Pulse Delay Ranging PDF
Pulse Delay Ranging PDF
Pulse Delay Ranging PDF
B
y far the most widely used method of range mea-
surement is pulse delay ranging. It is simple and
can be extremely accurate. But since there is no
direct way of telling for sure which transmitted
pulse a received echo belongs to, the measurements are, to
varying degrees, ambiguous.
In this chapter, we will look at pulse delay ranging more
closely—learn how target ranges are actually measured
and consider the nature of the ambiguities. We will see
how ambiguities may be avoided at low PRFs, and
resolved at higher PRFs. We will then consider ambiguities
of a secondary type, called “ghosts,” and see how these
may be eliminated. Finally, we will look briefly at how
range is measured during single-target tracking.
Basic Technique
When a radar’s transmission is pulsed, the range of a Click for high-quality image
target can be directly determined by measuring the time
between the transmission of each pulse and reception of
the echo from the target (Fig. 1). The round-trip time is
divided by two to obtain the time the pulse took to reach
the target. This time, multiplied by the speed of light, is
the target’s range. Expressed mathematically,
ct
R =
2 1. Range is determined by measuring the time between
transmission of a pulse and reception of the target echo.
where
R = range
c = speed of light
t = round-trip transit time
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numbers are stored for each range increment. Together, Click for high-quality image
they correspond to the return passed by a single range gate
in an analog system.
The choice of the sampling interval is generally a com-
promise. The larger the interval—i.e., the longer the time
between samples—the less complex the system will be
(Fig. 6). Yet, if the interval is greater than the duration
(width) of the transmitted pulses, some of the signal will be
6. Video signal is generally sampled at intervals on the order of
lost when a target’s echoes fall between sampling points. a pulse width, τ.
Moreover, the ability to resolve targets in range will be
degraded.
Click for high-quality image
To realize the full range-resolving potential of the pulses,
as well as to enable more accurate range measurement,
samples may be taken at considerably shorter intervals than
the pulse width (Fig. 7). Range is then determined by inter-
polating between the numbers in adjacent range bins. If, for
example, the numbers in two adjacent bins are equal, the
target is assumed to be halfway between the ranges repre-
sented by the two bin positions. Depending on the sam-
pling rate and the pulse width, the measurement can be
1
quite precise.
Using a comparatively high sampling rate also minimizes 7. To enable more accurate measurement and minimize loss of
the loss in signal-to-noise ratio that occurs when a target’s signal-to-noise ratio, samples may be taken at intervals shorter
than a pulse width; range is then computed by interpolating
echoes fall partly in one sampling interval and partly in the between samples.
next. This is called range-gate straddling loss.
1. If pulse compression is used,
Range Ambiguities the intervals must be shorter
than the compressed pulse
Pulse delay ranging works without a hitch as long as width.
the round-trip transit time for the most distant target the
radar may detect is shorter than the interpulse period. But
if the radar detects a target whose transit time exceeds the
interpulse period, the echo of one pulse will be received
after the next pulse has been transmitted, and the target
will appear, falsely, to be at a much shorter range than it
actually is.
Click for high-quality image
Nature of the Ambiguities. To get a more precise feel for
the nature of the ambiguities, let us consider a specific
example. Suppose the length of the interpulse period, T,
corresponds to a range of 50 nautical miles, and echoes are
received from a target at 60 miles (Fig. 8). The transit time
for this target will be 20 percent greater than the interpulse
period (60/50 = 1.2). Consequently, the echo of Pulse No. 1
will not be received until 0.2T microsecond after Pulse
No. 2 is transmitted. The echo of Pulse No. 2 will not be
received until 0.2T microsecond after Pulse No. 3 is trans-
mitted, and so on.
If the difference between the time an echo is received
8. If interpulse period corresponds to 50 nautical miles and tran-
and the time the immediately preceding pulse was transmit- sit time to 60 nautical miles, range will appear to be only 10
ted is used as the measure of range, the target will appear to nautical miles.
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cT
Ru =
2
where
R u = maximum unambiguous range
c = speed of light
T = interpulse period
Since the interpulse period is equal to one divided by the
PRF (fr), an alternative expression is
Ru = c
2f r
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Resolving Ambiguities
For reasons having nothing to do with ranging, the PRF
may have to be made so high that the maximum range of
interest is longer than Ru—often many times so. The radar
Click for high-quality image must then be able to resolve range ambiguities.
Tagging Pulses. Superficially, it might seem that the easi-
est way to resolve the ambiguities would be to “tag” succes-
sive transmitted pulses (Fig. 16). That is, change (modu-
late) their amplitude, width, or frequency in some cyclical
pattern. By looking for corresponding changes in the target
echoes, one could then tell which transmitted pulse each
16. By tagging transmitted pulses, we can tell which pulse each
echo belongs to. But except for frequency modulation, tagging echo belongs to and thereby resolve the ambiguities.
has proved impractical. But for one reason or another—problems of mechaniza-
2. Echoes being received in part 2
tion, in the case of amplitude modulation; eclipsing and
or in whole when the radar is
transmitting and the receiver range gate straddling, in the case of pulse width modula-
is blanked. tion—only one of these approaches has as yet proved prac-
tical: frequency modulation (see Chap. 8). For air-to-air
applications, even this approach has serious limitations.
PRF Switching. The resolution technique commonly
used is a simple extension of PRF jittering, called PRF
switching. It goes a step beyond jittering by taking account
of how much a target’s apparent range changes when the
PRF is changed. Knowing this and the amount the PRF has
changed, it is possible to determine the number of whole
times, n, that Ru is contained in the target’s true range.
Determining n. How this is done is best illustrated by a
hypothetical example. We will assume that for other rea-
sons than ranging, a PRF of 8 kilohertz has been selected.
Consequently, the maximum unambiguous range, Ru, is 80
÷ 8 = 10 nmi. However, the radar must detect targets out to
ranges of at least 48 miles—nearly 5 x Ru—and undoubted-
ly it will detect some targets at ranges beyond that, as well.
The apparent ranges of all targets will, of course, lie
between 0 and 10 nautical miles (Fig. 17). To span this
10-mile interval, a bank of 40 range bins has been provid-
17. To span 10 nautical miles ranging interval, a bank of 40 ed. Each bin position represents a range interval of 1/4 mile
range bins is provided. Each represents a range increment of
1/4 nmi. (10 miles ÷ 40 bins = 1/4 mile per bin).
A target is detected in bin No. 24. The target’s apparent
Click for high-quality image
range is 24 x 1/4 = 6 miles (Fig. 18). On the basis of this
information alone, we know only that the target could be at
any one of the following ranges:
6 nmi
10 + 6 = 16 nmi
18. A target appears in bin No. 24—apparent range, 6 nmi. 10 + 10 + 6 = 26 nmi
10 + 10 + 10 + 6 = 36 nmi
10 + 10 + 10 +10 + 6 = 46 nmi
10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 6 = 56 nmi
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CHAPTER 12 Pulse Delay Ranging
Eliminating Ghosts
When PRF switching is used, a secondary sort of ambi-
guity, called ghosting, is sometimes encountered. It may
occur when two targets are detected simultaneously—i.e., at
the same azimuth and elevation angles—and their range
rates are so nearly equal that their echoes cannot be separat-
ed on the basis of doppler frequency (Fig. 22). Under this
22. If more than one target is detected at the same angle and the
condition, when the PRF is switched and one or both tar- targets are not resolvable in doppler frequency, a problem of
gets move to different range bins, we may not be able to tell ghosts will occur.
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It may be instructive to consider where the targets would Click for high-quality image
have appeared when we switched to PRF No. 3 had the first
pair of ranges been ghosts and the second pair—6 miles
and 46 1 / 2 miles—been the true ranges. In that case
(Fig. 27), since n = 0 for 6 miles, target A would have
stayed put. Since n = 4 for 40 miles, target B would have
moved 4 positions to the right—the same distance (for
these particular PRFs) that it must have moved to the left
when earlier we switched to PRF No. 2.
How Many PRFs? 27. If A’s true range had been 6 miles, it would have stayed put
when the radar was switched to PRF 3, and B would have
From what has been said so far, it might appear that no jumped four positions to the right.
more than three PRFs would ever be required: one for mea-
suring ranges, another for resolving range ambiguities, a
third for deghosting simultaneously detected targets. This is
not so, however.
Number of PRFs for Resolving Ambiguities. Depending
on how great the detection ranges are and how high and
widely spaced the PRFs are, more than one PRF (besides
the first) may be required to resolve ambiguities. Figure 28
illustrates why.
The true range in that example includes six whole multi- Click for high-quality image
ples of the unambiguous range for PRF No. 1 (n = 6). This
is clear. But the difference in the unambiguous ranges for
the two PRFs (∆R u) is such that five times the unambiguous
range for PRF No. 2 exactly equals six times the unambigu-
ous range for PRF No. 1. Consequently, for the target range
assumed here (Fig. 29), when the PRF is switched the
apparent range remains the same, just as though n = 0.
If the true range were long enough to make n = 7 or
29. If true range is increased beyond Ru‘, apparent range will
more, the apparent range would again change when the change when PRF is switched, but (in this case) only by
PRF was switched, but the change then would only indicate amount corresponding to (n – 6).
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30. Just as adding a second PRF increases the unambiguous range from Ru to Ru’, adding a third PRF increases it to Ru”. For any one combina-
tion of Ru1, Ru 2, Ru3, and Rapparent, there is only one possible value of the true range. It is uniquely indicated by the values of the three appar-
ent ranges, Ra1, Ra2, and Ra3.
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Single-Target Tracking
During single-target tracking, range measurement is sim-
plified in two respects.
First, only two adjacent range gates must be provided
(Fig. 33). The time delay between the transmission of a
pulse and the opening of these gates is automatically
adjusted to equalize the output of the two gates, thereby
centering them on the target. By measuring this delay, the
target’s apparent range may be precisely determined. 33. For single-target tracking, only two range gates are needed.
By positioning them to equalize their outputs, they are cen-
Second, once the ambiguities in the target’s range have tered on a target.
been resolved, no further resolution is necessary. Accurate
track can be kept of the true range simply by keeping con-
tinuous track of the changes in apparent range.
Summary
With pulse delay ranging, range is determined by mea-
suring the time between transmission of a pulse and recep-
tion of an echo. In rudimentary radars, the measurement is
made on the range trace of the display. In sophisticated ana-
log radars it is made by opening a succession of range gates.
Digital radars accomplish the equivalent by periodically
sampling the receiver output, converting the samples to
numbers, and storing them in a bank of range bins.
The range for which the round-trip transit time equals
the interpulse period is called the maximum unambiguous
range, R u. A target at greater range will appear to have a
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