Notes 1 Basics of Radar
Notes 1 Basics of Radar
Notes 1 Basics of Radar
Figure 1.3 Example of a pulse waveform, with "typical" values for a medium-range air-
surveillance radar. The rectangular pulses represent pulse-modulated sinewaves.
With a pulse width τ of 1 μs, the waveform extends in space over a distance CT = 300
m. Two equal targets can be recognized as being resolved in range when, they are separated a
distance half this value, or cτ /2. The factor of one-half results from the two-way travel of the
radar wave. For example, when τ = 1 μs, two equal size targets can be resolved if they are
separated by 150 m.
The pulse carrier might be frequency- or phase-modulated to permit the echo signals to
be compressed in time after reception. This achieves the benefits of high range-resolution
without the need to resort to a short pulse. The technique of using a long, modulated pulse to
obtain the resolution of a short pulse, but with the energy of a long pulse, is known as pulse
compression. Continuous waveforms (CW) also can be used by taking advantage of the doppler
frequency shift to separate the received echo from the transmitted signal and the echoes from
The radar equation relates the range of a radar to the characteristics of the transmitter,
receiver, antenna, target, and environment. It is useful not just as a means for determining the
maximum distance from the radar to the target, but it can serve both as a tool for understanding
radar operation and as a basis for radar design.
If the power of the radar transmitter is denoted by Pt, and if an isotropic antenna is used (one
which radiates uniformly in all directions), the power density (watts per unit area) at a distance R
from the radar is equal to the transmitter power divided by the surface area 4πR2 of an
imaginary sphere of radius R, or
𝑷𝒕
Power density from isotropic antenna = (1.3)
𝟒𝛑𝑹𝟐
Radars employ directive antennas to channel, or direct, the radiated power Pt into some
particular direction. The gain G of an antenna is a measure of the increased power radiated in the
direction of the target as compared with the power that would have been radiated from an
isotropic antenna. It may be defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity from the
subject antenna to the radiation intensity from a lossless, isotropic antenna with the same power
input. (The radiation intensity is the power radiated per unit solid angle in a given direction.) The
power density at the target from an antenna with a transmitting gain G is
𝑷𝒕 𝑮
Power density from directive antenna = (1.4)
𝟒𝛑𝑹𝟐
The target intercepts a portion of the incident power and reradiates it in various
directions. The measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by the target and reradiated
back in the direction of the radar is denoted as the radar cross section σ, and is defined by the
relation
𝑷𝒕 𝑮 𝝈
Power density of echo signal at radar = (1.5)
𝟒𝛑𝑹𝟐 𝟒𝛑𝑹𝟐
The radar cross section σ has units of area. The power received by the radar is given as
the product of the incident power density [Eq. (1.5)] times the effective area Ae, of the receiving
antenna. The effective area is related to the physical area A by the relationship Ae = ρaA, where
ρa = antenna aperture efficiency and the power Pr, received by the radar is
The maximum radar range Rmax is the distance beyond which the target cannot be
detected. It occurs when the received echo signal power Pr, just equals the minimum detectable
signal Smin. Therefore
1/4
𝑷𝒕 𝑮𝑨𝒆𝝈
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [ 𝟐 ] (1.7)
(𝟒𝝅) 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏
This is the fundamental form of the radar equation. Note that the important antenna
parameters are the transmitting gain and the receiving effective area.
If the same antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving, as it usually is in radar,
antenna theory gives the relationship between the transmit gain G and the receive effective area
Ae, as
𝟒𝝅𝑨𝒆 𝟒𝝅𝝆𝒂 𝑨
G= 𝟐 = (1.8)
𝝀 𝝀𝟐
Since radars generally use the same antenna for both transmission and reception, Eq.
