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

2.6 IDENTIFYING AN APPROPRIATE COMPETENCY-

BASED FRAMEWORK

The problem with behavioural competencies is that while they are

important, they are also dynamic and difficult to identify (Fowler,

2000). What is more, identification of an appropriate competency-

framework is ongoing and the most effective methodology is yet to

emerge (see for example Borman and Brush, 1993; Conway, 2000;

Jones and Connolly, 2001; Cheng et al, 2003). Generally, it remains

unclear whether in practice it is possible to distinguish between

the development of generic and specific competency profiles for

specific industries and/or sectors (Brophy and Kiely, 2002).

However, the fact that these measures are complex and dynamic

does not mean the key variables involved cannot be isolated (Tett

et al, 2000). To this effect, not recognising and embedding these

behavioural measures in organizational programmes can have a

detrimental impact on the potential growth and competitiveness of

PMs (Cheng et al, 2005).

The foregoing has demonstrated that, where possible, researchers

in construction management currently draw on existing

frameworks from the HRM genre to facilitate the development of

appropriate competency models. While there may be many

potential theoretical perspectives (such as economic and general

management) to addressing competency modelling, Garavan et al

(2000) have noted that these theories most often fit into at least

one theoretical perspective and that is, the psychological domain.

54
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

That is, behavioural competencies as evidenced in mainstream

HRM publications, is rooted in psychological constructs (Liu and

Walker, 1998). It could therefore be argued that, a positive aspect

of the frameworks adopted in the studies previously highlighted in

section 2.5 is that, as they are all psychologically driven, they fit in

well with the tenets of contemporary human resource development

(HRD) research. Subsequently, while they offer convenient

opportunity in the ability to identify and appreciate appropriate

behavioural competencies, they also provide basis for legitimizing

the relevance of existing and emerging theories in construction

HRM research.

However, from an industrial and organizational psychology

perspective, these frameworks are also limited in a number of

ways. For instance, and as argued in the preceeding section, their

implementation suggests they might not be explicitly amenable for

investigating behavioural measures from a multidimensional

perspective. This is against the backdrop that behavioural

measures are complex and numerate and grouping them together

produces a psychological intractable hodgepodge (Motowidlo et al,

1997; Conway, 1999; Gelatly and Irving, 2001; Scullen et al, 2003).

For any specific job there are also substantive behaviours that are

distinguishable in terms of their correlation and patterns of

covariation with other variables (McCloy et al, 1994). Against the

backdrop that the use of theories currently has an under-

recognised and, yet important role to play in academic discipline

55
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

and practice of HRM programmes (Garavan et al, 2000), there is

therefore scope for a methodology, underlined by appropriate and

tested theoretical constructs that can also enable an empirical

understanding and validity of any existing potential labels of

competencies from a multidimensional perspective.

Drawing from organisational psychology literature, an evidence-

based practice theory that has been argued for having the

potential of measuring the PMs’ performance from a

multidimensional perspective was therefore explored for potential

application in this research (see Ahadzie et al 2006b). The theory

posits that a robust way of understanding the domain of

managerial performances is to separate the competencies into

contextual and task performance behaviours (Borman and

Motowildo, 1993; Motowildo et al, 1997; Scullen et al, 2003).

While task performance behaviours are job-specific and formally

recognised and/or rewarded such as the managers job description,

contextual performance behaviours refers to those discretionary

job-related acts such as working hard and helping others, which

informally contribute to organizational effectiveness but are not

formally recognised as part of the job (Motowidlo and Borman,

1997; Organ and Paine, 1999).

The main premise of the contextual-task distinction is that within

the job environment, what makes contextual performance

behaviours desirable or undesirable may be different from what

56
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

makes task performance behaviours desirable or undesirable

(Motowidlo and Borman, 1997). Hence, the antecedents of

contextual performance behaviours are likely to be different from

the antecedents of task performance behaviours (ibid).

Accordingly, the knowledge, skills and habits associated with

contextual behaviours are likely to be different from those of task

behaviours (Motowidlo et al, 1997). In this respect, it is also

important to remind readers of Mintzberg (1980) and later

Burgoyne (1989) who asserted that, while managerial jobs might

be generalized at some levels in a job situation, there are

differences at a detailed level of investigation (cited in Egbu, 1999;

Hayes et al, 2000). This coupled with Boyatzis (1997) assertion

(already mentioned above, refer page 40) suggests that any theory

based methodology such as the contextual-task framework, which

has the potential for exploring a detailed level of investigation of

the PMs’ performance domain should be welcomed.

Indeed, the evidence presently suggests that the contextual-task

distinction might be more relevant for assessing and

understanding managerial performance domain and is therefore

worth pursuing (Conway, 1999). This is because as managers often

get jobs done through others they more than other professionals

need to adequately posses the relevant personal skills, which must

be thorougly unearthed (Conway, 1999; Scullen et al, 2003). It is

therefore the contention that, the contextual-task performance

57
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

framework may be more appropriate for isolating the PMs’

behavioural performance domain in this research context because:

• It gives opportunity to define the potential variables in both

explicit and implicit behavioural terms;

• It portrays the performance domain as multidimensional and

thus has the potential of helping to distinguish potentially

specific profiles from generic profiles;

• It has been widely validated both within industrial-

psychological and the human resources genre (see Tett et al

2000); and

• It has been reported as providing consistently reliable and

valid findings across various job performance levels (see e.g.

Borman and Brush, 1993; Gellatly and Irving, 2001; Tett et

al, 2000).

Evidently, the use of theories capable of supporting studies on

behavioural competencies in construction management research is

still emerging (Liu and Walker, 1998). The criticisms levelled

against the theories/frameworks used in the literature herein cited

do not mean these theories are not useful as they provide

convenient frameworks for investigating and advancing the

theoretical understanding of the PMs’ managerial domain.

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

However, based on the narrative presented, it is contended that

the contextual-task performance framework might potentially

allow for a more fine detailed analysis and understanding of

managerial behaviour, its effects and measurement. Subsequently,

this could help organise the performance domain into behavioural

homogenous categories, which should make it possible to

understand the performance domain better (Motowdlo et al,

1997). In view of this disposition (and with particular reference to

the definition adopted for performance measures), the contextual-

task typology is revisited in much detail in chapter four when the

development of the conceptual model is discussed.

2.7 SUMMARY

This chapter has discussed some important generic issues

regarding the significance of performance measures in HRM,

especially, within the construction industry. While performance

measures were described as an important contributor to improving

HRM practices it is observed that this is yet to reflect in

construction management practice in developing countries.

Subsequently, using MHBPs as a case study, it is intended to

address this imbalance by developing appropriate PMs’

performance measures for that sector. It is contended that MHBPs

offer an appropriate foundation for this study because of their

considerable significance and the huge socio-economic interest

they attract.

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Consequently, a critical review of the methodologies for measuring

the performance of PMs has been undertaken with a view towards

adopting the most relevant approach for this research. The

literature suggests that competency-based approaches are

becoming increasingly accepted as the most effective for

identifying the appropriate performance measures. Furthermore,

it was argued that to make these competency-based measures

more effective, there was the need to make them multidimensional

by linking them to performance outcome and the project lifecycle.

Subsequently, an evaluation of some of the key competency

frameworks adopted recently for the construction industry in

particular were undertaken to help establish their potential

usefulness in this respect. It is contended that the contextual-task

performance framework, which considers the performance domain

of managers to be multidimensional might be a prudent basis for

this research.

In this chapter, a working definition of the PM has also been

argued in the context of the research. Given that the research

focuses on developing countries, the next chapter underpins the

justification of research by undertaking a critical review of

research and development in the management of human

resoureces in developing countries.

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CHAPTER THREE

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CHAPTER THREE: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE

MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

3.0 INTRODUCTION

In chapter two, the concepts and methodologies underlying the

measurement of the performance of PMs in the human resource

management (HRM) genre were considered. The focus of this

chapter is on the HRM literature to demonstrate the general lack

of research attention towards performance measurement of key

management personnel in developing countries. The potential

significance of PMs’ performance measures in the construction

industry of developing countries is discussed including the

importance of such measures being able to support their personal

development. Subsequently, a detailed appraisal of the

significance of MHBPs (i.e. viz. PMs’ performance measures) as a

key project-based sector is reinforced towards cementing their

strategic interest in this research context. To this end, a working

definition and characteristics of MHBPs, including their

implications towards the subsequent design of the research

methodology is provided.

In this chapter, the study area, Ghana is also introduced.

Perspectively, the significance of the construction industry is

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presented including an in-depth account of recent developments in

HRM practices in MHBPs.

3.1 TOWARDS IMPROVING HUMAN RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Here, a critique of the performance measurement literature is

presented to demonstrate the lack of research in the construction

industry and specifically in context of developing countries.

Subsequently, the implication and potential benefits to be derived

in adopting an appropriate PMs’ performance measures is argued.

3.1.1 A Review of Performance Measurement

Literature for Human Resource Development in

Developing Countries

Some of the notable attempts towards research and development

in the management of human resources (HR) in developing

countries are attributed to reseachers such as Wahab (1980),

Olomolaiye et al (1987) and Parker et al (1987). Following these,

Kaming et al (1997), Kaming et al (1998) and Navon and Goodman

(1997) have also made inroads towards making appropriate

contributions. While these earlier attempts are indeed well

registered in the literature, their emphasis was on factors

influencing craftmen productivity and the development of

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production rates/labour output for craftsmen. While managers of

construction projects could rely on these findings to potentially

plan and monitor the works of their subordinates, the findings had

little use for their own personal development.

During this period (1980s to 1997) the only known study which

came close to addressing HR issues at the managerial level is by

Enhassi (1997) which sought to improve the supervisor’s site

management practices in MHBPs. Nevertheless, this study fell

short of addressing performance measures and therefore cannot

be used to assess and predict the performance of PMs on future

projects.

Quite recently however, Ogunlana et al, (2002) and Ling, (2004)

have made some notable contributions by focusing specifically on

HRM practices at the project management level. For instance,

Ling (2004) attempted to model the factors influencing PMs’

performance so that they can reflect on these factors towards

improving their performance. However, the factors considered

were also outside the control of PMs and could therefore not assist

PMs towards improving their own personal skills.

Currently, the key study worth elaborating on in this research

context is the one attributed to Ogunlana et al (2002). This study is

significant here because it involved the development of a model for

matching PMs onto different project categories including

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residential structures. Indeed, Ogunlana et al (2002) concluded

that their findings could be used in the selection of PMs for the

different project types involved suggesting (albeit arguably) some

element of predictability.

Notwithstanding the significance of this study, the conceptual and

methodological approach adopted appears limited in various ways

and thus leaves scope for a more rigorous study. For instance, in

developing the matching model, Ogunlana et al (2002) elicited

information simultaneously on different project categories namely

commercial4 (33%), industrial (30%) and heavy engineering (37%)5

projects. However, it would seem that the operational measures

used in eliciting the relevant data were generic and not

particularly operationalized to reflect the uniqueness of the

projects involved. Furthermore, there is an indication that the

same participant (s) provided the data elicited for the different

project categories. However, asking the same respondents to draw

on the three categories of projects simultaneously poses serious

psychological challenges because performance evaluation involves

recall of information from memory and there is evidence to

suggest that, the process is often associated with distortions (see

for instance, Cantor and Mischel, 1979; Tsui and Ohlott, 1988).

This is because in assessing performance, respondents tend to

observe, encode, store and recall different information depending

on their experience, and asking the same respondent(s) to draw


4
Residential and commercial projects were grouped as one category.
5
Percentage indicates the proportion that each project accounted for in the
study

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

from varied experiences simultaneously for different project types

is potentially more likely to distort the information they recall

(Borman 1978). Thus, while, Ogunlana et al (2002) did advise the

respondents to treat each project category independent of each

other, there is some doubt that the mixed representation may

make it more difficult for the respondents to recall the appropriate

performance rating for the variables employed in assessing the

PMs.

Above all, the variables used in developing the matching model

were based on the so-called traditional and personality-based

measures. However, as argued in chapter two (section 2.4.1-2.4.4),

operational measures based on these approaches do not provide

sufficient grounds for engendering higher performance levels of

PMs. In contrast, it is recognised that competency-based measures

circumvents many of the problems associated with these measures

including facilitating the matching and selection of PMs and also

providing more accurate predictions about suitability (Dainty et al,

2003). Thus, while Ogunlana et al (2002) maintained that the

matching model can be used to select the services of the right PM

for the project types involved, it is contended that the conceptual

and methodological approach adopted leaves scope to construct a

more rigorous performance model that can be used to match,

select, predict and above all engender the PMs’ continuing

professional development.

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The foregoing suggests that while performance measures are

widely held as the only viable option for validating and

engendering managerial excellence in the HRM genre, the only

noteworthy work that has so far come close to addressing PMs

performance measures in developing countries is the literature

attributed to Ogunlana et al (2002). However, as demonstrated by

the review, while the attempt is notable, the conceptual and

methodological approach adopted limits the usefulness of the

findings for initiating a firm foundation on which the PMs’

professional development can be engendered. Thus, despite being

one of the largest industries in developing countries, the

construction industry is yet to adopt a more rigorous conceptual

and methodological approach towards identifying appropriate

PMs’ performance measures

3.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MASS HOUSE BUILDING

PROJECTS TOWARDS IMPROVING HUMAN RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

The importance of the construction industry in developing

countries is relatively well documented (see for instance Turin,

1973; Moavenzadah, 1978; Lopez et al, 1998; Zawdie and

Langford, 2000). For instance, in most sub-Saharan African

countries, the industry accounts for about 5% of the Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) in relation to a corresponding average of

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7% in developed countries (see Zawdie and Langford, 2000). At

the pivot of this importance is the contribution of MHBPs towards

the overall construction output. Barring civil engineering projects

(such as roads, dams, railways), MHBPs alone accounts for about

60% of the construction GDP attributed to all building projects (i.e.

including for instance schools, factories, offices and commercials)

(Wells, 1986; Zawdie and Langford, 2000: Wells, 2007). This

suggests that for most developing countries MHBPs make the

single most important contribution to the Gross Fixed Capital

Formation (GFCF). Furthermore, unlike Civil engineering works,

which are largely government controlled, MHBPs are now largely

private sector led and also register the largest employer of human

resources (see for instance Well, 1999; UK Trade and Investment,

2004; Wells, 2007). Thus, human resources management activities

in MHBPs could arguably be described as representing the

foundation for developing HRM skills for many other sectors of the

construction industry (see for instance Ganessan, 1983; Edmond

and Miles, 1984; Wells, 1999; Wells, 2007).

The significance of MHBPs could also be deduced by the constant

reference to economic indicators such as population growth rate,

mortgage credit availability/supply, house-hold income and rate of

household and economic growth in their implementation (see for

instance Hua, 1996: Windapo et al, 2004). With an estimated one

billion people or more living in inadequate housing in developing

countries currently, the association of the implementation of

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MHBPs to these economic indicators is becoming an increasingly

debatable subject amongst housing experts, policy makers and

civil society groups (see for instance Keivani and Werna, 2001).

Given the socio-economic interest that the implementation of

MHBPs attracts, it is not surprising that the construction

processes and quality of the products have for instance been the

focus of relatively good attention in construction management

research (see for instance Wahab, 1980; Odenyika and Yusif, 1997;

Okuwogo, 1998).

However, despite being the largest and arguably most established

project-based sector, MHBPs have remained significantly under-

researched and under-developed in relation to improving HRM

practices through identification of appropriate performance

measures and this is a reflection of the general construction

climate in developing countries. The implication is that at a time

when performance measures are receiving renewed attention,

PMs’ specializing in the management of arguably the single most

significant sector in many developing countries such as Ghana are

unaware of the criteria that can be used to validate their

performance towards best practice improvement. Ironically, the

poor management of these projects has constantly and

increasingly been the subject of severe criticism from

stakeholders, policy makers and civil society groups (see for

instance Enhassi, 1997: Keivani and Werna, 2001). Identification of

the appropriate PMs’ performance measures should therefore

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

serve as an important step for developing the skills of potentially

competent PMs, who can promote the effective management of

MHBPs in a relatively dynamic but increasingly difficult business

environment (see for instance Ahadzie et al, 2004; Mutajwaa and

Rwelamila, 2007). To this end, a working definition for MHBP is

provided so that the characteristics of these projects can be

incorporated into the subsequent design of the research

methodology.

3.3 DEFINING MASS HOUSE BUILDING PROJECTS

While the use of the term MHBPs is widely entrenched in the

construction industry, extensive review of the literature revealed

no comprehensive definition. Typically, the term is used in the

construction industry to describe mass production techniques of

housing development projects (see for instance Ashley, 1980;

Dhaneskar, 2000; EL-Rayes, 2003). The tracking of this definition,

which has been used by numerous reseachers to date is derived

from the manufacturing sector. This definition however fails to

explicitly highlight such characteristics as the project

environment; site conditions including topography; the weather;

bulky materials; design consideration (see for instance Burgess

and White, 1979: Proverbs, 1998).

In the quest for a definition encapsulating the true characteristics

of the construction industry it is proposed that MHBPs should be

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

defined for the purpose of the research as “the design and

construction of speculative standardised multiple house-units

usually in the same location and at executed within the same

project scheme” (Ahadzie et al, 2006a). Such house-units could

include: terrace, multi-storey or tower blocks, maisonettes, semi-

detached, and/or detached residences or any combination of them.

This definition acknowledges the key concept of repetitive

techniques in the production methods and also recognises the

perculiar characteristics of the construction industry (Ahadzie et

al, 2006c). For the purposes of this study four main points are

worth noting in regard to the definition of MHBPs:

• They must be based on one or more standardized designs in

the sense that the architectural design of all phases must be

largely identical for the house-units. This is necessary to

ensure the concept of repetition is met;

• They should involve the construction of domestic residences

(whatever their form).

• They must be speculative in the sense that the acquisition of

land, design of house-units and construction are made

without reference to any specific customer in mind;

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

• They should as much as possible be located in the same area

and be part of the same scheme or contract conditions.

By adopting this definition, it is also possible to distinguish MHBPs

from other recently developed analogous terms such as custom-

made housing projects (CMHPs) (which are often built to the

specification of the purchaser) (see for instance Iwasshita, 2001)

and mass custom designs (MCDs), which albeit mass produced are

not strictly speculative (see for instance Noguchi et al, 2005).

Basic experience or learning curve theory suggests that each time

the number of repetition doubles the cumulative production rate

(manhour per unit) declines by a consistent fixed percentage of the

previous cumulative production rate (Scwartzkopf (1995; Couto

and Teixeria, 2005). When this theory was replicated in the

construction industry using 45 identical house-units, it was

confirmed that each time the house-units doubled the cumulative

production rate improved by 90% (United Nations, 1965). This

suggests that a minimum of two house-units is sufficient to achieve

learning curve effect arising out of the repetition involved in

MHBPs.

This not withstanding, the United Nations Economic Commission

for Africa had suggested that for developing countries (particularly

those south of the Sahara) to meet their present and future

housing needs, they should aim at an annual production rate of 10

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house-units per 1000 population (Edmonds and Miles, 1984).

Drawing on this and also considering the realities of the economic

situation in most developing countries, the threshold for the

minimum quantity of house units is fixed at an average of 10

house-units per year in this study.

3.4 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MASS HOUSE

BUILDING PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

MHBPs differ in many ways from the traditional one-off projects

often encountered in the construction industry. For instance,

MHBPs by their nature must be based on standardised design;

there is the need to identify the stages in production at which

control is to be exerted; there is the need for production time

between stages including delivery schedule of house-units (see for

instance Burgess and White, 1979; Muhleman et al, 1992).

Generally because of their unique nature, the setting up of the

production system involves two associated problems; the

minimising of synchronizing loss and the maximizing of resource

utilization (Muhleman et al, 1992). Moreover, depending on the

quantity of house-units involved, these projects are often relatively

large-scale and can stretch over a considerable production area.

This coupled with the numerous interrelated skills involved makes

the management of these projects inherently more difficult to

manage than many one-off traditional projects (Mahdi, 2004).

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Typically, MHBPs have become the natural choice for meeting

large housing and speculative needs because they can lead to

mass-scale delivery of house-units within the shortest possible

time when well-managed (see Youngha Cho, 2003, Roy et al,

2003). However, the key to achieving project management

success is for PMs to have the requisite knowledge and skills that

enhance management intuition in repetitive construction planning

(see Ashley, 1980; Dhaneskar, 2000; Mahdi, 2004: Yang and

Chang, 2005). Management intuition in repetitive techniques as

used here means that the PM should be able to introduce planning

and scheduling models that:

• Will maintain continuous flow of work for all idenfiable

labour involved in repetitive tasks.

• Will ensure the continuous flow of all resources including

their allocation and levelling

• Will achieve time and cost efficiencies by appropriate

balancing of labour through the opportunity of experience

and learning curve effects on production.

Acknowledging the restrictions imposed by traditional

programming methods in treating this type of project, specific

methods for repetitive construction have been suggested for the

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

last 30 years (Couto, 1998; Teixeira and Couto, 2002a Couto and

Teixeira, 2005) (see also Gates and Scarpa, 1972; Thomas and

Mathew, 1985 Tam et al, 2002; Mahdi, 2004). These management

tools were first based on the line of balance technique (LOB) with

a constant production rate, but subsequently several modifications

including computer modelling have been developed. However,

while these quantitative tools are useful additions, poor

management (including the lack of work preparation or

insufficient knowledge and skills on the part of PM) may introduce

delays leading to frustration and demotivation of workers, which in

turn is reflected in poor performance (Couto and Teixeria, 2005).

In many developing countries the project environment is unstable

and characterised by rapidly changing markets, funding sources

are regularly shifting, government policy multiply and the business

environment is frequently changing (Faniran et al, 2000; Ayirebi-

Dansoh, 2005). In the face of these challenges, PMs engaged on

MHBPs are also expected to demonstrate reasonable skills

towards effectively managing the effects of these unique

chararacteristics. Thus, as noted by Al-Mhomani, (2000) in the

implementation and management of MHBPs PMs would be

expected to put in place appropriate management practices that

would ensure:

• The most efficient and economical method of carrying out

the work consistent with the available resources;

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• A continous productive work for all the operatives employed

and reduce unproductive time to a minimum;

• Effective site orgnization and control of all the works by

prior examination of all aspects and by early consideration of

possible difficulties, ensure smooth and continous progress

at site;

• Accurate information relating to material delivery, the build

up of labour force, daily or weekly financial expenditure on

labour, and

• A simple and rapid method of measuring the progress that

has been made and evaluation of work progress.

Note that, while in developed economies, many problems

associated with these skills can be swiftly solved because of the

efficient communication system and human resources

development base, in many developing countries this is not that

possible. Subsequently, the PM has to put in extra work so that

unecessary and inefficient practices can be avoided. Thus, in the

context of developing countries, PMs are faced with providing the

appropriate management structure consistent with available

resources to support the economies of large-volume work that help

achieve improved performance levels in the midst of these

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

difficulties (see Enhassi, 1997). Thus, identification of the

appropriate performance measures will help to focus both

potential and experienced PMs on those important management

skills that can help address some of these challenges. Using Ghana

as a case study it is intended to make a contribution towards

achieving this.

3.5 INTRODUCING THE STUDY AREA: THE

CONTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN GHANA

Having introduced a review of HRM literature including a

justification of the research in the context of developing countries,

this section further underpins the literature by introducing HRM

practices in the study area, Ghana. Specifically, the aim is to

demonstrate the convergence of the construction climate in Ghana

to the wider conditions pertaining in many other developing

countries and also to explain how recent developments in PM

practices in MHBPs makes it appropriate for Ghana to be adopted

as a case study. A synthesis of the geographical and economic

profile of Ghana is first provided followed by the socio-economic

importance of the construction industry, particularly, the housing

sector. Thereafter, a chronology of the evolution of HRM practices

in MHBPs is discussed especially the contribution of PMs. This is

then followed by a thorough critique of the criteria for assessing

the performance of PMs including a discussion of how this

converges with the weaknesses already identified in the wider

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

context. Drawing on the recent efforts in Ghana towards a better

integration and understanding of the performance of PM in

MHBPs, the way forward is therefore introduced.

3.5.1 The Geographical Location and Economic Profile


of Ghana

Ghana is located on the West coast of Africa - Gulf of Guinea- only

a few degrees north of the Equator (Figure 3.1). It has a land area

of approximately 238,537 square Km and population of over 20

million (Birmingham et al, 1966; GLSS, 1995). The borders of

Ghana are surrounded by Togo to the immediate right, Burkina

Faso to the immediate top and the Ivory Coast to the immediate

left. Furthermore, it is important to mention the strategic position

of Nigeria which is a major economic player in the region (see

figure 3.1).

Indeed, Nigeria and Ghana share much more in common than their

immediate neighbours by virtue of being members of the

commonwealth. Accordingly the construction environment in both

countries is similar to what pertains in most commonwealth

nations. While this geographical location places Ghana among

Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, the socio-economic

conditions are typical of what pertains in many other developing

countries in South- East Asia, and North and South America (see

for instance Edmond and Miles, 1984: Lopes et al, 1998). For

instance, in Ghana some of the typical challenges faced by the

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

construction industry are linked to excessive bureaucratic

conditions, a weak materials supply base, financial uncertainties,

an unregulated labour market and poor management practices

(Amoa-Mensah, 2002). Furthermore, infrastructure such as

transportation networks, telecommunication and power supply

systems are not fully developed. These challenges which stems

from the weak technological, economic and structural conditions

prevailing have also been found to also exist in many other

developing countries ((see for instance Ofori, 1994; Faniran, et al,

2000). Thus, the geographical position of Ghana notwithstanding,

the construction industry in Ghana is influenced by many problems

and challenges common in many other developing countries.

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Ghana
Nigeria

Figure 3.1: Map of Africa showing the position of Ghana.

Source: www.Ghanaweb.com (2007)

Internally, Ghana is divided into ten regional administrative areas

with the capital, Accra, located near the south close to the sea,

(the Gulf of Guinea) (Figures 3.1 and 3.2). By World Bank

standards, Ghana is listed amongst low- income economies with

GDP growth of 4.5%, and GNP per capita of around US$ 300 (see

African Development Indicators, 2004). However, notwithstanding

the low-income status, the construction industry’s contribution to

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

the GDP relatively conforms to what is significantly typical in many

developing countries (see for instance, Lopes et al, 2000: Zawdie

and Langford, 2000).

Thus, like most economies, the industry does not only provide a

structural base to the economy but also determines the

productivity of investment and accordingly the rate of

development (see for instance Sorguc, 1994 cited in Kuruoglu and

Ergen 2000). However, typical of many developing countries, the

resultant economic growth is skewed and strongly concentrated in

the capital city, Accra and its nearest peripheries (Ghana Living

Standard survey, 1995; Adjei-Laryea, 2000).

As a result, available estimates indicate that the urban population

in the Greater Accra region region (Figure 3.2) is growing in

excess of 4.3% per annum as compared to about 3% for the

national average (Laryea-Adjei, 2000). The implication is that,

business activities including construction activities are strongly

concentrated in the Greater Accra Region.

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Figure 3.2: Map of Ghana showing the Greater Accra region and
the second largest city, Kumasi

Source: www.Ghanaweb.com (2006)

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

3.5.2 The Institutional Profile and Significance of the


Construction Industry

This section provides an insight into the institutional profile

(section 3.5.2.1) and the significance of the Ghanaian construction

industry (3.5.2.2)

3.5.2.1 The institutional profile

The institutional profile in terms of procurement routes, tendering

procedures and contract administration in the Ghanaian

construction industry is well studied and documented (see for

instance Edmonds and Miles, 1984). The problems and challenges

facing the industry are also well known (see for instance Ofori,

1980; 1990; 1993). As in many commonwealth countries, the

Ghanaian construction industry derives its practice from the

British construction industry. Consequently, a key feature of the

Ghanaian construction environment is the separation between

design and construction. Furthermore, the professionals tend to

operate independently and often owe allegiance to their respective

professional bodies namely, Ghana Institution of Architects (GIA),

Ghana Institution of Engineers (GhIE), and Ghana Institution of

Surveyors (GIS). Thus, the seemingly adversarial tendencies

believed to be traditionally associated with the construction

industry (Masterman, 1992), is also very reminiscent in the

Ghanaian industry (Banini, 1983). The development and

introduction of alternative procurement systems and the

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subsequent emergence of the project management concept have

also been witnessed in recent years (Ahadzie et al, 2004).

Consequently, many construction organizations now provide

project management consultancy alongside their primary

profession (see ibid). This trend is similar to practices described by

Odusami et al (2003) in Nigeria. Thus, while the traditional

system of managing projects is still popular, the emerging growth

of the project management concept has gradually led to the

expansion of project management divisions within

companies/consultancies offering the traditional professional

practices.

3.5.2.2 The significance of the Ghanaian construction


industry

The Ghanaian construction industry continues to occupy an

important position in the nation’s economy. In the early 1990s, the

contribution of the industry to GDP dropped to a long term low of

about 2.7% (UK Trade and Investment, 2004). However, recent

figures indicate that it has once again appreciated to a significant

level of 4.2% (ibid). The informal sector (i.e. involving self build

houses) has also become very buoyant in recent times as a result

of some relatively modest improvement in the economy and

especially remittances from Ghanaians living abroad (Tipple et al,

1992). However, despite the significant contribution of the

informal sector their activites are largely not documented and this

is typical of observations made by Wells (1999) in many SSA


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countries (see also Muya et al, 2006). In effect, the actual growth

in the construction industry could be more than the official figure

presented if the informal sector is also well accounted for.

In particular, it is notable to recognise the contribution being

made by property developers in contemporary times who now

account for the largest share of the “formal” housing sector

(Amoa-Mensah, 2003; UK Trade and Investment (2004). In effect,

while there seems to be some decline in public sector and publicly

funded projects, the private sector spurred on by investment in

housing has emerged as a potential hub for growth of the

construction industry. Similarly the sector including project-based

segment appears to have emerged as the largest employer of

human resources (Ghana Living Standards Survey, 1995: Adjei-

Laryea, 2000). This trend is also typical of observations made by

Wells (1999) in many developing countries such as Tanzania and

Kenya.

The significance of the Ghanaian construction industry is also

manifested in the proliferation of building contractors in the

general business environment. Currently, the Ghanaian Ministry

of Works and Housing (MOWH) has over 20,000 “building

contractors” on their registered list, which is relatively large given

the “size” of the economy (Ayisi, 2000). This does not include other

interested groups in the supply chain such as manufacturers,

suppliers and retailers whose contributions are also immense (see

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for instance Tuuli, 2000). Given that economic growth is largely

skewed towards the capital, more than 60% of the registered

building contractors, particularly the large organisations, tend to

operate officially in the Greater Accra region (Ayisi, 2000). The

second largest city of Ghana, Kumasi accounts for only 12% whilst

the remaining eight regional administrations put together account

for the remaining 30%. Indeed, the nature of the industry is such

that there is a strong incentive for even the firms whose main

operational duties are outside the Greater Accra region to keep

“back-up” offices in the capital so that their potential for attracting

ongoing and future projects can be enhanced (see Ayisi, 2000).

3.5.3 The Housing Sector

As in many developing countries, the provision of housing still

remains one of the most critical socio-economic challenges facing

Ghana (see Tipple et al, 1999; Konadu-Agyeman, 2001). However,

following the current global paradigm shift, the Government of

Ghana (GoG) has withdrawn from direct housing supply to the role

of a facilitator (see UK Trade and Investment, 2004; State of

Nation Address, 2005). The role of a facilitator means the GoG

concentrate on creating the enabling environment for the private

sector to thrive, including assistance with finance where

necessary. Consequently the housing sector of the Ghanaian

construction industry is now characterised by private housing

developers many of which have come together to form the Ghana

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Real Estate Developers Association (GREDA). GREDA was

established by the Ministry of Works and Housing (MOWH) of

Ghana and the private estate developers in 1988 and is a private

company limited by guarantee (Ashley, 2003). Extrapolation of

data provided by Ashley, (2003) and Amoa-Mensah, (2003)

suggests that between 1989 to date, the GREDA members have

through their own resources successfully completed over 120,000

house-units, which is significant by all standards in Ghana (Amoa-

Mensah, 1999). Given the significant contribution that the GREDA

is making towards housing supply in Ghana, the GoG has recently

recognised their efforts by initiating a financial package to help

stimulate the development of 100,000 house-units into the

Ghanaian market over the next two years (see Budget Statement,

President of Ghana, 2005).

Currently, the membership of the GREDA stands at over 400

(Ashley, 2003). However, as a reflection of the general construction

demography, over 95% of these firms are registered and operate in

the capital city, Accra. Kumasi the second largest city accounts for

only 2.4% whilst the remaining eight regional administrations

account for a mere 2.6%. For this reason, out of over 120,000

house-units completed by the GREDA so far, more than 70% have

been constructed for the Greater Accra region where they seem

able to attract willing buyers (Anokye, 2000; Ashley, 2003).

Moreover, it is evident that most of the GREDA members based in

Greater Accra region are also strongly involved in the 30% of

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

house-units that have been implemented in the other regions of

the country (Anokye, 2000: Ashley, 2003). Thus, while the GREDA

members are mostly based in the capital city, there is an indication

that most of these members are responsible for delivering a

majority of MHBPs in all parts of Ghana.

3.5.4 Evolution of Management Practices in Mass

House Building Projects in Ghana

The earliest MHBPs built in Ghana were implemented in the late

1950s using traditional management practices (Figure 3.3). This

was at a time when the GoG was solely responsible for housing

supply and these projects were mostly implemented by the then

state owned, State Housing Corporation (SHC)6 (Ofori, 1989). The

management of the execution of these projects were undertaken

largely using direct labour as there were no registered contractors

at this time (ibid). Direct labour here suggests the craftsmen

(including labourers) were engaged as full time employees by the

SHC. Given the management approach adopted, the architect as

the team leader was responsible for supervision and management

of the physical construction (Figure 3.3).

Thereafter, the introduction of “registered contractors” in the late

1960s opened the way for multiple contractors to be engaged

6
Following the paradigm shift in housing supply, the State Housing Corporation
has been privitised and is now known as State Housing Company.

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

often on serial contracts and this limited the responsibilities of the

design team to only design and the associated specifications.

Contractors then became responsible for the management of

physical construction by engaging their own labour force (Figure

3.4 below). Unlike the direct labour engagement there was a

contractual relationship between the property developer (i.e. SHC)

and the contractors while the architect played a supervisory role

on behalf of the property developer.

Managing
Director

In-house Design
Team

Quantity Architect as Structural/Servic


Surveyor team leader es Engineer

Clerk of
Works

Direct
Labour

Figure 3.3: Typical organizational structure of MHBPs in the


1950s

Source: Ahadzie et al (2004)

Managing
Director
In-house Design
Team

Quantity Architect as Structural/Servic


Surveyor team leader es Engineer

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Clerk of Works

Multiple
contractors on
serial contracts
Contractual relationship

Figure 3.4: Typical organizational structure of the SHC involving

the use of multiple contractors on serial contracts

Source: Ahadzie et al (2004)

In the late 1970s, the situation changed further when speculative

housing was introduced in the Ghanaian market by some private

and quasi–government organizations. Unlike the SHC, these

private and quasi-organizations did not normally have in-house

design teams, and hence normally appointed “external

consultants” to manage the design aspect of the project on their

behalf (Figure 3.5). These consultants normally comprised the

design team led by the architect and who formed a consortium.

Under the supervision of the consultants, contractors were

appointed to take contractual responsibility for the management of

the physical structure (Figure 3.5). For the next decade this

management approach emerged predominant and has become the

conventional system for housing delivery in Ghana

Client

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Architect as Quantity Structural Multiple


Team Leader Surveyor Engineer Contractors

Figure 3.5: Typical organizational structure involving external


consultants and multiple contractors

Source: Ahadzie et al (2004)

Generally, the literature suggests that the MHBPs that were

executed under the traditional systems described were fraught

with management problems and this might have contributed to

their rampant failures in meeting performance targets (see Ofori,

1989; Amoa-Mensah, 1999). In many instances, contractors were

blamed for the recorded poor performances and were criticised for

having limited knowledge in the application of requisite

management techniques.

3.5.5 Project Management Practices in Mass House

Building Projects in Ghana

Project management as used in this context refers to the scenario

where an individual is appointed besides the design team to take

responsibility for the management of design and contruction of

project from conception to operation. While this practice is still

evolving in developing countries, researchers and practitioners are

convinced that it has the potential to improve the management of

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

construction projects (Abbasi ans Al-Mhamara, 2000; Odusami et

al, 2003).

In Ghana, project management practice in MHBPs was first

introduced by the Social Security and National Insurance Trust

(SSNIT)7 in 1989 (Ahadzie et al, 2004). Hitherto, the SSNIT, a

quasi–governmental organization relied largely on traditional

management practices using external consultants in the

implementation of MHBPs. However, as noted by Ofori (1989) it

was common for most of these projects to often experience time

and cost over-runs of more than 100%. The GoG, the major

stakeholders, and the general public whose contributions were

being used for such investments became alarmed and lost all

confidence in the SSNIT as a housing provider (see ibid). It was

during this trying period that the SSNIT appointed their first PM

on a MHBP in Ghana (Ahadzie et al, 2004)

3.5.6 The Contribution of Project Managers to the

delivery Mass House Building Projects

7
The SSNIT is responsible for managing the social security deductions on
behalf Ghanaian workers. Part of the money deducted were used for these
housing projects as investment on behalf of the contributors

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

The project on which the SSNIT appointed its first PM involved the

construction of 300 single storey-housing units, each of 82m2

internal floor area in the Sakumono area of the Greater Accra

region. The project initiated in 1989 was executed by 12 small-

scale contractors8 who were managed by the PM. Figure 3.6

represents the organizational structure. Following management

interventions provided by the PM, the 12 small-scale contractors

were able to deliver approximately 160 house-units within four

months working to about 40 house-units per contractor for the

year. This rate of delivery was remarkable given that it was the

first in the annals of house- building in Ghana to be achieved by

small-scale contractors (Amoa-Mensah, 2002).

Client

Project manager
Designers Services/str
uctural
engineer

Multiple
Contractors

Functional relationships
Key:
Contractual relationships
• Project manager was a professional Q/S with postgraduate
training in construction management

Figure 3.6: Typical organizational structure involving modern day


PM

Source: Ahadzie et al (2004)

8
Small-scale contractors are under sole ownership, headed by entrepreuneurs
with limited experience in construction and having other business interest. In
most instance they have been blamed for poor performance on MHBPs built in
the past.

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

As a result of the perceived successful performance of the PM the

client (i.e. the SSNIT) became sufficiently confident to invest in

more houses under the same management. Subsequently 1637

house units were built in Sakumono phases 1 and 2, using a total

of 37 small- scale contractors during the three years the project

was implemented. The average cost per completed house-unit was

3.39 million cedis9 as against an initial contract sum of 3.44 million

cedis. This represented an average cost saving per house- unit of

1% at a period when the average annual construction cost

increase in Ghana was estimated at 16% (Amoa-Mensah, 1999:

Osei-Tutu and Adjei-Kumi, 2000). During the first year of

implementation in 1989, each of the small –scale contractors

achieved an average annual performance output of about 78

million cedis on the projects as compared with the 25 million cedis

upper operational limit for their class. This represented a

financial turnover of 3.12 times their upper limit suggesting that

with an appropriate management system, small- scale contractors

can expand their operational capacity to achieve increased

delivery within the available resource base (ibid).

As a result of the successful completion of Sakumono phases 1 and

2, the client demonstrated their satisfaction by commissioning

similar projects under the PM. In Ashongman, also a suburb of the

Greater Accra region, 500 house-units of internal floor area 142m2

9
Cedi is the currency used in Ghana. 1 US$ = about 300 cedis in 1989. At the
time of writing 1 US$ = about 9,000 cedis

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

were executed between 1994 and 1995. The 500 house–units were

delivered within a year with a total of 12 small –scale contractors

at a near zero time and cost over-runs (Amoa- Mensah, 2002).

In the opinion of Amoa-Mensah (1999; 2002; 2003) the PM was

largely responsible for the significant improvement in meeting

performance targets on these MHBPs, which for far too long had

been elusive in the Ghanaian housing industry (see also Ofori,

1989). This led Amoa-Mensah (1996; 2002), to summarise the

achievement as follows:

“This laudable output performance has not only led to higher

efficiency but also proved a case that with meaningful resources

management, the small scale contractor can expand its

performance capacity to achieve increased delivery within the

available resource base.”

Thus, one of the key contribution’s of the PM was the ability to

manage a team of small-scale contractors to successfully deliver

on these MHBPs. These small-scale contractors by Ghanaian

standards are the least organized and often have limited

knowledge in the requisite management principles (Ayisi, 2000).

Subsequently, the PM had to introduce a number of innovative

management principles in tandem with the challenges posed by

the Ghanaian project environment and the specific needs and

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

weaknesses of the contractors (see for instance Ahadzie et al,

2004).

Indeed, the recognition of the perceived positive role of PMs in the

Ghanaian situation has culminated in their successful integration

into the operations of most emerging property developers

including members of the GREDA (Ashley, 2003). Figure 3.7 is a

typical organisational chart of a typical property developer

showing the relation of the PM to other key management

personnel. The functional relationship indicates that while all the

key management personnel report to the managing director, the

PM has the authority to coordinate the activities of the functional

managers including the management of direct labour and/or works

contractors.

Managing
Director

Project
manager
Quantity Services Facilities
Architect
Surveyor Engineer manager

Works
contractor
s
Functional relationship

Figure 3.7: Typical organizational structure for GREDA members

Source: Modified after Ashley (2003)

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

On a typical MHBP, the PM will be fully involved in the decision to

build, help acquire the land including associated feasibilities

studies, identify appropriate procurement routes, supervise and

manage physical construction and provide the necessary advice on

facilities management. Depending on the organizational structure

in place, the architect and quantity surveyor may be in-house or

out-house. The facilities manager (Figure 3.7) may be appointed

earlier or later depending on the size of the company. However,

notwithstanding the form of organizational structure, the role of

the “modern day” PM has become embedded and is now

acknowledged as the most critical factor towards achieving

effective performance in the management of MHBPs (see Amoa-

Mensah, 2002; Ahadzie et al, 2004; 2005a). Presently, most

property developers engage the services of “labour-only-

subcontractors”. These “labour-only-subcontractors”work as team

of “gangs” and offer only labour services on casual basis under the

management of the PM (Figure 3.7). For the purposes of simplicity

these labour-only –subcontractors and/or artisans are referred to

as works contractors in the ensuing discussions throughout the

thesis.

3.5.7 Towards Assessing the Performance of Project

Managers in Mass House Building Projects in Ghana

Typical of the construction industry in many developing countries,

performance measurement of PMs is not an issue that has been

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

given serious consideration in Ghana (see Ahadzie et al, 2004;

2005a; 2005b). Indeed, in Ghana it was also only recently that

Amoa-Mensah, (1999; 2002) provided some evidence of

performance measures in the context of HRM by focussing on the

assessment of the performance of PMs. However the assessment

criteria were limited to the so-called traditional measures of time,

cost and quality. Furthermore, based on the evidence presented in

chapter two (section 2.4.1-2.4.4) of this thesis, it is clear that,

while assessment of the performance of PMs on traditional

measures is potentially useful, it does not provide opportunity for

their continuous professional development as these factors lie

outside their control.

Thus, while the positive contribution of PMs towards the

management of MHBPs in Ghana is acknowledged, the lack of

appropriate criteria amenable to their continuous performance

improvement does not provide sufficient incentives for best

practice improvements in the management of future projects. The

development of relevant performance measures that fits the tenets

of HRM orthodoxy should therefore be explored towards enabling

an understanding of the appropriate skills required. This will help

PMs in Ghana to develop a clear understanding of the key

performance variables that can help them improve their

managerial skills in the implementation of future MHBPs.

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

3.6 THE WAY FORWARD FOR PMs’ PERFOMANCE

MEASURES IN GHANA AND THE RELEVANCE FOR

OTHER DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

The foregoing has to a large extent demonstrated that while PMs

are making reasonably positive contribution towards the

management of MHBPs in Ghana, very little has been done

towards sustaining their career development towards best practice

improvement in the management of future projects. Furthermore,

the literature has demonstrated that this weakness is reflected

across the construction industry in many developing countries. It

is argued that given the severe housing situation faced by many

developing countries, PMs operating in developing countries such

as Ghana require potentially robust performance criteria towards

meeting the future challenges ahead.

As shown in chapter two, a competency- based model can be used

to appropriately underpin the performance management and

development functions required in this circumstance. That is, with

the identification and development of the appropriate competency

profiles, PMs who lack the necessary skills may be inspired to

acquire the relevant training for their professional development

while for those who already possess such relevant skills, would be

provided with the impetus for achieving higher performance

levels. Additionaly, identification of these relevant measures will

provide a structured approach for property developers towards

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

making informed and objective judgements in the selection and/or

appointment of appropriately skilled and qualified PMs. In effect,

the development of an effective competency profile and

complimentary management programmes may provide an

opportunity for both corporate and individual growth. Thus, this

research has the potential of encouraging both property

developers and PMs engaged in MHBPs in Ghana and for that

matter many developing countries to appreciate a range of core

competencies that could be useful for their future career

development and/or professional and business competitiveness.

Subsequently, and informed by the research questions set in

introduction to this thesis (chapter, one section, 1.3) this research

intended to construct a predictive performance model through

identification of the behavioural measures that would lead to the

effective performance of PMs in MHBPs. The methodology utilized

in addressing the above questions draws significantly from the

well-acclaimed contextual-task performance framework already

identified in chapter two. The detailed theoretical background of

this framework is described in the next chapter.

3.7 SUMMARY

In this chapter, a review of research and development in the

management of human resources in developing countries,

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

especially in the context of PMs’ performance measures has been

described. The literature revealed that while earlier attempts

suffice to improve HR issues, the focus, (which are largely on

craftsmen productivity) did not sufficiently engender improving

the personal skills of PMs.

It was established that while some limited attempts have been

made towards modelling the PMs potential performance, the

conceptual, methodological and substantive approaches adopted

leave scope not only to construct a more rigorous predictive

performance model but also a model that satisfies the tenets of

contemporary HRMs practices. Consequently it was contended

that given the significance of MHBPs, the development of

appropriate PMs’ performance measures can serve as an

important step for contributing to the research agenda in project

management in developing countries. Subsequently, a working

definition for MHBPs was provided in the context of the study.

Also in this chapter the background of the study area, Ghana was

introduced. The construction industry, in particular, the housing

sector and its associated HRM practices in MHBPs were therefore

illuminated including the methodology for assessing the PMs’

performance. It was noted that the construction environment in

Ghana, in particular the practice of project management in MHBPs

made it potentially relevant to adopt Ghana as a case study for

achieving the research objectives.

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Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre

Subsequently, the chapter concluded by re-emphasising that

competency-based measures might be appropriate for addressing

the key research questions. The next chapter would therefore

detail the developement of an appropriate conceptual model for

this study.

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

CHAPTER FOUR

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

CHAPTER FOUR: DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTUAL

MODEL

4.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter now discusses the development of an appropriate

conceptual model for the study. Firstly, the discussion starts with

some basic assumptions about the term “performance” as used in

the research context. This is necessary to help provide a

complete understanding of how the terminology has been applied

in the ensuing theoretical framework, particularly, an aspect that

draws significantly from organisational psychology theory.

Thereafter, the various components of the theoretical framework

are elucidated followed immediately by the development of the

conceptual model.

4.1 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT PERFORMANCE

In chapter two (section 2.1), it was asserted that one of the critical

issues underlying the concept of performance measures is

identifying an appropriate definition for the term “performance”.

Accoridng to Yasamis et al (2002) the term “performance” may be

interpreted to mean different concepts depending on the context

in which it is used. At the “Global” level, the terminology could be

used to represent the results of activities. However, traditionally it

also means an individual and/or system being effective and/or


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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

efficient (ibid). What is more, the terminology is now associated

with numerous attributes (such as productivity, quality,

profitability, growth) making it more difficult to relate any better

to its meaning (see McCloy et al, 1994; Yasamis et al, 2002).

Within this research context, because the emphasis is to

investigate the attributes within the control of PMs (i.e. those

dealing with their competencies), here, the key assumption about

the term performance is that, it is appropriate behavioural action

relevant to contributing towards the achievement of the goals of

an organization (Campbell, 1983: McCloy et al, 1994).

Subsequently, it is envisaged that performance should be;

multidimensional; episodic (i.e. spontaneous but enduring)); and

evaluative (Motowidlo et al, 1997). Being multidimensional

suggests that for any specific job, there are a number of

substantive performance variables that are distinguishable in the

way they correlate and co-vary with other variables (McCloy et al,

1994). Alternatively (and as already noted in chapter two), being

multidimensional means that the variables involved are complex

and grouping them together (for the purpose of evaluations)

makes it difficult to isolate their potential effects (Motowidlo et al,

1997).

In being episodic, this suggests that it is possible to identify the

extent to which behavioural competencies are organisationally

desirable or undesirable. Moreover, by considering the

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

contribution of an individual’s behavioural action over a period of

time, it should be possible to scale the degree to which they are

desirable with enough precision to distinguish between them

(ibid). Equally important is the assumption that performance

should be evaluative, and this is critical towards assessing

performance outcomes (Motowidlo and Borman, 1997; Motowidlo

et al, 1997: Liu and Walker, 1998).

Thus, here, the underlying assumptions are that; performance,

behaviour and results are not the same. While behaviour is the

observable things that people do while at work, performance is

behaviour with an evaluative component (ibid). Alternatively,

results are conditions of things that are changed by performance

and subsequently may contribute to or detract from organizational

accomplishments (Motowidlo et al, 1997; Tett et al, 2000).

Figure 4.1 presents a framework that has been designed to

simplify how these assumptions influence each other. This

framework concurs with the contemporary ideology (see chapter

two) that performance measurement of key management

personnel should be conceptualised based on both performance

behaviours and outcomes.

Behavioural Results
PERFORMANCE
Behavioural actions or
episodes

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

Evaluation
(iterative process)

Figure 4.1: Framework capturing key assumptions of job


performance

Source: Adapted from Ahadzie et al (2006b)

That is, the framework acknowledges that performance is not only

a function of the attributes of an individual (PMs in this case) but

also a function of the attributes of the anticipated result. In

addition, performance is depicted as an iterative process in the

sense that, it becomes a learning process for continuous

improvement. These guiding assumptions and the key research

questions (restated below for ease of reference) influenced the

underlying theoretical framework adopted for this study. The key

research questions of the study being:

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

• What should be the appropriate performance framework for

addressing the PMs’ performance domain in MHBPs in

developing countries such as Ghana?

• Given that the skills required by PMs are likely to develop

and change as MHBPs progresses throughout the project

lifecycle, how can these be factored into the performance

framework?

• In recognition of the inimitable and relatively difficult

project environment prevailing in developing countries such

as Ghana, what performance profiles are appropriate for

engendering the professional development of PMs at the

various phases of the project lifecycle?

In view of the arguments made in favour of adopting a

methodology that allows a more in-depth investigation of the PMs

performance domain (chapter two, section 2.4), the theoretical

framework underlying the contextual-task typology was used in

developing an appropriate conceptual model.

4.2 THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This section discusses the underlying theoretical framework for

the study. The philosophy behind the framework is explained

including the specific details. Apart from drawing on the

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

“organisational theory of job performance”, the theoretical

framework also draws from the “conventional wisdom of success

criteria” (in particular Pinto and Sleven (1988) project success

model) and a “framework for project lifecycle” proposed by Lim

and Mohammed (1999). While the former was derived from

applied psychology literature, the latter two were derived from

project management practice including construction. The

significance of the psychological domain in this framework (see

also chapter two) is reflected in the premise that behavioural

competencies are psychologically motivated (Buss and Larson,

2005; Jha, 2006). Then again, it was also important to incorporate

existing project management practices so that the framework will

address issues that are unique to performance measurement in

mainstream project-based organizations in particular. This

multidisciplinary approach was adopted to help develop a robust

conceptual model, towards addressing the key research questions

including satisfying the basic assumptions of performance.

Thus, while the organizational theory of job performance

addressed the main objective of the research (i.e. in helping to

address the research questions), the conventional wisdom of

project success helped addressed the evaluative aspect of the

basic assumptions underlying performance (i.e. the results or

performance outcome) (see Figure 4.1). On the other hand, the

project lifeycle framework addressed the question of linking the

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

potential performance criteria to the various phases of the project

lifecycle.

4.2.1 Organisational Psychology Theory of Job


Performance

Borman and Motowidlo (1993) posited that in trying to understand

the organisational job performance domain, the elements of the

behavioural competencies involved should be grouped into two

main distinctions: contextual performance behaviours and task

performance behaviours. Borman and Motowidlo (1993) contended

that contextual performance behaviours differ from task

performance behaviours in four major ways (see also Miller and

Werner, 2005):

• Task behaviours contribute either directly or indirectly to the

technical function, alternatively contextual behaviours

support the organizational, social and psychological

environment in which the technical function must operate;

• Task behaviours usually vary between different jobs in the

same organization; alternatively, contextual behaviours are

common to many jobs or all jobs;

• The major source of variation in task behaviours are human

characteristics such as knowledge, skills and abilities that

vary with task proficiency, alternatively, the major source of

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

variation in contextual behaviours is not proficiency but

volition and predisposition; and

• Task behaviours are role-prescribed which incumbents must

execute normally for a reward, alternatively contextual

behaviours are not role-prescribed and thus are normally not

(explicitly) part of incumbents formal responsibilities and

obligations to an organization.

Thus, a prime premise of the contextual–task typology is that

whilst task performance behaviours are job-specific, prescribed

and rewarded, contextual performance behaviours relate to those

discretionary job-related acts which are not formally recognised as

part of the job and therefore not rewarded (Organ and Paine,

1999).

In practical terms, task performance behaviours among others

identifies the demonstratable behaviours associated with

individuals undertaking technical functions such as the

transformation of raw materials into goods and services, operating

a production machine and providing management and

administrative functions. Alternatively, contextual performance

behaviours are personality oriented and are associated with

attributes such as altruism, conscientiousness, initiative,

commitment, dedication, discipline and volunteering to help

others. Thus, in the construction industry for example, task

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

performance behaviours could refer to behaviours and/or habits

exhibited by craftsmen while operating for instance a production

machine, laying of bricks, supply of raw materials and/or

distributing a finished product (Ahadzie et al, 2006a).

Furthermore, at the managerial level, task performance

behaviours could be associated with the demonstratable

behaviours and/or habits exhibited while the PM is performaning

functions such as organising, planning, programming,

coordinating, delegating and controlling (Motowidlo et al, 1997:

Ahadzie et al, 2006).

Conversely, contextual performance behaviours would be the

behavioural competencies exhibited by, for instance, the PM to

ensure that the social and psychological environment within which

the construction projects are being executed is supportive enough

to make the functional activities a success. Thus, incorporating

contextual performance behaviours acknowledges that working in

an organisational setting is different from working alone (Van

Scotter and Motowidlo, 1996).

Further justifications for distinguishing contextual performance

behaviours from task performance behaviours stems from the

earlier assumption that the performance domain is

multidimensional and complex (Borman and Motowidlo, 1993).

That is, there are many kinds of behaviours that can hinder or

advance organisational effectiveness and grouping them together

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

for investigation makes it difficult to effectively isolate and

understand their impact on the managerial performance domain

(Motowidlo and Borman, 1997).

Thus, utimately, the underlying premise for distinguishing task

performance behaviours from contextual performance behaviours

is that, the reason why contextual performance behaviours are

desirable or undesirable in an organization is different from that of

task performance behaviours (Motowidlo et al, 1997). The

presumption then is that, the antecedents of contextual

performance behaviours are likely to be different from the

antecedents of task performance behaviours towards achieving

organisational objectives (ibid). Then again, it is also likely that the

knowledge, skills and habits associated with contextual

performance behaviours would be different from those associated

with task performance behaviours (Motowidlo and Borman, 1997).

To this effect, the contextual-task typology is of potentially

significant value because it is geared towards a fine grained

analysis of managerial behaviour, its effect and measurement

which should be useful for developing a more detailed, specific

and rigorous understanding of training requirements (Tett et al,

2000).

Since Borman and Motowidlo (1993) first hypothesised the

contextual-task distinction, other organizational psychology

researchers such as Van Scotter and Motowidlo (1994), Van

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

Scotter and Motowidlo (1996), Conway (1999) and Scullen et al

(2003) have replicated the concept in various dimensions and

found it to be valid and robust. In particular, Conway (1999) and

Scullen et al (2003) successfully replicated the theory using top

level managers such as PMs and concluded that the contextual-

task typology is particularly relevant to the managerial

performance domain. The reason being that as managers often get

jobs done through subordinates and peers, and it would seem

particularly important that, they (managers) should understand

how uniquely both performance dimensions contribute towards

their performance. Presently, the evidence suggests that

approximately 30% of the managerial performance domain can be

explained by contextual performance behaviours indicating that it

cannot be ignored in performance evaluations (Borman and

Motowidlo, 1993). Conway (1996) also reported thus:

“When a panel of industrial/organizational psychologists were

asked to sort performance dimensions from 14 multitrait

multimethod matrices in applied psychological literature into

contextual and task performance domain, 55% were identified as

task dimension and 30% contextual dimension while there was

disagreement in regard to the remaining 15%.”

Thus, HRM researchers are convinced that the contextual-task

performance distinction is useful for uniquely isolating complex

and multivaried managerial performance dimensions involved in

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

behavioural competencies (Conway, 1999). Indeed, the contention

is that the contextual-task typology is reasonably rigorous as it has

proven to be consistent, reliable and valid across various job

performance levels in the HRM genre (Denison and Mersoon,

2000; Tett et al, 2000; Gellatly and Irving, 2001).

However, while there is reasonable evidence that both contextual

and task performance behaviours make a significantly unique

contribution to the performance outcome, construction

management researchers are yet to give serious consideration to

understanding the PMs performance dimensions from this

perspective. Indeed, in most project-based sectors of the

construction industry, PMs have to deal with a constantly changing

and multi-disciplinary team oriented environment (Loosemore et

al, 2003). This coupled with the the complexity of “modern day”

projects means that the behavioural characteristics of PMs are

likely to be more complex and diverse than in most other

industries (Dainty et al, 2005). Thus, the challenges faced by PMs

in modern day project management might require a well-proven

methodology such as contextual-task typology, which allows an in-

depth investigation of the performance domain. Hopefully, this

should help isolate the relevant core behavioural competencies by

providing a detailed and somewhat specific analysis of the

performance domain under investigation

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

This brings to the fore the need to identify the appropriate

constructs relating to each performance dimension in the

framework. Empirically, there are reasonable evidences to suggest

that task performance behaviours are best predicted by individual

differences in cognitive ability (Campbell, 1993), job-specific

knowledge and skills, task proficiency and experience (Hunter,

1983; Schimts et al 1986; Van scotter and Motowildlo, 1996:

Pickett, 1998; Gelattly and Irving, 2001). Cognitive ability as used

in this sense refers to an individual’s level of intelligence including

the ability to memorise and remember things whislt job knowledge

is a measure of ones knowledge of what is required of a particular

job. McCloy et al (1994) identifies two main types of measures of

job knowledge, namely; declarative knowledge and procedural

knowledge. Declarative knowledge is knowledge of facts and

principles which could be demonstrated by way of cognitive “test”.

Alternatively procedural knowledge is the skill in actually doing

what should be done. Thus, procedural knowledge is a

combination of knowing what to do and being able to do it.

Subsequently, it includes skills such as cognitive, psychomotor,

physical, self-management and interpersonal which are all

behavioural manifest. Whereas task proficiency deals with how

well a task is executed, experience is what individuals learn over a

period of time through, (in particular), informal training or

practice- based work (McCloy et al, 1994; Fraser, 1999; Dullaimi et

al, 1999).

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

In contrast, the evidence also suggests that contextual

performance behaviours could be best predicted by individual

differences in determination, teamwork and allegiance (Borman

and Motowidlo, 1993). However, for managerial jobs, Conway

(1999) suggests that individual differences in job dedication and

interpersonal facilitation are more appropriate constructs for

establishing prediction levels (see also Gellatly and Irving, 2001).

Job dedication is defined as the motivational foundation for job

performance that drives people to act with deliberate intention of

promoting an organisations best interest and includes self-

disciplined behaviours such as following rules, working hard and

taking initiative to solve problems at work (Van Scotter and

Motowidlo, 1996). Alternatively, interpersonal facilitation (as noted

earlier) are those attributes that help maintain the interpersonal

and social context needed to support job effectiveness. These

attributes could be demonstrated as spontenuoeus behaviours

(such as altruism) and also encompasses deliberate acts that

include cooperative, considerate and helpful acts that assist co-

workers’ performance.

4.2.2 Conventional Wisdom in Project Success Criteria

It has already been alluded to in general introduction to the thesis

that, the fundamental premise on which project management is

based is that, the PM is accountable for the success of the project

(Godwin, 1993). Success as defined by Rosenau (1984) is when the

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

project satisfies some externally perceived and/or agreed criteria

(citied in Godwin, 1993). The implication is that any behavioural

competencies identified should be linked to the expected

performance outcome. This is because, ultimately, job performance

consists of deliverable outputs underpinned by appropriate

behaviours (Pierce, 1994). Furthermore, mapping behavioural

measures to the expected results should provide a useful

framework through which behavioural competencies can be

illustrated in a practical way (Brophy and Kiely, 2000). However,

identification of the expected results and for that matter the

performance outcomes is subject to debate in mainstream project

management practice. In particular, there exists confusion

whether the outcome of projects or performance outcome should

be defined in terms of project success or project management

success or both (Lim and Mohammed, 1999; Cooke-Davies 2002).

Equally confusing is the question of who determines the criteria.

In this regard, some researchers have suggested that the four

most important stakeholders to decide the criteria are PMs, top

management, customer-client and team members (Struckenbach,

1997).

These notwisthstanding, what is clear is that, whichever

perspectives one adopts, the output-based measures constituting

performance outcome can only be assessed at the end of project

completion. Furthermore, it has become conventional for the

criteria involved to be almost always linked to the traditional

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

measures of time, cost and quality. The reason why these

measures based on the iron trianlge are so popular is that they are

simple to apply and also largely objective. However, in recent

times, there has been an acknowledgement that limiting the

criteria to these traditional measures excludes the long term

interests of many other project stakeholders (Atkinson, 1999) (see

also chapter two). Subsequently, the perceived wisdom now is to

view success criteria as both measures of the success of the

production system in terms of time, cost and quality and the

benefit to the stakeholders.

In view of this, numerous project management researchers

including Morris and Hough (1987), deWit (1988), Pinto and Slevin

(1988), Wateridge (1998), Turner (1993) and Atkinson (1999) have

developed alternative proposals. While these alternatives

conceptualise the project success criteria against the traditional

measures, there is consensus on the need to include criteria that

satisfy the interests of other stakeholders. Subsequently, new and

emerging criteria such as health and safety, technology transfer,

environmental friendliness, risk containment, client satisfaction,

stakeholder’s satisfaction have become accepted for assessing the

performance outcome.

The framework by Pinto and Slevin’s (1988) has been the driver

behind a number of studies aimed at identifying project success

factors especially because of its detailed background (Atkinson,

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

1999: Lim and Mohammed, 1999; Odusami et al, 2003) (see also

Baccarini, 1999). The framework (i.e. Pinto and Slevin) is based on

the premise that the key factors in the implementation of

successful projects incorporate three criteria: technical validity,

organisational validity and organisational effectiveness. Technical

validity is the first hurdle in the success criteria and this is

assessed in the context of whether the project after completion

performs as it was intended to work (i.e. an issue of functionality

crops in here). Alternatively, organisational validity is based on the

premise that a project must be “right” or acceptable for the clients

for whom it is intended. An important condition about

organisational effectiveness is that the PM must be involved in

making sure that the “right” project is delivered to the client

and/or user (Pinto and Slevin, 1988). Thus organisational

effectiveness is how well the acceptance of the project impacts

positively on the user.

A key implication of the three measures of implementation of

success (identified above) is that success criteria are equally

important both inside and outside the project organisation (Pinto

and Slevin, 1988). Subsequently, Pinto and Slevin (1988) used

these three measures of implementation of success to develop a 6-

factor model reflecting the constructs time, cost, performance (i.e.

in respect of quality), satisfaction, usage, and effectiveness (Figure

4.2). Notice that in proposing these constructs, success was

centred around two main themes; the project and the client. The

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

argument here is that in a typical project, the project must be

technically correct and functional. Alternatively, the assessment of

success relates to the impact of the project upon its intended user,

the clients.

Time Use

Project Succ Client Satisfactio


Cost
ess n

Performan
ce Effectiven

Figure 4.2: Model for Project Success

Source: Adapted from Pinto and Slevin (1988)

Givent the recognition earlier that MHBPs are unique from the

many one-off projects often encountered in the construction

industry (see chapter three), it was necessary to develop

appropriate success criteria towards determining the appropriate

performance outcome in these projects. Subsequently, using the

conventional success criteria (including the new and emerging


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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

ones) as a foundation and, in also drawing on Pinto and Slevin’s

(1988) 6-factor model, a project success framework for MHBPs

was developed as described below.

4.2.3 Developing a Project Success framework for Mass


House Building Projects

Figure 4.5, presents a proposed success framework for MHBPs.

Note that the underlying themes have been identified as: projects

and customers [i.e. drawing from Pinto and Slevin (1988)].

Levels of Key Potential Success


Validity themes Criteria
Overall project cost
Cost of individual house-units
Technical Overall project quality
Quality of individual house-units
Project
Overall project duration
Rate of delivery of individual
house-units
Technology transfer
Overall risk containment
Organisational
Risk containment on individual
house-units
Overall health and safety
measures
Overall environmental impact
Customer
Effectiveness Environmental impact of
individual house-units
Overall
Health and safety on individual
house-units

Figure 4.3: Project Success Framework for MHBPs

Source: Ahadzie et al (2007a)

In MHBPs, the critical issue is for the PM to take advantage of the

repetitive task involved so as to ensure cost and time effectiveness

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

through learning and experience (Mahdi, 2004). Alternatively,

customers (as the potential users) will expect high quality work

that will make a positive impact on their well-being. Thus, whereas

issues relating to technical and organisational validity are critical

in terms of the project and/or product, it is expected that

organizational effectiveness will be influenced largely by customer

satisfaction, quality and other subjective measures. Indeed, Pinto

and Slevin (1988) concur that organisational effectiveness is

assessed subjectively based on a sense of smoother operations and

employee and customer satisfaction.

To this end, 15 potential success criteria were identified for

MHBPs. Table 4.1 presents a definition of the various variables

identified.

Table 4.1: Definition of potential success criteria in MHBPs


Variable Variable Name Definition
CSF 1 Overall project cost Final out-turn cost for overall
project including infrastructure
such as road networks and
streetlighting
CSF 2 Cost of individual house- Final out-turn cost for
individual house-units.
units
CSF 3 Overall project duration Time taken to complete entire
project including provision of
infrastructure such as road
works and streetlighthing
CSF 4 Rate of delivery of Time taken to deliver
individual house-units individual house-units.
CSF 5 Overall project quality Quality of entire project
including associated
infrastructure as seen by
customers and the public
CSF 6 Quality of individual house- Quality of individual house-
units units as seen by the customer
or user
CSF 7 Overall customer Satisfaction of customers with
satisfaction overall project outcomes
including infrastructure
provision
CSF 8 Customer satisfaction on Satisfaction of customers with
individual house-units individual house –units

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

Variable Variable Name Definition


CSF 9 Overall risk containment The extent to which all kinds of
risk were contained or
mimimised
CSF 10 Risk containment on Ditto in relation to individual
individual house-units house-units
CSF 11 Overall environmental Impact of construction waste,
impact environmental degradation and
pollution on the general public
CSF 12 Environmental impact of Impact of living environment
individual house-units waste such rubbish, sewage,
drainage
CSF 13 Overall health and safety Number of accidents and the
measures extent to which employees use
appropriate safety gear and
equipment
CSF 14 Health safety measures Health and safety in terms of
with individual house-units health hazard posed by the
living environment, poor
materials poor construction
practices
CSF 15 Technology transfer The extent to which new
technology significanctly
improves the design and
construction of a living space
by decreasing installed cost,
increasing installed
performance and improving
the construction process is
applied on the project.

Source Ahadzie et al (2007a)

Granted that virtually no systematic studies have been undertaken

on success criteria in MHBPs in developing countries in particular,

the definition of the 15 success criteria was largely influenced by

drawing on mainstream project management literature (e.g.

Morris et al, 2000), and also informed by the notion that in

MHBPs, PMs have to use their knowledge of repetitive techniques

to achieve, for instance, cost and time effectiveness in the

individual house-units (see for instance Ashley, 1980; Dhanekesar,

2000). For instance, in MHBPs the notion exist that, as a result of

the potential effect of the learning curve experience there should

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

normally be, for instance, cost and time savings on house-units

being delivered. This management perspective was interpreted to

mean that on MHBPs there were potentially likely targets to be

met on the specific house-units as well as in the overall project

context. This intuition thus led to the viewpoint of discriminating

between meeting “overall success criteria” (i.e. success in the

larger project context) and “success criteria on individual house-

units.”

Subsequently, it was contended that if property developers

discriminate between the two sets of success criteria or otherwise,

it should provide PMs with the information that will enable them

to channel the appropriate behaviours in respect of for instance,

the degree of detailing and effort required in implementing

relevant management tools such as, for instance, master, detailed

and short term programmes. Interestingly, this discourse is

psychologically supported in the literature. For instance, Tett et al

(2000) contended that the behavioural actions of managers

towards achieving project success, is influenced by the degree and

expected level of results. Subsequently, they argue that behaviours

that might be associated with short term planning where

“detailing” is very important may be different from undertaking

strategic planning where “creativity” is rather more important.

Thus, the behaviours and skills underlying effective short term

planning (attention to detail) are likely to be different from those

contributing to long term planning (creativity). It is therefore

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

anticipated that if PMs were aware of which success dimensions

are deemed more critical in MHBPs, appropriate resources would

be challenged towards acquiring the relevant competencies.

4.2.4 Framework for Project Lifecycle

The project lifecycle framework (Figure 4.4) is a pictorial concept

put forward by Lim and Mohammed (1999). The premise of the

framework is that as a project progresses, there may be a set of

different factors influencing each phase (of the project lifecycle)

towards achieving the overall success criteria. Such factors may

be inherent in proxies such as feasibility studies, marketing

research, data of various kinds, site conditions, weather, and

logistics. In arguing their case, Lim and Mohammed (1999)

identified the following project phases: conceptual, planning,

design, tender, construction and operational as potential divisions

for understanding the concept underlying the framework.

Recently, Pillai et al (2002) have also used similar pictorial

ideology in the context of engineering manufacturing projects.

Subsequently, they developed a mathematical model intending to

link performance measurement across three phases namely,

inception, procurement and execution. While Pillai et al (2002)

used the framework in a significantly different environment, there

is no doubt that their interpretation reinforced the validity of the

ideology in performance measurement.

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

Project phases

Conceptu Planning Design Tender Constructio Operati


al n on

Factors Factors Factors Factors Factors Factors

Figure 4.4: Project lifecycle framework showing how different


factors may influence various phases

Source: After Lim and Mohammed (1999)

More recently Belout and Gavreau (2004) have re-affirmed the

potential validity of this concept in the HRM research genre using

empirical data. Adopting four project phases namely;

conceptualization, planning, execution and completion, they

employed pearsons’ correlation and regression analysis to confirm

that management support and personality related measures

respectively are significantly related to project success at various

phases of the project lifecycle. The relevance of this evidence in

particular is, there is the likelihood that the skills and abilities

required by PMs may differ depending on the project phase of the

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

project lifecycle (see also Ogunlana et al, 2002). Subsequently, it

could be contended that the competency profiles of PMs at the

various phases of a project lifecycle are likely to differ significantly

from one another.

A further implication of the findings of Belout and Gavreaus (2004)

is that, it should be possible to isolate the different behavioural

measures that are significantly related to project success at the

various phases of a project lifecycle. Without doubt, this is very

relevant in the management of MHBPs given that in these

projects, the PM is often engaged from the conception stage

through to the operational phase (Ahadzie et al 2006a). To help

incorporate the PMs’ performance domain in the project lifecycle

here, the six -phase framework suggested by Lim and Mohammed

(1999) is adopted as it gives the opportunity to address the PMs’

performance in a more detailed perspective.

4.3 DEVELOPING A ROBUST COMPETENCY- BASED

CONCEPTUAL MODEL

This section introduces the development of the conceptual model

that underpins the research focus. First to be described is the

conceptual model that reflects the various phases of the project

lifecycle. Thereafter, an abridged conceptual model for the

“construction phase” is presented. The explanation for this

distinction is provided in the course of the discussion.

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

4.3.1 A Competency-Based Conceptual Model for the


Project lifecycle

The strategic position of competency-based measures in

contemporary HRM cannot be overemphasised. The theoretical

framework adopted, in particular, the organizational psychology

theory of job performance provides the basis for developing a

robust competency-based model which can be used to predict the

performance of PMs (Figure 4.5). In conjunction with the

conventional wisdom in the use of project success criteria, the

behavioural measures could be mapped to the performance

outcome. As noted earlier, adopting this perspective emphasises

that behavioural competencies are not only a function of the PM

but also a function of the expected project outcome (Brophy and

Kiely, 2002).

With the contention that behavioural competencies are likely to

develop and change as a project progresses, the model draws on

the project lifecycle framework so that the potential behavioural

performance of PMs can be predicted at the conception, planning,

design, tender, construction and operational phases of the project

lifecycle (see Figure 4.5).

Based on the evidence that individual differences in cognitive

ability, experience, job knowledge and task proficiency best

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Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries

predict task performance behaviours they have been incorporated

as the constructs for each of the project phases identified. Since

task performance behaviours usually vary between different job

descriptions in the same organization, it pre-supposes that it

should be possible to identify the specific competency profiles for

each project phase and thus establish how significantly they are

related. Thus, these constructs when operationalised were to be

used for developing the appropriate independent variables for

each of the project phases already identified.

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Chapter 4 Development of Conceptual model

Performance behaviours Performanc


.
e outcome
Conception Planning Design Tender Operational
phase Construction phase Overall project
cost, Cost of
Phase Phase Phase individual house-
Phase units, Overall
project quality,
Quality of
individual house-
units, Overall
project duration,
Task Task Task Rate of delivery
Performance of individual
Performance Task Task Performance
Task Behaviours: house-units,
Behaviours: Performance Performance Behaviours: Technology
Performance
Behaviours: Behaviours: transfer, Overall
Behaviours:
risk
Cognitive
containment,
ability Cognitive
Cognitive Risk
Job knowledge ability
ability Cognitive Cognitive Cognitive containment on
Task proficiency, Job knowledge
Job knowledge ability ability ability individual house-
Experience Task proficiency,
Task Job knowledge Job knowledge Job knowledge units, Overall
proficiency Task Experience health and
Task Task
Experience proficiency proficiency, proficiency, Safety measures,
Experience Experience Experience Overall
environmental
Performance of project manager impact,
Environmental
impact of
individual house-
units, Health
and Safety of
Contextual Performance Behaviours: individual house-
Job dedication units, Overall
Interpersonal facilitation customer
satisfaction,
Customer of
individual house-
units

Figure 4.5: Competency-based Conceptual model for the project lifecycle of MHBPs

131
Chapter 4 Development of Conceptual model

Source: Ahadzie et al (2006a)

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Chapter 4 Development of Conceptual model

Since contextual performance behaviours are not job specific but

usually common to many jobs, it follows that, irrespective of the

project phase, the PM will be expected to exhibit the same or

similar types of behavioural competencies across all the phases

(Figure. 4.5).

Thus, contextual performance behaviours might be more amenable

for developing generic competency profiles of PMs. As individual

differences in interpersonal facilitation and job dedication best

predict contextual performance behaviours in managerial

performance, these were adopted as the appropriate constructs.

In effect, the adopted constructs of contextual performance

behaviours represented another set of independent variables.

In respect of the performance outcome, which represents a further

dimension of the overall model, the 15 potential success criteria

developed for MHBPs were used and these represented the

dependent variables (Figure 4.5).

This conceptual model gives opportunity for the variables to be

defined in explicit behavioural terms, portrays the performance

domain as multidimensional and gives the opportunity to

distinguish between potentially generic and specific competency

profiles. Contending that the conceptual model draws significantly

on the well-grounded organisational psychology theory of job

performance, it is potentially robust for identifying appropriate

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Chapter 4 Development of Conceptual model

management behaviours that will help encourage more superior

performance throughout the whole lifecycle of MHBPs (Ahadzie,

2006c and 2006d).

4.3.2 An Abridged Competency-Based Conceptual

Model for the Construction Phase

The developed project lifecycle model has the potential for

developing an holistic understanding of the PMs’ performance

domain. However, for the purpose of this study, a decision was

taken for the development of the substantive model to centre on

the “construction phase” (Figure 4.6). This decision was primarily

motivated by resource constraints.

Performance
Outcome
Performance
Construction
Behaviours
Phase
Overall project cost,
Cost of individual house-
units, Overall project
quality, Quality of
Task Performance individual house-units,
Behaviours: Overall project duration,
Rate of delivery of
individual house-units,
Cognitive ability Technology transfer,
Job knowledge Overall risk
Task proficiency containment, Risk
containment on
Project managers’ individual house-units,
performance Overall health and
Safety measures,
Contextual Overall environmental
performance impact, Environmental
impact of individual
behaviours: house-units, Health and
Job dedication Safety of individual
Interpersonal house-units, Overall
customer satisfaction,

Figure 4.6: Abridged version of conceptual model at the


construction phase

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Chapter 4 Development of Conceptual model

Source: Ahadzie et al (2006c)

The reasoning for settling on the construction phase is primarily

driven by the fact that, given level of development in the

management of MHBPs in Ghana presently, it is the management

practices going on the construction phase which appears to be of

particular interest to professionals and practitioners. Interestingly

this decision to focus on the construction phase is also supported

using the “person-process-product” concept in project

management practice. According to Dullaimi and Langford (1999),

this three- stage concept is necessary to fully understand in a

wider perspective effective managerial performance in project

management practice. However, in chapter three, it was revealed

that while most researches in MHBPs have in the recent past

focussed on the construction phase, the emphasis has also been on

the “process-product” stages (Okuwogo, 1997: Odenyika and Yusif,

1998; Formoso et al, 2000). Thus, focussing on the construction

phase would help provide the opportunity to address the

convergence as regards the “person-process-product”

relationships, so that a more holistic understanding of effective

project management practice can be developed.

Nevertheless, this model at the construction phase when

developed will be used to assess the potential of developing the

fully completed model in the future for use by practitioners. Hence

in the interim, an abridged competency –based conceptual model

for the construction phase is presented to help clarify the data


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Chapter 4 Development of Conceptual model

collection stages of the study (see Figure 4.5). Just like the model

reflecting the various phases of the project lifecycle, the abridged

version purports to measure the PMs’ performance by establishing

the behavioural attributes that best predict performance outcomes

in MHBPs. The constructs of task performance behaviours are

identified as cognitive ability, job knowledge, task proficiency and

experience whilst contextual performance behaviours are

represented by job dedication and interpersonal facilitation. This

conceptual model was used as the basis for selecting the relevant

research methods and instruments as desribed in the subsequent

chapter.

4.4 SUMMARY

Following the literature review, this chapter has treated the

development of an appropriate conceptual model for reinforcing

the future direction of the research. Firstly, some basic

assumptions about the term “performance” were outlined. This

was important to help provide a complete understanding of the

terminology as used in this context. Thereafter the underlying

theoretical frameworks underlying the development of the

conceptual model were discussed. Three main frameworks were

highlighted as critical to addressing the key research questions,

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Chapter 4 Development of Conceptual model

namely the organisational psychology theory of job performance,

the convetional wisdom in project success criteria, in particular

Pinto and Sleven’s (1988) framework, and the project lifecycle

framework proposed by Lim and Mohammed (1999).

Given the realisation that MHBPs differ in many ways from the

one-off project often encountered in construction, it was important

to explain further the dependent variables involved, which was

done by developing a project success framework for MHBPs.

Drawing on these framworks a robust competency framework was

then presented. It is argued that the rigour in the conceptual

model lies in its explicit focus in both performance behaviours and

outcomes and also being linked to the project lifecycle.

Subsequently and as a result of resource constraints placed by on

the research, the development of the substantive model will focus

on the construction phase.

Hence an abriged version of the conceptual model for the

construction phase was also presented. The next section now

describes the research methodology adopted for the study.

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CHAPTER FIVE
CHAPTER FIVE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter now discusses the research methodology adopted for

the study. The research methodology involves the systemic rules

and procedures upon which this research agenda is based and

against which the data collected is interpreted and the findings

evaluated. In the ensuing discussion, the terms epistemology,

methodology and methods as applied in research are first defined.

Thereafter, (and also informed by the conceptual model in chapter

four) the paradigm adopted is described. This is then followed by a

commentary on the choice of the method including the research

instrument design.

The data collection procedure is also described in this chapter.