(1.8) can be substituted into Eq. (1.7), first for Ae, then for G, to give two other forms of the radar
equation
1/4
𝑷𝒕 𝑮𝟐 𝝀𝟐 𝝈
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [ 𝟑 ] (1.9)
(𝟒𝝅) 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏
1/4
𝑷𝒕 𝑨𝟐𝒆 𝝈
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [ 𝟐 ] (1.10)
𝟒𝛑𝝀 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏
These three forms (Eqs. 1.7, 1.9, and 1.10) illustrate the need to be careful in the
interpretation of the radar equation. For example, from Eq. (1.9) it might be thought that the
range of a radar varies as λ1/2, but Eq. (1.10) indicates a λ-1/2 relationship, and Eq. (1.7) shows
the range to be independent of λ. The correct relationship depends on whether it is assumed the
gain is constant or the effective area is constant with wavelength.
These simplified versions of the radar equation do not adequately describe the
performance of practical radar. Many important factors that affect range are not explicitly
included. In practice, the observed maximum radar ranges are usually much smaller than what
would be predicted by the above equations, sometimes by as much as a factor of two.
The operation of a typical pulse radar may be described with the aid of the block diagram
shown in Fig. 1.2.
The transmitter may be an oscillator, such as a magnetron, that is pulsed" (turned on and
"
on) by the modulator to generate a repetitive train of pulses. The magnetron has probably been
the most widely used of the various microwave generators for radar. A typical radar for the
detection of aircraft at ranges of 100 or 200 nmi might employ a peak power of the order of a
megawatt, an average power of several kilowatts, a pulse width of several microseconds, and a
pulse repetition frequency of several hundred pulses per second.
A power amplifier is indicated in Fig. 1.4. The radar signal is produced at low power by a
waveform generator, which is then the input to the power amplifier. In most power amplifiers,
except for solid-state power sources, a modulator turns the transmitter on and off in synchronism
with the input pulses. When a power oscillator is used, it is also turned on and off by a pulse
modulator to generate a pulse waveform.
The output of the transmitter is delivered to the antenna by a waveguide or other form
of transmission line, where it is radiated into space. Antennas can be mechanically steered
parabolic reflectors, mechanically steered planar arrays. or electronically steered phased arrays
(Chap. 9). On transmit the parabolic reflector focuses the energy into a narrow beam, just as
Conventional radars generally have been operated at frequencies extending from about
220 MHz to 35 GHz, a spread of more than seven octaves. The place of radar frequencies in the
electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Fig. 1.6.
Early in the development of radar, a letter code such as S, X, L, etc., was employed to
designate radar frequency bands. Although its original purpose was to guard military secrecy, the
designations were maintained, probably out of habit as well as the need for some convenient
short nomenclature. This usage has continued and is now an accepted practice of radar engineers.
Table 1.1 lists the radar-frequency letter-band nomenclature adopted by the IEEE. These
are related to the specific bands assigned by the International Telecommunications Union for
radar. For example, although the nominal frequency range for L band is 1000 to 2000 MHz, an
L-band radar is thought of as being confined within the region from 1215 to 1400 MHz since
that is the extent of the assigned band.
1. The basic concept of radar was first demonstrated by the classical experiments
conducted by the German physicist Heinrich Hertz from 1885 to 1888. Hertz
experimentally verified the predictions of James Clerk Maxwell's theory of the
electromagnetic field published in 1864. Hertz used an apparatus that was similar in
principle to a pulse radar at frequencies in the vicinity of 455 MHz. He demonstrated
that radio waves behaved the same as light except for the considerable difference in
frequency between the two. He showed that radio waves could be reflected from
metallic objects and refracted by a dielectric prism .
2. In 1903 a German engineer by the name of Hulsmeyer experimented with the detection of
radio waves reflected from ships. He obtained a patent in 1904 in several countries for an
obstacle detector and ship navigational device.
3. During the 1920s other evidence of the radar method appeared. S. G. Marconi, the
well-known pioneer of wireless radio, observed the radio detection of targets in his ex-
periments and strongly urged its use in a speech delivered in 1922 before the Institute
of Radio Engineers (now the IEEE). Apparently unaware of Marconi's speech, A. Hoyt
Taylor and Leo C. Young of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C.
accidentally observed, in the autumn of 1922, a fluctuating signal at their receiver
when a ship passed between the receiver and transmitter located on opposite sides of a
river. This was called a CW wave-interference system, but today it is known as bistatic
CW radar.