Subsequently, the relevant information on the potential

respondents, the sampling frame, the sample size and the field

work are presented. The chapter concludes with a commentary on

how the data collected was edited and analysed.

5.1 EPISTEMOLOGY, METHODOLOGY AND METHODS


The lack of an integrated theory of project management is

reflected in its multifaceted and multi-disciplinary nature, and for

this reason, research in project management practice often draws

on a range of theoretical bases from the social and natural

sciences (Soderland, 2004; Smyth and Morris, 2007) This diversity

of theoretical bases makes it quite problematic for reseachers in

project management practice to articulate explicitly the choice of

an appropriate research methodology (ibid). To avoid

“controversial” criticism and doubts about a research, there is

therefore the need for a thorough understanding of the application

of the concepts underlying the epistemological, methodological

and methods reflected in the research (Pollack, 2007; Smyth and

Morris, 2007).

Epistemology is used to define the knowledge through which the

research process is investigated and developed (see Smyth and

Morris, 2007). Alternatively, methodology is enshrined in the

philosophy of the research process (Bailey, 1987; Smyth and

Morris, 2007). Thus, methodology includes the assumptions and

values that becomes the rationale for the research including the

standards or criteria for interpretating data and reaching

conclusions (Bailey, 1987). In contrast, methods refer to the tools

or techniques for undertaking the specific research (Bailey, 1987;

Smyth and Morris, 2007). Figure 5.1 presents a conceptual

interpretation of the application of epistemology, methodology and

methods in a typical research agenda


Philosophical issues of research Paradigms

Epistemological issues of research Research


object
Research methodology Research

Figure 5.1: Applying epistemological, methodology and methods

Source: After Smyth and Morris (2007)

Figure 5.1 demonstrates that the research methodology is

embedded in the epistemological issues, which as shown is also

embedded in the wider philosophical issues of the research.

Together these can be “manipulated” based on the research

context to establish the appropriate paradigms and reseach

methods suitable for the research. In particular, the paradigm

adopted will help in the choice of an appropriate research

methodology (Bailey, 1987).

5.2 CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY

The methodological paradigms are first elucidated (5.1.1). The

paradigm adopted for this research is then described (5.1.2).

Subsequently the research methodology adopted is explained.


5.1.1 Methodological Paradigms

According to Pollack (2007), the term paradigm generally refers to

“a commonly shared set of assumptions, values and concepts

within a community, which constitutes a way of viewing reality.” In

particular, paradigms shape the way reseachers perceive the

research methodology adopted and the techniques to be used

(Pollack, 2007; Smyth and Morris, 2007). Subsequently for this

purpose paradigm is defined as:

“a research perspetive or view (a school of thought) that holds

views about what research goals and methods are appropriate

(how research should be conducted) and has its own values and

assumptions.” (Bailey, 1987)

Two main research paradigms are in popular use especially in

social science related research such as this type (Bailey, 1987).

These are: positivism which assumes that social phenomenon

obeys natural laws and can be subjected to quantitative logic and

interpretivism which argues that social phenomenon does not obey

natural laws but is interpreted based on peoples’ conviction and/or

understanding of the realism surrounding the phenomenon (Bailey,

1987; Walliman, 2003). In practice the difference between the two

traditions is inflenced by the ontological, epistemological and

axiological assumptions underlying the research (Keraminiyage et

al, 2005) (Figure 5.2 below).


Realism Ontology Idealism

Positivism

OBJECTIVE
Epistemolog

Axiology
y

Interpretivi
sm
Figure 5.2: Dimensions of Research Philosophy

Source: Adopted from Pathirage (2005)

As noted earlier the epistemological question drives the

relationship between the researcher and the subject under

invesgiation. In addition, it provides the knowledge base that the

researcher can use to investigate the relationship under

consideration (Liyarange et al, 2005). Thus, depending on the

epistemological positioning adopted by the researcher, positivism

or interpretivism would prevail as more suitable (Figure 5.2). The

ontological assumption deals with the nature of reality (Johnson

and Duberly, 2000) or idealism (Gummesson, 1991) influencing the

phenomenon. Whereas realists view the research reality with a

pre-determined structure, idealists adopt the view that different


observers may have different perceptions (Pathirage et al, 2005).

Alternatively, axiology deals with whether the research philosophy

surrounding the reality is “value free” or “value driven”. In value

free research, the choice of what to study or how the study can be

examined by objective criteria whilst value laden is driven by

subjective criteria (see for instance Easterby-Smith et al (2003)

cited in Pathirage et al, (2005).

Table 5.1 provides further constrasting implications of the choice

between positivism and interpretivism. Whereas in positivism, the

observer or unit of analysis is often not part of what is being

investiged, in interpretivism, the observer has to be part of the

research process. Similarly whereas in positivism, human interest

is largely irrelevant because it is not the main subject under

investigation, in interpretivism human interest is the main driver

of the science. Furthermore with regard to positivism, the

concepts need to be operationalised so that they can be measured,

however with regard to interpretivism, the stakeholder interest

has to be incorporated. Above all, while positivism may require

relatively large sample size to draw statistical conclusions, with

regard to interpretivism the concentration is normally on small

samples to help develop theoretical abstraction.

Table 5.1: Contrasting implicatons of positivism and


interpretivism
Positivism Interpretivism
The observer Must be independent Is part of of what is
being observed
Human interests Should be irrelevant Are the main drivers of
the science
Explanations Must demonstrate Aim to increase general
causality understanding of the
situation
Research progress Hypothesis Gathering rich data from
which ideas are induced
through
Concepts Need to be Should incorporate
operationalised so that stakeholder perspectives
they can be measured
Unit of analysis Should be reduced to May include the
simplest terms complexity of whole
situations
Generalisation through Statistical probability Theoretical abstraction
Samples required Large number selected Small numbers of cases
randomly chosen for specific
reasons
Source: After Keraminiyage (2005)

In project management practice, the terms “soft” and “hard”

paradigms are often associated with these two entrenched

traditions (see Pollack, 2007; Smyth and Morris (2007). The hard

paradigm is associated with positivist epistemology, deductive

reasoning, quantitative or reduction techniques and attributes

which are often associated with rigour and objectivity.

Alternativly, the soft paradigm is commonly qualitative and

emphasises subjective relevance rather than objectivity (ibid).

Subsequently, project management research practice based on the

hard paradigm tends to emphasise efficient, expert-led delivery,

control against predetermined goals and interest underlying

problem solving while the soft paradigm emphasises learning,

participation, the facilitated exploration of projects, and typically

demonstrates an interest in underlying social process or structure

(Pollack, 2007). Figure 5.3 is used to explain the theoretical and


practical differences between the two paradigms as perceived in

project management practice.

Hard Soft

Postivist/re Intrepretivi
Theory alist sm

Problem Problem
solving structuring
Practice

Figure 5.3: The hard and soft paradigm in theory and practice

Souce: Pollack (2007)

The main criticism against the use of the hard paradigm in project

management research is that it is based on the “Humean Law of

causality” (i.e. linear thinking) when the discipline is in fact open-

ended and requires lateral thinking (Smyth and Morris, 2007).

Equally, a major criticism against the soft paradigm (which leans

towards lateral thinking) is that because the reseacher is often an

integral part of the research instrument, the question of

“reliability” especially, should someone else decide to replicate the

study becomes difficult (see for instance Openhiem 1992).


Presently, the evidence suggests that the hard paradigm has

become entrenched in many aspects of project management

research, albeit it must be said that, in practice these paradigms

are not mutually exclusive. As a matter of fact, many reseachers

nowadays use parts of both approaches (i.e. by taking advantage

of the strength of each), and the difference lies in the degree of

emphasis. In this research, time and financial constraints would

not allow both paradigms to be explored and so the paradigm,

which was considered most reasonable in satisfying the tenets of

the research agenda was chosen.

5.1.2 The Research Paradigm Adopted

The research phenomenon under consideration and the key

research questions influence the type of paradigm that has to be

adopted (Remenyi et al, 1998: Pollack, 2007). The conceptual

model is also strategic in deciding which paradigm to follow (Miles

and Huberman, 1994). Moreover, the conceptual model also

forces the researcher to be rational and systematic about the

constructs and variables to be included in the research instrument.

In chapter two (section 2.4), it was noted that human behaviour

albeit complex is relatively enduring and stable over time.

Subsequently, although researchers recognise the complexity

involved in measuring behavioural competencies, there is still a

general consensus that by considering the contribution of an

individual’s behavioural action over a period of time, it should be


possible to scale the degree to which they are desirable with

enough precision to distinguish between them (see e.g. Motowidlo

et al, 1997; Gellatly and Irving, 20001, Larson, and Buss, 2005).

Indeed McCloy (1994) buttresses this view by arguing that despite

many criticisms that quantitative logic or modelling might

sometimes be unreliable and also vulnerable to numerous sources

of distortion in measuring human behaviour, they remain

reasonably valid and reliable for predicting human peformance

(see also Borman, 1978; Murphy et al, 1982; McCloy et al, 1994;

Borman et al, 1995). That is, while the method of collecting data

might differ depending on research focus and resources available,

virtually all studies the researcher has come across in mainstream

HRM puplications including project management practice have

been largely subjected to quantitative analysis.

Thus, notwithstanding any potential limitations of quantitative

logic in estimating behavioural measures, there is reasonable

evidence to suggest that it has over the years stood the test of

time and might therefore be appropriate for this research agenda

as well. Therefore and also for the purposes of establishing

methodological validity for the type of research being undertaken,

the hard paradigm was adopted. The usefulness in adopting the

hard paradigm in this study is that it should make it possible to

establish the convergent and discriminant validity of the study in

relation to the relevant literature. As a result, by adopting the hard


paradigm, it should reasonably be possible for the study to be

replicated with relative ease if necessary.

5.2 THE RESEARCH METHOD

In principle, there are many research methods (instruments) for

satisfying various research needs (Wilkinson and Birmingham,

2003). The irony is that while there are indeed many research

methods, there is no option per excellence (ibid). Nevertheless,

some instruments are better suited for tackling specific issues

than others. In good research, the contention is that the choice

should be appropriate, reasonable and explicit (Denscombe, 2003).

Ignoring these fundamentals can lead to very poor research. Above

all, this may open the research findings to criticisms and doubt

(Denscombe, 2003).

By adopting positivism as the paradigm underpinning this study,

the epistemological, ontological and axiological assumptions

dictated that either; case studies, surveys and experiments would

be most ideal as the research method (Figure 5.4). However,

experiments would not be an appropriate choice because they are

carried out usually in a laboratory setting where the investiagator

can manipulate behaviour directly, precisely and systematically

(Yin, 2003). Thus, in view of the nature of investigation associated

with this research, experiment was discounted as an appropriate

option. In surveys, samples are examined through questionnaires


while case studies involve an empirical enquiry that investagates a

contemporary occurrence within a real life context (Yin, 2003).

Realism Ontology Idealism

Positivism
OBJECTIVE
Axiology
Experiment

Survey
Epistemolo

Case study

Action research
gy

Ethnogra
phy

Interpretivi
sm
Figure 5.4: Influence of Research Philosophy on the choice of
research instruments

Source: After Pathirage (2005)

In order to choose between these two research methods, (i.e. case

studies and surveys), the research questions were also drawn upon

by referring to the framework in Table 5.2. This framework

provides the potential of matching research questions to the

choice of potential research instruments. The key research

questions involved in the sudy suggested that either surveys or

case studies could have been suitable as the research method.


However, the theoretical basis of this study involved collecting

data to draw deductive conlcusions and this would have been

practically unjustifiable given that the case study approach is more

amenable for establishing inductive reasoning or theory building.

In view of this a survey technique was chosen as the most

appropriate research method. The survey instrument comprises

the postal questionnaire survey used in evaluating aspects of the

output of the results or the validation exercises and this is

described in section 5.3.6.

Table 5.2: Cross-categorisation and matching of research


question type and research strategy.
Strategy Type of Research Is control of Is there focus on
Question behaviour contemporary
required? events?
Experiment How? , why? Yes Yes
Survey Who? , What? , No Yes
Where? , How
Many? , How
much?
Archival Analysis Who? , What? , No Yes/No
Where? , How
Many? , How
much?
History How? , Why? No No
Case study How?, Why? No Yes
What?

Source: After, Bailey, 2005 and Chinyio, (1999)

5.2.1 Presenting the Survey Instrument

This introductory section presents an overview of the survey

instrument. Full details are given in section 5.2.2 (see also

Appendix 4). Drawing on the constructs identified in the

conceptual model (i.e. Figure 4.4), the appropriate dependent and


independent variables for the survey instrument were

operationalised. Table 5.3 presents the details of the operational

measures involved including the rationale and how they were to be

analysed once the data had been collected. Before

operationalising the key constructs, an extensive review of the

taxonomy of generic managerial skills in the HRM genre including

construction was undertaken (see Appendices 1, 2 and 3). The aim

was to help identify, in particular, the key human skills that are

useful for operationalising the performance of PMs in a study like

this. This was to make sure that all the necessary behavioural

skills had been captured towards making the operational measures

rigorous. Appendices 1, 2 and 3 provide details of the common

human skills.

The principal concept that influenced the design of the operational

measures was that they should either directly or indirectly be

associated with behaviours that largely reflect management

intuition in repetitive planning and construction techniques.

Management intuition in repetitive construction planning as used

in this sense means that in MHBPs the PM is expected to introduce

planning and scheduling model that will:

• Maintain continuous flow of work for all identifiable crew

involved in the repetitive task involved in MHBPs


• Ensure continuous flow of all resources including their

allocation and levelling, and

• Allow time and cost efficiencies by appropriate balancing of

crew through the opportunity of experience and learning

curves effects on production

Thus, in MHBPs the onus is on the PM to evaluate all these

feasible trade-offs in order to select a management plan that

strikes an optimal balance between minimising the project cost

and time and maximizing crew work continuity (Hyari and El-

Rayes. 2005). As much as possible the operational measures were

designed to capture this intention, by where necessary, drawing

the respondents’ attention to the significance of repetitive

planning techniques in the wording of the questions.

Robbins (1998) has noted that one of the key issues in addressing

the performance measurement is to establish the person who is to

determine the criteria for evaluation. In this vain, Strunkenbach

(1987) who is in agreement with Robbins (1989) suggests that in

project management practice, the important stakeholders who

could be considered for determining the criteria are the PM,

project-team members, “top management” and the customer.

Conversely, some reseachers argue that customers are often likely

to focus on outturn performance rather input based measures and

can therefore not be relied upon very much for developing


competencies measures. (cf. Dainty et al, 2003). Indeed, given that

a key objective of this study was towards improving the

competencies of PMs, one could argue that the unit of analysis

should have been the PMs who could provide reasonable

information on what is best suited for their own professional

development (cf. Robbins, 1989). Alternatively, a potentially

plausible approach might have been to use the 360 degrees or

interrater assessment of managerial performance, as this would

have helped in developing the competencies from a broader

perspective (Harris and Schaubroek 1988; Robbins, 1989).

However, (and as already mentioned in the general introduction),

the main motivation here was to help provide potential and

aspiring PMs a clear understanding of what their superiors herein

referred to as managing directors (MDs) expect of them in terms

of the appropriate competencies. Indeed Brown and Adams (2000)

have implied that the whole essence of project management

practice is for the PM to deliver the project to meet the objective

of the primary stakeholder whose financial investment is at risk in

the business venture. Pickett (1998) has also noted that; “the

current and future success of an enterprise is a reflection of the

effectiveness of the senior team, their vision and leadership, and

combined knowledge and skills of the organisations workforce.”

This suggests that the identification of the management and

specialist competencies that will enable construction organisations

such those involved in MHBPs to meet the demands of the future


might be assumed to be the key responsibilities of “top managers”

such as senior business executives or MDs whose investments are

often at stake in these economic ventures. Furthermore, by

providing PMs a clearer understanding of what the MDs expect of

them, this would potentially pave the way both parties PMs to

come to an agreement and avoid differences in respect of what

constitutes the determinants of superior managerial practices in

the implementation and management of MHBPs. To this effect,

aspiring PMs who lack the requisite skills expected of them by the

MDs (who are also their potential employers) would hopefully

strive to acquire the relevant skills towards generating an healthy

working environment while for those who possess the necessary

skills, it might give give them the impetus to aim higher towards

satisfying the expectations of property devlopers.

In Ghana, the MDs of housebuilding companies who constitute

members of the Ghana Real Estate Developers Association

(GREDA) are responsible for taking the corporate and projects

decisions affecting their organisation and also employing the

services of PMs (see also section 5.3.1). It was therefore decided

to target these MDs to help elicit the relevant measures that would

help identify and develop the core competencies that align with

their corporate and project objectives. Subsequently, the survey

instrument was designed having in mind what the MDs would

consider important for evaluating the performance of PMs based


on their retrospective judgment of regularly observing the PMs

perform on MHBPs.

5.2.2 The Survey Instrument Design

There are three main parts to the survey instrument plus a

preamble that explains the purpose of the research, the expected

outcome and how the findings are to be disseminated including

feedback to the participants (see Appendix 4) (See also Table 5.3

for details of the various sections involved). For convenience and

simplicity, the preamble is not treated as part of Table 5.3.

However details can be found in Appendix 4. The substantive parts

of the instrument are as follows:

5.2.2.1 Demographic

Aside the preamble, the first part of the survey instrument

contained demographic information related to the classification of

the participants; how long they have been in business; the type of

MHBPs they have implemented over the years; the overall value of

MHBPs executed in the last five years. This background

information was needed in order to establish the potential

credibility of the data.


Given the descriptive nature of the data that was being sought in

this section of the survey instrument, descriptive statistics, (mainly

percentages) were to be used to make meaning out of the data.

Apart from the demographic data, information was also gathered

from the property developers on their perception of the

performance of PMs that they have “recently” engaged on MHBPs

(Appendix 4). This exploratotory information was required to help

give some insight into how the property developers (constituting

the sample) perceive the performance of PMs in MHBPs in Ghana.

Because it was not intended to generalise this information, this

standardised opinion was also analysed using descriptive analysis.

5.2.2.2 Criteria for Performance Outcome (dependent


variables)

The second part of the survey instrument sought to elicit

information on the criteria (i.e. the dependent variables) the

participants considered important for assessing the success of

MHBPs. The 15 potential success criteria identified in the success

framework for MHBPs in chapter four (section 4.2.2) were used for

this purpose (Table 4.1 and Figures 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6).

Having decided on the dependent variables, Likert rating scales

was adopted to help elicit the appropriate ratings. Likert rating

scales are one of the most useful psychometric scaling for

establishing behavioural or attitudinal measures (Carmine and


Irvine, 1988). The conventional five-point rating scale was used as

the evidence suggests that more complex scoring systems possess

no significant advantage (Oppenhiem, 1992) Subsequently, the

dependent variables were to be ranked per their level of

importance by the potential respondents (i.e. managing directors

of property developers who belong to the GREDA) on a five-point

Likert rating scale of 1-5, where 1= not very important, 2= not

important, 3= average, 4= important and 5= very important.

While Likert rating scales are often described as ordinal measures,

they can be assumed as interval measures if the spacing between

them is uniform (Blaikie, 2003). In this sense, statistical tools such

as the t- test and factor analysis could then be used to analyse the

dependent variables so that they could be incorporated into the

development of the substantive model.

5.2.2.3 Contextual performance behaviours (independent


variables)

The third part of the survey instrument sought to elicit information

on the contextual performance behaviours representing the first

dimension of independent variables (Table 5.3). These independent

variables were operationalised from the constructs job dedication

and interpersonal facilitation. A total of 14 independent variables

were operationalised. Six operational measures were identified

under job dedication and eight operational measures were

identified under interpersonal facilitation (Table 5.3). These

contextual performance behaviours were to help elicit the


appropriate behavioural measures that might be important

towards enhancing the necessary social/psychological environment

in which the technical functions relating to MHBPs are

implemented. It is common that in MHBPs, a lot of inter-related

activities might be on-going on simultaneously involving a number

of different gangs or works contractors. The wording of the

questions were designed to mainly address behaviours that PMs

are expected to display out of volition and disposition towards

engendering harmony at the various “multiple” sites.

Subsequently, some of the questions included the PMs’ time

management practices on multiple projects; the PMs’ persistence

in seeing to works being completed according to schedule; ease

with which the the PMs is approachable by works contractors with

their personal problems, the PMs ability to provide effective

solutions to conflict while maintaining good relations.


Chapter 5 Research methodology
Table 5.3: Abridged Version of Operational measures for Research Instrument
Demographic Dependent variables Independent variables
• How long have you been a • Overall project cost Contextual performance behaviours:
member of the Ghana • Cost of individual house-units Job Dedication
Real Estate Developers • Overall project duration • Perseverance in pushing works contractors and/or artisans to achieve overall
Associaton? • Rate of delivery of individual project objectives.
• Please indicate how long house-units • Persistence in pushing works contractors and/or artisans to overcome obstacles.
you have been involved in • Project quality • Dedication to helping works contractors and/or artisans to achieve all programmes
the construction of • Ability to adapt/make the best out of difficulties faced by works contractors and/or
• Quality of individual house-
MHBPs artisans at project sites
units
• Please indicate the overall • Developing a sense of conscientiousness towards works contractors and/or
• Overall Customer satisfaction
value of MHBPs you have artisans.
• Customer satisfaction on
executed in the last 5 • Commitment towards meeting overall project objectives
years individual house-units
• Overall Risk containment Interpersonal Facilitation
• Would you please indicate • Effective time management practices on all project sites.
which of the following • Risk containment on individual
house-units • Providing timely information for works contractors and/or artisans.
types of MHBPs you often
• Overall Environmental impact • Volunteering to help works contractors and/or artisans solve personal problems
undertake?
• Would you please indicate • Environmental impact of • Showing compassion and sensitivity towards problems faced by works contractors
the average number of individual house-units and/or artisans.
(quantity) of house-units • Overall health and safety • Ease with which works contractors and/or artisans are able to approach project
you often undertake in measures manager with their problems.
MHBPs? • Health and safety measures on • Ability to arrive at effective solutions to conflict while maintaining good
individual house-units relationships.
Performanne level: • Technology transfer • Being aggressive on works contractors and/or artisans towards achieving project
objectives.
What is the pereception of the • Being honest with works contractors and/or artisans on their performances.
performance outcome of PMs Task performance behaviours:
you have engaged in MHBPs Cognitive ability
in recent times • Ability to envisage problems on all house-units under construction.
• Ability to provide alternative solution to problems encountered on all house-units
under construction.
• Ability to maintain emotional stability when dealing with problems on all house-
units under construction.
• Ability to recall progress of works on all house-units
Job Knowledge
• Knowledge of appropriate construction technology for repetitive works.
• Knowledge of appropriate cost saving techniques for repetitive construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate labour management techniques for repetitive
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate programme for delivering repetitive construction works
• Knowledge of appropriate quality management techniques for repetitive
construction works.
Chapter 5 Research methodology
Demographic Dependent variables Independent variables
• Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate progressing techniques for monitoring repetitive
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate materials management system for repetitive
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate health and safety issues for repetitive construction
works.
• Knowledge of appropriate risk management measures for repetitive construction
works.
• Knowledge of appropriate environmental impact assessment for repetitive
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction
Task proficiency
• Technical quality of scheduling programme for delivering overall house-units.
• Functional quality of scheduling programme for delivering overall house-units.
• Technical quality of scheduling programme for delivering individual house-unit.
• Functional quality of programme for delivering individual house –unit.
• Technical quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of overall house-
units.
• Functional quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of overall house-
units.
• Technical quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of individual house-
units.
• Functional quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of individual
house-units.
• Technical quality of specifications provided for the construction of overall house-
units.
• Functional quality of specifications provided for the construction of overall house-
units.
• Technical quality of specifications provided for the construction of individual
house-units.
• Functional quality of specifications provided for individual house-units.
• Technical quality of programme for achieving overall customer satisfaction.
• Functional quality of programme for achieving overall customer satisfaction.
• Technical quality of programme for achieving customer satisfaction on individual
house-units.
• Technical quality of risk containment programme for the construction of overall
house-units.
• Functional quality of risk containment programme for the construction of overall
house-units.
• Technical quality of risk containment programme for the construction of individual
Chapter 5 Research methodology
Demographic Dependent variables Independent variables
house-units.
• Functional quality of risk containment programme for the construction of
individual house-unit
• Technical quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction
overall house-units.
• Functional quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction of
overall house-units.
• Technical quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction of
individual house-units.
• Functional quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction of
individual house-units.
• Technical quality of health and safety measures for the construction of overall
house-units.
• Functional quality of health and safety measures for the construction of overall
house-units.
• Technical quality of health and safety measures for the construction of individual
house-units.
• Functional quality of health and safety measures for the construction of individual
house-units.
Experience
• Experiences in managing MHBPs.
• No. of years of practice in construction.
• Experiences in achieving success in the management of MHBPs.
• Experiences in managing MHBPs of similar nature.
• Experience in any type of construction project.
• Membership of appropriate professional body.
Chapter 5 Research methodology

Just like the dependent variables, these independent variables

were also to be ranked on the five-point Likert rating scale on their

level of importance for predicting the performance of PMs in

MHBPs. However (unlike the dependent variables), these

independent variables were to be analysed directly by

incorporating them into an appropriate regression model.

5.2.2.4 Task performance behaviours (independent


variables)

Task performance behaviours represented another dimension of

the independent variables. Here, theses operational measures

were operationalised from the consructs, cognitive ability, job

knowledge, task proficiency and experience identified. Four

operational measures were identified under cognitive ability, 12

under job knowledge, 28 under task proficiency and six under the

construct, experience (Table 5.3). In effect, a total of 50 variables

were identified to represent this dimension of the independent

variables. Cognitive ability as mentioned already is a measure of

the PMs’ intelligence and how easily they are able to recall and

solve problems. It was anticipated that identification of this

(cognitive) measures may help focus the PMs’ attention on

developing the appropriate mental capacity expected of them by

property developers in MHBPs.


Chapter 5 Research methodology

Just like the dependent variables the operational measures in this

section were as much as possible designed to capture the intention

of management intuition in the application of the repetitive

management techniques. Subsequently, in considering the

operational measures for the construct job knowledge for instance,

the key wording repetitive techniques was used as much as

possible hoping that it helped the respondents to reflect on the

concept while responding. Some of the questions thus read “the

PMs job knowledge in appropriate construction technology for

repetitive construction works”, “the PMs knowledge of appropriate

cost saving techniques for repetitive construction works”,

“knowledge of appropriate programme for delivering repetitive

construction works”(see Table 5.3 for further details).

The same argument above applies to the construct task

proficiency which was designed to capture the technical and

functional quality of work programmes for the implementation of

appropriate knowledge and skills. The premise here is that

technical and functional quality associated with a task can be used

to establish the sort of behaviour that goes into executing the task

(see Tett et al, 2000; Ling, 2002). Technical quality is defined as a

measure of the effort that goes into the preparation of the work

programmes whilst functional quality is a measure of how effective

or workable the programme is (see for instance Ling, 2002).


Chapter 5 Research methodology

With respect to the construct experience, the idea was that, the

kind of experience a person holds can be used to indirectly predict

what kind of behaviour he/she is likely to exhibit in future. For

instance, Dullaimi and Langford (1999) argued that, the job

environment does influence the type of behavioural skills PMs

acquire for their future development. Subsequently, PMs

associated with particular project experience, are likely to

conceptualise certain kinds of behaviours they have acquired and

are more likely to repeat such behaviours on similar projects.

Thus in this instance, the variables were operationalised to help

establish whether the property developers consider experience

gained working specifically on MHBPs to be more important than

say experience gained on say general construction works.

Similarly, it was important to establish whether experience gained

specifically on MHBPs was considered more important than others

and if that experience influenced the property developers’

judgment of the PMs behavioural performance.

However, it should pointed out here that while there is compelling

evidence to suggest that experience is an important construct for

assessing the the job potential of individuals (see for instance

Ogunlana et al, (2002) particularly in a recruitment and selection

process, here the construct is viewed in terms of its potential

effect on the judgment of property developers in respect to the

PMs performance on the ongoing (i.e. present) job or task and not

as seen on the “labour market” for the purposes of recruitment


Chapter 5 Research methodology

exercises. This is explanation is important for the purpose of the

interpretation of the findings in pages 201-204

Given, the potentially complex nature of behavioural measures, a

large number of independent variables were identified for

ensuring that all the possible variables had been accounted for.

This is important for the potential reliability of the measures (see

for instance Hinkle, 1979; Ones and Viswesvaren, 1996).

Reasonable care was taken to ensure that the content of the

operational measures reflected what is typical in HRM practices.

In particular, the theoretical constructs adopted informed the

design of the measures to ensure that they reflected sound

theoretical basis.

5.2.3 Ethical Considerations

According to a dictionary definition, to be ethical is to conform to

accepted professional practices (Webster, 1968 cited in Bailey,

1987). Despite the recognition to adhere to reasonable ethical

practices in research, it is believed that it is only within the last 20

years that a systematic attempt has been made to codify and

clarify these standards in print (Bailey, 1987; Micthell and Jolley,

1988). In conforming to the established trend, the University of

Wolverhampton (UoW) has put in place a rigorous ethical

validation procedure to assist researchers conform to a reasonably


Chapter 5 Research methodology

accepted standard. Among others the code designed by the UoW is

to ensure that:

• There is no interference with particpants’ physical and

psychological well-being.

• The research procedure is not likely to be stressful or

distressing

• The research materials are not sensisitive, discriminatory or

inappropriate

• The research design is sufficiently well-grounded so that the

potential participants’ time is not wasted during the data

collection.

The research intruments used for this study were subjected to

UoW ethical research committee. In so doing, the following

parameters in respect of the instrument had to be explained and

justfied where necessary: the rationale for and the expected

outcome of the study; details of methods, materials, designs and

procedures; details of how information would be held and disposed

and details of how the results will be fed back to the participants.

Having addressed and satisfied these criteria in a formal

application, the UoW ethics committee granted permission for the

field work to commence.

5.3.3 Pilot study


Chapter 5 Research methodology

Prior to the major survey, a pilot survey was undertaken in Ghana.

The pilot study is a trial run that can help the researcher to

smoothen out the survey instrument to ensure that the

participants in the main survey experienced no diffilcuties in

completing it (Bell, 1996 cited in Moore and Abadi, 2005). The aim

of the pilot study was to test the wording of the questionniare,

identify ambiguous questions, test the intended technique for data

collection and measure the effectiveness of the potential response.

Using purposive sampling techniques, 10 property developers who

are managing directors of their respective companies were

identified from the registered list of the Ghana Real Estate

Developers Association (GREDA) for the pilot study. All 10

property developers who were first contacted by phone on their

willingness to participate in the pilot survey were selected based

on their track record in successfully implementing MHBPs in

Ghana in recent times. This included one property developer

credited to be a pioneer in project management practices in

MHBPs in Ghana (see Ahadzie et al, 2004). It is worth noting that

the 10 participants identified for the pilot study were thereafter

not included in the main survey.

The pilot questionnaires (fully addressed) were sent by e-mail to a

reliable contact person at the Dept of Building Technology, Kwame

Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), who

made arrangements for delivery and retrieval in person. The


Chapter 5 Research methodology

questionnaires were accompanied by a covering letter explaining

the purpose of the pilot study. Subsequently, the respondents were

asked to critically appraise the questions and provide feedback as

to the relevance and sensitivity of the questions, length and time

for completing and suggestions for improvement. Within a period

of three weeks, all 10 completed questionnaires were retrieved by

the contact person and then posted back (by registered mail) to

the UK (taking two weeks for delivery).

The pilot study was a useful excerise, particularly with regard to

gathering information on issues such as average time required to

complete the questionnaire, clarity of ideas and questions asked

and their relevance to the construction industry in Ghana. A

careful scrutiny of the completed questionniare indicated that, the

substantive questions were all answered by the respondents,

suggesting that, the response categories were clearly signposted

to facilitate ease of completion; relevant to the central theme and

potentially interesting. It is interesting to note that when

respondents were asked to make general comments for

improvement, three made suggestions relating the role of the PM

in auditing design and putting in place effective payment systems

for works contractors. These are issues relating to the design and

procurement stage and thus outside the scope of this thesis.

However, it does emphasise the contention of the author that PMs’

performance measures should ultimately be linked to the various

project phases of the project lifecycle. Generally the feedback


Chapter 5 Research methodology

was very helpful and suggested that the survey instrument was

likely to work in the manner intended. A preliminary analysis of

the data also gave the opportunity to test the intended technique

for analysing the data and this was quite a useful exercise.

5.3 DATA COLLECTION

This section introduces issues relating to the collection of data and

is grouped into five sub-sections. Section 5.3.1 addresses how the

potential respondents for the main survey were identified. This is

followed by a description of the sampling frame in section 5.3.2.

The method for choosing the appropriate sample size is then

discussed in section 5.3.3. The penultimate section (5.3.4)

comments on the fieldwork whilst the final section (5.3.5) deals

with how the collected data received were edited to prepare them

ready for analysis.

5.3.1 Introducing the Survey Participants

As hinted earleir in section 5.2.1, the potential respondents for the

study were drawn from members of the Ghana Real Estate

Developers Association (GREDA). The primary business of the

GREDA members (as previously indicated) is the construction of

MHBPs for which they are recognised by the Government of

Ghana (GoG). The fact that the GREDA members specialise in the

construction of MHBPs is important viz. the critical incident


Chapter 5 Research methodology

concept (CIC) associated with performance evaluations. The CIC is

based on the premise that people who are aware of the aims and

objectives of a job and who observe such jobs frequently enough,

should be able to describe the content and behaviours associated

with the job (Borman, 1978; Latham et al, 1979). Thus, as the

primary property developers in Ghana, the GREDA members

should have a detailed knowledge and understanding of the

sectors domain and procedures and should (based on their

experience) be able to provide realistic evaluations of the jobs and

behaviours relevant to PMs’ performance domain in MHBPs. This

converges with the contention of Borman (1978) who argued that

when people who are suitably experienced in what they do, when

asked to undertake performance evaluations should be in a better

position to provide relatively accurate responses.

5.3.2 The Sampling Frame

The sampling frame was extracted from the registered list of

members kept by the secretariat of the GREDA. The list

categorises the membership into the 10 administrative regions in

Ghana and sums up to a total of 402 members across the country

(see also chapter three). The full address and in a majority of cases

telephone and mobile numbers of members were provided.

In chapter three (sub-section 3.5.2), it was noted that the structure

of the Ghanaian construction industry is significantly skewed


Chapter 5 Research methodology

towards the capital city as a result of the concentration of business

activities there. The composition of the GREDA members reflects

this trend with over 95% of them officially registered and based in

the Greater Accra-region) (see for instance Figure 3.2). Kumasi,

the second largest city accounts for only 2.4% of the membership.

The remaining eight regions account for 2.6%. Given the relatively

insignificant size of the membership in the other regions, the

survey was limited to the Greater Accra region. It was intended to

contact the participants by phone where necessary in the course of

the survey. Consequently in establishing the sampling frame, a

decision was also taken to exclude a few members whose

telephone details were not available on the registered list. To this

effect the sampling frame was eventually fixed at 372.

5.3.3 Towards Establishing an Appropriate Sample Size

The random seed number in SPSS was used to draw a random

sample out of the sampling frame established. However before this

was undertaken, it was important to establish the appropriate

sample size needed to be drawn. According to Maisel and Perssel (1996) the 

appropriate sample size (n) can be established using the equation:

                         n = (Z x Standard deviation/confidence interval) 2 …….. (5.1)

                        Where Z is a constant, which relates to the confidence level 
Chapter 5 Research methodology

Thus, using the above formula, the appropriate sample size could be determined by 

setting the confidence level and interval, obtaining the Z­ value and estimating the 

population standard deviation. The difficulty here is how to establish the standard 

deviation especially when the data has yet to be collected. According to Maisel and 

Persell (1996), this can normally be estimated from experience based on the proportion 

(PROP) currently employed in the population. The PROP is defined as the number of 

cases in any given category divided by the total number of cases (Maisel and Persell, 

1996).   Where   there  is   no   experience   to   draw   on,  one  can  consider  a   worse   case 

scenario of a PROP of 0.5 (or estimate half way between). Setting the PROP at 0.5 will 

give the largest standard error, which in turn will force the researcher to select the 

largest possible sample size  (see Maisel and Persell, 1996). Furthermore, this  will 

ensure sufficient precision albeit it may also generate a sample size larger than is 

necessary (ibid). Subsequently, the population standard deviation was established thus:

ST. DEV. = square root (PROP x NONPROP) …………………….. (5.2)

Where NONPROP = 1­PROP 

Thus, ST. DEV. = square root (0.5 x 0.5) = .50
Chapter 5 Research methodology

 Hence, using the worse case scenario of 0.5 for the PROP, a confidence limit of 95% 

and  a confidence  interval10  of plus  or minus 0.1, the appropriate sample  size was 

obtained from equation (i) thus: 

n = (1.96 x 0.50/0.1)2           

                       i.e. n = 96. …………………………………………….. (5.3)

This means that, if a sample size of approximately 96 is obtained

constituting the completed questionnaires, the data would be large

enough for the sampling distribution of the proportion to have a

normal distribution. However, given that it is highly uncommon to

achieve a survey response of 100%, an appropriate sample size

would have to be adopted that would help achieve the target of 96

as far as possible.

Subsequently, drawing on typical response rates to surveys

undertaken in Ghana (see for instance Antwi; 2000; Ayirebi-

Dansoh, 2005; Hammond, 2006), a 50% response rate was

assumed. It was therefore decided to target up to 200 participants

for the survey. Consequently, the random seed number in SPSS

was used to select the 200 participants out of the sampling frame

identified.

10
10% was chosen based on what the researcher thinks is realistically
achievable practically and also with the resources available
Chapter 5 Research methodology

5.3.4 Commentary on the Fieldwork in Ghana

The fieldwork commenced in Ghana in the earlier part of June

2006. Bailey (1987) advises that in a study of this nature, the

method used for the main survey should not be significantly

different from the method used in the pilot survey otherwise the

logic of the research method might be defeated. Given that the

method used for the pilot survey proved reliable and successful,

the same method was employed for the main survey. Subsequently,

the survey instruments were (as in the pilot survey) sent by email

to a representative at KNUST for distribution to the intended

recipients. However, prior notification was sent to all participants

regarding the intended purpose of the research and how the

survey instruments were to be delivered and retrieved in Ghana

(Appendix 5). This information was sent by post in the latter part

of April 2006. The main objective was to pre-empt the potential

respondents so that they would mentally and psychologically be

prepared to participate in the survey. Indications are that such

methods can help improve response rates in surveys (Bailey,

1987).

Four weeks after sending the prior notification, the survey

instruments were despatched by email as attachments. A total of

200 fully addressed instruments each with a covering letter were

despatched (see Appendix 4). As in the pilot survey, the instruction

to the representative at the KNUST was that the survey


Chapter 5 Research methodology

instruments were to be delivered and retrieved in person. This

decision to distribute and retrieve the questionniares in person

was taken for two reasons; first, to make sure that the survey

instruments got to the intended recipients; secondly, to help

improve the response rate. Indeed, Ayirebi-Dansoh, (2005)

recently used the same method in Ghana and it proved relatively

successful yielding a response rate of approximately 60%.

Accordingly, (and with consultation with the representative) two

graduates from KNUST were contracted to undertake delivery and

retrieval of the research instruments.

Out of the 200 research instruments intended for the survey, only

153 were successfully distributed as a result of poor signposting

(poor directions to some of addresses provided). Above all, it

turned out that some of the potential respondents albeit on the

GREDA list used in drawing the sampling frame had ceased

operations and/or could therefore not be traced. While the

fieldwork was ongoing, a random phone call was made (from the

UK) to some of the respondents to establish progress. Indications

were that the fieldwork was being undertaken per the instructions.

A period of up to four weeks was allowed for the fieldwork and all

completed survey instruments were to be retrieved latest by early

July 2006. After several efforts to help improve the response rate,

especially, especially when the four week period projected had

expired, survey instruments not retrieved by mid July 2006 were

declared non-responsive. Thus, within a six-week period, all survey


Chapter 5 Research methodology

instruments retrieved were put together by the representative and

subsequently despatched back (by registered mail) to the UK

(taking three weeks for delivery).

Out of the 153 instruments successfully delivered, 69 completed

questionnaires were successfully retrieved representing a 45%

response rate. Of the 69 completed research instruments, 12 were

retained for validation purposes. Hence, out of the 69 completed

survey instruments retrieved, 57 were actually used in developing

the substantive model, described in chapter six.

While it was initially established that the appropriate sample size

would have to be 96 at 10% confidence interval it is noted that a

smple size of 69 was actually achieived in practice. This is usual in

surveys and is therefore understandable. Nevertheless the 69

responses received represented 45% response rate which compare

reasonably well with that achieved by, for instance, Ayirebi-Dansoh

(2005) in the same condition in recent times. Furthermore, the

response rate achieved was good enough for one to draw

reasonably firm conclusions which are statistically valid. Besides,

the sample size realised did not significantly affect the margin of

error and this is reported in chapter nine (section 9.7) under

limitations of the findings.


Chapter 5 Research methodology

5.3.5 Data Entry and Editing

Having taken delivery of the data, a quick visual scan was

undertaken to determine the extent to which the respondents had

followed the instructions. The first impression was that the

respondents had responded reasonably well to the questionnaire.

Thereafter, data entry began by inputting into SPSS for

subsequent analysis. While inputting the data it was observed that

a few sections of the survey instruments were not fully completed.

Chatfield (1995) explains that such minor omissions are normal in

data collection and that this can safely be sorted out by

undertaking data editing. Indeed SPSS can be programmed to

automatically deal with all missing observations or alternatively a

histogram of the variables involved can be plotted and the mean

values used as a replacement (ibid). Thus, data editing is useful for

checking for the existence of errors, missing observations and

anything that is not consistent with the rest of the data (Chatfield,

1995).

Because of the relatively manageable size of data involved, a

manual approach was adopted here by plotting histograms. Thus a

print out of the raw data was carefully scrutinised visually to

establish whether there has been any errors whilst doing the

entries. This visual inspection revealed no inconsistences. Hence

the main problem that had to be dealt with was the missing data.
Chapter 5 Research methodology

Consequently, SPSS was used to prepare a histogram of the

variables involved and the average values of the scores calculated.

Examples of these histograms are shown in Appendices 6 - 12.

Taking Appendix 6 for instance, there was one missing data with

regard to the variable “overall risk containment” since the

respondent failed to provide a rating. As shown in appendix 6, the

histogram produced an average score of 4.00, which was used as a

replacement value. Other missing values were treated in the same

way allowing tha data to be made ready for detailed analysis

5.3.6 Questionniare for evaluating aspects of output of


results

To help validate the potential relevance of the recommended

application of the model, which is fully described in chapter eight,

page 225/226, a “one- page” questionnaire was sent to the

representative identified at the KNUST to be targeted at five

property developers and five PMs on life MHBPs project currently

ongoing in Kumasi, Ghana. Full details of the project in question

are described in chapter eight. The questionnniare (Appendix 16)

was made simple (into a one page document) to help encourage

the potential respondents to show keen interest and also act

promptly in the midst of the workload they were dealing then

dealing with. While targeting the property developers and their

PMs, five construction management academicians of the KNUST,


Chapter 5 Research methodology

(especially those with relevant consulting experience on the

implementation of MHBPs) were also contacted to comment.

The “one-page” questionnaires were sent by email on the 31st May

2007 and distributed by the contact person on 1 st June 2007. Given

the simplicity of the questionnaire (and also the fact the all the

respondents particularly the property developers and the PMs

were operating on the same project site), the contact person was

able to retrieve all completed questionnaires within four days of

distributing them. Subsequently, these were faxed back to the UK

on 6thJune 2007. Unlike, the pilot and main surveys where the

researcher identified the respondents (from a registered list) while

the representative was instructed to deliver them at the various

addresses, in this case, the representative was given the option to

identify the respondents since they were working on a “life”

project ((i.e using convenience sampling techniques). However, in

order to confirm the validity of the process adopted, the

representative was asked to document the names and telephone

numbers of the persons contacted. Personal calls made by the

researcher to thank those contacted provided reasonable

indication that the relevant persons were approached.

5. 4 SUMMARY

This chapter has introduced some important issues relating to the

research methodology adopted for the study in particular the


Chapter 5 Research methodology

epistemological and philosolophical applications. A clear

distintction has been made between research methodology and

research methods. Drawing on the epistemological, ontological

and axiological assumptions, positivism was chosen as the

appropriate paradigm. A review of the research methods revealed

that survey was the most appropriate approach for eliciting the

relevant data. Subsequently the design of the survey instrument

was described following which a commentary was also provided on

piloting of the questionniares.

The survey characteristics including the sampling frame, the

sample size and techniques for eliciting the relevant data have also

been explained. The data was elicited from managing directors of

the Ghana Real Estate Developers Association (GREDA) herein

called property developers. Editing of the data and inputting into

SPSS has also been described. The next chapter now addresses

the preliminary analysis of the data which involves descriptive

analysis, one-sample t-test and factor analysis.


Chapter 5 Research methodology

CHAPTER SIX
Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

CHAPTER SIX: PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF DATA

ELICITED FROM MEMBERS OF THE GHANA REAL

ESTATE DEVELOPERS ASSOCIATION

6.0 INTRODUCTION

Having concluded the introductory, reviewed the relevant

literature and described the research methodology, this chapter

now introduces the first part of the data analysis. A preliminary

analysis is undertaken as a prelude to the substantive analysis

which led to the development of the predictive model. This

distinction was considered important so as to develop a better

understanding of the data and also to reduce it to a manageble

size. In this respect, the analyses presented here are based on

data from the demographic including the respondents’ perception

of PMs’ performance levels in Ghana and dependent variables.

The demographic data is analysed using descriptive statistics

(specifically percentages) while the dependent variables is

analysed using one-sample t-test and subsequently factor analysis.

Factor analysis is implemented to reduce the dependent variables

to a manageable size towards the subsequent development of the

model.

6.1 ANALYSIS OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC DATA


Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Tables 6.1 to 6.5 present the results of the descriptive analyses.

The aim (as noted previously) was to help provide an

understanding of the profile of the respondents. Knowing the

background of the respondents should help generate confidence in

the credibility of data collected. Table 6.1 summrises how long the

respondents had been members of the GREDA. Whereas 12%

indicated that they have been members for up to a maximum of

five years, the majority constituting 88% (i.e. 35+32+21) indicated

they had been members for over five years. Further examination of

the Table indicated that, of these 88%, more than half have been

members of the GREDA for over 10 years (see Table 6.1). The

indication is that a majority of the respondents are relatively

experienced as GREDA members. A plausible conclusion therefore

is that the respondents are well vested in the activities of GREDA

including the implementation of MHBPs. Indeed, Table 6.2, which

sought to establish the experience of the respondents in the

implementation of MHBPs lends support to this interpretation.

That is, over 90% of the respondents indicated that they have

more than five years experience in the implementation of MHBPs,

with about 56% (i.e. 32+12+12) having over 10 years experience

(Table 6.2).

Table 6.1: Experience of Respondents as Greda members


No. of Up to 5 6-10 11-15 16-20 Over 20 Total
years years years years years years
% 12 35 32 21 0 100
Response
Number 7 20 18 12 Nil 57
Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Table 6.2: Experience of Respondents in the Implementation of


MHBPs
No. of Up to 5 6-10years 11-15 16-20 Over 20 Total
years years years years years
% 7 37 32 12 12 100
response
Number 4 21 18 7 7 57

Respondents were asked to indicate the annual turnover of their

organisation in the last five years (refer Table 6.3). Whereas 37%

indicated an annual turnover of £600,000, 21% indicated an

annual turnover of around £700,000 - 1.2million, and 42%

indicated an annual turnover of over £1.2 million. By Ghanaian

standards an annual turnover of £ 600,000 suggests a conservative

delivery rate of approximately 10 modern11 three-bedroom house-

units per year. The indication is that most of the respondents are

indeed active in the business of implementing MHBPs.

Respondents were asked to indicate the average quantity of house-

units built per year (refer to Table 6.4). 85% indicated that they

build an average of up to 20- 40 house-units per year, 10%

indicated that they build between 40 and 60 house-units per year

and the remaining 5% stated that they deliver over 100 house-

units. These results reflected the findings on annual turnover

presented in Table 6.3 which suggests that a majority of the firms

averagely undertake 40 house-units per year.

11
Modern means house-units containing all facilities deemed adequate for
decent housing
Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Table 6.3: Overall turnover of the respondents in the last 5 years


Amount Up to £600 £700-1.2M Over £1.2 M Total
% response 37 21 42 100
Number 21 12 24 57

Table 6.4: Average quantity of house-units built by respondents


Quantity Up to 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100 Over Total
20 house- house- house- house- 100
house- units units units units house-
units units
% 46 39 10 - - 5 100
response
Number 26 21 6 - - 3 57

Respondents were asked to provide details of the type of MHBPs

on which they are mostly commonly engaged. The results indicate

that while 8% have dealt with multi-storey blocks, none of the

respondents had been engaged on terraces and maisonettes.

Alternatively, 92% (i.e. representing 22+70) indiciated that they

have experience of building semi-detached and detached house-

units with the proportion leaning towards the latter. This is

consistent with the type of housing works most property

developers are engaged in which are predominantly targeted at

the upper end of the market (refer Anokye, 2003).

Table 6.5: Typical MHBPs built by respondents


Type Multi- Terrace Semi- Detached Maisone
storey detached tte
% 8 0 22 70 0
response
Number 5 0 12 40 0
Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Generally the results indicate that the respondents have

reasonable experience in the implementation of MHBPs.

Furthermore, the findings suggest that most respondents are

regularly active and have executed MHBPs in the last five years.

It seems therefore plausible to conclude that those who responded

to the survey are sufficiently experienced in the construction of

MHBPs to provide data which is credible.

6.2 STANDARDIZED OPINION OF RESPONDENTS ON

THE PERFORMANCE LEVEL OF PMs in MHBPs in

GHANA

As part of the data collection it was deemed necessary to establish

from the property developers what their perception of PMs’

performance in MHBPs in Ghana was. It was considered that

knowledge of this kind would provide some basis to have an

insight into how the respondents view the performance of PMs in

the current construction climate in Ghana. Subsequently the

respondents were asked to rate the level of performance of PMs

from very low to very high, where very low represents a

percentage of 10-29%, low = 30-49%, average = 50-59%, High =

70-79% and very high over 90%. Table 6.6 presents a summary of

the results. The perception of the respondents suggests that over

70% consider the levels of performance achieved by PMs to be

satifactory. This could be interpreted to mean that the respondents

are not particularly satisfied with the performance of PMs and


Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

probably feel that it could be better. That is, given the perception

of the respondents, there is some recognition of the potential for

improvement.

Table 6.6:Perception of respondents on the performance level of


PMs in MHBPs
Performance Percentage Response of Percentage
level performance property response
level developers
Very high Over 90 0 0
High 70-90 13 22
Average 50-69 41 71
Low 30-49 3 5
Very low 10-29 0 0
Total 57 100

While it was not the intention to generalise the results presented,

this standardized opinion provides a fair idea of what could be the

perceived levels of performance level of PMs in MHBPs in Ghana.

In order to to undertake the modelling exercise, there was the

need to have an adequate understanding of what the property

developers generally perceive as success on MHBPs. This was

established by analysing the 15 potential criteria that constituted

the dependent variables.

6.3 ANALYSIS OF DEPENDENT VARIABLES

Two statistical analyses were undertaken, namely one sample t-

test and factor analysis. The one-sample t-test was used to

establish the relative importance of the variables whilst factor

analysis was used in establishing which of the variables could be


Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

measuring the same underlying effect and also reduce the

dependent variables to a manageable size. The procedure, findings

and relevant discussion follows.

6.3.1 One Sample T-test for Ranking Dependent


Variables

The one sample t-test is used to establish whether a sample mean

is significantly deviant from a hypothesised mean. The hypothesis

for a single sample –test is typically set thus:

Ho: U=Uo

Ha: U<, >Uo

Where, Ho denotes the null hypothesis, Ha denotes the alternative

hypothesis and Uo denotes the hypothesized or population mean.

In a typical one-sample-test, the mean of the test group, degree of

freedom for the test (which approximates the sample size), the t-

value (which is an indication of the strength of the test) and the p-

value (which is the probability value that the test is significant) are

commonly reported (see for instance, Reymont and Joreskog,

1993; Hair et al, 1998; Field, 2005). According to Hair et al (1998)

when the sample size is more than 30, the central limit theorem

shows that a normal distribution can be assumed. Field (2005) also

argues that with a sample size of more than 50, the sampling

distribution will almost always approach normal distribution albeit


Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

considering the size of the sampling frame or population.

Subsequently, with a sample size of 57 (out of a population of 372)

the assumptions of the central limit theorem were invoked to

support the view that the sample size is relatively adequate to

draw statistical infrerences. Furthermore, while the Likert scaling

adopted is ordinal, here it is assumed to be interval scaling given

the equal spacing of the scale (see for instance Blaikie, 2003).

Subsequently, a statistical t-test of the mean was carried out to

determine whether the population considered a specific attribute

to be important or otherwise. The mean ranking of each attribute

was also tabulated to help provide a clearer picture of the

consensus reached by the respondents. A summary of the test

results are shown in Tables 6.7 to 6.9.

The mean for each attribute including the associated standard

deviation and standard error are presented in Table 6.7. For each

attribute, the null hypothesis was that the attribute was

unimportant (Ho: U= Uo) and the alternative hypothesis was that

the attribute was important (Ha: U>Uo), where Uo as already

explained is the population mean. Thus Uo represent the critical

rating above which the attribute is considered important. Given

that the rating scale adopted ascribed higher ratings of 4 and 5 to

important and very important attributes, Uo was fixed at an

appropriate level of 3.5 (see for instance Ling, 2002). The

significance level was also set at 95% in accordance with


Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

conventional risk levels (see for instance Colen, 1992 cited in Ling,

2002). That is, based on the five-point Likert rating scale, a

success criterion was deemed critical or important if it had a mean

of 3.5 or more. Where two or more criteria have the same mean,

the one with the lowest standard deviation was assigned the

highest importance ranking (see for instance Shen and Liu, 2003;

Field, 2005).

The standard error is the standard deviation of sample means and

is a measure of how representative a sample is likely to be to the

population. A large standard error (relative to the sample mean)

suggests that there is a lot of variability between means of

different samples. A small standard error suggests that most

sample means are similar to the population mean and so the

sample is likely to be an accurate reflection of the population

(Field, 2000; 2005). The standard error associated with all the

means is relatively close to zero suggesting that the sample chosen

is an accurate reflection of the population (Table 6.7).

Table 6.7: Results of t-test showing one-sample statistics


Std.
Std. Error
N Mean Deviation Mean
Technology transfer 57 3.5719 1.015 .134
Health and safety on
individual house- 57 4.035 .981 .130
units
Overall health and
safety measures 57 4.035 .925 .123
Environmental
impact of individual 57 3.849 .953 .126
house-units
Overall
environmental 57 4.011 .956 .127
impact
Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Std.
Std. Error
N Mean Deviation Mean
Risk containment on
individual house- 57 3.639 .894 .118
units
Overall risk
57 3.767 .886 .117
containment
Customer
satisfaction on
57 4.393 .793 .105
individual house-
units
Overall customer
satisfaction 57 4.393 .772 .102
Quality of individual
house-units 57 4.500 .681 .090
Overall project
57 4.607 .557 .074
quality
Rate of delivery of
individual house 57 4.072 .821 .108
units
Overall project
57 4.179 .804 .106
duration
Cost of individual
house units 57 4.572 .623 .082
Overall project costs 57 4.754 .689 .091
Note: these variables are already defined in chapter four, Table 4.1

The fact that the standard deviations are all less than 1.0 indicates

that there is little variability in the data. Alternatively, standard

deviation values of less than 1.0 indicated consistency in

agreement among the respondents of the reported level of results

(see for instance, Steven, 1996; Field, 2005).

However it is important to draw attention to the variable

technology transfer, which had a standard deviation slightly more

than one (1.02) suggesting that there might be differences to how

this variable was interpreted by the respondents. Further

discussion on the t-test below provides plausible explanation for

this.
Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

The significance (i.e. p-value) of each attribute is displayed in

Table 6.8. The p-value is for a two-tailed test, however as shown

per the test hypothesis, what is of interest here is one-tailed test

(i.e. U > Uo). Subsequently, the “sig.” value in Table 6.8 has been

divided by two and the summary listed in Table 6.9.

Table 6.8: Results of One-Sample Test showing test signifance


Test Value = 3.5
95% Confidence
Sig. (2- Mean Interval of the
T df tailed) Difference Difference

Lower Upper
Technology transfer .535 56 .595 .072 -.197 .341
Health and safety on
individual house- 4.117 56 .000 .535 .275 .796
units
Overall health and
safety measures 4.367 56 .000 .535 .289 .781
Environmental
impact of individual 2.765 56 .008 .349 .096 .602
house-units
Overall
environmental 4.033 56 .000 .511 .257 .764
impact
Risk containment
on individual 1.171 56 .247 .139 -.099 .376
house-units
Overall risk
2.273 56 .027 .267 .032 .502
containment
Customer
satisfaction on
8.485 56 .000 .893 .682 1.103
individual house-
units
Overall customer
8.735 56 .000 .893 .688 1.097
satisfaction
Quality of
individual house- 11.080 56 .000 1.000 .819 1.181
units
Overall project
15.012 56 .000 1.107 .959 1.255
quality
Rate of delivery of
individual house 5.262 56 .000 .572 .354 .789
units
Overall project
6.374 56 .000 .679 .466 .892
duration
Cost of individual
12.996 56 .000 1.071 .907 1.237
house units
Overall project
13.751 56 .000 1.254 1.072 1.437
costs
Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Table 6.9: Summary of t-test showing rankings and results of 1-


tailed test.
Mean Standard Ranking Sig. (1-
deviation tailed )
Overall project 4.754 .689 1 .00025
costs (CSF1)
Overall project 4.607 .557 2 .00025
quality (CSF2)
Cost of 4.572 .623 3 .00025
individual
house units
(CSF 3)
Quality of 4.500 .681 4 .00025
individual
house-units
(CSF 4)
Overall 4.393 .772 5 .00025
customer
satisfaction
(CSF 5)
Customer 4.393 .795 6 .00025
satisfaction on
individual
house-units
( CSF 6)
Overall project 4.179 .804 7 .00025
duration ( CSF
7)
Rate of 4.072 .821 8 .00025
delivery of
individual
house units
(CSF 8)
Overall health 4.035 .925 9 .00025
and safety
measures
( CSF 9)
Health and 4.035 .981 10 .00025
safety on
individual
house-units
(CSF 10)
Overall 4.011 .956 11 .00025
environmental
impact (CSF
11)
Environmental 3.849 .953 12 .004
impact of
individual
house-units
(CSF 12)
Overall risk 3.767 .886 13 .014
containment
(13)
Risk 3.639 .894 14 .124
containment
on individual
house-units
(CSF 14)
Technology 3.572 1.015 15 .298
Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Mean Standard Ranking Sig. (1-


deviation tailed )
transfer (CSF
15)

The summary shown in Table 6.9 indicates that overall project cost

emerged as the highest ranked critical criteria whilst technology

transfer emerged as the lowest. Generally the findings largely

concur with the conventional wisdom of perceiving project success

in terms of cost, time and quality.

However, it is interesting to note that, whilst overall project

quality was ranked 2nd behind overall project cost, the criterion,

overall project duration was ranked 7th. A plausible explanation for

this somewhat surprising result is that, in Ghana and for that

matter many other developing countries, whilst the demand for

increased housing supply exists, completed house-units take some

time to be sold due to the relatively low income of most new

homebuyers. Subsequently, property developers are not

particularly keen on delivering projects on time unless there are

willing buyers (i.e. if prospective buyers can readily be identified).

Otherwise, it appears the practice is for the property developers to

build at their own pace hoping that a willing buyer would show
Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

interest sooner than later. However, as soon as a buyer shows keen

interest, then the necessary steps would be taken to speed up

delivery to meet the buyers’ specific circumstances. Indeed, rate

of delivery of individual house-units was also ranked 8th behind

overall project duration suggesting that though time is an

important criteria, it is not an issue that property developers in

many developing countries such as Ghana are particularly

concerned about.

Table 6.9 reveals that, apart from the so-called traditional criteria,

some of the recently acknowledged new and emerging criteria are

now also perceived by property developers in defining critical

success criteria for MHBPs in the Ghanaian environment. That is,

success criteria can also be defined in terms of elements such as

health and safety (p = 0.00025), overall environmental impact (p =

0.00025), overall risk containment (p = 0.014) and overall client

satisfaction (Table 4, p= 0.00025 in all cases). Note however that

while technology transfer is generally believed to have the

potential for improving overall performance outcome (Mehta and

Bridelll, 2005; Yang et al, 2006), in the Ghanaian context property

developers do not consider it as a critical success criteria (p =

.278). This provides informative evidence that property developers

in the Ghanaian house building indsutry might need to reconsider

their current pereception about technology transfer as not a

critical success criteria.


Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Another point worth noting is that whilst overall risk containment

emerged significant with a ranking of 14th, risk containment on

individual house-units emerged non-significant (p=.124). In many

developing countries such as Ghana, one of the major risk factors

associated with MHBPs relates to access to credit. Furthermore

where credit is available it is at a huge interest rate of sometimes

up to 32% per annum (see Bank of Ghana, 2004). Moreover, the

business cycle in the country including inflation is constantly

changing (see Ayirebi-Dansoh, 2005). Thus property developers

might therefore be concerned about “creative” ways to contain the

associated risk that comes with gaining credit rather that

spending too much time on risk associated with specific issues

relating to individual house-units. Thus, the PMs’ knowledge in

appropriate risk management (especially with respect to cash-flow

forecasting) and in particular how they can be creative in

assessing, transferring and containing the associated risk

embedded can help in appropriate allocation of resources in this

respect.

It is understandable that the criteria cost, time and quality are

perceived as very critical by property developers as these

traditional measures constitute the foundation of project success

criteria in project management practice. However, in many

developing countries the concept of viewing customer satisfaction,

environmental friendliness, health and safety and risk containment

as potential success criteria has for a considerable length of time


Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

been taken for granted (see for instance Smallwood, 2000). This is

because of the relatively weak technological, socio-economic and

structural conditions prevailing, which do not readily provide the

enabling environment for these criteria (particularly, those related

to environmental and health and safety) to be well appreciated. It

is therefore encouraging to note that despite the lack of adequate

structures (such as logistics) to enforce and/or facilitate the

appreciation of some of these criteria (e.g. environmental and

health and safety) the climate appears to be changing with respect

to the perception of property developers.

Traditionally, the housing industry in many developing countries

was Government controlled in the sense that, Government was

responsible for the direct supply of houses. However, in line the

with current paradigm shift, private property developers have now

emerged as partners and their input is increasingly being

recognised (see for instance Keivani and Werna, 2001). This has

created the needed competitive environment and for the property

developers to source for the appropriate market for their products.

There is therefore the need for property developers to plan

appropriately towards meeting the potential challenges ahead and

it is therefore also not surprising that customer satisfaction is now

receiving prominence.

6.3.2 Factor Analysis of Dependent Variables


Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Due to the relatively large number of the dependent variables (i.e.

success criteria) involved in the study, it was deemed necessary to

use factor analysis to establish which of the variables could be

measuring aspects of the same underlying dimensions. Factor

analysis is useful for finding clusters of related variables and thus

ideal for reducing a large number of variables into a more easily

understood framework (see also, Hair et al, 1998; Norussis, 2000).

Tables 6.11 to 6.16 and Figure 6.1 provides the details of the

results. However, before addressing these, it is important to

discuss some pertinent issues relating to the appropriate sample

size for undertaking and establishing the reliability of factors

analysis.

The question of whether the reliability of factor analysis is

dependent on sample size has been debated in the literature

resulting in many rules of thumb (see for instance Field, 2000;

2005). Indeed, there have been times when it was thought that the

appropriate sample size was the most important factor in

determining the reliability of factor analysis (Field, 2005).

However, with the introduction of simulation and Monte Carlo test

(see for instance Guadagnoli and Velicer (1988) cited in Field,

2005; Hair et al,1998), empirical results have shown that the most

important factor in determining the reliable factor solution was

not only the absolute sample size but instead the absolute

magnitude of the factor loadings. In effect, Guadagnoli and Velicer

(1988) asserted that in undertaking factor analysis, if a factor has


Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

four or more loadings greater than 0.6, then it is reliable

regardless of the sample size. While the sample size of 57 used

here could be argued by some researchers as barely acceptable for

factor analysis, the factor loadings and other subsequent texts

(described later) confirmed the reliability of the analysis (Tables

6.12 and 6.13). Furthermore, the factors abtained seems

reasonably realistic and supported by the mainstream literature in

project success criteria, especially in the context of the study (see

for instance Odusami, 2003; Mbachu and Nkado, 2007).

While undertaking the factor analysis, it was important to validate

the reliability of the research instrument (Field, 2000; 2005).

Reliability of the research instrument means that a scale should

consistently reflect the construct it is measuring. Thus, the

reliability test can be used to measure the consistency of the five-

point scale and hence help establish the consistency of the

research instrument for factor analysis. Subsequently, the 15

dependent variables (Table 6.10) were subjected to the Cronbach’s

reliability test, which is mostly used in this circumstance (see for

instance Field, 2005).

The test results as shown in Table 6.11 indicate that Cronbach’s

alpha achieved an overall high of 0.8966 suggesting overall

reliability of the research instrument for factor analysis.

Thereafter, the data was subjected to factor analysis but in

particular, principal component analysis, with varimax rotation.


Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Principal component analysis was chosen because unlike “factor

analysis” this lends itself to psychometrically sound procedures in

terms of linearity and simplicity. Further it has the potential for

establishing discriminate function variates (see for instance Brace

et al, 2003; Field, 2000; Field, 2005).

Table 6.10: Nominated Success criteria for mass house building


projects
Dependent variables
Overall project cost (OVPROJCS) (CSF1)

Cost of individual house-units (COSTINHS) (CSF2)

Overall project duration (OVPRODTN) (CSF 3)

Rate of delivery of individual house-units (RDELINHS) (CSF 4)

Overall project quality (OVPROJQU) (CSF 5)

Quality of individual house-units. (QUAINHSE) (CSF 6)

Overall Customer satisfaction (OVCUSASA) (CSF 7)

Customer satisfaction on individual house-units (CUSTAIN) (CSF 8)

Overall Risk containment (OVRISCON) (CSF 9)

Risk containment on individual house-units. (RICONIND) (CSF 10)

Overall Environmental impact (OVENVIMP) (CSF 11)

Environmental impact of individual house-units. (ENIMPIND) (CSF 12)

Overall health and safety measures. (OVHTSFY) (CSF 13)

Health and safety measures on individual house-units (HELSIAN) (CSF 14)


Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Technology transfer (TECTRANS) (CSF 15)

Table 6.11: Cronbach’s Reliability Analysis - S C A L E (A L P


H A)

Item-total Statistics

Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Alpha
if Item if Item Total if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Deleted

TECTRANS 58.8053 56.3205 .4338 .8970


HELSAIN 58.3421 51.7114 .7997 .8796
OVHTSFY 58.3421 52.4543 .7948 .8802
ENIMPIND 58.5281 53.3253 .6985 .8845
OVENVIMP 58.3667 54.1687 .6311 .8875
RICONIND 58.7386 53.9888 .6984 .8846
OVRISCON 58.6105 53.6356 .7353 .8831
CUSTAIN 57.9842 57.3610 .4959 .8928
OVCUSHSA 57.9842 55.8610 .6504 .8872
QUAINHSE 57.8772 58.4929 .4801 .8933
OVPROJQU 57.7702 59.1768 .5223 .8926
RDELINHS 58.3053 56.2969 .5676 .8901
OVPRODTN 58.1982 57.2634 . 4971 .8928
COSTINHS 57.8053 60.5648 .3104 .8982
OVPROJCS 57.6228 61.3071 .2021 .9019

Reliability Coefficients

N of Cases = 57.0 N of Items = 15

Alpha = .8966

Prior to principal component analysis, the communalities involved

were first established (see Table 6.12). Communality explains the

total amount an original variable shares with all other variables

included in the analysis and is very useful in deciding which

variables to finally extract in the varimax rotation and in

determining the adequacy of the sample size (Field, 2000;2005).

In this case, after extraction of all variables, average communality

value was above 0.6 suggesting also that the sample size is

adequate. Furthermore, the data was subjected to the Kaiser-


Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy including the

production of a correlation matrix (Tables 6.13 and 6.14).

Table 6.12 Communalities


Extractio
Initial n
Technology transfer 1.000 .578
Health and safety on
individual house- 1.000 .774
units
Overall health and
safety measures 1.000 .812
Environmental
impact of individual 1.000 .876
house-units
Overall
environmental 1.000 .872
impact
Risk containment on
individual house- 1.000 .643
units
Overall risk
1.000 .726
containment
Customer
satisfaction on
1.000 .773
individual house-
units
Overall customer
satisfaction 1.000 .662
Quality of individual
house-units 1.000 .785
Overall project
1.000 .632
quality
Rate of delivery of
individual house 1.000 .578
units
Overall project
1.000 .742
duration
Cost of individual
house units 1.000 .692
Overall project costs 1.000 .777
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Table 6. 13: KMO and Bartlett's Test


Kaiser- .758
Meyer-
Olkin
Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis

Measure
of
Sampling
Adequacy
.
Bartlett's Approx. 531.149
Test of Chi-
Sphericit Square
y
Df 105
Sig. .000

The KMO also achieved a sufficiently high value of 0.75 suggesting

that the sample size is indeed adequate for factor analysis (see for

instance, Field, 2000). Given the high KMO achieved in this case,

there was no need to produce anti-image matrices to further check

the adequacy of the sample size. However, the Bartlett test of

spericity was undertaken. This is used to establish the potential

correlations suggesting that clusters do exist in the factors. In this

case, a spericity value of 531.149 was realised and the associated

significance was 0.000 (Table 6.14 overleaf). This indicates that

the population matrix is not an identity matrix. An identity matrix

is one which all the elements of the diagonals are one and all off-

diagonals are zero (Field, 2000). Thus, the correlation matrix

shows that the success criteria identified share some common

underlying relationships and that clusters do exist.


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analyses

Table 6. 14: Correlation matrix of factor analysis


.Facto C C C C C C C C C CSF1 CSF1 CSF1 CSF1 CSF1 CSF1
r SF1 SF2 SF3 SF4 SF5 SF6 SF7 SF8 SF9 0 1 2 3 4 5
CSF1 1.00
0
CSF2 .321 1.00
0
CSF3 .292 .082 1.00
0
CSF4 .095 .565. .518 1.00
0
CSF5 .071 ..401 .289 .475 1.00
0
CSF6 -.029 .147 .137 .363 .651 1.00
0
CSF7 .435 .375 .082 .117 .282 .162 1.00
0
CSF8 .190 .235 .095 .209 .397 .304 .549 1.00
0
CSF9 .126 .409 .200 .312 ..481 .394 .320 .493 1.00
0
CSF1 .119 .451 .335 .374 .500 .371 .517 .420 .766 1.000
0
CSF1 -.039 .450 .188 .343 .475 .179 .313 .375 .706 .706 1.000
1
CSF1 .100 .542 .184 .407 .434 .257 .320 .304 .755 .755 .858 1.000
2
CSF1 .174 .216 .198 .315 .422 .511 .396 .522 .686 .624 .424 .495 1.000
3
CSF1 .184 .189 .198 .299 .436 .448 .355 .412 .599 .685 .407 .536 .841 1.000
4
CSF1 .010 .214 -.001 .129 .443 .474 .214 .453 .435 .356 .155 .173 .446 .381 1.000
5
Note: Kaiser Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy= .758; Bartlett test of spericity= 531.149;
Significance=0.000
Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analyses

Note: Acronyms as explained in Table 6.9


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

Having concluded all the necessary preliminary tests, the rotated

component matrix of the principal component matrix was

produced (see Table 6.15). The eigenvalue and factor loading were

set at conventional high values of 1.0 and 0.5 respectively (see for

instance Dainty et al, 2003: Chan et al, 2002). As shown in table

6.15, four components with an eigenvalue greater than 1.0 were

extracted using the factor loading of 0.50 as the cut-off point. The

scree plot (Figure 6.1) also confirmed the four components. The

components can be thought of representing measuresing scales for

PMs’ performance outcome in MHBPs.

Table 6.15: Rotated Component Matrix


Component
1 2 3 4
Overall
environmental .909
impact
Environmental
impact of individual .904
house-units
Overall health and
safety measures .760
Health and safety on
individual house- .710
units
Customer
satisfaction on
.815
individual house-
units
Technology transfer .767
Overall risk
.679
containment
Overall customer
satisfaction .619
Risk containment on
individual house- .613
units
Rate of delivery of
individual house .528
units
Quality of individual
house-units .813
Cost of individual
house units .772
Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis
Overall project
.595
quality
Overall project costs .827
Overall project
.765
duration
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation
Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
a Rotation converged in 7 iteration

Scree Plot
7

2
Eigenvalue

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Component Number

Figure 6.1: Scree plot for factor analysis

The total variance is presented in Table 6.16. The table indicates

that the total variance explained by each component extracted is

as follows; component 1 (42.401%), component 2 (11.233%),

component 3 (9.530%), component 4 (9.115%). Thus, the final

statistics of the principal component analysis and the components

extracted accounted for 72.279% of the total cumulative variance

of PMs’ performance outcome in MHBPs. Based on an

examination of the inherent relationships among the variables

under each component, the following interpretation has been

provided; component 1 is termed environmental-safety criteria;


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis
component 2, customer satisfaction; component 3, quality;

component 4, overall cost-time criteria.


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis
Table 6.16: Component Transformation Matrix

Extraction Sums of Squared


Compon Initial Eigenvalues Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
ent % of Cumulative % of Cumulative % of Cumulative
Total Variance % Total Variance % Total Variance %
1 6.558 43.721 43.721 6.558 43.721 43.721 3.737 24.910 24.910
2 1.680 11.197 54.918 1.680 11.197 54.918 3.149 20.990 45.900
3 1.438 9.586 64.505 1.438 9.586 64.505 2.166 14.438 60.338
4 1.246 8.308 72.813 1.246 8.308 72.813 1.871 12.474 72.813
5 .921 6.138 78.951
6 .624 4.157 83.108
7 .581 3.872 86.980
8 .458 3.056 90.036
9 .447 2.981 93.017
10 .308 2.051 95.067
11 .221 1.477 96.544
12 .190 1.267 97.811
13 .174 1.159 98.971
14 .086 .576 99.546
15 .068 .454 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis
Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

6.4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

6.4.1 Component 1: Environmental-safety criteria

The four extracted success criteria for component 1 were overall

environmental impact (90.9%), environmental impact of individual

house-units (90.4%), overall health and safety measures (76.0%)

and health and safety on individual house-units (71.0%). The

number in parenthesis indicates the respective factor loadings.

From Table 6.16, this cluster accounted for 43.7% of the variance.

These criteria share a common link to environmental issues. As

argued by Ukoma and Bemish (1997), the suitability of the living

environment to the needs of the residents is now very important. A

good environmental image is also important for improving the

competitive edge of organizations in an increasingly complex and

environmentally conscious industry (Ngowi, 2001). In Ghana for

instance, environmental issues have in the recent past also

received significant attention in the construction industry

especially since the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was

established in 1994. Subsequently the EPA is now empowered to

regulate and enforce building regulation and planning laws (EPA,

1994) relating to MHBPs.

However, the reality is that, property developers tend to allow

considerable amounts of wastage on site rather than engaging

human resources to manage it (Poon et al, 2004). Thus waste


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

management is a major environmental issue including construction

and demolition waste being deposited at landfill sites (ibid).

Morrel et al (2001) also admits that as the demand for housing

continues, widespread use of high energy materials such as

aluminium, cement, concrete and steel must comply with

directives on protection of the environment including the emission

of carbon dioxide, obligation to rehabilitate quarries and

protection of materials extracted from river beds. Thus the

implication is for property developers and interested stakeholders

to appropriately allocate resources to assist the PMs to handle

these increasingly important issues. The irony is that, while the

need to preserve the environment is increasingly becoming

important, developing countries in particular are not well

positioned to face these challenges (Ofori, 2000). Furthermore,

project management education and training on environmental

issues, which is still evolving leaves much to be desired

(Smallwood, 2000). Thus developing countries in particular have a

lot more to do in developing the capacity and expertise of the key

managerial staff towards addressing environmental issues in

MHBPs.

It is not strange that health and safety relating to individual house-

units has been shown to be related to the environmental criteria.

This is because ultimately safety standards have environmental

implications and vice versa (see for instance Kibert and Coble,

1995 cited in Xiao, 2003). The crux of the matter is that


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

environmental-safety protection is no longer a concept but has

now become a worldwide challenge facing the construction

industry (Pasquires cited in Xiao, 2003). It is therefore

recommended that property developers and all stakeholders

should join forces towards developing appropriate structures that

would enable PMs’ to be adequately prepared to face the

challenges ahead in the future management of the environment in

MHBPs.

6.4.2 Component 2, Customer satisfaction

Component 2 accounted for 11.2% of the variance. The respective

loading factors are customer satisfaction with individual house-

units (81.5%), technology transfer (76.7%), overall risk

containment (67.9%), overall customer satisfaction (61.9%), risk

containment on individual house-units (61.3%) and rate of delivery

of individual house-units (52.8%). Subsequently this component

was labelled customer satisfaction. Satisfied customers as the

evidence suggests are the backbone of the house building industry

(Baker et al, 1983; Torbica and Stroh, 2001). It is therefore

significant that customer satisfaction with house-units emerged as

the most critical factor in this grouping. In particular Torbica and

Stroh (2001) assert that for property developers to compete in the

long term, they must be sure that current and prospective

customers are satisfied.


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

Interestingly, Toole (1998) has noted that homebuyers approach

the buying decision for a new home very differently from other

purchases, often with very strong bonds to tradition. Furthermore

home buyers respond to “word-of-mouth” effects more than mass

media or other types of advertising placing the reputation of the

property developer in the centre of all these. Subsequently the

satisfaction of “old or current customers” is instrumental in

convincing potential future homebuyers. In this respect Toole

(1998) further found that it is the service provided by property

developers throughout the lifecycle of MHBPs that is most

important in shaping the overall homebuyer satisfaction. The

remaining variables namely overall risk containment, risk

containment on individual house-units and technology transfer

either are directly or indirectly associated with the provision of

some kind of service in the house-building agenda. It would

therefore be necessary for these variables to be appropriately

given the due attention in MHBPs towards satisfying the ultimate

users who are the customers.

Here, technology transfer refers to the application of technology

that is new to the property developer and significantly improves

the design and construction of a living space by decreasing cost,

increasing performance and improving the business of the process.

While the “t-test” suggested that property developers do not

consider the variable technology transfer significantly important

for assessing project success the relatively high factor loading


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

(.767) it received in the cluster customer satisfaction in the factor

analysis suggests that it could be an an important variable for

understanding the underlying determinants of the success

dimensions of MHBPs.

Uncertainty plays a critical role in the adoption of innovations by

property developers (Toole, 1998). Uncertainty is defined as the

state when the property developer is lacking information relating

to decision-making (ibid). Subsequently, Toole (1998) identified

five characteristics that may make it difficult for property

developers to understand how innovations may affect their

operations. That is: the end product varies considerably; there is a

long time frame and wide range of conditions associated with the

production process; the end product of the task consists of many

interacting parts and/or dynamic subsystems; the task requires

high levels of tacit knowledge and skills and the task requires

interaction with a large number of diverse entities. Hence property

developers have to be made to be convinced that a new technology

will provide significant advantages over existing products before

they will commit themselves.

What is also quite clear is that, the adoption of new technology

involves taking some risk. Hence the more uncertainties that

exists the more reluctant property developers would be to

embrace technological innovations (Toole, 1998). Alternatively

Yang et al (2006) have suggested that a plausible way forward for


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

minimising the uncertainties is to clearly quantify the benefits to

be derived from technology adaptation and application. They

suggested that it might be appropriate to quantify these benefits

in terms of cost, schedule and safety success as these are issues of

major concern to “project stakeholders.”

Given that customers’ satisfaction is arguably the most critical

factor here, there is also no doubt any uncertainty reduction would

have to take their interest into serious consideration. Ultimately,

whilst it is important for property developers to fully appreciate

the potential risks associated with adopting technological

innovation, their knowledge about the factors that are related to

home buyers satisfaction or dissatisfaction would be an invaluable

tool in achieving a competitive edge (see for instance Torbica and

Stroh, 2001).

6.4.3 Component 3: Quality

Component 3 consists of quality of individual house-units (81.3%),

cost of individual house-units (77.2%) and overall project quality

(59.5%). By similar reasoning as before, this was labelled quality

of house-units and accounted for 9.6% of the variance. Quality of

individual house-units emerged the highest factor in this grouping

and conforms to the empirical evidence that quality significantly

predicts overall homebuyer satisfaction and ultimately project

success (Torbica and Stroh, 2001). Indeed just like satisfaction,


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

the primary antecedents of quality are product and service

performance and customer expectation concerning the future

performance of the product (Anderson et al, 1994; Al-Monani,

2000).

In effect, a focus on improving quality at all stages of MHBPs is

important to improving project success. The problem however is

that no two identical houses are the same in quality because of

variations in construction process and the weather, the skills and

attitudes of the tradesmen and whether specified materials were

correctly delivered and installed. In short, it is difficult for

property developers to be completely confident that every portion

of a new house that they build will stand up to the same design

installation and occupancy conditions over the years (Ozoy et al

1996; Toole, 1998). The onus is therefore on property developers

to make sure that the appropriate resources are channelled to

enable the understanding of effective quality management that

meets the bespoke needs of potential customers.

Granted that one of the main objectives of repetitive construction

methods is cost effectiveness, it seems plausible that quality of

individual house-units and cost of individual house-units are also

seen to be measuring the same underlying criteria. The potential

implication for PMs is that, whilst striving to make cost savings on

the delivery of MHBPs, this should not be done at the expense of

quality on individual house-units. This is against the background


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

evidence that often “profit” made by property developers is at the

expense of quality (Rakwaro and Olima, 2003). Property

developers are therefore reminded that while it is important to

strive towards cost effectiveness in MHBPs this should be

achieved by taking advantage of improved productivity of

resources arising out of the repetitive works involved and not

deliberately cutting down expenditure meant for quality

improvement. Furthermore it is recommended that property

developers should create the necessary environment so that their

PMs can take advantage of the management tools available to help

strike the right balance in achieving cost savings on individual

house-units as well as expected quality standards.

6.4.4 Component 4: Cost-time criteria

Component 4 accounted for (8.3%) of the variance and comprised

overall project cost (loading factor 82.7%) and overall project

duration (loading factor 76.5%). Contrary to the earlier

identification approach adopted, here both variables were

combined to identify the cluster. This was done to emphasise the

correlation between overall cost and overall time in MHBPs as

demonstrated in the literature (see for instance Odenyika and


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

Yusif, 1997). Indeed the issue of shortening construction time,

reducing cost and improving production performance have

engaged both practitioners and researchers for some time, (see for

instance Odenyika and Yusif, 1997; OKuwugo 1998; Chan and

Kumaraswamy (1999); Tam and Zeng, 2002). These studies include

motivation and productivity investigations as well as analysis of

planning and scheduling techniques (Tam et al, 2002).

Prefabrication and industrialisation have also been widely

considered in housing projects towards improving overall time and

cost associated with these projects. Other innovative methods

such as modular boxes, pre-stressed panels and polystyrene

techniques have also been advocated (Tam et al, 2002).

However, against the background of a huge demand for residential

buildings in developing countries, delays and cost overruns are

still major mitigating factors influencing the implementation of

MHBPs (Chan and Kumaraswamy, 1999; Keivani and Werna,

2001). Indeed in some instances, the cost and time over-runs have

been so severe that serious questions about the human resource

management practices have been raised (Kaming et al, 1999). In

the circumstances when an estimated one billion people are living

in inadequate housing in developing countries, the cost-time

relation is an issue that property developers have to seriously

reconsider by devoting more attention towards achieving project

success.
Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

Generally these findings among others lend support to the

prevailing evidence that the challenges facing property developers

in recent times are how to minimise cost and time over-runs and to

keep current and potential customers satisfied (Torbica and Stroh

2001, Tam et al, 2002). It is therefore recommended that property

developers and PMs shell out particular attention and resources

towards ensuring these factors are met in the delivery of MHBPs.

6.5 SUMMARY

This chapter has presented the preliminary analysis of the data.

The analysis undertaken included descriptive statistics on the

demographic data and one sample t-test and factor analysis on the

dependent variables. The demographic results suggest that the

respondents have reasonable experience in the implementation of

MHBPs, which should give credence to the data collected.

Exploratory analysis undertaken suggests that there is the

potential for PMs to improve on their current performance as

perceived by the respondents.

This chapter also reported on the results of one-sample t-test in

respect of the dependent variables and the findings have been

discussed. Thereafter factor analysis has been used to establish

which of the potential success criteria could be measuring the


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

same underlying effect and also to reduce the variables to a

manageable size for interpretation. The findings suggested that

the success criteria in MHBPs in Ghana could be listed as

environmental-safety, customer satisfaction, quality and cost-time

In the next chapter, the factors identified by the factor analysis

would further be reduced to a single dependent variable.

Thereafter the development of the model is described.


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

CHAPTER SEVEN
Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

CHAPTER SEVEN: DEVELOPMENT OF A

COMPETENCY-BASED PREDICTIVE MODEL

7.0 INTRODUCTION

Following the preliminary analysis presented in chapter six, this

chapter now addresses the development of the substantive model.

As already explained (see chapter four), for the purpose of this

thesis, the substantive model is developed for the “construction

phase” of the project lifecycle.

Drawing from the factor analysis, an index for assessing the PMs’

performance outcome is first developed. This was necessary to

help provide a basis for converting the broad range of dependent

variables (i.e the potential success criteria for MHBPs) into a

single dependent variable (i.e to meet the requirements of multiple

regression analysis). Subsequently, the components or clusters

extracted from the factor analysis (see chapter six) are converted

to a single dependent or composite variable herein called a

measure of “PMs’ performance outcome”. Thereafter, the

independent variables (comprising both contextual and task

performance behaviours) are regressed against this performance

outcome using “stepwise” regression analysis. The functions

investigated under the regression analysis included the coefficient

of determination (R2), analysis of variance (ANOVA),

multicollinearity test, Durbin-Watson test and residual analysis.


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

The findings suggest that the developed model is statistically valid

and has the potential for subsequent development for use by

practitioners.

To this effect, a discussion of the convergence of the findings

against the background of the theoretical framework adopted is

provided to help demonstrate the validity of the conclusions

drawn. Subsequently, the chapter closes with an in-depth

discussion of the significance of the individual variables identified

(in the model) including issues relating to their potential

application towards enhancing project management practice in

MHBPs

7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF PERFORMANCE OUTCOME


INDEX

According to Blaikie (2003), an index is a set of items that

measures a concept indirectly by assuming that what is being

measured is related to that concept. To this effect, an index is

useful for structuring multiple and yet distinctly related aspects of

dimensions into a single score (Brown, 1976; Oppenheim, 1992;

Hait et al, 1998).

Factor analysis is an important tool that lends itself to the

construction of such “indexes” by combining a number of separate

measures into a combined measure (Blaikie, 2003). Thus, the four

components/clusters extracted in the factor analysis in the


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

previous chapter can be likened to representing four sub-indexes

for the measurement of various aspects of the outcome of the PMs’

performance in MHBPs (see for instance Blaikie, 2003). Having

identified these sub-indexes, it is also possible to calculate the

mean scores for each respondent for each index. This is done by

computing a summation of each participant’s response (i.e. in

terms of the participant’s score multiplied by the respective factor

loadings) for the set of variables constituting the index and

dividing by the number of variables involved (see Bailey, 1987;

Blaikie, 2003).

Above all, in multivariate research, the various indexes identified

can be combined to form an overall single index, which is

particularly useful if dependent variables are involved (Meyers et

al, 2005). In this case the various indexes are combined to form a

“linear composite” function where each sub-index is weighted in a

manner determined by the concept underlying the development of

the index (see equation 7.1)

Weighted composite = w1x1 + w2x2+ w3x3 + …xkwk……………

…….. (7.1)

Here, each index in the composite is identified by the symbol x

(with subscripts to differentiate them) while the symbols w1 to wk

are the weights (i.e. proportions) assigned to each variable herein

called “coefficients.” (see Meyers et al, 2005).


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

Thus, the four components/clusters identified in chapter six (i.e.

with regard to the factor analysis) can be deemed as representing

four sub-indexes of the PMs performance outcome for MHBPs in

Ghana (equation 7. 2):

Yi= w1x1 + w2x2+ w3x3 + w4x4 ………………………………

…. (7.2)

Where x1, x2, x3 and x4 represent the four sub-indexes (see also

equation 7.3) and w1, w2, w3, w4 represent appropriate coefficients

as defined by their percentage proportions to the performance

outcome.

Notwithstanding the unique contribution of each sub-index, in

practice it is not expected that the four components constituting

the sub-indexes would be satisfied at the expense of each other

towards achieving the overall performance outcome (see Xiao,

2002; Barbie, 2006). Subsequently the four components

constituting the sub-indexes were given equal weightings (i.e. co-

efficient) of 25% towards establishing a performance outcome

index (equation 7.3):

Yi = 0.25 x [(environmental impact index) + (customer satisfaction

index) + (quality index) + (cost-time index)] ……………………………

……………………… (7.3)
Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

Here environmental impact comprised overall environmental

impact, environmental impact on individual house-units, overall

health and safety, health and safety on individual house-units;

customer satisfaction comprised customer satisfaction on

individual house-units, technology transfer, overall customer

satisfaction, risk containment on individual house-units and rate of

delivery of individual house-units; Quality comprised quality of

individual house-units, cost of individual house-units, overall

project quality; and cost-time comprised overall project cost and

overall project duration.

While this performance outcome index can be used to indirectly

establish the average performance levels of PMs in MHBPs in

Ghana, here the emphasis was to use it to indirectly establish the

ensuing dependent variable for the development of the substantive

predictive model.

7.2 THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Drawing on the performance outcome index, the dependent

variable herein called performance outcome was computed (with

the aid of SPSS) by establishing the mean score for each of the 57

participants who responded to the survey. Thus the score for

dependent variable for each respondent was established using

equation (7.4), whereby:


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

yo = 0.25 [(0.909ovenimp + 0.904enimpind + 0.760ovhsfty +

0.730helsian) + (0.815cusatin + 0.767tectrans) + 0.679ovriscon +

0.619ovcustsa + 0.613riconind + 0.528rdelinhs) + (0.813quainhse

+ 0.772cosinhs + 0.595ovprojqu) + (0.827ovprojcs) +

0.765ovprodtn)] ………………………………………… (7.4)

Note that the ratings provided by the participants for the

dependent variables were used in establishing the mean scores,

where ovenimp = overall environmental impact; enimping =

environmental impact of individual house –units; ovhsfty = overall

health and safety; helsian = health and safety relating to

individual house-units; cusatin = customer satisfaction with

individual houe-units; tectrans = technology transfer; ovriscon =

overall risk containment; ovcusta = overall customer satisfaction;

riconind = risk containment relating to individual house-units;

quainhse = quality of individual house-units; costinhs = cost of

individual house-units; ovprojqu = overall project quality; ovprojcs

= overall project cost; ovprojdtn = overall project duration.

7.3 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS

The multiple regression technique was selected for developing the

predictive model. Multiple regression was chosen in place of other

possible analysis methods (e.g. logistics regression and

discriminant analysis and artificial neural networks) because of


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

the characteristics of the variables under consideration and the

aim of the modelling.

Multivariate discriminate analysis and logistics regression were

not considered because the intention here was not to predict a

categorical membership (i.e for instance whether the the PM is

“good performer” or “bad performer”) but rather a score of the

performance. While artificial neural networks (ANN) can capture

and allow the uncovering of latent non-linear relationships

amongst variables it is limited in its explanatory characteristics

(Goh, 1999; Xiao, 2002), which was a most desired function of this

research.

Multiple regression analysis is by far the most widely used

multivariate technique to analyse the relationship (including the

prediction) between several independent variables and a single

dependent variable (Hair et al, 1998). Thus, multiple regression

offers the opportunity to establish the evidence that one or more

explanatory variables (independent variables, X1,X2….Xk) cause

another dependent variable Y to change (Blaikie, 2003). In so

doing, the analysis establishes the relative magnitude of the

contribution of each predictor variable. Furthermore, it offers the

opportunity to examine what proportion of the variance in the

outcome variable is explained by each predictor variable and/or

their combined effect (Brace et al, 2003). Using the classical


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

linear regression model, the relation between the predicted

outcome yp, and the predictor variables, x1, x2…..xk is defined as:

yp = α + β1x1 + β2x2 + …βKxK + c …………………………….

(7.5)

Where α = a constant on the y –axis; β1 to βK are coefficients so

chosen as to minimise the sum of squared discrepancies between

the predicted and obtained values of yp; c = error term of random

variable with mean 0 and variance σ2 and K= number of

independent variables or parameters. In this case, the independent

variables were represented by the operational measures identified

for both contextual and task performance behaviours while the

dependent variable (yp) as noted earlier is defined as a measure of

the PMs’ performance outcome, in terms of environmental impact,

customer satisfaction, quality and cost-time.

7.2. 2 Stepwise Selection

Given the large number of independent variables identified for this

study, it was decided to use the stepwise selection technique in

this analysis (see also Chan and Kumaraswamy, 1999). Stepwise

selection is the most sophisticated technique of the multiple

regression analysis when large independent variables are involved

(Brace et al, 2003). Here, each variable is entered in sequence and

its value assessed. If adding a variable contributes significantly to


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

the predictive qualities of the model, then it is retained, but all

other variables in the model are then retested to see if they are

still contributing to the success of the model. If they no longer

contribute significantly, they are removed.

Thus, stepwise selection ensures that the regression ends up with

the smallest possible set of predictor variables in the final model.

Thus, a key advantage of using stepwise is that it results in the

most parsimonious model (Walliman, 2001; Brace et al, 2003).

Here, the objective was to explore the relationships between the

performance outcome as perceived by property developers in

MHBPs using the contextual and task behavioural measures as

independent variables. Prior to developing the model, it was

important to have a fair idea of how closely a change in one

variable is tied to a change in another variable and vice versa and

also whether multicollinearity existed among the predictors. In

particular, predictors that correlate highly with each other (i.e. r >

0.9, where r is Pearson’s correlation coeffieicent) should be a

source of concern (Blaikie, 2003; Brace et al, 2003; Field, 2005).

The Pearson’s correlation (r) (see correlation matrix on Appendix

14) revealed that reasonable correlations existed amongst all the

variables (i.e. r < 0.9) and thus were rationally acceptable to be

included in the stepwise analysis (see for instance ibid) (see

enclosed A3 sheet for more readeable version of correlation

matrix).
Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

Generally, the Pearson’s correlation (by virtue of a 2-tailed test)

demonstrated that a large number of the variables were significant

at p < 0.01 (Appendix 14). This is an indication that, generally the

independent variables which correlate reasonably well with the

performance outcome have to a large extent been appropriately

identified (see for instance Blaikie, 2003).

Table 7.1 presents a summary of the results for the regression

analysis. In stepwise regression each variable is entered in

sequence (i.e hierarchical) and its value assessed until all

variables significantly contributing the to criterion variable are

identified. Because of the sequential assessment different models

are developed at each stage until the optimum (i.e. the most

rigorous) model is identified. Subsequently here the analysis

indicates that seven models were developed (Table 7.1). However,

the Table shows that model number 7 is the optimum model as it

included the smallest possible set of predictor variables.

The model numbers as shown in the first “column”(Table 7.1) give

the minimum number of variables extracted whilst R represents a

measure of the correlation between the observed value and the

predicted value of the criterion variable (i.e. the performance

outcome). R square (R2) is a measure of this correlation and

indicates the proportion of the variance in the criterion variable

which is accounted for by the model. Thus, R2 is a measure of how


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

good a prediction of the overall performance outcome can be made

by knowing the predictor variables (Field, 2000; 2005). However,

R2 tends to somewhat over-estimate the success of the model when

applied to the real world, so an adjusted R2 value is calculated

which takes into account the number of variables in the models

and the number of observations (i.e. participants) the model is

based on (Brace et al, 2003).

Thus, the adjusted R2 is useful because its gives an indication of

how much of the variance in the performance outcome is

accounted for in the population from which the sample was

chosen. Subsequently, using the adjusted R2 and the analysis of

variance (ANOVA) (Table 7.2), the following conventional

statistical report was extracted from table 7.1:

(Adjusted R2 = 74.4; F7, 49 = 24. 30, p < 0.0005) ………………………

……(7.6)

Given that the p value (as shown above) is less than 0.0005, the

report indicates that model number 7, which accounted for seven

variables out of the total tested is the most parsimonious model

accounting for approximately 74% of the variance in the

performance outcome. The p-value (reported in the ANOVA Table)

also assesses the overall significance of the model. As p < 0.0005,

it confirms that model is significant. The Durbin-Watson test also

recorded a reasonable figure of 2.095 suggesting that the


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

residuals errors are not correlated or are independent of each

other (Table 7.1) (see for instance Field, 2005).

The emerged model indicates that 74.4% of the variance in the

PMs performance outcome can be explained by the seven variables

extracted namely: job knowledge of appropriate site layout

techniques for repetitive construction works; dedication in helping

work contractors to achieve work programmes; job knowledge of

appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works;

effective time management practices on all project sites; ability to

provide effective solutions to conflicts while maintaining good

relationships; ease with which works contractors can approach the

PM; and volunteering to help works contractors solve personal

problems.

The beta value (i.e. estimated regression co-efficient) is a measure

of how strongly each predictor variable influences the criterion

variable and is discussed in detail later in section 7.3.2 (see also

Table 7.3). However, prior investigation revealed that the t and p-

values associated with the co-efficients for the respective variables

proved significant (at p < 0.0005). This provides reasonable

evidence that the seven independent variables can be used to

predict the potential performance of PMs in MHBPs.

Subsequently, the following model equation is derived using the

respective co-fficients
Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

Yp = 0.702 + 0.356 (Knsterep) + 0.277 (Dediprog) + 0.259


(Knthcrep) + 0.267 (Timemgmt) + (-0.366) (Abilcon) + 0.203
(Easeproj) + 0.192 (Volhelp) (R2 adjusted = 74.4) ………………………
…………………………………………….. (7.7)

In the equation above (7.7), Yp = the predicted performance

outcome and the acronyms representing the independent variables

are defined as Knstlrep = job knowledge in site layout techniques

for repetitive construction works; Dediprog = dedication in

helping to achieve works programme; Kntchrep = job knowledge

in technology transfer for repetitive construction works;

Timemgmt= time management practices on house-units; Abilcon =

ability to solve conflicts while maintaining good working

relationships; Easeproj = ease with which works contractors can

approach PM; Volhelp = volunteering to help works contractors

solve personal problems.

The implication of equation 7.7 is that the independent variables

identified (except ability to provide effective solutions to conflicts)

have a positive relation with the performance outcome herein

identified as meeting environmental, customer satisfaction, quality

and cost-time targets. That is in terms of “project factors” that are

within the control of PMs the appropriate use of these behavioural

competencies should provide a firm foundation towards improving

their managerial performance in meeting success targets in

MHBPs. This suggests that to help improve their managerial

performance in achieving the performance outcome, PMs should


Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis

(inter alia) have the potential of improving their knowledge and

skills in these independent variables.


Chapter 7 Model development

Table 7.1: Model Summary showing results of stepwise regression


Model Summary(h)

Std. Error Change Statistics


M R Adjusted of the R Durbin-
odel R Square R Square Estimate Square F Sig. F Watson
Change Change Df1 df2 Change
1 .666(a) .443 .433 .28475 .443 43.771 1 55 .000
2 .768(b) .589 .574 .24678 .146 19.230 1 54 .000
3 .821(c) .673 .655 .22212 .084 13.652 1 53 .001
4 .837(d) .700 .677 .21501 .026 4.566 1 52 .037
5 .850(e) .723 .696 .20854 .023 4.277 1 51 .044
6 .870(f) .758 .729 .19703 .035 7.133 1 50 .010
7 .881(g) .776 .744 .19118 .019 4.106 1 49 .048 2.095
a Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works
b Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works , Dedication in helping works
contractors/and or artisans to achieve work programmes
c Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works , Dedication in helping works contractors
and/or artisans to achieve work programmes, knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works
d Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works , Dedication in helping works contractors
and/or artisans to achieve work programmes, knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works, Effective time
management practices on all project sites
e Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works , Dedication in helping works contractors
and/or artisans to achieve work programmes, knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works, Effective time
management practices on all project sites , Ability to provide effective solutions to conflicts while maintaining good relationships
f Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works , Dedication in helping works contractors
and/or artisans to achieve work programmes, knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works, Effective time
management practices on all project sites , Ability to provide effective solutions to conflicts while maintaining good relationships, Ease with which
works contractors and/or artisans are able to approach project manager with their problems
g Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works , Dedication in helping works contractors
and/or artisans to achieve work programmes, knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works, Effective time
management practices on all project sites , Ability to provide effective solutions to conflicts while maintaining good relationships, Ease with which
works contractors and/or artisans are able to approach project manager with their problems, Volunteering to help works contractors and/or artisans
solve external difficulties
h Dependent Variable: performance outcome
Chapter 7 Model development

Note: the above indicates the order in which the variables were added
Chapter 7 Model development

Thus, the implication of this finding is that while it might be

important for PMs to have all the necessary competencies relating

to the management of MHBPs, the presence of the competencies

identified are likely to enhance the achievement of higher

performance levels on these projects. That is, while the knowledge

of other related competencies might help in delivering some

required level of managerial performance in MHBPs, the

knowledge of these competency profiles will help increase the

PMs’ chances of achieving managerial excellence.

The negative regression coefficient of the variable ability to

provide effective solutions to conflicts while maintaining good

relationships suggests that it has a negative impact on

performance outcome. This seems to deviate from conventional

wisdom and further discussion on it is provided in section 7.3.2.

7.2.2 Test of goodness of fit

In developing the regression model, the aim was to try and

maximise the measurement of the adjusted R2 which is a measure

of good-fitness. As already pointed out in the previous section, an

adjusted R2 of 74.4% (model 7) is appreciably high and this

suggests that the model is a relatively good model. Analysis of

variance (ANOVA) (Table 7.2) also indicated that the regression

equation (i.e. equation 7) is significant (i.e. at p< 0.0005). The


Chapter 7 Model development

Durbin-Watson test (see Table 7.1) also recorded an acceptable

figure of 2.095 suggesting that residual errors are not correlated

or conform to the assumptions of normality. These encouraging

test parameters are further indications of the goodness of fit of the

model.

In order to check the potential influence of multicollinearity, two

diagnostic tests, tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF) were

undertaken as part of the beta standardised regression coefficients

(see Table 7.3). Multcollinearity is used to check whether high

correlations exist among the sets of predictor (independent)

variables in the regression model. The tolerance values are a

measure of the correlation between the predictor variables and

can vary between 0 and 1. According to Brace et al (2003), the

closer to zero the tolerance value is for a variable, the stronger the

relationship between this and other predictor variables. However,

Brace et al, (2003) cautions that one should be concerned about

such very low tolerances (i.e. tolerances close to zero).

Alternatively, this means that any variable with a VIF of more than

2.0 should be a source of concern (see Blaikie, 2003).

Table 7.2: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Optimum Regression


Model
Model Sum of Degrees of Mean F Significanc
squares freedom Square e
Regression 6.218 7 .888 24.303 .000
Residual 1.791 49 .037
Total 8.009 56
Chapter 7 Model development

Table 7.3 (containing the diagnostic test) shows that the lowest

tolerance is 0.495 whilst the highest is 0.603. The relatively high

values suggest low level of collinearity in the predictor

(independent) variables. Similarly the VIF values for all variables

were within the reasonably accepted limit of 2.0. In this respect it

could safely be confirmed that there was no issue of

multicollinearity regarding the independent variables.

Table 7.3: Coefficients /Collinearity diagnostic of Optimum


Regression Model
Variable βc σd βe tf Significance Toleran VIFJ
descriptionb g
ceh
(Constant) .702 .238 2.949 .005
Knowledge .190 .047 .356 4.096 .000 .603 1.569
of
appropriate
site layout
techniques
for
repetitive
constructio
n works
Dedication .134 .043 .277 3.142 .003 .585 1.709
in helping
works
contractors
to achieve
work
schedules
Knowledge .125 .040 .259 3.098 .003 .652 1.533
of
appropriate
technology
transfer for
repetitive
constructio
n works
Effective .165 .050 .267 3.321 .002 .707 1.413
time
manageme
nt practices
on all
project
sites
Chapter 7 Model development

Ability to -1.8 .047 -.366 -3.811 .000 .495 2.020


provide 0
effective
solutions to
conflicts
while
maintaining
good
relationship
s
Ease with .087 .039 .203 2.225 .031 .546 1.831
which
works
contractors
are able to
approach
the Project
manager
with their
problems
Volunteerin .082 .040 .192 2.026 .048 .507 1.971
g to help
works
contractors
solve
external
difficulties
a
Variable acronym as in equation (7.7)
b
Variables as defined in equation (7.7)
c
Regression coefficient
d
Standard error of variable regression coefficient
e
Standardized regression coefficient which gives measure of the contribution of each variable to the
model
f
Value of t-statistics
g
Significance of t-statistics
h
Tolerance for multicollinearity measure
j
Variance inflation factor for multicollinearity measure

7.2.3 Residual Analysis

The test made on the estimated regression coefficient is

dependent on the assumption that the sample points are randomly

selected and each comes from identically distributed normal

populations of data all with the same variance. A residual analysis

can be used to establish the validity of the model in satisfying this

condition (Field, 2000; Field, 2005; Faircoulgh, 2006). Thus, given

the multiple regression model,


Chapter 7 Model development

y = α + β1x1i + β2x2i + …βKxKi + ε. ……. ………………………………. ( 7.8)

Where, ε the residual error is normally independently distributed

with mean 0 and variance σ2. According to Field (2005), the

residual errors can be used to check the validity of the model by

undertaking residual analysis. Supposedly, if the multiple

regression y = a + b1x1 + b2x2 is fitted to a known data and

obtained some equation in terms of ỹ, then the residuals can be

calculated by establishing the (y - ỹ) values. Subsequently the sum

of the squares of the residual (residual SS) is given by Σ(y - ỹ)2 .

If the analysis is being carried out using a computer package, then

the approximated normality of the residuals can be checked using

normal probability plots (Field, 2000: 2005). This is done by

calculating the expected cumulative probability and plotting it

against the observed cumulative probability. If the multiple

regression model is appropriate, then the standardardized

residuals should normally be distributed with mean 0 and standard

deviation 1. It is also known that 95% of the values of a standard

normal variable would usually be in the interval -2 to +2 and

99.7% in the interval -3 to+3 (see Field, 2000; Fairclough, 2005;

Field, 2005). Besides the normal probability plot should lie close to

a straight line (ibid).


Chapter 7 Model development

Using SPSS, the histogram for the regression standardized

residual is reproduced as in Figure 7.1. The distribution of the

histogram suggests some normality in the data. The normal

probability plot is also shown in figure 7.2. The normal probability

plot shows that the points lie close to the straight line indicating

that the residuals are approximately normally distributed. Note

also that the Durbin-Watson test (as earlier reported) indicated

that the residual errors are independent or not correlated.

Histogram
Dependent Variable: Overall performance outcome
14

12

10

4
Frequency

Std. Dev =.94


2 Mean =0.00
0 N =57.00
-2
-1 0
-1 5
-1 0
-1 5
-.7 0
-.5
-.2
0.
.2
.5
.7
1.
1. 0
1. 5
1.
2.
2. 0
5
0
5

75
0
25
00

0
2
50
.0
.7
.5
.2
.0
5
0
5

Regression Standardized Residual

Figure 7.1: Histogram for frequency against regression


standardized residual

These results provide reasonable compelling evidence that the

substantive model developed is valid. The graph of unstandardized

predicted value against standardized residuals is shown in figure


Chapter 7 Model development

7.3. The results also indicate that the residual between parallel

horizontal lines lie at about +2 and -2. Furthermore, there was no

clear pattern in the scatter plot confirming that the regression

equation is robust.

Overall performance outcome (a)


1.00

.75

.50
Expected Cum Prob

.25

0.00
0.00 .25 .50 .75 1.00

Observed Cum Prob

Figure 7.2: Normal probability plot of regression standardised


residual
Chapter 7 Model development

1
Standardized Residual

-1

-2
2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0

Unstandardized Predicted Value

Figure 7.3: Scatter of standardized residual against


unstandardized predicted value

7.3 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

Section 7.2.1 has described the optimum statistical model for

predicting the performance of PMs in MHBPs. This optimum model

was obtained through accepted regression modelling practices.

The regression technique included maximizing the R2 value by

adding through stepwise selection technique variables that are

statistically significant. As already noted, the main objective of this

study was to help develop a model for predicting the potential

performance of PMs in MHBPs in Ghana. The motivation for the

study stems from the increasingly important role that PMs are

playing in the management of MHBPs in the Ghanaian


Chapter 7 Model development

construction industry, and the subsequent necessity for an

empirically structured system to help validate their managerial

performance towards best practice improvement (Amoa-Mensah,

2002; Ahadzie et al, 2004; 2005a; 2006.) Here, the discussion of

the findings (including potential implications for PMs’

performance improvement in MHBPs) is argued in the context of

how they converge with the body of literature in the HRM genre

especially the underlying theoretical framework from applied

psychology. Thereafter, the significance of the individual variables

towards engendering effective managerial performance of PMs is

elucidated.

7.3.1 Convergence of Findings with the Theoretical


Framework Adopted

As demonstrated in chapter two, there is a growing awareness

within the construction industry of the relationship between

project success and PMs’ competencies. Similarly, it is becoming

increasingly apparent that, competency-based models are useful

for enabling an understanding of the professional development

required to engender the appropriate competencies. Accordingly,

the contemporary view is increasingly shifting towards

competency-based metrics which draw on key behavioural

measures (see e.g. Dullaimi et al, 1999; Dainty et al, 2003; 2004;

2005; Cheng et al, 2005: Skipper et al, 2006). Thus, insofar as

competency-based measures represent an established recourse

towards encouraging the PMs’ continuing professional


Chapter 7 Model development

development, they represent an integral part for addressing a

critical variety of HRM actions and outcomes (Tett et al, 2000;

Cheng et al, 2005).

Indeed these behavioural measures are useful for providing the

psychological understanding needed when selecting and

predicting human performance (Motowidlo et al, 1997; Scullen,

2003). These behavioural measures, more than general traits, are

amenable to change through training and are useful for identifying

training requirements of PMs. Thus, recognising and incorporating

these measures in organisational programmes is useful not only

for the continuing professional development (CPD) of PMs, but

also for their professional competitiveness (Dainty et al, 2003).

These are some of the key reasons why the theoretical framework

adopted for this study, while emphasising the relevance of

performance outcome draws significantly on behavioural

measures. Subsequently, for ease of reference in the ensuing

discussion, the predictor variables have been regrouped to reflect

the philosophy of the theoretical framework which is to distinguish

contextual performance behaviours from task performance

behaviours (see table 7.4).

It is noted that both aspects of contextual and task performance

behaviours were accounted for in the model suggesting that the

established distinction in organisational psychology theory may be

empirically relevant for validating PMs’ performance measures in


Chapter 7 Model development

MHBPs (Table 7.4). Borman and Motowidlo (1993) and

subsequently Conway (1996) have contended that contextual

performance behaviours could be accounting for 30% of the

variance in managerial performance, and task performance

behaviours could be accounting for over 50% (see chapter four).

A cursory look at Table 7.4 (reproduced from model summary)

shows that in this instance as well, whilst aspects of task

performance behaviours accounted for about 50% of the variance,

aspects of contextual performance behaviours accounted for about

24%. The similarity of the findings suggests that the theoretical

basis of this research is potentially very relevant for understanding

the PMs’ performance domain in MHBPs.

Table 7.4: Independent variables accounted in the optimum


regression model
Performance Variables included % variance of Total %
domain individual variance
variables ( R2 accounted
change) (R2)
Contextual 24.90%
Performance
behaviours
Job dedication • Dedication in 14.6%
helping works
contractors to
achieve works
programme
Interpersonal • Effective time 2.6%
facilitation management on all
project sites
• Ability to provide
solutions to 2.3%
conflicts while
maintaining good
relationship
• Ease with which 3.5%
works contractors
are able to
approach PMs with
their problems 1.9%
• Volunteering to
help works
Chapter 7 Model development

contractors in
their personal
problems

Task 52.70 %
performance
behaviours
Job knowledge • Knowledge of 44.3%
appropriate site
layout techniques
for repetitive
construction works
• Knowledge of 8.4%
appropriate
technology
transfer for
repetitive
construction works
Cognitive ability Nil
Task proficiency Nil
Experience Nil
With regard to the contextual performance domain, aspects of job

dedication and interpersonal facilitation were both accounted for,

though interpersonal facilitation features more in terms of the

number of variables included in the model (Table 7.3). This

concurs with Borman and Motowidlo’s (1997) assertion that, in

managerial performance evaluations, the antecedents of

contextual performance behaviours are more likely to involve

personality factors. That is, if aspects of contextual performance

behaviours are included as criteria for the performance evaluation,

then personality predictors are more likely to be successful for

selection than if they are not included. However, albeit aspects of

interpersonal facilitation featured more in terms of variables, they

do not necessary account for a greater percentage of the total

variance of contextual performance behaviours.

Job dedication accounted for 14% of the variance whilst aspects of

interpersonal facilitation accounted for approximately 10%. This


Chapter 7 Model development

result is also very revealing in the context of the theoretical

framework adopted. For instance, Van Scotter and Motowidlo

(1996) and Conway (1999) have contested which of these two

constructs should be more relevant for judging an individuals job

performance. Whilst both researchers concur that aspects of job

dedication and interpersonal facilitation are important, Van

Scotter and Motowildo (1996) suggested that aspects of job

dedication are only marginally significant relative to interpersonal

facilitation and would normally be redundant. Alternately, Conway

(1999) argued for the contrary especially in regard to managerial

job performance evaluation. Here, the findings concur with

Conway’s (1999) assertion that in managerial job evaluation,

aspects of job dedication cannot be discounted and could be

accounting for more of the variance associated with contextual

performance behaviours. At least in this sense, the most relevant

conclusion is that both aspects of interpersonal facilitation and job

dedication are plausible and distinct variables to be considered for

PMs’ performance measures in MHBPs.

The only task performance behaviour found to be significant was

job knowledge (Table 7.4). While the inclusion of this variable is

not surprising, nevertheless it seems odd that for instance aspects

of the constructs “experience” and “task proficiency” (often

implied in construction management literature) (see for instance

Edum-Fotwe and McAffer, 2000: Odusami et al, 2003) did not

emerge in the findings. Yet, this also converges with the relevant
Chapter 7 Model development

applied psychology literature (see chapter four). For instance

Hunter (1983) and later Schimt et al (1986) both found (using path

analysis) that, in evaluating an individual’s job performance,

aspects of the constructs; experience, cognitive ability and task

proficiency albeit important do largely manifest through their

effect on job knowledge. Here, the plausible interpretation is that

despite the traditionally “task oriented” nature of the construction

industry and for that matter MHBPs, PMs are not expected to

demonstrate strong involvement in task proficiency because they

get jobs done through other people (see for instance Conway,

1999). Thus, while the technical skills of the PM might be

important because they are not traditionally involved in

undertaking most tasks themselves, it seems reasonable that it

should not feature prominently the evaluation of their

performance.

It is also intriguing that aspects of cognitive ability did not feature

at all in the findings, even though Borman and Motowidlo (1997)

had argued that these are more likely to predict task performance

behaviours. However, other writers do maintain that while

cognitive ability is important, (i.e. just like experience and task

proficiency) it also normally manifests itself through job

knowledge (see for instance Campbell, 1993; Campbell et al,

1996). What is more, McCrae and Costa (1996) adopted a

different framework from Hunter (1983) and Campbell (1993), but

ended up drawing similar conclusions that cognitive ability (among


Chapter 7 Model development

others) often draws on job knowledge. Thus, while it may be valid

that the antecedents of cognitive ability are more likely to predict

task performance behaviours, the evidence suggests that their

effect on job performance is mediated by other variables such as

job knowledge.

Admittedly, the construct experience when viewed in the global

market (e.g. in terms of “seniority”or number of years in a work

seting) is well recognised as important criteria for establishing the

job potential of PMs (see for instance Ogunlana et al, 2002).

However, and as noted earlier in chapter five (page 131), in this

thesis, the construct is viewed in terms of its potential effect in

relation to the judgment of property developers concerning the

performance of PMs on an ongoing (i.e. present) job or task and

not as seen on the “labour market” for the purposes of ,say,

recruitment exercises. Thus, a plausible deduction from the above

finding is that while the behaviours associated with the construct

experience is an important determinant in helping to make

informed decisions on the choice and selection of potentially

competent PMs, in considering its effect in respect to the

judgment of property developers on an ongoing job or the task at

hand, it is rather how any experience acquired by the PM is

translated into job knowledge that seems to matter in the end.

Thus, whilst the level of experience of the PM might be important,

ultimately, it is how the relevant behavioural experience is


Chapter 7 Model development

successfully translated into job knowledge on an ongoing task that

might be crucial in judging their current performance.

An important benefit of the contextual-task concept is that it

provides a framework for having a deeper understanding of the

PMs’ performance domain (see chapter four). The findings of this

study have demonstrated that aspects of both contextual and task

performance behaviours make a significant contribution to the

PMs’ performance domain in MHBPs. This suggests that the

contextual-task performance distinction may be conceptually and

empirically relevant to other project-based sectors of the

construction industry. Given that behavioural competencies are

more amenable towards identifying training requirements, the

contextual –task typology provides the opportunity for a detailed

analysis of managerial performance and its effect. The findings of

this research could therefore be used to underpin the development

of appropriate training programmes for improving the PMs’

performance in MHBPs. Subsequently an in-depth discussion of

the significance of each of the predictor variables is addressed in

the ensuing section.


Chapter 7 Model development

7.3.2 The Significance of the Competency Profiles

towards Engendering the Performance of PMs in

MHBPs

As reported in the foregoing discussion, in developing the

predictive model, it was necessary to distinguish between task

performance behaviours and contextual performance behaviours.

While task performance behaviours are job specific and are

associated with the PMs’ technical functions such as organizing,

planning, coordinating and controlling, contextual performance

behaviours are those discretionary job-related acts which

informally contribute to organisational effectiveness but are not

formally recognized as part of the job. As noted in chapter four,

the term “performance” in this research context is defined as the

behavioural action of the PM towards achieving the expected

outcome. Thus in this respect, the identification of these

competency profiles suggest that PMs who have better knowledge

in, for instance, site layout practices and technology transfer

would be expected to exhibit better task behaviours associated

with these variables than those without such knowledge.

Furthermore, if the task behaviours associated with these

variables (i.e. site layout practices/technology transfer) are to lead

to better performance outcome in MHBPs, then PMs should posses

the necessary skills as identified in the remaining variables, these

being related to contextual performance behaviours.


Chapter 7 Model development

Here, the R2 change, the standardised regression co-efficients (i.e.

beta), the t-values and the respective p-values have been

reproduced and reported in Tables 7.5. The R2 change is a

measure of how the predictive power of the model changes with

the addition or removal of the variables identified. The beta values

(explained earlier in the regression analysis) are measures of how

strongly each variable influences the overall performance

outcome. Thus, for a variable to be deemed as making a significant

contribution, the beta value should differ significantly from zero

(see for instance Field, 2000; 2005). Accordingly, the t-values

provide a test of the hypothesis that the beta values differ

significantly from zero (i.e. the p-value should be less than

0.0005).

Table 7.5: Coefficients of Optimum Regression Model


Variablea Variable Beta t-values Significanc R2
description values e change
NA (Constant) .
Knstlrep Knowledge of .356 4.096 .000 44.3%
appropriate site
layout techniques
for repetitive
construction
works
Dediprog Dedication in .277 3.142 .003 14.6%
helping works
contractors to
Chapter 7 Model development

achieve work
schedules
Kntchrep Knowledge of .259 3.098 .003 8.4%
appropriate
technology
transfer for
repetitive
construction
works
Timemgm Effective time .267 3.321 .002 2.6%
t management
practices on all
project sites
Abilcon Ability to provide -.366 -.3.811 .000 2.3 %
effective solutions
to conflicts while
maintaining good
relationships
Easeproj Ease with which .203 2.225 .031 3.5%
work contractors
are able to
approach the
Project manager
with their
problems
Volhelp Volunteering to .192 2.026 .048 1.9%
help works
contractors solve
external
difficulties

7.3.2.1 Task performance beahviours

Job knowledge of site layout techniques for repetitive construction

works

The variable job knowledge in appropriate site layout technique

for repetitive construction works accounted for 44.3% of the total

variance (i.e. out of 74%) (Table7.5). This is against the

background that Borman and Motowildo (1993) and Conway

(1999) have confirmed that task performance behaviours and

contextual performance behaviours would normally account for

approximately 70% of total variance in managerial performance


Chapter 7 Model development

evaluations. Therefore for this variable alone to account for more

than half of the total variance in the performance outcome

suggests that it is critical in determining the managerial

excellence of PMs in MHBPs. In addition, the relative strength of

the impact of the variable as reflected in the beta value (of 0.359)

is shown in both Tables 7.4 and Figure 7.1. The p-value (p <

0.0005) suggests that the beta value differs significantly from

zero, confirming the relatively stronger contribution of this

variable to the overall performance outcome.

While the inclusion of job knowledge in site layout practices as the

most important determinant of the performance of the PM appears

contrary to the findings in some existing literature (see for

instance Fraser and Zakrada-Fraser, 2003), the high impact value

it received here suggest that it can not be discounted in the

context of the study area. In particular, the finding suggest that in

the Ghanaian context, there might be some underlying managerial

issues relating site layout practices that property developers feel

PMs should probably focus on towards improving their

performance on MHBPs. There might therefore be the need for

further investigations towards understanding and managing the

situation better, especially given that a well planned site can

contribute to reducing construction cost and time by minimizing

travel time, decreasing time and effort in materials handling,

increasing productivity and improving safety and eliminate waste

(Pheng and Sui, 1999; Elbeltagi et al, 2002; Ngowi, 2001).


Chapter 7 Model development

Without a doubt, it should be recognised that, in multiple and

large scale projects such as MHBPs, it is more difficult to manage

the site layout efficiently due to the vast number of trades and

inter-related planning constraints (Tam and Tong, 2003). Thus,

further investigations in the context of the study area might help

in revealing problem areas that can help PMs to be better focussed

towards developing the appropriate competencies for facilitating

effective site layout management practices.

Job knowledge in technology transfer for repetitive construction

works

Technology transfer as used here is the application of innovations

that are new to the property developer and have the potential of

significantly improving performance by decreasing installed cost,

increasing installed performance and improving the business of

the process (Toole, 1997). Many researchers concur that

technology transfer has the potential of improving performance

outcome (see for example Yang et al 2006). This assertion is also

confirmed by the factor analysis in chapter six. However, generally

property developers are often reluctant to embrace technology

transfer because of the uncertainties surrounding its adoption

(Toole, 1997; Yang et al, 2006). Uncertainty as used here relates to

the situation where the property developer lacks the relevant

information towards making an informed decision on adopting

innovations (Toole, 1997).


Chapter 7 Model development

The finding provides some evidence that the PMs’ knowledge in

technology transfer impact positvely on performance outcome (R2

change of 8.7% and co-efficient of 0.259) (Table 7.4 and figure

7.1). That is, the PMs’ knowledge of innovation related activities

has the potential of contributing to their being rated as successful

in the management of MHBPs. In particular, Toole (1997) has

argued that the adoption of innovation by property developers is

positively and significantly related to them having an individual

with a background in innovation related activities. Thus, given the

increasingly strategic role that PMs are playing in MHBPs in

Ghana for instance, the findings suggest that their knowledge in

innovation related activities could be important towards enhancing

their performance. This should therefore also encourage PMs to

strive to develop their knowledge and understanding of innovation

related activities especially in developing countries where the urge

to increase the quantity of housing has often brought to the fore

the need for adopting appropriate technology transfer (especially

with regard to the use of local materials) (Mehta and Bridewell

2006).

7.3.3.2 The Contextual performance behaviours

Regarding the interpersonal behaviours associated with

dedication, time management; ease of approachability of PM,

volunteering and ability to provide effective solutions to conflicts,


Chapter 7 Model development

there are already widespread research studies of the importance

of these variables in performance management (see Pheng and

Chuan, 2006). From an applied psychology perspective, the reason

why these contextual performance behaviours are critical is that

while they may not be specifically goal oriented, their presence is

needed to facilitate the successful achievement of organizational

goals.

Job Dedication in helping works contractora achieve works

programme

According to Van Scotter and Motowidlo (1996), job dedication is

the motivational foundation that drives people to act with

deliberate intention of promoting an organisations best interest

and includes self-disciplined behaviours such as following rules,

working hard and taking initiative to solve problems at work.

Here, the variable job dedication in helping works contractors

achieve works programme is associated with the PMs’

commitment in helping works contractors to systematically plan

and schedule their tasks ahead of execution. In this case the R2

change recorded approximately 14% (Table 7.5) and beta (0.227)

was positively significant at p < 0.0005 (Tables 7.5).

It is noted that some researchers have contested the need to

separate job dedication from interpersonal facilitation in

performance evaluations. However, Conway (1999) and Scullen et

al (2003) have recently shown that job dedication makes unique


Chapter 7 Model development

and significant contribution and needs to be treated separately

especially in managerial performance evaluations (see also Wang

and Amstrong, 2004). The evidence as reported earlier also

suggests that contextual performance behaviours would normally

account for 30% of the total variance in managerial performance

evaluations. Thus for this variable alone to account for

approximately half of the potential total contribution of contextual

performance behaviours affirms the significant contribution this

makes towards achieving managerial excellence in MHBPs.

Interestingly job dedication has also not been subjected to any

rigorous and independent academic studies within project-based

sectors such as MHBPs. This is because it is often treated as an

inherent part of interpersonal skills, which makes it more or less

redundant for specific investigations to understand its impact.

However these research findings have revealed that it may be an

important aspect of helping to predict/determine the performance

of PMs. It might therefore be important for the subject to receive

future research attention so that its impact could be fully

understood towards improving the performance of PMs in MHBPs.

Interpersonal Facilitation

The remaining variables (namely time management,

approachability, effective conflict resolution and volunteering) fall

under the construct interpersonal facilitation. Interpersonal

facilitation encourages a range of interpersonal acts that help


Chapter 7 Model development

maintain the social context needed to support organisational

effectiveness. The R2 change for the variables are effective time

management (2.6%), ability to provide effective solution while

maintaining good relationships (2.3%), ease with which PM is

approachable (3.5%) and the PM volunteering to help works

contractors (1.9%). While these R2 seem relatively small (as

compared to the others) the model results indicate that they are

nevertheless significant. Despite these R2 being relatively small,

the t-test suggests that the beta values (Table 7.5) are significantly

different from zero (i.e. p< 0.0005). This suggests that these

competency profiles make a reasonably significant contribution

towards predicting the performance outcome and therefore could

be helpful in improving the PMs’ performance. Alternatively, their

combined effect in terms of the R2 change accounts for

approximately 10% which is a significant portion of the total

variance (i.e.30%) normally accounted for by contextual

performance behaviours in managerial performance (see for

instance Van Scotter and Motowidlo, 1996).

What is also particularly interesting is that the beta value for the

variable ability to provide effective solutions to conflicts while

maintaining good relationships emerged negative (see figure 7.4).

This suggests that it has a negative impact on the performance

outcome, which seems to deviate from conventional wisdom.

However there is also a reasonable explanation for this.


Chapter 7 Model development

Generally the issue of conflicts and conflict resolution is a complex

issue in the construction process (Leung et al, 2005). The most

commonly held view is that conflicts are detrimental to project

success and must be eliminated and resolved. Others regard some

moderate level of conflict as a catalyst to product/process

improvement (ibid). Leung et al (2005) has provided evidence to

suggest that in solving conflicts, various approaches tend to have

different impacts on the satisfaction of the project participants and

hence performance outcome. They argued that, there are basically

three established approaches for solving conflicts, namely;

emotional/rational which focuses on the cognitive component of

conflicts; task/relationship which highlights how individuals differ

in the extent to which they attribute conflicts to problems in

relationships; and the integration which signifies a “win-win”

situation in the interest of all concerned parties. The evidence

provided by Leung et al (2005) suggests that, paying too much

attention to the former two approaches does not necessarily prove

a direct relationship with satisfaction and hence may induce a

dysfunctional performance outcome. On the contrary, they found

that there is a positive relationship between the integrated

approach and the satisfaction of participants. Here, a plausible

explanation for the negative coefficient of this variable (ability to

provide effective solutions while maintaining good relationships)

may be that, at least in the Ghanaian situation (and perhaps for

many other developing countries), property developers do often

experience excessive conflicts amongst works contractors and


Chapter 7 Model development

moreover, PMs are not able to provide effective solutions towards

improving performance. There might therefore be the need for an

in-depth study at least in the Ghanaian context in conflicts/conflict

resolution towards understanding the situation better and

establishing an effective way forward.

It is to be noted that while PMs are accountable for success in

project management practice, their effectiveness is only one of

many factors that impinges on the outcome of projects. However

as noted by Goodwin (1993), the effectiveness of the PM

constitutes a critical parameter among the variables that directly

affect the performance outcome. It is for this reason that the

personal skills of PMs such as those identified here need to be

clearly understood by stake holders (property developers in this

case) and those aspiring to be PMs.

Given that the data elicited for this study was based on the

experience of property developers, the findings provide a clear

indication for aspiring and experienced PMs of what property

developers expect of them towards engendering managerial

excellence in MHBPs. It is therefore contended that the variables

identified (herein called competency profiles) should provide the

empirical basis on which PMs can aspire to improve their own

performance through appropriate professional development.

Subsequently the potential application of the model is described in

the following section.


Chapter 7 Model development

7.4 RECOMMENDED APPLICATION OF THE

COMPETENCY-BASED PROFILES

Competency models are the first step in developing job-specific

profiles and in rating an employee’s level of competency against a

validated set of measures (Mirabile, 1997). Competency profiles

are also important issues presently in a variety of settings

including education, business organisations and many other

human resource management activities (see for instance Lyons,

2003; Gale, 2003; Ford, 2004; Schultze and Miller, 2004). The

predictive model developed in this thesis therefore has potential

for application in various HRM practices in MHBPs such as team-

deployment and job-matching, recruitment and selection, career

development and succession planning and curriculum

development for PMs. The recommended details are as follows:

7.4.1 Team Deployment and Job-Matching

It is recognised that an individual’s competency profile can be

used to reconcile against the competency profile of a job position

so that the degree of fit can be established (Spencer and Spencer,

(1993) cited in Dainty et al (2003) (Lyons, 2003). Consequently


Chapter 7 Model development

these competency profiles can be used in practice by property

developers for deploying PMs with the appropriate competencies

for managerial positions in MHBPs. The model could be used to

develop an inservice decision making tool in the event that

property developers may want to deploy other categories of staff

(e.g. deputy PM and/or project coordinator) who demonstrate

some reasonable understanding of the relevent knowledge and

skills to assist the PM. Alternatively, if the PM falls sick for

example and a replacement is needed as quickly as possible, the

checklist so developed could be used to quickly identify the

appropriate person. Subsequently the profiles can be used in

recruitment and selection as well in succession planning.

7.4.2 Recruitment and Selection

Ogunlana et al (2002) have observed that, one of the key problems

often encountered by construction executives in project based

industries such as MHBPs is the appointing of the “right” PM. In

particular any mismatch has a potential basis for a conflict of

interest which can result in differing behaviours and outcomes

from an individual (Katz and Kahn, 1978; Arglye, 1994; Pickett,

1998; Dainty et al, 2003). However, competency-based models

provide a robust framework that can help circumvent this

weakness (see e.g. Dainty et al, 2003). These research findings can

therefore be used for administrative purposes with regard to the

matching and selection of PMs onto MHBPs. Subsequently,


Chapter 7 Model development

property developers can apply them so that they can make

informed and objective judgments in the selection and/or

appointment (including interviewing) of PMs who have the

appropriate skills and competencies.

It is also recognised that one of the major problems faced by

panellists in many organisations when interviewing is to have an

objective framework on which to make informed and uniform

decisions (Hartley and Braithwaite, 1979; Roberts, 1998; Lyons,

2003). These findings could therefore be used as an “interviewing

checklist” by the property developers so that when selecting

potential PMs, the interview panel will have a working framework

on which to ask questions and also score points for the PM with

the appropriate competencies and skills.

7.4.3 Career Development and Succession

The matching of skills to project based sectors of the construction

industry has been recognised as a critical tool for the career

prospects and professional developement of PMs (see for instance

Egbu, 1999). Interestingly, one of the main benefits of competency-

based measures is their usefulness for the development of training

requirements (Tett et al, 2000; Gale, 2004; Ford, 2004). This is

because competency-based measures enable PMs to understand

their strengths and weaknesses and, this contributes more

effectively to their professional development (Latham et al, 1979:


Chapter 7 Model development

Brohpy and Kiely, 2002). These competency-profiles could

facilitate the CPD of PMs by ensuring that they maintain the

currency of the scope of the knowledge and skills that property

developers expect of them and are required by the demands of the

job. There is therefore the potential for the model to be used for

identifying training requirements to help engender the

professional development of PMs of MHBPs. Potentially, the

simplicity reflected in the findings (in terms of the relatively few

variables identified) should make it easy for adaptation by

property developers (see for instance Pickett, 1998).

Subsequently, it is contended that these competency profiles could

be used as a foundation for developing a knowledge-based tool-kit

or a skills charting competency mapping processes (see for

example, Lyons, 2003) for which PMs can review, plan and

undertake self-assessment of the key knowledge and skills they

require to engender their managerial excellence in MHBPs. In this

respect these profiles could be built into a point system (i.e. rating

system) similar to the Association of Project Management (APM) 4

point plan for professional development so that both aspiring and

experienced PMs in MHBPs can undertake self-assessment to

review and plan their CPD programmes and also to prove their

value and gain recognition of their professional expertise in the

management of MHBPs.
Chapter 7 Model development

Alternatively, property developers could use this model to develop

competency-based schemes to reward management for developing

competencies in line with their organizational requirements (see

for instance Tett et al, 2000; Olomolaiye and Ebgu, 2004; Dainty et

al, 2005). To this effect, property developers could use the model

to develop in-service training schemes to empower PMs to take

action to address the deficiencies in their own competency

profiles. Subsequently by regularly monitoring their development

via the established profiles, property developers can reward PMs

who make efforts to align their performance with their

organizational competency training requirements.

Many project-based organisations are under pressure to devise

means for retaining and sustaining the commitment of their key

managerial staff (see for instance Kyriakidou and Ozbilgin, 2004;

Schultze and Miller, 2004). Interestingly, there is the evidence to

suggest that human resource personnel are most likely to be

committed to an organisation if they are rewarded and valued for

aligning their performance to the core objectives of the culture

and business environment within the organisation they operate

(Amstrong, 2003 cited in Olomolaiye and Ebgu, 2004). The

competency profiles developed could also be used as the basis to

design competency-based reward schemes for PMs engaged in

MHBPs thereby helping to reinforce, the acquisition and

implementation of the appropriate knowledge and also sutain their

commitment to best practices improvement in future projects.


Chapter 7 Model development

7.4.4 Curriculum Development

Presently in Ghana (and perhaps many other developing countries)

construction project management training is generic and there is

very little room for professional development (either by short

courses) for specific project-based sectors. For instance, while the

implementation of MHBPs is increasingly emerging as a critical

foundation for most-project based sectors of the construction

industry, very little emphasis is placed on curriculum development

towards engendering project management practices in that sector.

However as demonstrated by, for instance, Gale (2004), it is

possible to develop an industry led programme which could be

used for both formal and informal project management

professional development. Given the strategic position of MHBPs

in many developing countries both in terms of scope and the

potential for advancement of improved HRM practices, these

findings (inter alia) could therefore be used as a foundation for

developing specific curriculae for HRM education and training in

the management of MHBPs.

7.5 SUMMARY

This chapter has provided a detailed account of the development

of a model for predicting the performance of PMs in MHBPs. The

findings suggest that the best predictors of PMs’ performance in

MHBPs at the construction phase are: job knowledge in site layout


Chapter 7 Model development

techniques for repetitive construction works; dedication in helping

works contractors achieve works programme; job knowledge of

appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works;

effective time management on multiple house-units; ability to

solve conflicts while maintaining good relationships; ease with

which works contractors are able to approach the PM; and

volunteering to help works contractors solve personal problems.

ANOVA, multicollineriality, the Durbin-Watson test and residual

analysis undertaken confirm the goodness of fit of the developed

model and indicate that the model is statistically robust

Subsequent to the model development, the results have been

discussed in the context of identifying convergence with the basis

of the theoretical framework and potential relevance and

application in the management of MHBPs. It was argued that

based on the findings there is compelling evidence that the

contextual-task typology is relevant for the PMs’ performance

measures in MHBPs. It is asserted that, given the potential

benefits of competency-based models towards identifying the

training needs of PMs, the findings of this study could be used as a

foundation towards underpinning their continuing professional

development in MHBPs. The next chapter addresses the validation

of the model.
Chapter 7 Model Development

CHAPTER EIGHT
Chapter 8 ModelValidation

CHAPTER EIGHT: VALIDATION OF THE

COMPETENCY- BASED PREDICTIVE MODEL

8.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter addresses the validation of the competency-based

model developed for the construction phase of MHBPs in Ghana.

The aim of the validation process was to help establish whether

the concepts and methodologies used in developing the model are

sound and also to establish whether the findings are reliable.

Validation also provides a firm background against which, the

findings could be generalised. Thus validation is important

because it reflects the potential objectivity and reliability of the

model.

A generic discussion of the concept of validation is first presented.

Thereafter, a methodology for undertaking the validation exercise

namely, external and internal validation procedures are

introduced. Subsequently, the details involved in both validation

procedures as applied in this context are discussed.

8.1 THE CONCEPT OF VALIDATION


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

The concept of validation has different meanings in the various

stages of the research process especially the conceptual,

methodological, and empirical domain (Brinberg and McGrath,

1992) (Figure 8.1). At the conceptual domain, the validation can be

established (among others) by assessing the effectiveness, internal

consistency, testability and adaptability of the concepts used. At

the methodological domain, it would be expected that efficiency,

power (rigour), unbiasness, and explicitness would prevail.

Alternatively at the substantive domain, it would be expected that

the research should be beneficial or relevant in terms of any

potential practical applications and should also be subject to

replication and convergence towards identifying its boundaries

(Figure 8.1). Thus, after the development of the substantive model,

its generalization and transferability have to be validated to

ensure that it represents the characteristics of the general

population and that they are not specific to the samples used in

the estimation.

Conceptual Methodological Substantive

Effectiveness Efficiency Benefit


Internal Power Replication
Consistency Unbiasness Convergence
Testability Explicitness
Adaptability

Figure 8.1: Framework of validation

Source: Adapted from Brinberg and McGrath (1985)


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

In principle, any attempt at validating a research process should

reasonably aim at integrating the three domains and a plausible

methodology for assessment is for the researcher to strive towards

value, correspondence (or fit) and robustness (Brinberg and

McGrath, 1992). Value in this sense deals with the worthiness (or

added value) of the research, while correspondence is the degree

at which the features of the relations in the various domains match

or fit together. Robustness deals with testing the consistency of

the empirical findings through replication, convergence and

differentials (see also Walliman, 2000). That is, robustness deals

with the wider issue of generalizability or as is often called

external validity (Brinberg and McGrath, 1985; Bailey, 1987;;

Blaikie, 2003).

It is interesting to note that while reseachers agree that both

internal and external validation are important for validating the

research process, the literature is largely silent on what form the

internal validation process should to take (see for instance Fellows

et al, 2003). A useful technique that has been employed

successfully in recent times to achieve this integration is the two

dimensional methodology identified as; external and internal

validation (see for instance, Proverbs, 1998; Xiao, 2002). External

validation is particularly used in respect of the substantive domain

of the research process while internal validation has been applied


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

to the conceptual and methodological domains. Both validation

processes are now described in respect of this study.

8.2 EXTERNAL VALIDATION

Various external validation techniques are discussed including the

choice made for the purpose of this study. Details of the results are

then presented.

8.2.1 Background to the External Validation Analysis

Five main techniques have been identified for undertaking

external validation (Snee, 1977; Good and Hardin, 2003; Field,

2005). These are:

1) Using independent verification obtained by waiting until the

future arrives or through the use of surrogate variables.

2) Splitting the samples and using one part for estimating the

model and the other for validation.

3) Re-sampling, taking repeated samples from the original

sample and refilling the model each time.

4) Using Stein’s equation of re-calculating the adjusted co-

efficient of determination (R2) (Field, 2005).


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

5) Approaching experts to comment on relevant aspects of the

model including potential benefits (Brinberg and McGrath,

1985).

As a result of resource constraints (in particular financial and time

limits), using independent verification when the future arrives was

an option that could not be pursued here. The re-sampling

procedure was also discounted because as noted by Field (2005),

researchers particularly in social science related research such as

this rarely have sufficient data to perform this kind of analysis.

While splitting the sample seems to be the easier option, it also

sometimes suffers from the same problem as re-sampling if the

data is not large enough (Good and Hardin, 2003; Field, 2005).

However, Brown (1975) had suggested that instead of splitting one

can adopt what is termed “pool aside”. The proposition is to set

some of the data aside for validation purposes in which the mean

square errors (i.e. the residuals or predictive fit) can be used for

validation. If this methodology is adopted then Picard and Berk

(1990) implies that errors can be minimised by using

approximately 1/4th of the sample set aside for developing the

model for the validation.

Alternatively, Stein’s equation re-calculates the adjusted R2 and so

can be used for validation (Field, 2005). According to Field the

equation used in calculating the adjusted R2 in SPSS is somewhat

flawed because it does not account for how the regression model
Chapter 8 ModelValidation

would predict an entirely different set of data. Stein’s equation

addresses this flaw and thus reflects how well the model will

predict an entirely different set of data (Stevens, 1992; Field,

2000; 2005). That is, Steins equation is a measure of how well the

model can predict scores of different samples from the same

population. Stein’s equation for validating models is given by:

Adjusted R2 = 1- n- 1 n– 2 (1 – R2 )
..(8.1) n+1
n–k–1 n–k–2
n

Where, R2 is the unadjusted value, n is the number of cases and k

is the number of predictors in the model,

Given that in this study, the data collected was not very large in

relative terms, a “cross-validation” process was used involving the

“pool aside” technique and Stein’s equation. The “pool aside”

involved the use of 12 independent data (i.e. held-back data) not

previously used in the model development. In view of the

proposals made for the recommended application of the model

(section 7.4), it was also decided to consult some “experts” (i.e.

property developers, PMs and construction management

academicians) to comment on the potential relevance.


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

8.2.2 Test Results for External Validation

Here, the validation is discussed in terms of assessing predictive

accuracy of the model across different samples from the

population and the potentail relevance of the findings with respect

to, in particular, the recommended application in Ghana.

8.2.2.1 Predictive accuracy across samples

There are three methods of calculating the predictive fit: the mean

absolute value (MAD), the predictive mean squares error (MSE)

and the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE). The MAD is the

average of the absolute values of each residual (i.e. the difference

between the observed values and the predicted values from the

model). MSE is the average of the squared residuals and MAPE is

the average of the absolute percentage error for each predicted

value (Good and Hardin, 2003; Xiao, 2003). Among the three, the

MAPE is preferred as a predictive accuracy measure as it is a

relative one (Xiao, 2003 citing Makridas et al, 1983).

The MAPE measures the magnitude of the errors incurred by the

forecast. Drawing from the observation made by Xiao (2003), it

was decided to use the MAPE to undertake the external validation.

Subsequently using the regression equation obtained from the

model, the predicted values were calculated using the scores of 12


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

respondents whose data were held back. Thereafter the residuals

of the actual and predicted performance scores were calculated as

shown in Table 8.1. Subsequently, the MAPE is calculated as

shown in Table 8.2. The MAPE is computed using |(e/y t)|/n where yt

is the predicted y over time t and n is the sample size used for

validation.

The result gives a MAPE of less than 5% and this corresponds well

with the relatively high R2 achieved for the model. Furthermore,

this MAPE compares favourably with many other multiple

regression models in construction management research such as

7.30% from Akintoye and Skitmore (1994), 6.99% from Goh

(1999), 10% from Chan and Kumaraswamy, (1999) and 5.25% from

Xiao (2003). The predictive accuracy of the model is acceptable

relative to conventional validation results in construction

management research.

Table 8.1: Tabulation of residuals


Respondent Yo (Actual) ỹ Yo-ỹ
(predicted) (residuals=
e)
1 3.17 4.28 -1.11
2 2.85 4.97 -2.12
3 3.74 5.77 -2.03
4 3.10 5.47 -2.37
5 3.08 4.82 -1.86
6 2.95 4.27 -1.32
7 2.95 4.73 -1.78
8 3.46 2.68 -2.38
9 3.06 4.87 -1.81
10 2.41 3.90 -1.49
11 3.09 4.56 -1.47
12 3.19 4.87 -1.68
Σ 21.42
Chapter 8 ModelValidation

Table 8.2: Calculation of mean absolute percentage errors


MAD Σ|e|/n) MSE (Σe2/n) MAPE Σ|(e/yt)|

/n
0.38 8.04 3.57%

The MAD and MSE values also indicated the variation of the

predicted value from the model. These values also compared

favourably with, for instance, Xiao’s (2003) of 0.37 and 17.28

respectively.

Hereafter, the adjusted R2 was also undertaking to establish

whether it will provide reasonable support to the predictive

accuracy.

The adjusted R2 using Stein’s equation resulted in the following:

Adjusted R2 = 1 - 57- 1 57 – 2 (1 – 78%)


57 + 1
57 – 7 – 1 57– 7 – 2
57

Thus Stein’s adjusted R2 = 69%

Stein’s equation also confirms that the model has the potential of

predicting quite well different samples of data from the

population.
Chapter 8 ModelValidation

In effect, this cross-validation exercise has indicated that the

model developed has the potential for achieving reasonable

predictive accuracy. That is, there is reasonable evidence to

suggest that the model reflects the characteristics of PMs’

performance and practices in MHBPs in Ghana and could be

applied in other developing countries particularly those in sub-

Saharan African (SSA) where the conditions are likely to be very

similar. Ultimately, it must be said that stochastic models such as

the one developed in this study are not absolutely perfect and it is

worth readers reflecting on this towards the potential application

of the model (Hair et al, 1998; Walliman, 2001; Field, 2005).

8.2.2.2 Feedback from experts on the potential relevance of


the findings viz. recommended application

Preamble

While these mathematical approaches are indeed useful for

establishing external validity, it is also often important to assess

any intended benefits of the model by, for instance, assessing how

potential users (i.e. practitioners and experts) view the relevance

of the findings (Brinberg and McGrath, 1985) (Figure 8.1). That is,

apart from establishing the predictive validity of models, it is also

useful to approach experts and practitioners to assess whether the

models correspond with reality.

It would be recalled that in the pilot and main surveys, a

representative of the KNUST was contacted to assist in the


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

delivery and retrieval of the questionnaires. Currently, a major

housing programme (among many others across the country) is

being implemented less than 2 km from the outskirts of the

KNUST and the opportunity was used to help validate any

potential benefits of the model.

Project description

The project (an affordable mass housing building project

sponsored by the GoG) commnenced in the later part of 2006 and

is located at Ayigya a suburb of Kumasi, (the second largest city of

Ghana) and less than 1.5 km from the KNUST. The total project

site covers an area of approximately 30 hectares (50 acres) and

comprises the construction of 66 No. 4-storey block apartments of

1- bedroom and 2-bedroom types including a living room, dining,

kitchen, store, toilet and bathrooms and shopping area. The total

contract sum is estimated to be in the region of about 250 billion

cedis (approximately 16 million pounds sterling at current

exchange rate)). Works in hand presently involves the completion

of structural core to roofing level and the first stage of the fixing of

services. 11 property developers are engaged on the site with each

handling up to six apartment blocks.

Data collection

As documented in section 5.3.6 in the research methodology

(chapter five), to help validate the potential relevance of the

recommended application of the model a “one- page”


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

questionnaire was sent to the representative (at the KNUST) to be

targeted at property developers and their PMs on the ongoing

project (Appendix 16). The sample size targeted was five property

developers (i.e. managing directors) and five PMs who work for

the property developers identified. Also targeted were five

construction management academicians (of the KNUST). The “one-

page” questionnaire as noted earlier in the research methodology

were sent on the 31st May 2007 and distributed on 1st June 2007.

Given the simplicity of the questionnaire (and also the fact the all

the respondents particularly the property developers were

operating on the same project site), all completed questionnaires

were retrieved within four days and faxed back to the UK on

6thJune 2007.

Tables 8.3, 8.4 and 8.5 provide details of the feedback received.

The questionnaire (Appendix 16) first introduced the variables

identified in the model development and asked the respondents to

assess on a scale of 1-5 the importance of the variables identified

in the research for engendering the performance of project

managers in MHBPs in Ghana. Generally, there was consensus

amongst the set of respondents with over 90% indicating these

variables as either important or very important (Tables, 8.3, 8.4

and 8.5).

Table 8.3: Feedback from property developers in respect of findings


(No. of respondents = 5)
Chapter 8 ModelValidation

Themes (Variables) Rating

Not Not Average Importa Very


n =5 very Import nt impotant
import ant
ant
1 2 3 4 5

Knowledge in site 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 2(40) 3(60%)


layout techniques
Knowledge of 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 1(20%) 3(60%)
appropriate
technology transfer
Dedication of the 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 2(40%) 3(60%)
PM
Ability to provide 0(0) 1(20%) 4(80%)
effective solutions
to conflicts
Effective time 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 5(100%)
management
practices on house-
units
Ease of 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 3(60%) 2(4%0)
approachablilty of
the PM by worrks
contractors and/ or
artisans
Volunteering to 0(0) 1(20%) 1(20%) 3(60%) 0(0)
help works
contractors and/or
artisans solve
personal problems
Note: Outside bracket represents number of respondents

Table 8.4: Feedback from project managers in respect of findings (No.


of respondents = 5)
Chapter 8 ModelValidation

Themes (variables) Rating

n=5 Not Not Average Importa Very


very Import nt impotant
impport ant
ant
1 2 3 4 5

Knowledge in site 0 (0) 0(0) 0(0) 2(40%) 3(80%)


layout techniques
Knowledge of 0 (0) 0(0) 0(0) 3(60%) 2(40%)
appropriate
technology transfer
Dedication of the 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 2(40%) 3(60%)
PM
Ability to provide 0(0) 0(0) 1(20) 2(40%) 1(20%)
effective solutions
to conflicts
Effective time 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 3(6%0) 2(40%)
management
practices on house-
units
Ease of 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 2(40%) 2(40%)
approachability of
the PM by works
contractors and/ or
artisans
Volunteering to 0(0) 0(0) 2(40%) 3(60 %) 0(0)
help works
contractors and/or
artisans solve
personal problems

Table 8.5: Feedback from academics in respect of findings (No. of


respondents=5)
Themes (variables) Rating

Not Not Average Importa Very


n =5 very Import nt impotant
impport ant
ant
1 2 3 4 5

Knowledge in site 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 1(20) 4(100%)


layout techniques
Knowledge of 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 1(20%) 3(60%)
appropriate
technology transfer
Dedication of the 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 5(100%)
PM
Ability to provide 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 2(40%) 3(60%)
effective solutions
to conflicts
Effective time 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 1(20) 4(80%)
management
practices on house-
units
Ease of 0(0) 0(0) 1(20) 1(20%) 3(60%)
Chapter 8 ModelValidation

approachability of
the PM by works
contractors and/or
artisans
Volunteering to 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 2(40%) 2(40%)
help works
contractors and/or
artisans solve
personal problems

The respondents were also asked questions relating to whether

they agree that it is important to further develop the findings into

a management checklist for practical application in Ghana;

consider it important for the themes to be used as a management

checklist to be used by property developers; consider the themes

to important to used used for curriculum development and their

willingness to use the toolkit when developed (Tables 8.6, 8.7 and

8.8). In this case too the feedback suggests that there was

somewhat overwhelming support that the potential application of

the findings would be welcomed and beneficial (ratings of

important and very important in most cases). It was also

encouraging to note the PMs largely concur to the feedback

suggesting that there is the potential for development of the

toolkit if developed for training purposes.

While the sample size used for this validation exercise is relatively

quite small for each set of consensus reached, the feedback, in

particular, the convergence achieved is generally encouraging and

generates some confidence that the developed model in in

congruence with the reality in Ghana and that, the recommended

application has the potential of being well received.


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

Table 8.6: Feedback from property developers in respect of


potential recommended application (respondents = 5)
Themes (variables) Rating

Not very Not Average Importan Very


n=5 impporta Importan t impotant
nt t
1 2 3 4 5

Do you agree that 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 2(40%) 3(60%)


it is important to,
further develop
these themes into a
management
toolkit/checklist for
practical
application in
Ghana? Please
circle the
appropriate
number.
Would you consider 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 3(60%) 2(40%)
it important for
these themes to be
further developed
into a management
checklist, so that
property
developers can use
them as a guide for
recruiting and
appointing
potential project
managers for
MHBPs?
Would you consider 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 4(80%)
it important for the
themes identified
above to be further
developed as a
foundation for
curriculum
Chapter 8 ModelValidation

development, for
the training of
project managers
in the management
of MHBPs in
Ghana?
Please indicate 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 5(100%)
your willingness to
use the
management
toolkit/checklist if
developed for
practical
application.
Note: Outside bracket represents number of respondents

Table 8.7: Feedback from project managers in respect of potential


recommended application (respondents = 5)
Themes (Variables) Rating

Not very Not Average Importan Very


n=5 impporta Importan t impotant
nt t
1 2 3 4 5
Do you agree that 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 3(60%) 2(40%)
it is important to,
further develop
these themes into a
management
toolkit/checklist for
practical
application in
Ghana? Please
circle the
appropriate
number.
Would you consider 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 2(40%) 2(40%)
it important for
these themes to be
further developed
into a management
checklist, so that
property
developers can use
them as a guide for
Chapter 8 ModelValidation

recruiting and
appointing
potential project
managers for
MHBPs?
Would you consider 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 2(40%) 2(40%)
it important for the
themes identified
above to be further
developed as a
foundation for
curriculum
development, for
the training of
project managers
in the management
of MHBPs in
Ghana?
Please indicate 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 3(60%) 2(40%)
your willingness to
use the
management
toolkit/checklist if
developed for
practical
application.

Table 8.8: Feedback from construction management academics


with respect of potential application (respondents = 5)
Feedback variables Rating

N=5 Not very Not Average Importan Very


impporta Importan t impotant
nt t
1 2 3 4 5

Do you agree that 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 4(80%)


it is important to,
further develop
these themes into a
management
toolkit/checklist for
practical
application in
Chapter 8 ModelValidation

Ghana? Please
circle the
appropriate
number.
Would you consider 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 4(100%)
it important for
these themes to be
further developed
into a management
checklist, so that
property
developers can use
them as a guide for
recruiting and
appointing
potential project
managers for
MHBPs?

Would you consider 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 5(100%)


it important for the
themes identified
above to be further
developed as a
foundation for
curriculum
development, for
the training of
project managers
in the management
of MHBPs in
Ghana?

Please indicate 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 5(100%)


your willingness to
use the
management
toolkit/checklist if
developed for
practical
application.

Finally, the respondents were also asked to make their own

assessments of the research findings and also offer suggestions on

any other way they think the model could be applied for the

benefit of the construction industry in Ghana. While many of them

re-emphasised that the findings have the potential for improving

project management practices in MHBPs in Ghana, there were


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

some particularly interesting assessments which are worthy of

note: For instance, one property developer wrote that;

“The themes are appropriate in application and in development

of training programmes for prospective project managers and

also to guide other stakeholders such as property developers and

governmental agencies” (Appendix 17)

Another propterty developer wrote thus:

“This will help Ghanaians or Contractors to have basis or

foundation to manage projects very well and efficiently. It should

be straight forward and understandable to the ordinary

contractor.” (Appendix, 18)

A contribution from one of the academics also read thus:

“I think it’s a timely research work which will be very relevant to

the Ghanaian constriction industry. I think almost all the areas

needing attention has been covered in the themes” (Appendix 19)

A contribution from one of the project managers also read thus:

“For any effective implementation, it is recommended that all

stakeholders within the hierarchy of property developers should

be involved and not just the project managers.” (Appendix, 20)


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

It is also refreshing to note that it is a PM who is drawing attention

to the fact that if potential application of the model is to be

successful all stakeholders should be involved. As noted in the

earlier part of the research, in project management practice it is

believed that the PM should be help accountable for project

success. However it is also noted that many of the factors that

affect the outcome of projects are outside the control of the PM.

The potential for achieving excellent managerial practices

therefore requires an integration of work, people, technology and

information in concomitance with an organisations strategy and

culture (Pickett, 1998). This suggests that other stakeholders

involved would have to play their part by making sure that those

factors outsite the PM are also appropriately integrated and

managed to help focus the effective use available resources on the

prime task of improved performance levels from PMs. There might

therefore be the need for future research to help understand the

taxonomy of the many of the other factors outside the control of

PMs that could impact negatively on their effort to strive for

excellence in the management of MHBPs.

8.3 INTERNAL VALIDATION

Internal validation seeks convergence of research findings among

three major aspects of the work namely; literature, questionnaire

development, analysis of questionnaire and academic validity. The

details are as follow:


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

8.3.1. Convergence 1: Literature search, Questionnaire


development and Analysis

8.3.1.1 Literature search and questionnaire development

Validation of the questionnaire development is reflected in the

convergence with the literature search and the theoretical

framework adopted (chapter four). The constructs for

operationalising the variables are supported by the well-acclaimed

organisational psychology theory of job performance (e.g. Borman

and Motowidlo, 1993; Conway, 1999) and Pinto and Slevin’s (1988)

project success model. Thus, the predictor variables had

reasonably theoretical bases for them to be included in the

questionnaire. The design and wording of the operational

measures were informed by extensive literature review of common

behavioural skills used in the construction and the human

resource management genre (e.g. Dainty et al, 2003; Johnson et al,

2002).

8.3.1.2 Literature and Questionnaire analysis


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

Three sets of analyses were undertaken in respect of the data

elicited, namely; the one-sample t-test, factor analysis and

regressional analysis. Convergence of the findings from the

literature and these analyses were identified. That is, the findings

from all three analyses were found to replicate the literature. The

details are as follows:

T-test and Factor analysis

One-sample t-test and factor analysis were used to identify the

constructs of the success criteria for MHBPs. Factor analysis

revealed four underlying clusters namely environmental impact,

customer satisfaction, quality and cost-time criteria and these

converged with a number of literature relating to MHBPs. (e.g.

Toole 1997; Torbica and Stroh; Ngowi, 2001). For instance, Ngowi

(2001), Morrel et al (2001) and Poon et al (2004) have all recently

highlighted the environmental criterion. Whilst Ngowi (2001)

focused on using environmentally-friendly building processes to

help address the environmental crisis resulting from MHBPs,

Morrel et al (2001) concentrated on how local materials can

effectively be managed to drastically reduce environmental waste.

Similarly, Poon et al (2004) addressed issues relating to waste

management arising out of the use of building materials on

housing projects. Other researchers such as Ukoha and Beamish,

(1999), Rukuro and Olima (2003) and Torbica and Stroh (2001)

have all addressed critical issues relating to customer satisfaction

in recent times. Equally, quality is also relatively well addressed


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

(Anderson, 1994; Ozoy et al, 1996; Torbica and Stroh, 2001; Mehta

and Bridewell, 2006). The analysis conforms to empirical evidence

that quality significantly predicts overall homebuyer satisfaction

(Torbica and Stroh, 2001). The cost- time criteria have also been

the subject of extreme research for the last 30 years (see Odenyika

and Yusif, 1997; OKuwugo 1998), and still continues to receive

considerable attention (e.g. Tam et al, 2002; Mhadi, 2004).

Multiple regression analysis

Here, the convergence is discussed in relation to the independent

variables identified in the model. Subsequently, the variables are

discussed under the various constructs under which they were

represented in the conceptual model, namely; job knowledge, job

dedication and interpersonal facilitation.

Task performance behaviours (Job Knowledge)

The variables identified under this construct were site layout

techniques for repetitive construction works and technology

transfer for repetitive construction works and, their convergence

was discussed extensively in sections 7.3.1 and 7.3.2. Some of the

cited works that supported the findings are Enhassi et al, (1997)

Elbeltagi et al, (2001) and Tam and Tong, (2003). Others works of

significance are attributed to Pheng and Sui (1999), Ngowi (2001)

and Sadeghbpour et al (2006). These writers recognise that space

on construction sites is as important as other resources including


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

money, time, material, labour and equipment. To conclude, Enhassi

(1997) argued that site layout planning in MHBPs is not only

critical but a necessity towards establishing an efficient site

organization and making a decisive influence on the performance

outcome.

Technology transfer has also been critically investigated in the

literature (Carrilo, 1996; Toole, 1997; Yong et al, 2006; Ganessan

and Kesley, 2006). Toole (1997) for instance emphasises the

importance of technology transfer when investigating uncertainty

and home builders’ adoption of technological innovations. In

particular, Toole (1997) found out that the adoption of innovation

by property developers is significantly related to the engagement

of an individual (e.g. the PM) with background knowledge in

innovation related activities. That is, it is reasonable to argue that

the PMs’ knowledge in technology transfer influences adoption

behaviour which is reflected in the implications of this finding. The

works of Akubue (2002) and Mehta and Bridwell, (2005) are all

notable in respect of the significance of technology transfer for

MHBPs.