4. In the 1930s, radar was rediscovered and developed almost simultaneously and es -
sentially independently in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Soviet Union,
France, Italy, Japan, and Netherlands. These radars operated at frequencies much lower
than those generally used in modern radar. Most early radars employed frequencies in
the vicinity of 100 to 200 MHz; but the British Chain Home radars operated at 30
MHzThe first detection of aircraft using the wave-interference effect was made in June
1930, by L. A. Hyland of the Naval Research Laboratory.' It was made accidentally
while he was working with a direction-finding apparatus located in an aircraft on the
ground. The transmitter at a frequency of 33 MHz was located 2 miles away, and the
beam crossed an air lane from a nearby airfield. When aircraft passed through the
beam, Hyland noted an increase in the received signal.
5. The U.S. Army initiated pulse-radar development in the spring of 1936. At the time
of Pearl Harbor, it had developed and deployed overseas several 200-MHz SCR-268
antiaircraft searchlight-control radars. The Army also received 112 production units
of the 100-MHz SCR-270 long-range air-search radar, one of which detected the
Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. (Radar did its job at Pearl Harbor, but the command-
and-control system to utilize the information was lacking.)
6. United Kingdom In the mid-1930s, the British felt the urgency of the approaching war
far more than did the United States. Although the United Kingdom started later that the
United States, they turned on their first operational radar system, the 30-MHz. By
Problems:
1. A Radar transmitter operates at 10GHz and transmits 250KW of peak pulse power. If the
antenna has a gain of 4000 and power received from target at 50 Km is 10-11 watts, find
the radar cross section area of the target. (VTU Nov 2020)
Sol: f = 10 GHz Pt = 250 KW G = 4000 Smin = 10-11 watts Rmax = 50Km
λ = c/f = 3 x 108 / 10 x 109 = 0.03 m σ=?
𝟐 1/4
𝑷𝒕 𝑮𝟐 𝝀 𝝈
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [ 𝟑
]
(𝟒𝝅) 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏
4 𝑷𝒕 𝑮𝟐 𝝀𝟐 𝝈
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(𝟒𝝅)𝟑 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑹𝟒𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝟒𝝅)𝟑 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏
Radar Cross section area σ =
𝑷𝒕 𝑮𝟐 𝝀𝟐
𝟒
(𝟓𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ) 𝒙 (𝟒𝝅)𝟑 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏
σ=
𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒙 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟐
= 34.45 m2
2. A ground-based air-surveillance radar operates at a frequency of 1300 MHz (L band). Its
maximum range is 200 nmi for the detection of a target with radar cross section of one
square meter (σ = 1m2). Its antenna is 12m wide by 4m high and the antenna aperture
efficiency is ρa = 0.65. The receiver minimum detectable signal is Smin = 10-13 Watts.
Determine the following: (VTU June/July 2019)
i) Antenna effective aperture Ae (square meters) and antenna gain G in
numerically and decibel.
ii) Peak transmitter power.
iii) Pulse repetition frequencies to achieve a maximum unambiguous range of
200nmi.
iv) Average transmitter power if pulse width is 2μS.
Sol: f = 1300 MHz Rmax = 200 nmi = 200 x 1.852 = 370.4 Km σ = 1m2
A = 12 x 4 = 48 sq.m ρa = 0.65 Smin = 10-13 Watts.
λ = c/f = 3 x 10 / 1300 x 10 = 0.23 m
8 6
i) Antenna effective aperture Ae (square meters) and antenna gain G in numerically and decibel.