Contextual performance behaviours (Interpersonal facilitation/Job

dedication)

The variables identified under contextual performance behaviours

were related to the PMs’ job dedication, time management,


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

conflict resolution techniques, ease of approachability and

volunteering skills.

These variables have in recent times become the focus of

construction management research (Crawford, 2005; Phen and

Chuan, 2006). Phen and Chuan (2006) for instance note that there

have been widespread research studies of personal managerial

skills of PMs and how they affect the performance of a project. The

importance of interpersonal relations, team spirit and

collaboration has also become recurring themes in construction

management research in recent times (Nicolini, 2002). El-Saaba

(2001) also highlighted that human factors are important skills

required by the PM. Recent behavioural studies undertaken in the

construction industry such as those by Dullaimi and Langford

(1999), Dainty et al, (2003; 2004; 2005), Cheng et al (2005) also

significantly support the findings.

Conflict resolution has also witnessed relatively intense research

interest in recent times (see for example Dershimer, 1993; Leung

and Yu, 2001; Leung et al, 2005). Indeed Leung et al (2005) noted

that the conflicts are bound to happen in construction because of

its labour intensive nature. Dershimer (1993) also concurs that

conflicts are bound to happen on construction sites and that what

is important is for the PM to have the skills to deal with them

effectively (see also Pinto and kharbanda, 1995).


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

The importance of time management, for instance, has also

received some considerable attention. Ramo (2004) explains that a

well managed “time” signifies the difference in managers either

being efficient and effective, achieving higher productivity;

enhanced job satisfaction; reduction of stress aiding forward

planning and higher creativity or not. Fryer et al (2004) also draw

attention to the fact that unlike other resources such as money and

materials, “time” is finite and cannot be replaced, making it

probably the most important resource (see also Seiwart, 1989).

It is also important to restate here that the contextual-task

behaviours identified demonstrated convergence with the

theoretical framework which has been discussed extensively in

section 7.3.1

8.3.2 Convergence 2: Questionnaire analysis and


academic validity

The findings of this research have been submitted to reputable

international construction management peer reviewed journals. A

total of 3 journal papers are currently under review. The journals

targeted so far are the Journal of Construction Engineering and

Management of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE),

International Journal of Project Management (IJPM). To buttress

the academic validity, the papers focus on specific aspects of the

findings of the research. For instance, the paper submitted to the

ASCE focuses on the key aim of the research which is the


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

development of the model. As noted earlier in the introductory

chapter this paper has recently been revised at the request of

ASCE and the reviewers’ comment suggests that the methodology

(analysis) used satisfies academic validity (see Appendix 21). The

IJPM papers addresses the theoretical framework adopted and

systematic understanding of the potential success criteria of

MHBPs in developing countries. The paper on the systematic

criteria for MHBPs has also been accepted for publication subject

to revision (Appendix 22)

A fourth paper is being prepared for the consumption of the GoG

to help influence policy direction in PM training and education in

Ghana. Furthermore, a summary of the report would be made in a

format that would be useful to practitioners who wish to

implement the findings. The dissemination of the research findings

with regard to academic validity is ongoing with the intended

papers aimed at focussing on specific and distinct aspects of the

findings.

8.3.3 Academic validity and literature search

To demonstrate this convergence, it is convenient to consider the

papers cited in the journal and conference papers that have been

published and/or to be published out of the study (Table 8.9). This

technique has successfully been used by many other researchers

such as Proverbs (1998) and Xiao (2003).


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

Table 8.9: No. of references cited in paper published


No. Authorship Year No. of Remarks
references
cited
1 Ahadzie et al 2004 33
2 Ahadzie et al 2005a 33
3 Ahadzie et al 2005b 40
4 Ahadzie et al 2005c 46
5 Ahadzie et al 2006a 38
6 Ahadzie et al 2006b 37
7 Ahadzie et al 2006c 27
10 Ahadzie et al 2007c 40 In press

(expected)
11 Ahadzie et al 2007d 38 In press
12 Ahadzie et al 2007e 39 Under review
13 Ahadzie et al 2007d 40 Under review
Total: 479

Mean 37

The significance of the papers cited lies in their use in supporting

the main findings presented. A major characteristic of all the

papers cited is that the main findings of the research were

supported by comprehensive literature. A total of 479 papers have

been referenced. While some of the references cited are

duplicated as a result of similarities in their focus, many are

unique and specific to the papers in question and have been used

to support the findings. The established mean shows that on

average 37 references have been cited per paper. This does not

include bibliographies that have also served as useful guides for

shaping the focus of the research. The considerable volume of

literature provides evidence of convergence between the literature

search and academic validity. The full bibliography of these papers

is listed at the end of this thesis.


Chapter 8 ModelValidation

8.4 SUMMARY

This penultimate chapter has addressed the validation of the

model developed in this study. Both external and internal

validations have been described. External validation was

undertaken using the held back data and Stein’s equation of

adjusted R square. The findings suggest that the model reflects

reasonable predictive fit and could therefore be generalised.

Internal validation was undertaken at three levels namely:

convergence between literature and questionnaire analyses;

convergence between questionnaire analysis and academic

validity; convergence between academic validity and literature

search. Throughout this process the concepts, methodology and

the findings of the research have been found to be reasonably

supported by the extensive use of literature in support of the

study.

It is therefore contended that the developed model has the

potential for subsequent development and use by practitioners.

The next chapter therefore concludes the research by providing a

summary of the works done, drawing the main conclusions arising

from the study and and recommendations for future research and

for future implementation in the construction of MHBPs.


Chapter 8 ModelValidation
Chapter 8 Model Validation

CHAPTER NINE
Chapter 8 Model Validation

CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

9.0 INTRODUCTION

Against the background that professionals in developing countries

(such as Ghana) need to be proactive in employing performance

measures for advancing effective HRM practices, this research has

developed a model for predicting the performance of PMs in

MHBPs in Ghana. Subsequently, the appropriate competency

profiles for engendering improved performance of PMs in MHBPs

in Ghana have been identified. The eight chapters presented so far

have elucidated the literary, conceptual, methodological and

substantive approaches for addressing the research agenda.

In this chapter, the research is brought to a close by summarising

the issues addressed throughout the study. Readers are first

reminded of some of the key definitions used in the study

particularly with respect to the term project manager (PM). This is

then followed by a recapitulation of the key research questions.

Thereafter, a summary of how the key objectives were satisfied is

elucidated followed by the main conclusions of the research. The

thesis is brought to a close with recommendations for future

research and future adoption of the findings in practice.


Chapter 8 Model Validation

9.1 DEFINITION OF THE PROJECT MANAGER

In this thesis, it has been noted that the term PM albeit widely

used in construction management practice is subject to debate

amongst professionals and practitioners. Traditionally, the term is

often used to describe persons/entities that monitor, oversee

and/or provide broad supervision on projects, but Lock (1987)

contends that it should be used for one who exercises total

authority and also accepts full responsibility for the management

of projects. It is noted that MHBPs are often speculative in the

sense that, the acquisition of land, design of house-unit and

construction are made without reference to any specific customer

in mind, who might wish to take ownership of some part of the

management process by, say, appointing its own design team. It is

therefore common for the management of the design and

construction (including facilities management) of the house-units

to be the sole responsibility of a single organisation- the property

developer. The practice therefore in the Ghanaian house building

industry is for property developers to engage the key management

personnel including the appointment of the PM as “in-house”

throughout the inception to the completion/commissioning of these

projects. Therefore, within this research context, the PM is defined

as an individual who operates in the interest of the property

developer and has the authority and responsibility for the

management of MHBPs from inception to completion.


Chapter 8 Model Validation

9.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

In undertaking this research three main questions were posed,

namely:

• What should be the appropriate framework for isolating the

PMs’ performance domain in MHBPs in developing countries

such as Ghana?

• Given that the skills required by PMs are likely to develop

and change as MHBPs develop through the project lifecycle,

how should these be factored into the performance

framework?

• In recognition of the unique (e.g. weak economic,

technological and structural systems) and relatively difficult

project environment (e.g. lack of economic and purposive

rationality) prevailing in developing countries such as

Ghana, what performance profiles are appropriate for

engendering the professional development of PMs

throughout the lifecycle of MHBPs?

9.3 REVIEW OF OBJECTIVES


Chapter 8 Model Validation

The main aim of this research, as noted earlier, was to develop a

model for predicting the performance of PMs in MHBPs in Ghana.

Subsequently a number of research objectives were developed in

order to collectively satisfy this aim. Here, the research objectives

are revisited to highlight the extent to which they were

accomplished through the various phases of the research.

Objective 1: To undertake a critical review of recent

developments in HRM practices, in particular, the

performance of PMs towards developing a deeper

understanding of their key performance measures.

Some important issues regarding the significance of performance

measures were identified from the broader HRM literature

including recent contributions in construction management

publications. While performance measures were described as an

important contributor to improving HRM practices, it was

established that this is yet to be adequately reflected in

construction project management practice in developing countries.

In particular, the literature revealed that while some attempts

have been made towards human resource development (HRD) in

the construction industry in developing countries, the focus of

most of these studies have centred on improving craftsmen

productivity. The review was therefore helpful in underpinning the

view that there was indeed a dearth of research towards

improving HRM practices in project-based sectors of the


Chapter 8 Model Validation

construction industry in developing countries and thus provided

reasonable justification for the need of the research.

Objective 2: To undertake a critical review of literature on

project management in developing countries towards

identifying the contribution of PMs in achieving project

success.

This second objective was satisfied by undertaking an extensive

review of recent developments in project management in

developing countries. To this effect, project management practices

in the Ghanaian construction industry were also discussed with

particular reference to the contribution of PMs in MHBPs. The

literature revealed that, very little has been done to help engender

the personal skills of PMs in project-based sectors of the

construction industry in developing countries. While there existed

an acknowledgement of the contribution made by PMs in the

construction industry of developing countries, a lack of detailed

research on the performance of PMs in this context was also

revealed.

Objective 3: To identify an appropriate theoretical

framework for developing a conceptual model suitable for

achieving the key research aim.


Chapter 8 Model Validation

The literature review revealed a reliance on psychology - based

theories and models for establishing frameworks useful in

measuring the performance of PMs (chapter two). This third

objective was therefore addressed by reviewing, in particular, the

relevant literature on mainstream applied psychological literature.

This led to the identification of the organisational psychology

theory of job performance as an appropriate methodology for

addressing this research agenda.

The organisational theory of job performance posits that a

plausible but robust way of understanding the performance

domain of managers is to distinguish contextual performance

behaviours from task performance behaviours. Task performance

behaviours being job specific behaviours and are associated with

the PMs’ “demonstratable” functions such as organising,

programming planning, coordinating and controlling; and

contextual performance behaviours being those discretionary job-

related acts which contribute to organisational effectiveness but

are not formally recognised as part of the job. Contextual

performance behaviours are best predicted by drawing on the

constructs of interpersonal facilitation and job dedication while

task performance behaviours are best predicted by drawing on

cognitive ability, job knowledge, task proficiency and experience.


Chapter 8 Model Validation

Granted that behavioural competencies are also a function of the

expected outcome of projects, it was also important to establish

what constituted project success for MHBPs. Drawing on the

project success criteria (and in particular Pinto and Slevin, 1988

success model), a project success framework for MHBPs was

developed to represent another dimension of the theoretical

framework. In addition, the project life cycle framework proposed

by Lim and Mohammed (1999) was incorporated into the

theoretical framework. This framework was adopted here as it

offered the opportunity for a potentially more detailed

conceptualisation of the PMs’ performance dimension.

Objective 4: To develop a conceptual model for predicting

the performance of PMs in MHBPs adopting the theoretical

framework identified in objective 3.

Drawing from the organisational psychology theory of job

performance and distinguishing contextual performance

behaviours from task performance behaviours; a robust conceptual

model was developed reflecting the conceptual, design, tender,

procurement, construction and operational phases of the project

lifecycle. The constructs identified from the contextual-task

framework, namely; cognitive ability, job knowledge, task

proficiency and experience, interpersonal facilitation and job

dedication were incorporated into the various phases of the

project lifecycle and represented the behavioural facet of the


Chapter 8 Model Validation

performance of PMs in the conceptual model, and reflecting the

context of MHBPs (see chapter, Figure 4.5).

Objective 5: To develop a robust research design to elicit the

relevant data from experienced practitioners and

professionals in the construction of MHBPs in Ghana

Bailey (1987) argues that the development of an appropriate

conceptual model is key to identifying the relevant research

methodology. The identification of an appropriate theoretical

framework and development of the conceptual model paved the

way towards fulfilling this objective. It was contended that, given

that behaviours (as evidenced in the literature) are often stable

and enduring over time, the operational measures involved can to

a reasonable extent be assumed to be subjected to quantitative

laws/logic. Subsequently (and in particular), in order to help

establish the necessary convergence with similar studies on

behavioural competencies, positivism was adopted as the

underlying research paradigm that influenced the design of the

research instrument. Therefore using the construct from the

contextual-task framework and also drawing extensively on recent

construction management literature, a broad range of behavioural

measures were operationalised. These operational measures

represented the independent variables of the model.


Chapter 8 Model Validation

Contending that behavioural measures are complex and

multidimensional (see chapter two), it was important to identify a

large number of behavioural measures. This was necessary to

make sure that all the possible potential variables had been

accounted for. Acknowledging that in the management of MHBPs,

PMs have to exhibit competencies in the management of repetitive

techniques, it was considered reasonable to draw on this

underlying concept of repetition towards understanding

perceptions on success criteria in MHBPs. That is, based on the

ideology that repetition is to draw on learning or experience

curves to achieve, for instance, cost savings on house-units, this

was interpreted to mean that there could be different cost targets

to be met by property developers in respect with say the individual

house-units and in the overall project cost.

Subsequently considering the key criteria cost for instance, the

success criteria were categorised as cost on individual house-units

and overall project cost respectively. Informed by the literature,

overall project cost was defined as final-out-turn cost on overall

project including for instance infrastructure such as road networks

and street lighting (Table 4.1). Alternatively cost of individual

house-units was defined as final out-turn relating to the specific

house-unit. Similar reasoning was applied with regard to other key

criteria such as quality, time, satisfaction and so on. In the end, 15

potential success criteria were identified to represent the

dependent variables (see Conceptual model and also chapter five).


Chapter 8 Model Validation

Based on these dependent and independent variables, a research

instrument in the form of a self administered postal questionnaire

was developed. The questionnaire was piloted in Ghana by

drawing on the expertise of 10 experienced property developers.

Suggestions made by the respondents were incorporated to

improve the quality and suitability of the research instrument.

Objective 6: To employ appropriate analysis to help develop

the substantive model for predicting the performance of

PMs in MHBPs.

In fulfilling this objective, multiple regression analysis was

employed in developing the model as designated in chapter seven.

Multiple regression was chosen as against other alternative

methods such as discriminant analysis and artificial neural

network because of, in particular, its explanatory characteristics,

which was a most desired function of this research. The regression

technique included maximizing the R squared value (i.e. the

coeffiecient of determination), and including only variables that

had been proven to be statistically significant through stepwise

regression, ANOVA, the Durbin-Watson test, multicollineraity

diagnostics, and residual analysis.

Prior to undertaking the regression analysis, scale ranking and

factor analysis were undertaken on the success criteria identified.


Chapter 8 Model Validation

The scale ranking (using one-sample t-test) revealed some

interesting hierarchies in the way property developers perceive

the importance of the 15 success criteria identified (Table 6.9). It

was noted that the hierarchies revealed could assist both property

developers and PMs to come to agreement on how to appropriately

channel resources towards achieving project success in MHBPs.

Thereafter, it was necessary to convert the 15 dependent variables

to a single dependent variable. This was achieved using factor

analysis as explained in chapter six. The factor analysis was useful

in establishing which of the variables could be measuring the same

underlying effect. Above all, the findings obtained emerged

reasonably convincing and supported by the literature (see for

instance Odusami, 2003).

Objective 7: To test, refine and validate the model towards

establishing its predictive accuracy and the potential

relevance of its intended application

This objective was fulfilled by employing external and internal

validation procedures. External validation involved the

computation of the mean absolute percentage error of the

residuals and the adjusted R2 using Stein’s equation as reported in

chapter eight. Both computations revealed that the predictive

accuracy of the model was robust and thus could be generalised.

As part of the external validation a consensus of expert opinion

was also sought from the field incorporating experienced


Chapter 8 Model Validation

professionals and practitioners in Ghana to help gauge the

potential relevance of the intended application of the model.

Internal validation involved triangulation of convergence among

different sources of information comprising the literature search

and analyses of the questionnaire. Academic validation was

established through publication of the research findings at major

international conferences and reputable construction management

journals. The convergence of the three sources of information

provides evidence of the validity of the findings.

Objective 8: To disseminate broadly the research findings

for the benefit of industry and academia.

This final objective relating to dissemination was an ongoing

process throughout the research process. The literature review

and development of the conceptual framework were reported at

various international conferences. Additionally, the findings

emanating from the data analysis are soon to be published in two

international construction management journals. A technical

report, which includes a summary of the main findings, has also

been prepared for the Government of Ghana to help influence

policy direction in the future education and training of PMs in

Ghana. It is expected the findings would be published in a format

that practitioners, by and large may use in practice to enhance

their performance in the implementation and management of

MHBPs.
Chapter 8 Model Validation

9.4 CONCLUSIONS

The main conclusions are summarised as follows:

• The determinants of project success in MHBPs as perceived

by property developers in Ghana can be defined as

constituting environmental-safety, customer satisfaction,

quality and cost-time criteria.

• The best predictors of PMs’ performance in MHBPs are: job

knowledge in site layout techniques for repetitive

construction works; dedication in helping works contractors

achieve works schedule; job knowledge of appropriate

technology transfer for repetitive construction works;

effective time management practices on house-units; ability

to provide solutions to conflicts while maintaining good

relationships; ease with which works contractors are able to

approach the PM; and volunteering to help works

contractors solve personal problems. These variables


Chapter 8 Model Validation

explained approximately 74% of the variance in the PMs

managerial performance. PMs who want improve their

managerial performance on MHBPs should aspire to improve

their knowledge and skills in theses competencies.

• It is noted that from the empirical findings of this study that

aspects of task performance behaviours, (52%) and

contextual performance behaviours (24%) determine the

performance of PMs.

• Based on the validation exercise, predictive accuracy

suggests that the findings could be generalised with respect

to the PMs’ performance in MHBPs in the Ghanaian context.

• Based on a consensus reached by “experts” namely,

convenience sampling of PMs, MDs and construction

academicians on the potential relevance of the model in the

Ghanaian house building sector, there was an indication that

the intended application of the model is in congruence with

reality and could serve a useful purpose if it were to be

applied in practice.

9.5 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

An original contribution to knowledge is an important concern in

any doctoral research (Walker, 1997). The problem is that the


Chapter 8 Model Validation

concept of originality could be arbitrary (Fellows and Liu, 2003;

Sutrina, 2004). Walker (1997) has documented various ways to

demonstrate originality such as development of new

methodologies, tools and/or techniques, new areas of research,

new interpretation of existing material, new application of existing

theories to new areas or a new blend of ideas. Drawing on this

background the contribution to knowledge of this research could

be viewed in respect of its immediate contribution and what

potential it may have in the future if further work is carried out.

Presently, managerial competencies are becoming increasingly

important issues in a variety of settings including education,

organisations and practitioner groups (Lyon, 2004). Information,

advice and guidance about learning and training have also been

seen as highly relevant to the professional development of HRM

personnel (Gibb, 2003). However, identifying and developing

appropriate measures for project-based sectors of the construction

industry in developing countries is yet to be explored.

Identification of these competency profiles therefore provides an

important guideline to both aspiring and experienced PMs on what

property developers expect of them in terms of their managerial

skills in MHBPs. Subsequently, these findings may help PMs who

lack the relevant skills to strive to acquire the relevant training as

part of their professional development. PMs who already possess

the relevant skills may also appreciate the findings as it may


Chapter 8 Model Validation

provide a knowledge-based impetus for achieving higher

performance. The findings also provide a basis on which property

developers in the Ghanaian house building industry seeking to

recruit, monitor, retain and promote PMs, can make informed and

objective decisions towards engaging those with the appropriate

skills and competencies.

Thus, a contribution to knowledge from the findings reported in

the thesis is the identification of competency profiles that can be

mapped and/or customised towards improving work place learning

and/or training requirements of PMs and subsequently towards the

organisational development of property developers in Ghana.

Property developers and PMs in many other developing countries

can also benefit from the findings especially those in sub-Saharan

African countries where the managerial challenges facing

homebuilders are likely to be similar.

The body of knowledge in predicting the performance of PMs

based on behavioural competencies in project-based sectors of

developing countries is relatively unexplored. Subsequently, PMs

who want to improve upon their own personal performance have

up until now had to rely on their conviction on uninformed and

largely subjective evidence. Thus, the developed model serves as

an important knowledge base for replicating and advancing the

performance of PMs in the Ghanaian construction industry and


Chapter 8 Model Validation

perhaps the construction industry of many other developing

countries.

The adoption of the organisational theory of job performance,

while widely used in mainstream HRM research has not previously

been explored in regard to the performance of construction project

managers (CPMs). Furthermore, the concept of linking the PMs’

performance measures to the project lifecycle is also a novel

contribution in construction management research. That is, while

other models exist that purport to link success to the project

lifecycle, this attempt at explicitly focussing the relation of the

PMs’ performance to the project lifecycle adds significantly to the

knowledge base of construction management research. The

conceptual model could therefore be adopted across other

geographical and project-based sectors towards identifying and

developing appropriate competency profiles in the wider

construction industry.

9.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

As with all survey based research there are bound to be

limitations, which need to be acknowledged. Readers are therefore

reminded of the potential effect of sampling, unsystematic (i.e.

random) and measurement errors and their likely impact on the

data collected, analysis undertaken and the conclusions drawn.

These notwithstanding, the demographic profile of the


Chapter 8 Model Validation

respondents suggest that they have reasonable and direct

professional experience in the implementation of MHBPs which

should accord some reasonable credibility to the quality of

responses received.

It is also important to acknowledge the relatively small sample size

used for the study. However, this should not nullify the conclusions

drawn, given that the relevant preliminary tests associated with

the adequacy of sample size (including the assumptions of central

limit theorem) proved favorable for the analysis to proceed.

Furthermore, the margin of error associated with the study only

marginally increased from 10 to 13% (see chapter five). That is,

the predictive power of the model at 95% confidence level can be

tolerated at a confidence interval of ±13%, which appears

reasonably good for a stochastic study of this nature (see for

instance Walliman, 2000). Cross validation of the model suggested

it has reasonable predictive power and could therefore be

generalised at least in the Ghanaian context.

While emphasising the significance of model in reflecting the

project lifecycle, it is important to remind readers that

development of the substantive model focussed on the

“construction phase”. This is largely due to resource constraints

placed on the study. However, the successful completion of the

developed model for the construction phase provides an important

stepping stone for further research as indicated in the following.


Chapter 8 Model Validation

9.8 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Competency-based measures are increasingly being recognised as

a viable option for engendering the managerial excellence of PMs.

The contextual-task framework was used in developing a

conceptual model that reflected the various phases of the project

lifecycle in MHBPs. The successful development of the model for

the “construction phase” suggests that there is the potential for

the subsequent development of the competency profiles for the

other phases of the project lifecycle. The conceptual model could

therefore form the basis for future research towards the

development and understanding of a holistic profile of PMs

throughout the whole lifecycle of MHBPs.

It has been contested elsewhere that job dedication is normally

redundant and should not be treated separately from

interpersonal facilitation (section 7.3.1). In this study, aspects of

job dedication accounted for more than half of the contribution of

contextual performance behaviours affirming Conway’s (1999)

assertion that in managerial performance, job dedication is very

relevant and should be studied independently from interpersonal

facilitation. This significant contribution might therefore be used

as a basis for future research towards understanding fully its

impact on MHBPs especially given that these projects are

inherently much more difficult to manage than many one-off


Chapter 8 Model Validation

projects (see for instance Mahdi, 2004). In many developing

countries, economic and purposive rationality do not exist as a

result of the weak socio-economic structure prevailing (Murithi

and Crawford, 2004), and this has the potential of influencing the

organisational allegiance and commitment of PMs towards

concentrating fully on achieving organisational goals. This

investigation could therefore provide the basis for understanding

how PMs are able to maintain their job dedication on MHBPs in

the face of these difficulties.

It is recognised that the competency profiles identified do not

operate in a vacuum and would be influenced, in particular, by

situational and environmental factors. There is therefore the

research opportunity to identify the key determinants that affect

each of the competency profiles identified. This will help both

stakeholders and the PMs to identify the important variables that

militate against the effective implementation of the appropriate

knowledge and skills. Subsequently, the significant variables that

are controllable could then be properly managed to help engender

superior performance levels. Potentially, identification of these

factors will enable the appropriate allocation of the limited

resources available towards engendering the professional

development of PMs in MHBPs.


Chapter 8 Model Validation

9.9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INDUSTRY

As noted throughout the thesis, competency programmes are

helpful for developing and matching the skills of HRM personnel to

the core organisational strategies. The competency profiles

identified here offers PMs in the Ghanaian house building industry

the opportunity to have a clearer idea of what property developers

expect of them in relation to their competencies. The findings can

therefore be used as a rating system (either in terms for instance

360 degrees evaluation or self-evaluation) so that PMs can review

and appraise their performance levels towards identifying current

and/or projected skills deficiencies; proving their value; gaining

recognition of their professional expertise towards best practice

improvement.

It also recommended that property developers seeking to recruit,

monitor, retain and promote the services of PMs could use the

findings to make informed and objective decisions towards

engaging those with appropriate skills and competencies.

As already noted by Mirable (1997), competency models are the

first step in developing job-specific profiles and in rating an

employee’s level of competency against a set of validated

measures. Competency profiles have also become an important

recourse in a variety of settings including education, business


Chapter 8 Model Validation

management and other HRM activities. Interestingly, while project

management practice is gradually gaining popularity in the

construction industry in Ghana, it is also evident that appropriate

systems for sustaining the career and professional development of

PMs is lacking. In particular, there is a lack of appropriate

professional institutions to help unify the activities of PMs and also

govern their professional examination, certification and

accreditation practices.

Here the view is that, the findings of this research could be used

by professionals as a reflective document for initiating the

establishment of a Ghanaian Association of Projects Managers

(GAPROM), and the competency profiles identified herein could be

further developed to form baseline competencies in PMs’

performance, for gaining recognition and value in their

performance and for benchmarking and best practices (see also

section 7.3.2 on recommended application of model).

Thus, given the strategic position of MHBPs in the context of this

study both in terms of scope and potential advancement for

improved HRM practices, this finding (inter alia) could therefore

be used as a foundation for developing an appropriate body

knowledge that PMs could use to identify their professional and

development needs and also collectively used by a professional

body such as the GAPROM (proposed here) to ascertain the key

managerial competencies.
Chapter 8 Model Validation

With the support provided by the Government of Ghana for the

research and the reasonable interest shown by the property

developers (i.e. the GREDA) in participating in the survey, it should

be possible for the key stakeholders including PMs in the housing

industry in Ghana to pool resources together towards establishing

a framework for the development of the GAPROM and the

associated body of knowledge.

9.9 SUMMARY

This chapter has provided a review of the original research

objectives and the extent to which they were achieved. The main

conclusions have been presented and the limitations of the

research have been acknowledged. Recommendations for further

research and for practicing PMs and property developers have

been proposed.

In summary the research has developed a competency-based

model representing a robust mechanism for predicting the

performance of PMs. The model could be used by property

developers to recruit, retain and develop their PMs. PMs could

also adopt the model for their own personal development in

helping to identify strengths and weaknesses. It is contended that

the developed model has the potential for improving the


Chapter 8 Model Validation

performance of PMs in developing countries such as Ghana, when

used as part of a wider sphere of HRM practices and procedures.


Conclusions and recommendations

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Biliography

APPENDICES
Appendices

Appendix 1: General Attributes for evaluating the PMs’ performance

Egbu (1999)

Fraser (2003)
(1996)Kumaraswamy and Thorpe

Fraser (1999;2000)

Musthpah and Naoum (199)


Muriithi and Crawford (2003)

Brown and Adams (2000)

Lei and Skitmore (2004)


Ogunlana et al (2003)

Odusami et al (2003)
Edum-Fotwe (2000)

Morris et al (2000)
Dainty et al (2003)

Chan et al (2004)
Odusami (2002)
El-Saaba (2001)
Ling (2003)

Ling (2002)

Ling (2004)
Creativity and
innovativeness    
Problem identification
ability  
Problem solving ability    
Mental alertness 
Ability to think ahead
Good project approach   
Intelligence 
Emotional stability 
Physical condition 
Self Confidence 
Sense of Humour
Judgement 
Sense of responsibly 
Pride in performance 
Communication       
Sensitivity 
Negotiation skills       
Experience    
Maturity  
Educational qualification  
Appendices

Egbu (1999)
(1996)Kumaraswamy and Thorpe

Fraser (1999;2000)

Musthpah and Naoum (199)

Fraser (2003)
Muriithi and Crawford (2003)

Brown and Adams (2000)

Lei and Skitmore (2004)


Ogunlana et al (2003)

Odusami et al (2003)
Edum-Fotwe (2000)

Morris et al (2000)
Dainty et al (2003)

Chan et al (2004)
Odusami (2002)
El-Saaba (2001)
Ling (2003)

Ling (2002)

Ling (2004)
Management abilities        
Leadership qualities         
Technical credibility        
Administrative capability      
Sensitivity  
Entrepreneurial capability      
Special experience 
Other applicable
experience      
Past performance 
Performance within budget           
Performance within time           
Performance within quality
specification            
No. of years of practice in
construction 
Social skills   
Time Management         
Political awareness 
Team formation and
development        
Risk management       
Integrity 
Appendices

Commitment   
Knowledge transfer  
IT skills  
Legal skills   
Health and safety issues       
Honesty 
Dedication 
Commercial awareness  
Rapid understanding of situations
and issues 
Ambition 
Enthusiasm  
Dedication
Managing client relations 
Presentation skills
Business acumen   
Self-discipline 
Understanding organizational
objectives 
Coordination skills  
Achieving production targets  
Cultural background  
MusculinityAssertiveness   
Motivation      
Flexibility    
Stakeholders Satisfaction    
Appendices

Appendix 2: Potential Dimensions of Management Skills Profile-


Industrial/psycho perspective
Dimension Definition
Delegating and Controlling Assigning tasks to others and
ensuring that they have the necessary
resources and authority: monitoring
progress and exercising control
Personal Organization and Time Using time efficiently; arranging
Management information effectively without being
mired in detail
Planning Setting goals and developing
strategies for meeting those goals
Information Letting people know of relevant
information on a timely basis
Coaching and Developing Evaluating employees, providing
feedback and facilitating professional
growth
Organizing Coordinating work of others; setting
priorities; establishing efficient work
procedures
Human Relations Developing and maintaining good
working relationship with others;
showing considerations for the
opinions and feelings of others.
Listening Paying attention to, and conveying
understanding of, others when
speaking.
Motivating Others Creating an environment in which
subordinates and others are
rewarded for accomplishment of
group and individual goals
Conflict management Arriving at effective solutions to
conflict while maintaining good
working relations.
Personal Adaptability Responding well to the demands of
work challenges when confronted
with changes, ambiguity, adversity or
other pressures.
Occupational and Technical Knowledge Applying knowledge and skills needed
to do the job; technical expertise in
own field; familiarity with
organization and industry

Problem Analysis and Decision-Making Identifying problems and alternative


solutions; making timely, sound
decisions

Personal Motivation Displaying a high energy level;


working long and hard to get things
done; seeking increased responsibility
on the job

Financial and Quantitative Drawing accurate conclusions from


financial and numerical material and
applying quantitative techniques to
management problems

Oral Communication Speaking effectively one-to one and


groups; making effective
presentations

Written Communication Writing clearly and effectively in


business communications
Appendices

Leadership Style and Influence Task charge; directing others’


activities towards meaningful goals;
commanding respect

Results Orientation Measure of overall performance,

Source: Johnson et al (1997)

Appendix 3: Potential Dimension of Project managers’ skills


profile in construction
Dimension Definition
Team building Bringing the team together,
adapting working methods and
developing good internal relations
(team formation and development);
appreciating team members
strengths and weaknesses, listening
to their concerns and developing a
culture of mutual respect (people
management); ensuring that the
team are motivated and enjoy
working for the organization in
order to promote stability
(maintaining low staff turnover);
showing understanding and
empathy, focus rather than
attributing blame during crises
(supportiveness)

Leadership: Evaluating project performance


parameters to ensure that
deficiencies are addressed quickly
(monitoring and evaluation);
foreseeing problem issues and
taking action to avoid them (forward
thinking); taking responsibility for
the tasks and not delegating blame,
understanding individuals needs,
protecting team members interest
(responsibility); offering guidance
and providing help, advice and
assistance as appropriate
(direction); delegating and
empowering the right people with
appropriate task and
responsibilities, ensuring effective
upstream reporting of task progress
and performance (delegation);
having confidence to deal with
problems, letting people know what
you want to be an effective manner (
assertiveness); being able to adapt
to different situations;
understanding and appreciating
different and opposing perspectives
on issues (flexibility)
Appendices

Decision-making: Unbiased and objective decisions,


knowing when to make decisions
themselves or take on board others’
comments; awareness of the wide
impact of decision made (clear
decision making approach);
prioritizing issues in accordance
with their influence on project
success (recognising key issues);
Understanding health and safety
risks, and managing construction
activities in a way which ensure the
welfare of all those involved with the
project (safety management
awareness); taking a thorough, well
thought out approach to solving
unexpected problems (problem
solving); understanding risk,
discussing them with team members
and managing them in a way that
mitigates their impact (risk
management); managing resources
in a way that meets outturn
production targets (achieving
production targets); ensuring that
the team and resources work
together coherently and smoothly
(coordination skills)
Appendices

Mutuality and approachability: Developing a culture of mutual respect


and trust with the team, supporting staff
who want to take on more responsibility,
involving people in decision making and
providing autonomy (mutuality and
trust); breaking down hierarchical
barriers to ensure open and honest
relations between all team members
(approachability)

Honest and Integrity: Being honest with both the client and
project team, managing expectations
appropriately (honesty); Keeping
promises and adhering to agreed actions
(integrity); putting project goals and the
organizational mission before personal
preferences (commitment);
understanding weaknesses and how to
overcome them (admitting weaknesses

Communication: Explaining issues to others through


written, oral and non-verbal
communications (communication);
transferring knowledge to others within
the team in an open and effective way to
ensure the achievement of project goals
(knowledge transfer)

Learning, understanding and application: The ability to grasp situations quickly


and understand their implications (rapid
understanding of situations); learning
from experience and relating this to
relevant areas in future projects
(learning from mistakes); anticipating
and recognising potential problems,
resolving problems before they escalate
(problem identification); understanding
commercial aspects of projects and
issues arising during projects
(commercial awareness); ensuring that
there are no loose ends, demonstrating
completeness and attention to detail
(thoroughness); demonstrating technical
skills and knowledge related to the
production function( technical expertise)

Self-efficacy: Driven by the need to ensure a


successful outcome for the project,
showing a genuine concern for working
well or for achieving a standard of
excellence (task motivation); showing
loyalty and commitment to the project
and to organization through their work
ethic and commitment (dedication);
demonstrating an ability to develop
innovative solutions which will improve
project performance and avoid problems
(initiative); demonstrating a liking of and
enthusiasm towards the job
(enthusiasm); demonstrating a degree of
self-restraint and control when dealing
with subordinate (self-discipline);
ensuring that time is spent dealing with
the high priority issues (time
management); demonstrating a drive and
ambition towards personal carer
development(ambition)

External relations: Developing and maintaining positive,


open relations with clients
representatives in a way that encourages
successful long-term relationship
(managing client relationships); effective
Appendices
marketing and presentation of team and
individual abilities (presentation skills);
understanding the broader business
environment on which their organization
operates (business acumen); taking
account of the wider business needs of
the organization and aligning project
management approaches with longer-
term strategic objectives(understanding
organizational objectives)

Coordination and planning of site works


Preparation of programmes
Scheduling subcontractor timetables
Assigning tasks and providing
instructions
Checknig drawings
Discussing quality of work
Ordering materials, plant and tools
programme
Technical understanding
Hunan resoures planning
Staff selection
Site training of staff
Managing routine operational problems
Diagnosis of defects and agreement of
remedies
Urgent purchase of materials/hiring of
plant
Managing health and safety
Selecton of appropriate construction
methods
Dealing with work variations
Reacting matters raised by others
Delegation of tasks to others
Completion of written works relating to
projects
Processing correspondence with other
parties
Maintenance of adequate filling systems
Preparation of costs and progress reports
Answering routine procedural questions
Receiving and disseminating requested
information
Holding regular meetings
Conveying minites of meetings
Availability of manager for work related
consultation
Inspection of work
Walking about site
Monitoring performance data
Requesting input and participation from
others
Listening with open mind to work
suggestions
Conveyance of appreciation
Provision of reward
Provision of performance feedback
Delegation of authority
Delegation of responsibility
Backing of subordinates
Enforcement of company policy
Following of official disciplinary
procedures
Appendices

Proivision of negative performance


feedback
Liaison with clients representative
Community service activities
Managing interpersonal conflit
Managing contractual conflict
Honesty
Ethical behaviour
Upholding of company values
Non-work related discussion
Out of work socialization

Social skills
Decision making skills
Handling problems
Recognizing opportunities
Managing change
Abaility to handle stress
Judgment
Technical knowledge
Accuracy
Communication
Responsibility acceptance
Utilization of resources available
Leadership
Communication (oral/written)
Motivation of others
Health and safety
Decsion making
Forecasting and planning
Site organization
Bugdetary control
Supervision of others
Team building
Quality control and assurance
Managing time
Materials planning and control
Setting objectives and goals
Conducting meetings
Managing conflict/crises
Recruit/select:supervisor/foreman
Delegating responsibilities
Programme maintenance (update)
Tenat welfare
Public relations
Employee training
Competitive tendering
Analysis of project risks
Programme design
Identifying personal
strengths/weaknesses
Employee training programme
Site security
Productivity maintenance and control
Negotiate: client
Costing and estimating
Competitor awareness
Organisation of communication systems
Managing job stress
Managing change
Recruit/select manual labour
Employee training: manual Labour
Appendices

Plant planning and control


Creativity
Career development and appraisal
Job analysis/specification

Sources:Dainty et al (2003); Fraser (1999): Fraser (2000) and


Egbu (1999) respectively
Appendices

Appendix 4: Research Instrument for data collection


School of Engineering and the Built Environment
University of Wolverhampton
Wulfruna Street
Wolverhampton
WV1, 1SB
United Kingdom
11/05/06

The Managing Director


Brook Estate Development Co. Ltd
PO Box T 135
Stadium-Accra

Dear Sir/Madam,

Project Managers’ Performance in Mass House Building


Projects in Ghana

We are pleased to invite you to participate in a doctoral research programme


seeking to develop a tool for predicting the performance of project managers in
Mass House Building Projects (MHBPs). The Government of Ghana is
sponsoring the research. The expected outcome of the research is to help
provide a comprehensive data for project managers to have a clear idea of what
managing directors/senior managers of real estate companies expect of them in
the management of MHBPs. Subsequently, those who lack the appropriate skills
would be inspired to acquire the relevant training towards best practice
improvement. It is also hoped that, project managers who already possess the
relevant skills may also appreciate the findings as it may provide them the
impetus for achieving higher levels of performance. Managing directors/senior
managers may also use the findings to establish appropriate guidelines for
interviewing and/or engaging the services of project managers who have the
appropriate skills and competencies.

Consequently, as members of GREDA who regularly employ the services of


project managers, your participation is important towards establishing the
industrial relevance of the study. We shall therefore be very grateful if you
would spare some time to complete the attached questionnaire. We assure you
that all answers provided will be treated with the strictest confidentiality.

We appreciate that the questionnaire is going to take up some of your valuable


time, however, we urge you to try and participate, as your contribution is very
important towards the success of the research. To this end, we wish to take this
opportunity to thank you in advance for your cooperation.

If you require clarification and any further information, please do not hesitate to
contact us

Yours Sincerely,
Appendices

Divine K. Ahadzie (RMMA211B)


Doctoral Research Student
Tel: +44(0) 1902323581/82
Mob: +44(0) 7821303755
E-mail: [email protected]
Or [email protected]
Appendices

QUESTIONNAIRE ON THE PERFORMANCE OF


PROJECT MANAGERS IN MASS HOUSE BUILDING
PROJECTS IN GHANA

There are three main parts to the questionnaire. The first part of the
questionnaire (SECTION A), seeks background information on your
classification; how long you have been in business; the type of mass
house building projects (MHBPs) you have implemented over the years.
The second part (SECTION B) is focussing on what performance criteria
you consider important for assessing the success of MHBPs. The second
part of the questionnaire (i.e. SECTIONS C & D) focuses on the
behavioural criteria you consider important for evaluating the
performance of project managers in MHBPs.

The questionnaire is to be completed by Managing Directors and/or


Senior Managers who have the responsibility of engaging and
supervising project managers. For this purpose, a project manager is the
person who has the authority and responsibility for the supervision and
management of the physical construction.

Please when responding to Sections B, C and D, try as much as possible


to answer the questions with your first impression as that will be most
useful.

Divine K. Ahadzie
Appendices

Doctoral Research Student


Tel: +44(0) 1902323581/82
Mob: +44(0) 7821303755
E-mail: [email protected]
Or [email protected]
Appendices

SECTION A: BACKGROUND INFORMATION

1) How long have you been a member 4) Please indicate the overall value of MHBPs
of GREDA? that you have worked on in the last 5 years
Please tick () the appropriate box

• Over 20 years • Over 20 Billion cedis (£1.2 million)

• 16-20 years • 11 Billion to 20 Billion cedis (£600,000-


£1.2M)
• 11- 15 years
• Up to 10 Billion cedis (£600,000)
• 6-10 years

• Up to 5 years
5) Which of the following type of MHBPs do you
often undertake?
2) Which of these classifications apply
to you? • Multi-storey,

• Class A • Terrace,

• Class B • Semi-detached,

• Class C • Detached

• Class D • Combination of the above

3) Please indicate how long you have


been involved in the construction of
Mass House Building Projects 6) Which of these indicate the average quantity
(MHBPs) of house-units you handle/year?

• Over 20 years • Up to 20 house-units

• 16-20 years • 20-40 house-unit

• 11- 15 years • 40-60 house-units

• 6-10 years • 60-80 house-units

• Up to 5 years • 80-100 house-units

• Over 100 house-units

7) What is your perception of the performance


outcome of PMs you have engaged in MHBPs in
recent times. Please rate them according to the
following

• Very High (over 90%)

• High (70- 90%)

• Average (50-69%)

• Low (30-49%)

• Very Low (10-29%) 414


Appendices

SECTION B: OVERALL PERFORMANCE Not very Not Average Important


Very
OUTCOME/PROJECT SUCCESS
Important Important
Important

415
Appendices

How would you rate the importance of the


following performance criteria for determining
the success of Mass House Buildings Projects
(MHBPs) in Ghana? Please circle (O) the
appropriate number.

1 2 3 4
• Overall project cost 5

• Cost of individual house-units 1 2 3 4


5
• Overall project duration
1 2 3 4
• Rate of delivery of individual house-units 5

1 2 3 4
5
• Project quality 1 2 3 4
5
• Quality of individual house-units
1 2 3 4
• Overall Customer satisfaction 5

1 2 3 4
• Customer satisfaction on individual house-
5
units
1 2 3 4
• Overall Risk containment
5
• Risk containment on individual house- 1 2 3 4
units 5

• Overall Environmental impact 1 2 3 4


5
• Environmental impact of individual house-
units 1 2 3 4
5
• Overall health and safety measures
1 2 3 4
• Health and safety measures on individual 5
house-units
1 2 3 4
• Technology transfer 5

1 2 3 4
5

1 2 3 4
5

SECTION C: CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE BEHAVOIURS

Could you please rate the importance of the


following behavioural measures for predicting
Not very Not Average
the performance of project managers in mass Important Very
house building projects in Ghana? Please circle important Important
(O) the appropriate number. Important

C Job dedication
• Perseverance in pushing artisans and/or

416
Appendices

works contractors to achieve overall 1 2 3 4


project objectives. 5
• Persistence in pushing artisans and/or
works contractors to overcome obstacles. 1 2 3 4
• Dedication to helping artisans and/or 5
works contractors to achieve all
programmes 1 2 3 4
• Ability to adapt/make the best out of 5
difficulties faced by artisans and/or works
contractors at project sites 1 2 3 4
5
• Developing a sense of conscientiousness
towards artisans/works contractors.
1 2 3 4
• Commitments towards achieving overall
5
objectives.
1 2 3 4
5
C Interpersonal Facilitation
• Effective time practices management on 1 2 3 4
all project sites. 5
• Providing timely information for artisans
and/or works contractors. 1 2 3 4
• Volunteering to help artisans and/or works 5
contractors solve personal problems
1 2 3 4
• Showing compassion and sensitivity
5
towards problems faced by artisans and/or
works contractors.
1 2 3 4
• Ease with which artisans and/or works
5
contractors are able to approach project
manager with their problems. 1 2 3 4
• Ability to arrive at effective solutions to 5
conflict while maintaining good
relationships. 1 2 3 4
• Being aggressive on artisans and/or works 5
contractors towards achieving project
objectives. 1 2 3 4
• Being honest with artisans and/or works 5
contractors on their performances.
1 2 3 4
5

T SECTION D: TASK PERFORMANCE


BEHAVIOURS
Could you please rate the importance of the
following behavioural measures for predicting
Not very Not Average
the performance of project managers in mass Important Very
house building projects in Ghana? Please circle important Important
(O) the appropriate number. Important

T Cognitive ability
c
a
1
• Ability to envisage problems on all
house-units under construction. 1 2 3 4
• Ability to provide alternative solution to 5
problems encountered on all house-units
under construction. 1 2 3 4

417
Appendices

• Ability to maintain emotional stability 5


when dealing with problems on all house-
units under construction. 1 2 3 4
• Ability to recall progress of works on all 5
house-units
1 2 3 4
5

1 2 3 4
5
T Job Knowledge
j
b
1
• Knowledge of appropriate construction
technology for repetitive works. 1 2 3 4
• Knowledge of appropriate cost saving 5
techniques for repetitive construction
works. 1 2 3 4
• Knowledge of appropriate labour 5
management techniques for repetitive
construction works. 1 2 3 4
5
• Knowledge of appropriate programme
for delivering repetitive construction
1 2 3 4
works.
5
• Knowledge of appropriate quality
management techniques for repetitive 1 2 3 4
construction works. 5
• Knowledge of appropriate site layout
techniques for repetitive construction 1 2 3 4
works. 5
• Knowledge of appropriate progressing
techniques for monitoring repetitive 1 2 3 4
construction works. 5
• Knowledge of appropriate materials
management system for repetitive 1 2 3 4
construction works. 5
• Knowledge of appropriate health and
safety issues for repetitive construction 1 2 3 4
works. 5
• Knowledge of appropriate risk
1 2 3 4
management measures for repetitive
5
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate environmental
1 2 3 4
impact assessment for repetitive 5
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate technology 1 2 3 4
transfer for repetitive construction 5
works.
T Task proficiency Not very
Important Very
Not Average
t
Important Important
2 Important
• Technical quality of programme for
delivering overall house-units. 1 2 3 4
5
• Functional quality of programme for
delivering overall house-units. 1 2 3 4
• Technical quality of programme for 5
delivering individual house-unit.

418
Appendices

• Functional quality of programme for


delivering individual house –unit. 1 2 3 4
• Technical quality of cash-flow 5
programme for the construction of
1 2 3 4
overall house-units.
5
• Functional quality of cash-flow
programme for the construction of 1 2 3 4
overall house-units. 5
• Technical quality of cash-flow
programme for the construction of 1 2 3 4
individual house-units. 5
• Functional quality of cash-flow
programme for the construction of 1 2 3 4
individual house-units. 5
• Technical quality of specifications
provided for the construction of overall 1 2 3 4
house-units. 5

1 2 3 4
5
Task proficiency Not very
Important Very
Not Average

Important Important
Important
• Functional quality of specifications
provided for the construction of overall 1 2 3 4
house-units. 5
• Technical quality of specifications
1 2 3 4
provided for the construction of
5
individual house-units.
• Functional quality of specifications
1 2 3 4
provided for individual house-units. 5
• Technical quality of programme for
achieving overall customer/client 1 2 3 4
satisfaction. 5
• Functional quality of programme for
achieving overall customer/client 1 2 3 4
satisfaction. 5
• Technical quality of programme for
achieving customer/client satisfaction on 1 2 3 4
individual house-units. 5
• Technical quality of risk containment 1 2 3 4
programme for the construction of 5
overall house-units.
• Functional quality of risk containment 1 2 3 4
programme for the construction of 5
overall house-units.
• Technical quality of risk containment 1 2 3 4
programme for the construction of 5
individual house-units.
• Functional quality of risk containment 1 2 3 4
programme for the construction of 5
individual house-unit.
• Technical quality of environmental
assessment programme for the 1 2 3 4
construction overall house-units. 5
• Functional quality of environmental 1 2 3 4
assessment programme for the
419
Appendices

construction of overall house-units. 5


• Technical quality of environmental
assessment programme for the 1 2 3 4
construction of individual house-units. 5
• Functional quality of environmental
assessment programme for the 1 2 3 4
construction of individual house-units. 5
• Technical quality of health and safety
1 2 3 4
measures for the construction of overall 5
house-units.
• Functional quality of health and safety 1 2 3 4
measures for the construction of overall 5
house-units.
• Technical quality of health and safety 1 2 3 4
measures for the construction of 5
individual house-units.
• Functional quality of health and safety 1 2 3 4
measures for the construction of 5
individual house-units.
1 2 3 4
5

Te Experience Not very Not Average


Important Very
important Important
Important
• Experiences in managing MHBPs. 1 2 3 4
• No. of years of practice in 5
construction.
• Experiences in achieving success in 1 2 3 4
the management of MHBPs. 5
• Experiences in managing MHBPs of
similar nature.
1 2 3 4
• Experience in any type of
5
construction project.
• Membership of appropriate 1 2 3 4
professional body. 5

Thank you very much for the effort you 1 2 3 4


have put in. 5

1 2 3 4
5

420
Appendices

On headed letter (University of Wolverhampton)

Appendix 5: Prior notification to potential respondents

The Managing Director


Sample
02/04/06

Dear Managing Director,

Invitation to participate in a Survey


Project Managers’ Performance in Mass House Building Projects in
Ghana

We are currently involved in a doctoral research nÐent


ly
e ineavP Ðector Ðchg
Appendices

Appendix 11: Histogram of quality of individual house-units

40

30

20

10

Std. Dev =.69


Mean =4.50
0 N =56.00
3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Quality of individual house-units

Appendix 12: Histogram of rate of delivery of individual house-units

425
Appendices

30

20

10

Std. Dev =.83


Mean =4.1
0 N =56.00
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Rate of delivery of individual house units

Appendix 13: Histogram of risk containment


30

20

10

Std. Dev =.90


Mean =3.8
0 N =55.00
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Overall reisk containment

426
Appendices

Appendix 14: Guide to correlation matrix/correlation matrix

Variable Definition
number
V1 Performance outcome
V3 Perseverance in pushing works contractors to achieve overall project objectives
V4 Persistence in pushing works contractors to overcome obstacles
V5 Dedication in helping works contractors to achieve works programmes
V6 Ability to adapt/make the best out of difficulties faced by works contractors at
projects sites

V7 Developing a sense of conscientiousness toward works contractors

V8 Commitment towards overall project objectives

V9 Effective time management on all project sites.

V10 Providing timely information for works contractors.

V11 Volunteering to help works contractors solve personal problems

V12 Showing compassion and sensitivity towards problems faced by works


contractors
V13 Ease with which works contractors are able to approach project manager with
their problems
V14 Ability to arrive at effective solutions to conflicts while maintaining good
relationships
V15 Being aggressive on works contractors towards achieving project objectives
V16 Being honest with works contractors on their performances
V17 Knowledge of appropriate cost saving tecniques for repetitive construction works

V18 Ability to envisage problems on all house-units under construction


V19 Ability to provide alternative solutions to problems encountered on all house-
units
V20 Ability to maintain emotional stability when dealing with problems on all house-
units under constructuction
V21 Ability to recall progress of works on all house-units
V22
V23

427
Appendices

V24 Knowledge of appropriate laboyr management tecniques for repetitive


construction works

V25 Knowledge of appropriate programme for delivering repetitive construction


works

V26 Knowledge of appropriate quality management tecniques for repetitive works

V27 Knowledge of appropriate site layout tecniques for repetitive construction works

V28 Knowledge of appropriate progressing tecniques for monitoring repetitive


construvtion works

V29 Knowledge of appropriate materials management system for repetitive


construction works

V30 Knowledge of appropriate health and safety issues for repetitive construction
works

V31 Knowledge of appropriate risk management measures for repetitive construction


works.

V31 Knowledge of appropriate environmental impact assement for repetitive


construction works

V32 Knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction

V33 Technical quality of programme for delivering overall house-units

V34 Functional quality of programme for delivering overall house-units

V35 Technical quality of programme for delivering individual house-unit

V36 Functional quality of programme for delivering individual house-unit

V37 Technical quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of overall house-
units

V38 Functional quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of overall house-
units

V39 Technical quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of individual


house-units.

V40 Functional quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of individual


house-units.

V41 Technical quality of specifications provided for the construction overall house-
units.

V42 Functional quality of specifications provided of overall house-units.

V43 Technical quality of specifications provided for the construction of individual


house-units.

V44 Functional quality of specifications provided for individual house-units.

V45 Technical quality of programme for achieving overall customer satisfication

V46 Functional quality of programme for achieving overall customer satisfaction.

V47 Technical quality of programme for achieving customer satisfication on individual


house-units

V48 Technical quality of risk containment programme for the construction of overall
house-units

V49 Functional quality of risk containment programme for the construction of overall
house-units

V50 Technical quality of risk containment programme for the construction of


individual house-units.

V51 Functional quality of risk containment programme for the construction of


individual of house-unit

428
Appendices

V52 Technical quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction


of overall house-units
V53 Functional quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction
of overall house-units
V54 Technical quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction
of individual house-units
V55 Functional quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction
of individual house-units
V56 Technical quality of health and safety measures for the construction of overall
house-units
V57 Functional quality of health and safety measures for the construction of overall
house-units
V58 Technical quality of health and safety measures for the construction of individual
house-units
V59 Functional quality of health and safety measures for the construction of
individual house-units
V60 Experience in managing MHBPs
V61 No. of years of practice in construction
V62 Experience in achieving success in the management of MHBPs
V63 Experience in managing MHBPs of similar nature
V64 Experience in any type of constructon project
V65 Membership of appropriate professional body
Note:
Correaltion matrix is on next page
Red ink means correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Blue ink means correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed)

429
Appendices

Appendix 15: Correlation matrix of regression analysis


v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 v22 v23 v24 v25 v26 v27 v28 v29 v30 v31 v32 v33 v34 v35 v36 v37 v38 v39 v40 v41 v42 v43 v44 v45 v46 v47 v48 v49 v50 v51 v52 v53 v54 v55 v56 v57 v58 v59 v60 v61 v62 v63 v64 v65
v1 1.00 0.46 0.27 0.64 0.52 0.59 0.49 0.39 0.55 0.44 0.38 0.38 0.17 0.23 0.42 0.52 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.37 0.47 0.55 0.56 0.55 0.67 0.53 0.59 0.62 0.63 0.58 0.61 0.64 0.51 0.48 0.64 0.37 0.42 0.48 0.51 0.61 0.45 0.46 0.51 0.54 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.54 0.57 0.52 0.49 0.42 0.44 0.48 0.55 0.49 0.57 0.60 0.58 0.10 0.29 0.18 0.23 0.50 0.30
v2 0.46 1.00 0.51 0.44 0.28 0.24 0.42 0.32 0.33 0.08 0.23 0.19 0.22 0.13 0.54 0.59 0.51 0.47 0.07 0.46 0.48 0.30 0.36 0.30 0.32 0.23 0.37 0.40 0.46 0.40 0.28 0.37 0.33 0.34 0.32 0.37 0.23 0.37 0.29 0.49 0.38 0.38 0.14 0.19 0.20 0.22 0.31 0.41 0.46 0.36 0.40 0.47 0.46 0.41 0.48 0.45 0.54 0.55 0.49 0.13 0.16 0.28 0.39 0.07 0.02
v3 0.27 0.51 1.00 0.30 0.38 0.30 0.38 0.24 0.35 0.22 0.09 0.24 0.33 0.39 0.47 0.32 0.20 0.32 0.00 0.34 0.32 0.27 0.33 0.32 0.40 0.30 0.30 0.35 0.24 0.16 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.32 0.26 0.29 0.25 0.23 0.30 0.25 0.35 0.33 0.37 0.31 0.35 0.37 0.46 0.47 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.23 0.24 0.19 0.24 0.22 0.33 0.34 0.33 0.24 -0.11 0.45 0.28 0.04 0.11
v4 0.64 0.44 0.30 1.00 0.59 0.59 0.39 0.24 0.53 0.49 0.50 0.19 0.22 0.32 0.43 0.48 0.36 0.41 0.25 0.35 0.48 0.41 0.41 0.51 0.45 0.41 0.59 0.60 0.55 0.41 0.34 0.51 0.48 0.49 0.47 0.22 0.23 0.37 0.29 0.54 0.29 0.44 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.53 0.44 0.45 0.48 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.38 0.40 0.46 0.45 0.60 0.62 0.60 0.25 0.44 0.21 0.35 0.30 0.28
v5 0.52 0.28 0.38 0.59 1.00 0.48 0.63 0.43 0.53 0.56 0.45 0.42 0.54 0.37 0.55 0.39 0.47 0.28 0.16 0.30 0.34 0.45 0.50 0.57 0.42 0.48 0.56 0.54 0.50 0.36 0.43 0.58 0.48 0.51 0.53 0.37 0.38 0.40 0.43 0.58 0.41 0.32 0.37 0.60 0.62 0.74 0.74 0.71 0.60 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.21 0.19 0.36 0.38 0.45 0.46 0.45 0.32 0.19 0.29 0.22 0.20 0.17
v6 0.59 0.24 0.30 0.59 0.48 1.00 0.40 0.25 0.42 0.27 0.10 0.07 0.14 0.34 0.32 0.27 0.19 0.30 0.36 0.26 0.24 0.44 0.53 0.42 0.45 0.36 0.33 0.55 0.50 0.46 0.42 0.48 0.35 0.27 0.38 0.13 0.21 0.19 0.23 0.27 0.35 0.33 0.48 0.46 0.46 0.40 0.41 0.34 0.35 0.40 0.29 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.26 0.24 0.40 0.28 0.32 0.11 0.14 0.17 0.12 0.24 0.22
v7 0.49 0.42 0.38 0.39 0.63 0.40 1.00 0.39 0.51 0.20 0.09 0.44 0.49 0.31 0.56 0.47 0.43 0.27 0.16 0.34 0.36 0.49 0.51 0.63 0.57 0.52 0.52 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.38 0.44 0.41 0.32 0.39 0.36 0.41 0.36 0.40 0.49 0.26 0.14 0.25 0.41 0.49 0.47 0.60 0.61 0.53 0.41 0.30 0.23 0.17 0.16 0.32 0.22 0.32 0.28 0.31 0.17 0.08 0.16 0.14 0.15 0.07
v8 0.39 0.32 0.24 0.24 0.43 0.25 0.39 1.00 0.47 0.11 0.14 0.32 0.47 0.00 0.40 0.23 0.22 0.23 0.18 0.26 0.19 0.35 0.36 0.43 0.31 0.37 0.19 0.24 0.21 0.28 0.12 0.43 0.51 0.43 0.42 0.32 0.27 0.30 0.43 0.50 0.42 0.31 0.34 0.39 0.54 0.41 0.49 0.42 0.34 0.37 0.31 0.22 0.18 0.26 0.34 0.34 0.36 0.29 0.35 0.27 -0.03 0.16 0.10 0.08 0.27
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v10 0.44 0.08 0.22 0.49 0.56 0.27 0.20 0.11 0.36 1.00 0.72 0.45 0.43 0.06 0.26 0.26 0.14 0.35 0.05 0.14 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.23 0.13 0.33 0.35 0.43 0.37 0.24 0.41 0.33 0.26 0.26 0.19 0.14 0.19 0.28 0.27 0.32 0.19 0.17 0.23 0.34 0.24 0.40 0.33 0.36 0.31 0.23 0.29 0.31 0.29 0.33 0.35 0.42 0.44 0.44 0.40 0.11 0.22 0.00 0.16 0.13 0.24
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v15 0.42 0.54 0.47 0.43 0.55 0.32 0.56 0.40 0.52 0.26 0.29 0.36 0.45 0.26 1.00 0.52 0.63 0.54 0.30 0.39 0.38 0.35 0.41 0.35 0.38 0.33 0.37 0.42 0.43 0.31 0.26 0.43 0.33 0.34 0.53 0.55 0.49 0.32 0.41 0.55 0.47 0.30 0.24 0.34 0.46 0.51 0.49 0.63 0.46 0.40 0.32 0.35 0.19 0.19 0.28 0.24 0.34 0.35 0.35 0.29 0.03 0.41 0.24 0.09 0.12
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v18 0.34 0.47 0.32 0.41 0.28 0.30 0.27 0.23 0.39 0.35 0.38 0.28 0.37 0.08 0.54 0.58 0.40 1.00 0.36 0.42 0.38 0.37 0.43 0.32 0.25 0.37 0.22 0.45 0.42 0.37 0.31 0.26 0.25 0.12 0.28 0.36 0.40 0.27 0.33 0.35 0.53 0.33 0.25 0.31 0.28 0.39 0.37 0.45 0.38 0.40 0.34 0.58 0.49 0.46 0.42 0.48 0.51 0.49 0.44 0.13 0.11 0.06 0.25 0.09 -0.01
v19 0.31 0.07 0.00 0.25 0.16 0.36 0.16 0.18 0.24 0.05 0.16 0.29 0.20 0.06 0.30 0.29 0.32 0.36 1.00 0.21 0.20 0.38 0.33 0.36 0.31 0.28 0.22 0.18 0.24 0.21 0.17 0.41 0.28 0.19 0.36 0.14 0.32 0.15 0.25 0.31 0.34 0.23 0.29 0.26 0.25 0.29 0.20 0.21 0.12 0.20 0.15 0.22 0.15 0.26 0.18 0.18 0.11 0.15 0.16 0.09 0.28 0.12 -0.10 0.38 0.30
v20 0.37 0.46 0.34 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.34 0.26 0.29 0.14 0.34 0.48 0.42 0.21 0.39 0.60 0.55 0.42 0.21 1.00 0.73 0.57 0.49 0.48 0.34 0.43 0.48 0.51 0.42 0.35 0.51 0.56 0.33 0.54 0.46 0.53 0.56 0.59 0.55 0.62 0.39 0.31 0.36 0.32 0.42 0.39 0.37 0.32 0.32 0.37 0.44 0.52 0.54 0.45 0.53 0.46 0.43 0.44 0.47 0.35 0.14 0.30 0.32 0.19 -0.02
v21 0.47 0.48 0.32 0.48 0.34 0.24 0.36 0.19 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.43 0.27 0.22 0.38 0.75 0.60 0.38 0.20 0.73 1.00 0.45 0.36 0.40 0.31 0.42 0.60 0.34 0.31 0.18 0.42 0.56 0.36 0.55 0.46 0.32 0.46 0.43 0.39 0.58 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.32 0.38 0.42 0.32 0.32 0.37 0.25 0.37 0.43 0.41 0.35 0.44 0.40 0.39 0.48 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.41 0.37 0.24 0.08
v22 0.55 0.30 0.27 0.41 0.45 0.44 0.49 0.35 0.40 0.23 0.27 0.36 0.45 0.32 0.35 0.51 0.53 0.37 0.38 0.57 0.45 1.00 0.77 0.62 0.55 0.51 0.55 0.62 0.56 0.38 0.62 0.64 0.55 0.53 0.54 0.32 0.46 0.36 0.45 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.45 0.42 0.50 0.54 0.44 0.46 0.46 0.48 0.43 0.42 0.45 0.45 0.43 0.45 0.51 0.46 0.49 0.14 0.20 0.13 0.00 0.41 0.01
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v44 0.54 0.19 0.31 0.43 0.60 0.46 0.41 0.39 0.45 0.34 0.14 0.30 0.34 0.18 0.34 0.32 0.16 0.31 0.26 0.32 0.32 0.42 0.48 0.53 0.56 0.56 0.39 0.53 0.48 0.51 0.38 0.47 0.43 0.47 0.55 0.35 0.53 0.47 0.47 0.49 0.63 0.60 0.73 1.00 0.86 0.75 0.75 0.67 0.47 0.57 0.55 0.51 0.41 0.46 0.57 0.61 0.59 0.62 0.59 0.28 0.06 0.24 0.16 0.16 0.29
v45 0.51 0.20 0.35 0.44 0.62 0.46 0.49 0.54 0.54 0.24 0.16 0.31 0.34 0.22 0.46 0.35 0.32 0.28 0.25 0.42 0.38 0.50 0.57 0.64 0.58 0.62 0.37 0.56 0.44 0.52 0.40 0.61 0.54 0.58 0.62 0.43 0.60 0.49 0.52 0.59 0.58 0.50 0.66 0.86 1.00 0.85 0.83 0.73 0.55 0.66 0.62 0.53 0.41 0.47 0.58 0.57 0.58 0.58 0.61 0.37 0.01 0.35 0.18 0.24 0.23
v46 0.51 0.22 0.37 0.53 0.74 0.40 0.47 0.41 0.57 0.40 0.37 0.28 0.41 0.22 0.51 0.44 0.50 0.39 0.29 0.39 0.42 0.54 0.58 0.64 0.55 0.62 0.44 0.55 0.55 0.46 0.51 0.56 0.58 0.63 0.65 0.39 0.56 0.46 0.49 0.61 0.53 0.51 0.60 0.75 0.85 1.00 0.83 0.81 0.68 0.68 0.62 0.55 0.42 0.47 0.52 0.52 0.58 0.64 0.65 0.31 0.16 0.37 0.23 0.31 0.23
v47 0.51 0.31 0.46 0.44 0.74 0.41 0.60 0.49 0.61 0.33 0.24 0.36 0.46 0.34 0.49 0.40 0.36 0.37 0.20 0.37 0.32 0.44 0.52 0.62 0.57 0.58 0.41 0.53 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.53 0.50 0.44 0.55 0.49 0.58 0.54 0.54 0.59 0.52 0.44 0.59 0.75 0.83 0.83 1.00 0.89 0.73 0.71 0.64 0.52 0.39 0.37 0.51 0.48 0.54 0.56 0.56 0.39 0.02 0.37 0.27 0.20 0.12
v48 0.54 0.41 0.47 0.45 0.71 0.34 0.61 0.42 0.58 0.36 0.24 0.33 0.46 0.33 0.63 0.47 0.50 0.45 0.21 0.32 0.32 0.46 0.53 0.60 0.64 0.52 0.47 0.56 0.63 0.49 0.40 0.51 0.46 0.40 0.55 0.54 0.58 0.44 0.47 0.66 0.60 0.45 0.54 0.67 0.73 0.81 0.89 1.00 0.83 0.76 0.68 0.52 0.38 0.41 0.51 0.50 0.55 0.57 0.57 0.24 -0.01 0.34 0.18 0.18 0.17
v49 0.57 0.46 0.50 0.48 0.60 0.35 0.53 0.34 0.54 0.31 0.18 0.27 0.35 0.24 0.46 0.50 0.42 0.38 0.12 0.32 0.37 0.46 0.54 0.59 0.57 0.51 0.52 0.46 0.57 0.40 0.44 0.48 0.47 0.48 0.55 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.50 0.58 0.45 0.42 0.51 0.47 0.55 0.68 0.73 0.83 1.00 0.87 0.74 0.49 0.44 0.45 0.52 0.43 0.53 0.59 0.57 0.21 0.10 0.28 0.24 0.31 0.22
v50 0.52 0.36 0.40 0.47 0.50 0.40 0.41 0.37 0.54 0.23 0.11 0.17 0.30 0.20 0.40 0.40 0.35 0.40 0.20 0.37 0.25 0.48 0.61 0.61 0.62 0.61 0.44 0.61 0.63 0.56 0.43 0.51 0.55 0.49 0.56 0.43 0.47 0.48 0.52 0.55 0.52 0.50 0.61 0.57 0.66 0.68 0.71 0.76 0.87 1.00 0.87 0.59 0.52 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.62 0.62 0.62 0.18 0.03 0.22 0.18 0.35 0.20
v51 0.49 0.40 0.30 0.46 0.43 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.41 0.29 0.24 0.21 0.24 0.13 0.32 0.44 0.42 0.34 0.15 0.44 0.37 0.43 0.52 0.48 0.54 0.53 0.52 0.60 0.64 0.51 0.45 0.60 0.56 0.50 0.50 0.39 0.46 0.52 0.47 0.59 0.47 0.48 0.46 0.55 0.62 0.62 0.64 0.68 0.74 0.87 1.00 0.72 0.62 0.67 0.71 0.68 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.31 0.22 0.33 0.25 0.27 0.19
v52 0.42 0.47 0.23 0.45 0.36 0.20 0.23 0.22 0.36 0.31 0.45 0.24 0.24 -0.03 0.35 0.49 0.45 0.58 0.22 0.52 0.43 0.42 0.42 0.44 0.28 0.39 0.50 0.64 0.55 0.57 0.55 0.48 0.42 0.38 0.44 0.50 0.63 0.57 0.49 0.53 0.50 0.44 0.36 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.52 0.52 0.49 0.59 0.72 1.00 0.88 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.78 0.77 0.75 0.35 0.28 0.34 0.38 0.31 0.05
v53 0.44 0.46 0.24 0.38 0.21 0.18 0.17 0.18 0.33 0.29 0.42 0.27 0.22 -0.09 0.19 0.45 0.35 0.49 0.15 0.54 0.41 0.45 0.39 0.50 0.23 0.38 0.44 0.58 0.47 0.49 0.52 0.39 0.37 0.38 0.43 0.41 0.53 0.50 0.41 0.49 0.44 0.47 0.43 0.41 0.41 0.42 0.39 0.38 0.44 0.52 0.62 0.88 1.00 0.86 0.83 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.80 0.29 0.28 0.18 0.27 0.33 -0.01
v54 0.48 0.41 0.19 0.40 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.26 0.38 0.33 0.42 0.28 0.28 -0.14 0.19 0.44 0.28 0.46 0.26 0.45 0.35 0.45 0.47 0.50 0.38 0.47 0.41 0.61 0.51 0.56 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.33 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.51 0.47 0.50 0.46 0.46 0.47 0.47 0.37 0.41 0.45 0.61 0.67 0.81 0.86 1.00 0.87 0.85 0.79 0.76 0.80 0.18 0.23 0.16 0.26 0.33 0.18
v55 0.55 0.48 0.24 0.46 0.36 0.26 0.32 0.34 0.34 0.35 0.44 0.38 0.29 -0.03 0.28 0.50 0.32 0.42 0.18 0.53 0.44 0.43 0.52 0.53 0.42 0.48 0.54 0.63 0.53 0.58 0.54 0.55 0.50 0.48 0.50 0.46 0.56 0.55 0.47 0.60 0.48 0.54 0.49 0.57 0.58 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.52 0.58 0.71 0.82 0.83 0.87 1.00 0.87 0.81 0.79 0.85 0.36 0.26 0.26 0.41 0.24 0.16
v56 0.49 0.45 0.22 0.45 0.38 0.24 0.22 0.34 0.35 0.42 0.45 0.37 0.32 -0.05 0.24 0.45 0.33 0.48 0.18 0.46 0.40 0.45 0.47 0.49 0.34 0.46 0.44 0.64 0.52 0.53 0.48 0.50 0.51 0.48 0.48 0.33 0.44 0.45 0.41 0.57 0.52 0.50 0.44 0.61 0.57 0.52 0.48 0.50 0.43 0.56 0.68 0.83 0.83 0.85 0.87 1.00 0.91 0.85 0.86 0.25 0.27 0.16 0.25 0.20 0.08
v57 0.57 0.54 0.33 0.60 0.45 0.40 0.32 0.36 0.48 0.44 0.47 0.29 0.31 0.03 0.34 0.45 0.35 0.51 0.11 0.43 0.39 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.40 0.49 0.48 0.71 0.63 0.58 0.50 0.51 0.55 0.47 0.47 0.29 0.40 0.43 0.38 0.57 0.50 0.50 0.42 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.54 0.55 0.53 0.62 0.70 0.78 0.81 0.79 0.81 0.91 1.00 0.88 0.91 0.28 0.31 0.16 0.24 0.19 0.11
v58 0.60 0.55 0.34 0.62 0.46 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.49 0.44 0.45 0.32 0.26 0.06 0.35 0.52 0.39 0.49 0.15 0.44 0.48 0.46 0.46 0.53 0.44 0.58 0.54 0.64 0.58 0.51 0.53 0.45 0.58 0.61 0.59 0.37 0.45 0.61 0.50 0.61 0.51 0.63 0.54 0.62 0.58 0.64 0.56 0.57 0.59 0.62 0.70 0.77 0.78 0.76 0.79 0.85 0.88 1.00 0.93 0.24 0.34 0.21 0.31 0.30 0.15
v59 0.58 0.49 0.33 0.60 0.45 0.32 0.31 0.35 0.49 0.40 0.48 0.33 0.29 0.04 0.35 0.46 0.39 0.44 0.16 0.47 0.44 0.49 0.51 0.59 0.43 0.55 0.51 0.66 0.58 0.50 0.52 0.50 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.39 0.49 0.56 0.47 0.64 0.51 0.63 0.56 0.59 0.61 0.65 0.56 0.57 0.57 0.62 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.80 0.85 0.86 0.91 0.93 1.00 0.34 0.32 0.25 0.32 0.30 0.14
v60 0.10 0.13 0.24 0.25 0.32 0.11 0.17 0.27 0.11 0.11 0.27 0.27 0.31 0.12 0.29 0.20 0.25 0.13 0.09 0.35 0.44 0.14 0.17 0.12 -0.02 0.17 0.40 0.20 0.07 0.10 0.11 0.31 0.28 0.34 0.21 0.32 0.39 0.32 0.24 0.18 0.07 0.14 0.19 0.28 0.37 0.31 0.39 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.31 0.35 0.29 0.18 0.36 0.25 0.28 0.24 0.34 1.00 0.26 0.54 0.46 -0.07 0.08
v61 0.29 0.16 -0.11 0.44 0.19 0.14 0.08 -0.03 0.05 0.22 0.37 0.13 0.00 0.08 0.03 0.25 0.23 0.11 0.28 0.14 0.45 0.20 0.07 0.17 0.01 0.11 0.43 0.13 0.14 0.01 0.13 0.36 0.32 0.35 0.31 -0.10 0.02 0.11 0.01 0.28 -0.10 0.10 -0.01 0.06 0.01 0.16 0.02 -0.01 0.10 0.03 0.22 0.28 0.28 0.23 0.26 0.27 0.31 0.34 0.32 0.26 1.00 0.21 0.33 0.29 0.26
v62 0.18 0.28 0.45 0.21 0.29 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.11 0.00 0.20 0.07 0.17 0.22 0.41 0.28 0.38 0.06 0.12 0.30 0.41 0.13 0.27 0.15 0.26 0.20 0.41 0.26 0.21 0.16 0.22 0.46 0.31 0.35 0.35 0.32 0.40 0.20 0.16 0.32 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.35 0.37 0.37 0.34 0.28 0.22 0.33 0.34 0.18 0.16 0.26 0.16 0.16 0.21 0.25 0.54 0.21 1.00 0.54 0.10 0.13
v63 0.23 0.39 0.28 0.35 0.22 0.12 0.14 0.10 0.10 0.16 0.33 0.05 0.07 0.26 0.24 0.19 0.14 0.25 -0.10 0.32 0.37 0.00 0.15 0.09 0.11 0.16 0.30 0.22 0.11 0.24 0.21 0.29 0.27 0.32 0.21 0.31 0.19 0.26 0.09 0.17 0.03 0.18 0.12 0.16 0.18 0.23 0.27 0.18 0.24 0.18 0.25 0.38 0.27 0.26 0.41 0.25 0.24 0.31 0.32 0.46 0.33 0.54 1.00 0.06 0.20
v64 0.50 0.07 0.04 0.30 0.20 0.24 0.15 0.08 0.24 0.13 0.16 0.11 0.03 0.11 0.09 0.30 0.28 0.09 0.38 0.19 0.24 0.41 0.33 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.40 0.26 0.21 0.21 0.46 0.39 0.29 0.26 0.42 0.22 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.24 0.35 0.33 0.16 0.24 0.31 0.20 0.18 0.31 0.35 0.27 0.31 0.33 0.33 0.24 0.20 0.19 0.30 0.30 -0.07 0.29 0.10 0.06 1.00 0.26
v65 0.30 0.02 0.11 0.28 0.17 0.22 0.07 0.27 0.32 0.24 0.10 0.10 0.16 -0.05 0.12 -0.01 -0.07 -0.01 0.30 -0.02 0.08 0.01 0.03 0.11 0.17 0.21 0.26 -0.01 0.03 0.12 -0.03 0.22 0.20 0.20 0.13 0.17 0.12 0.17 0.11 0.13 0.05 0.15 0.19 0.29 0.23 0.23 0.12 0.17 0.22 0.20 0.19 0.05 -0.01 0.18 0.16 0.08 0.11 0.15 0.14 0.08 0.26 0.13 0.20 0.26 1.00

430
Appendices

Appendix 16: Questionniare for validation of the potential recommended


application of a model for predicting the performance of project managers in
MHBPs in Ghana.

431
Appendices

School of Engineering and the Built Environment


University of Wolverhampton
Wulfruna Street
Wolverhampton
WV1, 1SB
United Kingdom
29/05/07

Dear Sir/Madam,

Project Managers’ Performance in Mass House Building


Projects in Ghana

As part of an ongoing doctoral research programme we have identified and developed a


set of variables that we believe can be used to engender managerial best practices of
project managers in MHBPs in Ghana.

The findings of our research indicate that if project managers are to engender
their managerial skills in MHBPs, they must among others have the knowledge
and skills associated with the following themes:

• Site layout techniques for repetitive construction works.


• Appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works.
• Dedication in helping works contractors and/or artisans achieve works
schedule.
• Effective time management practices on house-units
• Ability to provide solution to conflicts while maintaining good relationships
• Ease of approachability of the PM by works contractors and/or artisans
• Volunteering to help works contractors and/or artisans solve personal
problems

It is intended to further develop these variables into a management toolkit so that


property developers and other interested stakeholders can use it as a guide for the
recruitment and appointment of project managers who have the appropriate
competencies and skills. It is also intended that the findings could further be developed
as foundation for developing the training requirements of aspiring projects managers and
the continuing professional development of experience project managers in the
management of MHBPs.

In view of this, we would be very grateful if you could please respond to the one-page
questionnaire attached, to help establish the relevance of the findings and potential
application in Ghana. The questionnaire will take less 10 minutes to be complete. We

432
Appendices

count on your cooperation and thank you very much in advance.

Yours Sincerely,

Divine K. Ahadzie (RMMA212B)


Doctoral Research Student
Tel: +44(0) 1902323581/82

Not very Not Average Important


Very

433
Appendices
Important Important
Important
1. Could you please rate the importance of the
variables identified as the most critical for
engendering the performance of project managers
in MHBPs in Ghana. Please circle the appropriate
number
1 2 3 4
5
• Knowledge of appropriate Site layout
techniques
1 2 3 4
5
• Knowledge of appropriate technology
transfer 1 2 3 4
5
• Dedication of the project manager
1 2 3 4
• Ability to solve conflicts effectively 5

• Effective time management practices 1 2 3 4


5
• Ease of approachability of project managers
by works contractors and/or artisans. 1 2 3 4
5
• Regularly Volunteering to help works
contractors and/or artisans solve personal 1 2 3 4
problems 5

1 2 3 4
2. Do you agree that it is important to, further 5
develop these themes into a management
toolkit/checklist for practical application in Ghana?
Please circle the appropriate number.
1 2 3 4
5
3. Would you consider it important for the themes
identified above to be further developed as a
foundation for curriculum development, for the
training of project managers in the management of
MHBPs in Ghana. 1 2 3 4
5

4. Would you consider it important for these


themes to be further developed into a management
checklist, so that property developers can use
them as a guide for recruiting and appointing 1 2 3 4
potential project managers for MHBPs 5

5. Please indicate your willingness to use the


management toolkit/checklist if developed for
practical application, by circling the relevant
number 1 2 3 4
5

6. Please can you give your own assessment of the


intended application of the findings of the research
and suggestions for any other future application …

434
Appendices

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……………………………………
Thank you very much.

435

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