Ae = ρaA
= 0.65 x 12 x 4 = 31.2 sq.m
𝟒𝝅𝑨𝒆 𝟒𝝅𝒙 𝟑𝟏.𝟐
Antenna Gain G = 𝟐 = = 7411.54
𝝀 𝟎.𝟐𝟑𝟐
Gain in dB = 38.69
ii) Peak transmitter power
4 𝑷𝒕 𝑮𝟐 𝝀𝟐 𝝈
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(𝟒𝝅)𝟑 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑅4𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝟒𝝅)𝟑 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑃𝑡 =
𝑮𝟐 𝝀𝟐 𝝈
(𝟑𝟕𝟎.𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )𝟒 𝒙(𝟒𝝅)𝟑 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟑
𝑃𝑡 = = 1285.4 KW
(𝟕𝟒𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟒)𝟐 𝒙 𝟎.𝟐𝟑𝟐 𝒙𝟏
𝑐 3 𝑥 108
𝑃𝑅𝐹 = = = 404.96 Hz
2𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝑥370.4𝑥103
v) Duty cycle
Duty cycle = pulse width x PRF
= 2 x 10-6 x 404.96 = 809.92 μs
vi) Horizontal beam width (in degrees)
70𝜆 70 x 0.23
Azimuthal beamwidth (degrees) = = = 1.34°
D 12
4. Find the maximum range of a radar whose transmitted power is 200 kw. Cross-sectional
area of the target is 10 sq.m. The minimum power received is 1 mw. The power gain of
the antenna used is 2000, and the operating frequency is 3 GHz.
Sol: Given radar Transmitted power Pt = 200 kW = 200 ×103 W
Radar cross-section area of target, σ = 10 m2
Minimum detectable signal (Smin) = 1 mW = 1 x 10−3 W
Power gain of antenna Gt = 2000
Transmitted frequency f = 3 GHz =3 x 109
λ = c/f = 3 x 108 / 3 x 109 = 0.1m
4 𝑷𝒕 𝑮𝟐 𝝀𝟐 𝝈 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒙 (𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎)𝟐 𝒙 (𝟎.𝟏)𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
(𝟒𝝅)𝟑 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏 (𝟒𝝅)𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
= 4.03 x 1010
Rmax = 448 m
5. A radar is required to have an unambiguous range of 500 km; what is the maximum PRF
that may be used? If the pulse length is 5 ns, what is the duty cycle for the transmitter?
𝑐 3 𝑥 108
Sol: 𝑃𝑅𝐹 = = = 300 Hz
2𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝑥500𝑥103
Inter-pulse Period (PRT) = 1/PRF = 3 ms
6. a) What is the peak power of a radar whose average transmitter power is 200 W, pulse
width of 1 μs, and a pulse repletion frequency of 1000 Hz?
b) What is the range (nmi) of this ground-based air surveillance radar if it has to detect a
target with a radar cross section of 2 m2 when it operates at frequency of 2.9 GHz, with a
rectangular shaped antenna that is 5m wide, 2.7 m high, antenna aperture efficiency ρa of
0.6, and minimum detectable signal Smin equal to 10-12 W.
Sol: a) Average transmitter power Pa = Pt tp fr
Peak power Pt = Pa / (tp fr) = 200 / (1 x 10-6 x 1000) = 200 KWatts
𝑐 3 𝑥 108
𝑃𝑅𝐹 = = = 𝟏𝟑𝟒𝟗. 𝟖𝟗 𝑯𝒛
2𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝑥 111.12 𝑥103
𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐱 𝟏 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐓𝐑
ii) R(nmi) = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟏𝑻𝑹 (𝝁𝒔)
𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟐
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟔𝟎
→ 𝑻𝑹 (𝝁𝒔 ) = = = 𝟕𝟒𝟎. 𝟕𝟒 𝝁𝑺
𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝟏 𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝟏
iii) Average power Pavg = Pt τ fr = 800 x 103 x 1.5 x 10-6 x 1349.89 = 1619.86 Watts
70𝜆 70 x 0.23
e) Azimuthal beamwidth (degrees) = = = 1.34°
D 12
9. A radar is tasked with detecting and tracking the moon. Assume that the average distance
to moon is 3.844 x 105 Km and its average radar cross section is 6.64 x 1011 m2.
a) Compute the delay to the moon.
b) What is the required PRF so that the range to the moon is unambiguous?
c) What is moon’s radar cross section in dBSm?
d) What pulse width you will choose to resolve craters of 1km diameter?
Sol: