"Sanctified Be Your Name" Did Sus " (Hovah) - Salvation" Know God'S Name? H-W-H (H-Û-Â)

“Sanctified be your Name”
Did Jesus “Je[HoVaH]-

salvation” know God’s name?
Y-H-W-H (Î-eH-Û-Â)
Gérard GERTOUX
PhD candidate in Classical Archaeology and Ancient History, Université Lyon2
Member of the International Association for Assyriology
THE CRYING STONES N° 1

2 DID JESUS “JE[HOVAH]-SALVATION” KNOW GOD’S NAME?
Table of contents:
“HALLOWED BE THY NAME” —WHAT NAME?............................................. 3!

GOD’S NAME —ITS PRONUNCIATION .......................................................... 15!
GOD’S NAME —ITS MEANING...................................................................... 37!
THE DIVINE NAME THROUGH THE AGES ................................................... 43!
God’s name through the dark ages (100-1200 CE) ............................................. 58!
God’s name, its rebirth inside christendom (1200-1600 CE) ................................. 63!
JEHOVAH, A CONTROVERSIAL PRONUNCIATION: WHY? ............................... 75!
God’s name, so what ...................................................................................... 86!
COMMON OBJECTIONS REGARDING GOD’S NAME ....................................... 87!
Michael Servetus (1511-1553) participated in the Protestant Reformation

and translated the Hebrew Bible into Latin. In July 1531, he published his book
entitled De Trinitatis Erroribus (On the Errors of the Trinity) in which he explained
clearly that the Trinity was a 3-headed monster. Accordingly, Catholics and
Protestants alike condemned him. He was then arrested in Geneva and burnt at
the stake as a heretic by order of the city's Protestant governing council.
Despite the fact that Servetus had an exceptional scientific knowledge, for
example he was the first European to correctly describe the function of
pulmonary circulation, as well as an amazing linguistic knowledge, he was gifted
in languages like Latin, Greek and Hebrew, his masterpiece De Trinitatis Erroribus
was translated into English only in 1932, 400 years later1! Still worse, his main
arguments in part V of his book were completely distorted. For example he
explained that God's name was Iehouah because in Hebrew this name was close
to the name of Iesuah (Jesus), or Iehosuah, which means “Ie[houah]-salvation”.
He also knew that according to Paulus de Heredia, a Christian Cabbalist, the meaning
of God's name was “He causes to be” (yehauueh, piel form of the verb “to be”), but he
never confused the pronunciation of God's name (Iehouah) with its Cabbalistic
meaning (yehaweh). For Servetus, Iehouah was the only true God.
Paradoxically, most modern commentators of the book of Servetus have
changed the name Iehouah (Jehovah), vigorously defended by Servetus, by
Yahweh, a name based on a Cabbalistic guess suggested by Paulus de Heredia in
his mystical book Epistle of Secrets (published in 1488). In addition, it is
noteworthy that a (diabolic) erratum at the end of the De Trinitatis Erroribus
indicates that Iehonah was printed with an n inverted instead of Iehouah.
Since Servetus died, more than 450 years ago now, I have decided to
promote his De Trinitatis Erroribus and I have collected more information in
order to show that his choices regarding God's name were absolutely reasonable
and correct, specially his explanation of Jesus as “Iehouah is salvation”. The
reader will see if I have been faithful to the spirit of Servetus.
1
The Two Treatises of Servetus on the Trinity (Harvard University Press XVI, 1932).
“Hallowed Be Thy Name” —What Name?
You have probably already will probably be “Allah”, which
heard this expression “Hallowed be means “The God” in Arabic, and if
thy name”, or more commonly now finally you ask a Jewish rabbi, his
“Sanctified be your name”, because it answer will probably be “Hashem” or
is the first request of the Lord’s “Adonai”, knowing these names
prayer, also called “Our Father”, mean respectively “The Name” and
which is regularly recited today in “My Lord” in Hebrew.
Christendom by more than one Why such a mess? If you ask
billion persons. In fact Jesus himself again these religious leaders why
has made that well-known request God's name is not the same, their
when he encouraged his disciples to answers generally will be: “it does not
sanctify the name of the God of matter”; “God has many names, you can
Abraham (Matthew 6:9, Luke 11:2). choose which one you like”; “God's name
Consequently, the God of Jesus was has been lost, in fact pleasing God is more
the God of the Jews (1st century) as important”. Would Jesus have agreed
well as Christians and Muslims later. with these answers, did he know the
The prayer of Jesus is still name of God and finally, is it really
recited by Jews today when they say important to know that name?
the Kaddish2 (“Holy” in Aramaic). Have you ever wondered why
The opening words of this prayer are Jesus put the sanctifying of God’s
inspired by Ezekiel 38:23. Similarly, name first in his prayer? Afterward,
the holiness of God's name is daily he mentioned other things such as
invoked by more than one billion of the coming of God’s Kingdom,
Muslims when they pray to God God’s will being done on earth and
because all the surahs of the Quran our sins being forgiven. The
(except the 9th) begin by “In the name fulfilment of these other requests will
of God”. One might therefore think ultimately mean lasting peace on
that the name of the God of earth and everlasting life for
Abraham is the same today for Jews, mankind. Can you think of anything
Christians and Muslims but more important than that?
paradoxically this is not the case. If Nevertheless, Jesus told his disciples
you ask a Catholic priest: what is God's to pray first of all for the
name?, his answer will probably be sanctification of God’s name.
“God”, “Father” or “Lord”, if you It was not merely by chance
ask an Evangelical pastor, his answer that Jesus taught his followers to put
will probably be “Lord” or “Jesus”, if God’s name first in their prayers.
you ask a Muslim imam, his answer That name was clearly of crucial
2
Kaddish (‫קדיש‬, Qaddish) is a hymn of praises to importance to him, since he
God found in the Jewish prayer service. The mentioned it repeatedly in his own
central theme of the Kaddish is the magnification prayers. On one occasion when he
and sanctification of God's name.
was praying publicly to God, he was God’s solid foundation stone is still in
heard to say: Father, glorify your name! position, and this is the inscription on it:
And God himself answered: I have The Lord knows those who are his own,
glorified it, and I will glorify it again (John and: All who call on the name of the Lord
12:28, The Jerusalem Bible). must avoid sin (1 Timothy 2:19).
The evening before Jesus died, However the early Christians who
he was praying to God in the hearing were of Jewish origin were extremely
of his disciples, and once again they puzzled that now (first century CE)
heard him highlight the importance pagans could invoke God's name.
of God’s name. He said: I have made That’s why James4 explained to the
your name known to the men you took from apostles: When they had finished it was
the world to give me (...) Holy Father, keep James who spoke. My brothers, he said,
those you have given me true to your name. listen to me. Simeon (Peter) has described
Later he repeated: I have made known to how God first arranged to enlist a people for
them and will continue to make it known, his name out of the pagans. This is entirely
so that the love with which you loved me may in harmony with the words of the prophets,
be in them (John 17:6,11,26). since the scriptures say: After that I shall
After Jesus' death God's name return and rebuild the fallen House of
remained a central theme among his David; I shall rebuild it from its ruins and
disciples. For example, the apostle restore it. Then the rest of mankind, all the
Paul, who was educated at the feet of pagans who are consecrated to my name, will
Gamaliel3 (Acts 22:3), wrote to his look for the Lord, says the Lord who made
fellow Hebrew Christians: As it was this known so long ago (Acts 15:13-18).
his purpose to bring a great many of his sons Even though the New
into glory, it was appropriate that God, for International Dictionary of New Testament
whom everything exists and through whom Theology (Volume 2, page 649) says:
everything exists, should make perfect, One of the most fundamental and essential
through suffering, the leader who would take features of the biblical revelation is the fact
them to their salvation. For the one who that God is not without a name: he has a
sanctifies, and the ones who are sanctified, personal name, by which he can, and is to
are of the same stock; that is why he openly be, invoked, in 2001, the Vatican's
calls them brothers in the text: I shall Congregation for Divine Worship
announce your name to my brothers, praise and the Discipline of the Sacraments
you in full assembly (Hebrews 2:10-12). (the agency in charge of liturgical
He also wrote to the Romans: For in matters) put forth an “Instruction”
Scripture he says to Pharaoh; It was for this known as Liturgiam Authenticam which
I raised you up, to use you as a means of included the following directive: In
showing my power and to make my name accordance with immemorial tradition ... the
known throughout the world (Romans name of almighty God expressed by the
9:17). He warned Christians: However, Hebrew tetragrammaton (YHWH) and
3 4
Gamaliel, a well-known Pharisee, was a Law James was a son of Joseph and Mary, and half
teacher esteemed by all the people (Acts 5:34). brother of Jesus (Mark 6:3; Galatians 1:19).
“HALLOWED BE THY NAME” —WHAT NAME? 5
rendered in Latin by the word Dominus, is own Bible is now under the ban (!)
to be rendered into any given vernacular by a because it uses the forbidden name
word equivalent in meaning. In 2008 this Yahweh, and if he obeys his Church
rule was then reinforced by a “Letter he disobeys God who condemns the
to the Bishops Conferences on The prophets of the “Lord” (Baal). On
Name of God”: In the light of what has the other hand it was written in his
been expounded, the following directives are former Bible (Crampon 1904): Then
to be observed: 1. In liturgical celebrations, those who feared Jehovah talked to one
in songs and prayers the name of God in the another about this, and Jehovah took note
form of the tetragrammaton YHWH is and listened; and a book of remembrance
neither to be used nor pronounced. 2. For was written in his presence recording those
the translation of the biblical text in modern who feared him and kept his name in mind.
languages, destined for the liturgical usage of On the day when I act, says Jehovah of
the church, what is already prescribed by armies, they will be my most prized
No. 41 of the instruction Liturgiam possession, and I shall spare them in the
Authenticam is to be followed; that is, the way a man spares the son who serves him
divine tetragrammaton is to be rendered (Malachi 3:16-17).
by the equivalent of Adonai/Kyrios: Since the Bible of Abbot
Lord, Signore, Seigneur, Herr, Señor, etc. Crampon became the official Bible of
3. In translating in the liturgical context, Catholicism in 1904, the Latin title
texts in which are present, one after the Dominus “Lord” in the Vulgate5 has
other, either the Hebrew term Adonai or been systematically replaced by
the tetragrammaton YHWH, Adonai is Jehovah, however, when this name
to be translated Lord and the form God is appears for the first time in the text
to be used for the tetragrammaton of Genesis 2:4 a footnote explains: Its
YHWH, similar to what happens in the real pronunciation was Yahveh; the form
Greek translation of the Septuagint and in Jehovah comes from the Masoretes, who
the Latin translation of the Vulgate. attributed to this word the vowels of
For a sincere Catholic the Adonaï, another name for God, which
present situation must be very means Lord. When the Bible was
uncomfortable, because he can read revised in 1923, the main revision was
in his official Bible (Jerusalem Bible): 5
The Vulgate is a late 4th-century Latin translation
They are doing their best, by means of the of the Bible that became, during the 16th century,
dreams that they keep telling each other, to the Catholic Church's officially promulgated Latin
version of the Bible. The translation was largely
make my people forget my name, just as the work of Jerome, who, in 382, was
their ancestors forgot my name in favour of commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the
Baal ("Lord"). Let the prophet who has Vetus Latina ("Old Latin") collection of biblical
texts in Latin then in use by the Church. Once
had a dream tell it for a dream! And let published (405), it was widely adopted and
him who receives a word from me, deliver my eventually eclipsed the Vetus Latina and, by the
word accurately! 'What have straw and 13th century, was known as the "versio vulgata" (the
"version commonly-used") or, more simply, in
wheat in common? Yahweh demands Latin as vulgata. The Catholic Church made it its
(Jeremiah 23:27-28). Paradoxically his official Latin Bible as a consequence of the
Council of Trent (1545-63).
to replace Jehovah by Yahweh. the Lord, because Baal means “Lord”

Obviously this new choice created a in Hebrew, would have succeeded to
cacophony in God’s name and its make forget God's name. Apparently
controversial oneness (until 1923) they succeeded because it is written in
collapsed because that name, which many English Bibles: If we had forgotten
appeared for the first time in the the name of our God or spread out our
Tyndale Bible6 in 1530, exploded into hands to a foreign god, would not God have
a multitude of names: Jehovah, Yahweh, discovered it, since he knows the secrets of the
Jahweh, Jahveh, Jahve, Jave, YHWH, etc. heart? (...) Let them know that you, whose
In view of all of this, there is a name is the LORD —that you alone are
risk to conclude (if you trust more in the Most High over all the earth (...)
scholars than in the Bible): We simply Blessed is the people of whom this is true;
do not know how God’s ancient servants blessed is the people whose God is the
pronounced this name in Hebrew. However LORD (Psalms 44:20-21; 83:18;
if we no longer know the pronunciation of 144:15, New International Version).
God's name, its meaning, according to most However the translation of this Bible
Christian theologians, is Yahweh “He is incoherent because it replaced the
causes to become” in Hebrew. This naive personal name of God by LORD, but
conclusion contradicts both logic and many other Bibles disagree with this
(worse) the Bible itself. choice7, which supports the main goal
Those who state that the of the prophets of the LORD:
pronunciation of God's name has “overshadow the name of God”.
been lost are illogical because most Those who state that the
Egyptian gods were able to preserve pronunciation of God's name has
their names (Râ, Amun, Thoth, Isis, been lost contradict the Bible itself
Horus, Aten, etc.) but the Almighty because when God revealed the
God would not have been able to meaning of his name to Moses he
preserve his great name whereas he 7
King James Bible: That men may know that thou,
had warned the Israelites: Which think whose name alone is JEHOVAH, art the most high over
to cause my people to forget my name by all the earth. American King James Version: That
their dreams which they tell every man to his men may know that you, whose name alone is
JEHOVAH, are the most high over all the earth.
neighbour, as their fathers have forgotten my American Standard Version: That they may know
name for Baal “Lord” (Jeremiah 23:27, that thou alone, whose name is Jehovah, Art the Most
King James Bible). The prophets of High over all the earth. Darby Bible Translation: That
they may know that thou alone, whose name is Jehovah, art
the Most High over all the earth. English Revised
6
Tyndale included the name of God, usually Version: That they may know that thou alone, whose
spelled IEHOUAH, in several verses (Genesis name is JEHOVAH, art the Most High over all the
15:2; Exodus 6:3; 15:3; 17:6; 23:17; 33:19; 34:23; earth. Webster's Bible Translation: That men may
Deuteronomy 3:24. He also included God's name know that thou, whose name alone is JEHOVAH, art
in Ezekiel 18:23 and 36:23 in his translations that the most high over all the earth. World English Bible:
were added at the end of The New Testament, that they may know that you alone, whose name is
Antwerp, 1534), and in a note in this edition he Yahweh, are the Most High over all the earth. Young's
wrote: Iehovah is God's name... moreover as oft as thou Literal Translation: And they know that Thou —(Thy
seist LORD in great letters (except there be any error in name [is] Jehovah —by Thyself,) [Art] the Most High
the printing) it is in Hebrew Iehovah. over all the earth!
also said: God, furthermore, said to Moses: translators. This explanation is the
Thus you shall say to the sons of Israel first key of the mystery. In fact, God
“The LORD, the God of your fathers, the has always revealed his name to his
God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the faithful servants, those seeking his
God of Jacob, has sent me to you”. This is glory (John 5:39-44; 12:43), despite
My name forever, and this is My memorial- frequent persecutions and apparent
name to all generations (...) Your name, O foolishness (1 Corinthians 1:19-25),
LORD, is everlasting, Your remembrance, not those seeking their own glory
O LORD, throughout all generations (Matthew 11:25).
(Exodus 3:15; Psalms 135:13, New First conclusion, when the
American Standard Bible). translators of a Bible refuse to use
Consequently, God’s name will never God's name they strongly displease
be forgotten: My name will be great God because it is written in the
among the nations, from where the sun rises Jerusalem Bible: Give thanks to Yahweh,
to where it sets. In every place incense and call his name aloud. Proclaim his deeds to
pure offerings will be brought to me, because the people, declare his name sublime. Sing of
my name will be great among the nations, Yahweh (...) we hoped in you, Yahweh, your
says the LORD Almighty (Malachi name, your memory are all my soul desires
1:11); All the nations may walk in the (...) Yahweh our God, others lords than you
name of their gods, but we will walk in the have ruled us, but we acknowledge no one
name of the LORD our God for ever and other than you, no other name than yours
ever (Micah 4:5). As we can see, the (...) My name is Yahweh, I will not yield
translation of the New American my glory to another, nor my honour to idols
Standard Bible is really absurd (...) all day long my name is constantly
because God's name will be great among blasphemed. My people will therefore know
the nations for ever and ever and at the my name; that day they will understand that
same time that name will be the it is I who say: I am here (...) to make
LORD, which is not a personal name known your name to your enemies, and
but a title, like Eternal or God. How make the nations tremble at your presence
can one explain this paradox? (...) I was ready to be approached by those
Why some translations use the who did not consult me, ready to be found by
title LORD instead of God's name? those who did not seek me. I said: I am
The answer is amazing: Discipline me, here, I am here, to a nation that did not
LORD, but only in due measure, not in invoke my name (Isaiah 12:4; 26:8,13;
your anger, or you will reduce me to nothing. 42:8; 52:6; 64:2; 65:1).
Pour out your wrath on the nations that do You may wonder: who
not acknowledge you, on the peoples who do proclaims the name of Yahweh today
not call on your name (Jeremiah 10:24- and who are the people of Yahweh?
25). Consequently, according to their Apparently nobody. Once again the
own translation, which does not call answer is within the Bible itself. For
on God's name as we have seen, God example, the apostle Peter explained
had to “pour out his wrath” on these why the early Hebrew Christians
received the Holy Spirit: When was unmasked by a relatively simple

Pentecost day came round, they had all met investigation, indeed the fact of
in one room, when suddenly they heard what checking internal contradictions in
sounded like a powerful wind from heaven, the bibles of these translators has
the noise of which filled the entire house in been sufficient. This imposture is
which they were sitting; and something very old since it appeared with the
appeared to them that seemed like tongues of first Greek translation of the Hebrew
fire; these separated and came to rest on the Bible (c. 280 BCE), known as the
head of each of them. They were all filled Septuagint (LXX). For example the
with the Holy Spirit and began to speak text of Leviticus 24:13-16 is read in
different languages as the Spirit gave the gift the Jerusalem Bible as: Yahweh spoke to
of speech (...) These men are not drunk, as Moses; he said: Take the man who
you imagine; why, it is only the third hour of pronounced the curse outside the camp. Let
the day. On the contrary, this is what the all who have heard him lay their hands on
prophet Joel spoke of: In the last days to his head, and let the whole community must
come —it is the Lord who speaks— I will stone him. Then say to the Israelites:
pour out my Spirit on all mankind. Your Anyone who curses his God shall bear the
sons and daughters shall prophesy, your consequences of his fault. The one who
young men shall see visions, your old men blasphemes the name of Yahweh must die;
shall dream dreams. Even on my slaves, the whole community must stone him.
men and women, in those days, I will I pour Stranger or native, if he blasphemes the
out my Spirit. I will display portents in Name, he will be put to death, but the
heaven above and signs on earth below. The same text is read in the Septuagint
sun will be turned into darkness and the (Brenton LXX) as: And the Lord spoke
moon into blood before the great Day of the to Moses, saying: Bring forth him that
Lord dawns. All who call on the name of cursed outside the camp, and all who heard
the Lord will be saved (Acts 2:1-4,15-21). shall lay their hands upon his head, and all
This translation is quite accurate and the congregation shall stone him. And speak
reliable except on one central point: to the sons of Israel, and thou shalt say to
the quotation of Joel 3:1-5 in the them: Whosoever shall curse God shall bear
Jerusalem Bible reads Yahweh instead his sin. And he that names the name of the
of the Lord, which changes Lord, let him die the death: let all the
completely the meaning of what Peter congregation of Israel stone him with stones;
said. To be saved must we call on the whether he be a stranger or a native, let him
name of Yahweh (formerly Jehovah) die for naming the name of the Lord.
or Lord? If our salvation depends on Paradoxically, as had noticed a Jewish
our invocation of the divine name, so philosopher named Philo (-25 to
it is important to know it. +50) in his book on the life of Moses
We have seen that the that: it was worse to name God than even
translators who replaced God's name to curse him (De vita Mosis II:203-206)!
by “Lord” had made this choice for How can one explain that Philo
theological reasons. This imposture gave such an absurd comment
because he knew, according to the several points: the name of God was
text of Numbers 6:22-27, that the still pronounced in the 1st century but
high priest had to name the name of only by a small group of people (the
God upon all the people on the day priests in the temple), this sacred
of atonement, once a year, in order to name was made up of four letters
get the blessing from God: And the that Philo could not read any more
Lord spoke to Moses, saying: Speak to (because it was ancient Hebrew), and
Aaron and to his sons, saying: Thus ye he concluded in his comment on
shall bless the children of Israel, saying to Exodus 3:14 that paradoxically God
them: The Lord [YHWH] bless thee and had no proper name [in Greek] (De
keep thee; the Lord make his face to shine vita Mosis I:75)! The strange
upon thee, and have mercy upon thee; the conclusion of Philo is explained by
Lord lift up his countenance upon thee, and the fact that he did not know
give thee peace. And they shall put my name Hebrew. Regarding the pronunciation
upon the children of Israel, and I the Lord of God’s name, Flavius Josephus (37-
[YHWH] will bless them. According to 100), gave a more reliable witness
the text of the Septuagint the high because he was familiar with the
priest had to name God [YHWH] Bible and was able to read it in
and consequently to be stoned! Hebrew8. Contrary to Philo, Josephus
Obviously, this conclusion is absurd. says that some Jews (those who
Regarding the divine name in spoke Hebrew) knew the proper
the first century, Philo explains: there name of God: when those people thought
was a gold plaque shaped in a ring and they had got clear of the enemy, they
bearing four engraved characters snatched from them what they had brought
(tetragrammaton) of a name which had the with them, even while they had frequently
right to hear and to pronounce in the holy entreated them, and that by calling upon the
place those ones whose ears and tongue have tremendous name of God (The Jewish
been purified by wisdom, and nobody else War V:438). Regarding the
and absolutely nowhere else. And this holy pronunciation of God's name, he
prophet Moses calls the name, a name of explains: The high priest had his head
four letters (YHWH), making them dressed with a tiara of fine linen embroidered
perhaps symbols of the primary numbers (...) with a purple border, and surrounded by
above this mitre is a golden leaf, on which another crown in gold which had in relief the
an engraving of four letters was impressed; sacred letters; these ones are four vowels
by which letters they say that the name of the (The Jewish War V:235). This
living God is indicated, since it is not
8
possible that anything that it in existence, Josephus, was a Romano-Jewish scholar,
historian and hagiographer, who was born in
should exist without God being invoked; for Jerusalem —then part of Roman Judea— to a
it is his goodness and his power combined father of priestly descent and a mother who
with mercy that is the harmony and unity of claimed royal ancestry. He explained in his
autobiography that as belonging to a priestly
all things (De vita Mosis II:115,132). family he had wanted to become a rabbi. He
The testimony of Philo confirms wrote all his books in Aramaic then translated
them later into Greek (The Jewish War I:3).
description is excellent and completes

the one found in Exodus 28:36-39:
You are to make a shining plate of pure
gold and engrave on it as one would engrave
a seal: Holiness belongs to Jehovah.
However, as we know, there are no
vowels in Hebrew but only
consonants. Regrettably, instead of
explaining this apparent abnormality,
certain commentators influenced by
the hypothetical form Yahweh
mislead the readers of Josephus by
indicating in a note that this reading
was IAUE, which is absurd since the
“four sacred letters (YHWH)” had been
written in paleo-Hebrew9, not in
Greek. In addition, this reading
would imply to read IAUDE the
name YHWDH (Juda) whereas it is
read IHUDA (Yehudah) in Hebrew,
similarly YŠW‘ (Yešu‘) is read IŠU‘.
In the first century no
controversies concerning God’s name
are observed among the Jews, since
that name was always written in
Hebrew, even in the Greek text.
Among all the
papyrus of the
Septuagint
dated before These manuscripts prove a
150 CE (at least crucial point: before 150 CE, God's
five), the name had never been written “Lord
tetragrammaton (kurios)” in the Greek texts. All
is written, either historical testimonies prove also that
in square God's name YHWH was not
Hebrew (right pronounced “the Lord” in the first
picture) or more century and before 130 CE its
often in Paleo- pronunciation was not under ban.
Hebrew ! Ben Sirach wrote (c. 200-175 BCE):
(hereafter). Do not accustom your mouth to an oath,
9
Even in heaven, all proper names, like God's
and do not become used to the naming of the
name (Revelation 14:1) are still in Hebrew, not in Holy One. For just as a domestic who is
Greek (Revelation 9:11).
constantly scrutinized will not be wanting ! Philo of Alexandria (c. 40 CE): there
for a bruise, so also he who swears and was a gold plaque shaped in a ring and
always speaks the name will never be bearing 4 engraved characters of a name
cleansed from sin (...) Then as he descended, which had the right to hear and to
he raised up his hands over the entire pronounce in the holy place those ones whose
assembly of Israel’s sons, to give a blessing ears and tongue have been purified by
of the Lord from his lips and to boast in his wisdom, and nobody else and absolutely
name (Sirach XXIII:9-10; L:20). nowhere else. And this holy prophet Moses
! Aristeas wrote to Philocrates (c. 150 calls the name, a name of four letters
BCE): They (the Jews) worship the same (YHWH), making them perhaps symbols
God -—the Lord and Creator of the of the primary numbers (De vita Mosis
Universe, as all other men, as we ourselves, II:115,132).
O king, though we call him by different ! Dioscorides Pedanius (c. 80 CE):
names, such as Zeus (Iovi) or Dis (Letter Wherever I am in the cosmos, which is
of Aristeas §§15,98). subject to me, be thou with me, lord God
! Jewish apocryphal (c. 50 BCE): And Iaô, Iaô (On the Peony XI:2).
this became a hidden trap for mankind, ! Flavius Josephus (c. 95 CE): The high
because men, in bondage to misfortune or to priest had his head dressed with a tiara of
royal authority, bestowed on objects of stone fine linen embroidered with a purple border,
or wood the name that ought not to be and surrounded by another crown in gold
shared (Wisdom of Solomon 14:21). which had in relief the sacred letters
! Terentius Varro (c. 50 BCE), (YHWH); these ones are four vowels (The
reported by Johannes Lydus (490- Jewish War V:235).
570): But the Roman Varro, when ! Philo of Byblos (c. 100-120 CE): Of
discussing him, says that among the the affairs of the Jews the truest history,
Chaldeans, in their mystical [writings], he because the most in accordance with their
is called Iaô, meaning “mentally perceived places and names, is that of Sanchuniathon
light” in the language of the Phoenicians, as of Beirut, who received the records from
Herennius [Philo] says. And he is Hierombal the priest of the god Ieüô (Ιευω)
frequently called Sabaôth, meaning the one (Phoenician History IV). The
who is “above the seven heavenly spheres” character Hierombal, priest of
—that is, the creator (De mensibus Yehwoh, was called “Hierobaal,
IV:53). Judge of the god YHWH”, in the
! Diodorus Siculus (c. 50 BCE): among Septuagint (Judges 7:1-2).
the Jews Moyses referred his laws to the god ! Rabbi Abba Saul said (c. 130 CE):
who is invoked as Iaô (The Library of anyone who pronounces the name according
History I:94:2). to its letters will not have his share in the
! Livy (c. 10 BCE): The Jews do not world to come (Sanhedrin 101b; 10:1).
mention to which deity pertains the Temple ! Talmud (c. 135 CE): They then brought
at Jerusalem, not any image found there, up R. Hanina b. Teradion and asked him:
since they do not think the God partakes Why hast thou occupied thyself with the
any figure (History of Rome CII). Torah? He replied: Thus the Lord my God
commanded me. At once they sentenced him who were attending the Temple
to be burnt, his wife to be slain, and his priests because people generally only
daughter to be consigned to a brothel. The spoke Aramaic: This became known to
punishment of being burnt came upon him all the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so that the
because he pronounced the Name according field was called in their language
to its letters. But how could he do so? Have Akeldama11, that is, “Field of Blood”
we not learnt: The following have no portion (Acts 1:19). If one had asked Pilatus:
in the world to come: He who says that the what is the name of the god worshiped in the
Torah is not from Heaven, or that the temple of Jerusalem?, he would have
resurrection of the dead is not taught in the answered as Livy, a Roman historian,
Torah. Abba Saul says: Also he who when he commented around 10 BCE
pronounces the Name according to its on the taking of Jerusalem by general
letters? He did it in the course of practising, Pompey in 63 BCE: They (the Jews) do
as we have learnt: Thou shalt not learn to not mention to which deity pertains the
do after the abominations of those nations, Temple at Jerusalem (History of Rome
but thou mayest learn [about them] in order CII)12. Finally if one had asked the
to understand and to teach. Why then was apostle Paul what he knew regarding
he punished? —Because he was God's name he would have answered
pronouncing the Name in public (...) The that the name of God was written
Executioner then jumped and threw himself YHWH and because he knew
into the fire. And a bathkol10 exclaimed: Hebrew13 he was able to say how this
R. Hanina b. Teradion and the name was pronounced in Hebrew.
Executioner have been assigned to the world Paradoxically the main cause of
to come (Abodah Zarah 17b-18a). the disappearance of God's name in
How was the tetragram the Christian world was not the
pronounced in the New Testament, ignorance of Hebrew (indeed, a very
given that during the 1st century CE, few Christian scholars still knew it),
the Jews believed that the privilege to but the influence of Greek
pronounce God's name was reserved philosophy. For example, Justin (100-
only to the Temple and that it should 165), a Christian philosopher, often
not be disclosed to (Greek) commented in his works that it was
foreigners. The answer to this impossible for man to name God
question depends on several factors: (Apologies I:10:1; I:61:11; I:63:1;
was the informant Jewish or not (like 11
The word ḥaqel-dema’ is Aramaic because in
Pilatus), did he know Hebrew or only Hebrew this word was sadeh-hadam, as well the
Greek (like Cornelius), did he know word sabaqtani (Matthew 27:46) is Aramaic
any priests who were officiating in because in Hebrew we read: azabtani (Psalm 22:1).
12
P. SCHÄFER – Judeophobia: Attitudes Toward
the Temple of Jerusalem (like the Jews in the Ancient World (Harvard
Josephus)? At that time, the Hebrew University Press, 2009), pp. 36-39.
13
language was known mainly by those Hebrew was the official language of the Temple:
Many Jews read this inscription, because the place where
Jesus was crucified was near the city. It was written in
10
A bathqol (“daughter of voice”) is a voice Hebrew, Latin, and Greek (John 19:20, International
descending from heaven according to Daniel 4:21. Standard Version).
II:12:4), and his main argument came In the same way the apostle
from Timaios, a work of Plato Paul wrote to the Christians staying in
(Apologies II:6:1). Some anomalies Rome a letter written in Greek (c. 56
are found in his quotes, like the CE): For I say that Christ actually became
passage of Mika 4:1-7 in his Dialogue a minister of those who are circumcised in
with Tryphon (§109), which enables us behalf of God’s truthfulness, so as to verify
to conclude that he knew the writing the promises He made to their forefathers,
of God's name. His quotes did not and that the nations might glorify God for
correspond exactly with the his mercy [Ps 18:49]. Just as it is written:
Septuagint, or with the Masoretic That is why I will openly acknowledge you
text, but only with the texts found at among the nations and to your name I will
Qumran. In spite of the tetragram make melody [Dt 32:43]. And again he
clearly appearing in paleo-Hebrew in says: Be glad, you nations, with his people.
this Greek text14, Justin did not And again: Praise YHWH, all you
understand it as a proper name. nations, and let all the peoples praise him
Perhaps he thought that it was an [Ps 117:1]. And again Isaiah says [Is
archaic procedure for writing the 11:10]: There will be the root of Jesse, and
word “Lord”. At this time, even there will be one arising to rule nations; on
Irenaeus of Lyons (130-202) believed him nations will rest their hope (Romans
that the word Iaô meant “Lord” in 15:8-12). Paul had to write YHWH in
primitive Hebrew (Against Heresies his quote of Psalms 117:1, not the
II:24:2). Because they did not “Lord”, because God's name was
understand Hebrew, as all Gentile written in all the copies of the
Christians, Justin and Irenaeus of Septuagint at that time. In addition,
Lyons believed that God's name was because he explained clearly that God
Jesus (Dialogue with Trypho LXXV)! had planned in the past to be openly
acknowledged among the nations
making melody for his name, it would
have been incomprehensible that
Paul used the title “Lord”, usually
assigned to Roman gods, instead of
the personal name of God.
Similarly the apostle John wrote
to the Christians staying in Greece a
booklet written in Greek (c. 98 CE): I
am the Alpha and the Omega, says
YHWH God, the One who is and who
was and who is coming, the Almighty (...) I
Mika 4:1 (picture line 1):
YHWH ΤΩΝ ΔΥΝΑΜΕΩΝ instead of will write upon him the name of my God
YHWH ΠΑΝΤΟΣΡΑΤΟΡΟΣ (LXX) (...) saying: We thank you, YHWH God,
14
D. BARTHÉLEMY - Les devanciers d'Aquila in: the Almighty, the One who is and who was,
Vetus Testamentum, Supplements vol. X (Leiden because you have taken your great power
1963), pp. 203-212.
and begun ruling as king. But the nations the name Abaddon proves that he
became wrathful, and your own wrath came, knew Hebrew15: They have over them a
and the appointed time for the dead to be king, the angel of the abyss. In Hebrew his
judged, and to give [their] reward to your name is Abaddon, but in Greek he has the
slaves the prophets and to the holy ones and name Apollyon (Revelation 9:11). He
to those fearing your name, the small and did not replace YHWH by “Lord”
the great (...) And it opened its mouth in for another reason. Indeed he used
blasphemies against God, to blaspheme his several times the well-known
name and his residence (...) And I saw, expression Allelu-ia, which means
and, look! the Lamb standing upon the “Praise Yah” in Hebrew, he did not
Mount Zion, and with him 144,000 use the expression Allelu-el “Praise
having his name and the name of his Father God”, nor Allelu-adonai “Praise the
written on their foreheads (...) Who will not Lord”. The name Jah16 was a shorten
really fear you, YHWH, and glorify your form of YHWH (Psalms 68:4).
name, because you alone are loyal? For all After the Birkat ha-Minim
the nations will come and worship before you “Blessing on the heretics” (c. 90 CE),
(...) the men were scorched with great heat, Christian Jews have been considered
but they blasphemed the name of God (...) by other Jews as heretics. Rabbi
After these things I heard what was as a Tarphon (c. 90-130 CE), related the
loud voice of a great crowd in heaven. They problem of the destruction of Jewish
said: Praise Jah, you people! The salvation Christian texts which contained the
and the glory and the power belong to our tetragram17 (Shabbat 116a). Probably
God (...) And right away for the second from 100 CE the name YHWH was
time they said: Praise Jah, you people! And replaced, among Christians, by some
the smoke from her goes on ascending forever “sacred names18” like “L[or]d (ΚΣ)” or
and ever. And the 24 elders and the 4 living “G[o]d (ΘΣ)”. Question: how have
creatures fell down and worshiped God Christian Jews pronounced the name
seated upon the throne, and said: Amen! of God YHWH?
Praise Jah, you people! Also, a voice issued 15
The Hebrew word ’adaddon appears in Psalms
forth from the throne and said: Be praising 88:11, the Greek word apoliean in Matthew 7:13
our God, all you his slaves, who fear him, and the Aramaic word ’abdan in Esther 8:6. John
mentions armageddon “mountain of Megiddo” as a
the small ones and the great. And I heard Hebrew place (Revelation 16:16). In addition,
what was as a voice of a great crowd and as John had to know Hebrew because he was known
a sound of many waters and as a sound of to the high priest (John 18:15).
16
Behold, God is my salvation: I will trust, and not be
heavy thunders. They said: Praise Jah, you afraid; for Jah, Jehovah, is my strength and song, and he is
people, because YHWH our God, the become my salvation (...) Confide ye in Jehovah for ever; for
Almighty, has begun to rule as king in Jah, Jehovah, is the rock of ages (Isaiah 12:2; 26:4)
Darby Bible Translation).
(Revelation 1:8; 3:12; 11:17-18; 13:6; 17
D. JAFFÉ - Les Sages du Talmud et l’Évangile
14:1; 15:4; 16:9; 19:1-6). selon Matthieu in: Revue de l’histoire des religions
John had to have written Tome 226:4 (2009), p. 583-611.
18
G.D. KILPATRICK -The Principles and Practise
YHWH in his book for the same of New Testament Textual Criticismin: Bibliotheca
reasons Paul did. His comment about ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium XCVI, pp.
207-222.
God’s name —Its pronunciation
Did Jesus know God's name? of worship to me. Then Jesus said to him:
The answer is obvious but what is Go away, Satan! For it is written: It is
controversial is: How did Jesus YHWH your God you must worship, and
pronounce it? We can suppose that it is to him alone you must render sacred
he was pronouncing God's name in service (Dt 5:9; 6:13) (Matthew 4:3-10).
the same way that the high priest was The discussion between Jesus
uttering it in the Temple before its and Satan highlights two crucial
destruction in 70 CE. points: Jesus read aloud God's name
Despite the fact that the New in Hebrew and he systematically used
Testament is written in Greek, the it, which Satan never did because one
numerous controversies Jesus met notices that he preferred using the
regarding doctrinal points of the Old word GOD (Elohim). This choice was
Testament had to be conducted in not made by chance because Jesus
Hebrew given that the text of the quoted the text of Deuteronomy
Bible was written in Hebrew. For 6:13, which says: YHWH your God you
example when Jesus discussed with should fear, and him you should serve, and
Satan after his baptism, they both by his name you should swear, whereas
quoted precisely some parts of the Satan quoted the word GOD as he
Old Testament written by Moses: The already had done with Eve (Genesis
Tempter came and said to him: If you are a 3:1-5), rather than the name YHWH
son of GOD, tell these stones to become which Eve used (Genesis 4:1).
loaves of bread. But in reply he said: It is Similarly, Jesus had to quote the
written: Man must live, not on bread alone, text in Hebrew, not in Greek, when
but on every utterance coming forth through he quoted the Bible in his discussions
YHWH’s mouth (Dt 8:3). Then the Devil with the Pharisees: And one of them
took him along into the holy city, and he versed in the Law, asked, testing him (...)
stationed him upon the battlement of the Now while the Pharisees were gathered
temple and said to him: If you are a son of together Jesus asked them: What do you
GOD, hurl yourself down; for it is written: think about the Christ? Whose son is he?
He will give his angels a charge concerning They said to him: David’s. He said to them:
you, and they will carry you on their hands, How, then, is it that David by inspiration
that you may at no time strike your foot calls him ‘Lord’, saying: YHWH said to
against a stone (Ps 91:11-12). Jesus said to my Lord: Sit at my right hand until I put
him: Again it is written: You must not put your enemies beneath your feet? If, therefore,
YHWH your GOD to the test (Dt 6:16). David calls him ‘Lord’, how is he his son?
Again the Devil took him along to an And nobody was able to say a word in reply
unusually high mountain, and showed him to him, nor did anyone dare from that day
all the kingdoms of the world and their on to question him any further (Matthew
glory, and he said to him: All these things I 22:35,41-45). Some scholars claim
will give you if you fall down and do an act that Jesus had observed the rabbinic
custom of reading the divine name as prominent example, consider the

Adonai “My Lord”. This statement is name Jesus. According to the New
illogical for two reasons: Jesus had Testament: She will give birth to a son,
strongly disapproved rabbinic and you are to give him the name Jesus,
traditions (Matthew 15:1-9) and this because he will save his people from their
controversy would have been sins (Matthew 1:21), in order to help
incomprehensible (except for the reader, The Jerusalem Bible19
theologians!) if Jesus had said: The adds a footnote: ‘Jesus’ (Hebr.
Lord says to my Lord. Yehoshua) means ‘Yahweh save’. This
When Jesus read aloud a note has probably left you very
passage from Isaiah's scroll in the puzzled (and you did not dare to
synagogue at Nazareth (Luke 4:16-21) admit it) because it is obvious that if
he inevitably pronounced the divine Yehoshua means “Yahweh saves”, it
name (YHWH), since the quoted should have to be read in Hebrew
passage mentions it: The spirit of Lord Yahw[eh]shua, not Yehow[ah]shua. If
YHWH is on me for YHWH has the name Jesus was really read
anointed me. He has sent me to bring the Yehoshua in Hebrew, its meaning
news to the afflicted, to soothe the broken- must be “Yehowah saves”. There is
hearted, to proclaim liberty to captives, therefore a major contradiction
release to those in prison, to proclaim a year between the reading of this name and
of favour from YHWH and a day of the explanation of its meaning. An
vengeance for our God, to comfort all who explanation is needed.
mourn (Isaiah 61:1-2). Because The name of Jesus is very old, it
Nazareth was a city in Lower Galilee, comes from a transformation of the
most Jews of that synagogue had to name Hôshea‘ “He saved” into
be Hebraic Jews speaking Aramaic Yehôshua‘ “Yehôwah will save”
rather than Hellenistic Jews speaking (Numbers 13:16), then it has been
Greek (Hebrews 6:1). Consequently abbreviated into Yeshua‘ “salvation”
the text quoted by Jesus had to be (1 Chronicles 24:11). Afterwards
read in Hebrew and translated/ Yeshua‘ was pronounced Yeshu‘ in
interpreted into Aramaic (this Aramaic and written Iesous in Greek
translation or interpretation of (LXX). Consequently in the first
reading was a ‘Targum’). century Jesus was called Yehôshua‘ in
Some sceptics quibble that we Hebrew but usually Yeshu‘ by his
do not know exactly how Jesus disciples who spoke Aramaic20. When
uttered God's name, which is strictly Aquila of Sinope revised the
true (indeed, we unfortunately did not translation of the Septuagint (c. 130
record his reading), but this is also CE), he corrected the name Iesous
true for all other Hebrew names
19
without exception. The quest of a The gospel according saint Matthew in: THE
JERUSALEM BIBLE, London 1974, Ed. Darton,
true pronunciation must be Longman & Todd p. 7.
reasonable. To take the most 20
Hence the name Yeshu‘ in the Talmud to speak
about Jesus instead of Yeshua‘.
GOD’S NAME —ITS PRONUNCIATION 17
into Iesoua (Ιησουα; Deuteronomy priests as well as scribes in
1:38), however the writers of the synagogues and Aramaic was the
New Testament continued to use it language of most people in Israel, it
even when it was Joshua (Acts 7:45; was usual to bear three names, like
Hebrews 4:8). To avoid such the apostle Peter (Greek), called
confusion Jerome decided to change Cephas (Aramaic) by Jesus, but
the name Jesus into Iosue, in his Simon (Hebrew) was his birth name.
Latin translation (Vulgate), when he Consequently, finding the authentic
was the servant of Moses. pronunciation of a name in the first
It is noteworthy that Jerome, in century is meaningless because
his commentary on Psalm 8:221, Greek, Aramaic and Hebrew were all
confirmed that in the past God's authentic languages. For example:
name had been written in Hebrew in Jesus: Iesous, Yeshu‘, Yehôshua‘; John:
Greek texts: The name of the Lord in Iôannen, Yôhanan, Yehôhanan; Matthew:
Hebrew has four letters, Yod He Waw He, Matthaion, Mattay, Matthatyah; Jude:
which is the proper name of God which some Iouda, Yehud, Yehûdah.
people through ignorance, write ΠΙΠΙ In the first century very few
[instead of ‫ ]יהוה‬in Greek and which can be people were still speaking Hebrew,
pronounced Iaho. He wrote in his except educated people such as
prologue of the books of Samuel and scribes, officers or international
Kings: That the Hebrews have 22 letters is traders. For example, Simon bar
testified also by the Syrian and Chaldaean Kokhba who was the Jewish leader of
languages, which for the most part what is known as the Bar Kokhba
correspond to the Hebrew; for they have 22 revolt against the Roman Empire in
elementary sounds which are pronounced the 132 CE, wrote several letters to his
same way, but are differently written (...) officers in Aramaic as well as Hebrew
and we find the four-lettered name of the and Greek. Consequently, finding the
Lord [tetragram] in certain Greek books Hebrew pronunciation of a Jewish
written to this day in the ancient characters name at Jesus' time is feasible.
(Prologus Galeatus). It is noteworthy It is easy to see that all
that Jerome wrote the tetragram can theophoric names, which include the
be pronounced Iaho instead of is divine name YHW- at their
pronounced Iaho in Hebrew. As beginning, are always pronounced
previously if God's name had been Yehô- (Yehow-) in Hebrew, without
Iaho the name of Jesus would have exception22. This elementary
been Yahôshua‘, not Yehôshua‘ observation allows us to deduce that
In the first century, because the divine name YHWH had to be
Greek was the international language pronounced Yehô-ah / Yehowah
of traders and Roman authorities, because all the Hebrew proper names
Hebrew was the holy language of ending in -WH in Hebrew are always
21 22
ST JEROME - S. Hieronymi presbyteri opera, in: Yehô- became Iô- in the Septuagint because of
Corpus Christianorum Series Latina vol. LXXII (Ed. iotacism, the sound Ye merged to I, and there is
Brepols 1959), p. 191. no letter H in Greek.
read -wah / -wâ23, again without It is amazing that this

exception24, but -weh is never found conclusion is accepted because it
(except in Yahweh of course!). contradicts the historical context, the
Theophoric names oblige us to theophoric names (which begin
conclude that God's name had to be always with Yehô-) and finally logic
pronounced Yehowah in Hebrew in (an anonymous name!). In Qumran
the first century. Given that the the name of God was held in very
Hebrew names Yehoshua‘, high esteem, to such an extent that it
Yehohanan and Yehudah became was forbidden to pronounce it under
respectively in Greek Iesous, Ioannen penalty of excommunication. This
and Iouda it is difficult to imagine name was often written in ancient
how Yehowah could have been Hebrew in the biblical texts.
pronounced in Greek at that time,
maybe something like Ioua25 or Ieoa,
a pronunciation which is close to the
Pavlos D. Vasileiadis, “The god Iao and his connection with the Biblical God,
form Ieüô (Ιευω) given by Philo of

with special emphasis on the manuscript 4QpapLXXLevb
Byblos. Most scholars today refuse

this
genuine LXX text”conclusion
by being ‘an excellent for theof thefollowing
representative LXX’ and “a typical
exemplar of the LXX.” 13
reasons: Ieüô is rare in contrast Iaô is

The view of the “Hebraizing” restoration (or, “re-Hebraization”) of the Hebrew
frequent in the first century, and
Tetragrammaton within the Greek Bible text is based on the presupposition that in the OG
original text or its archetypes the surrogates κύριος and θεός (or δεσπότης) were used.
14 15
But above
this is far fromall being
thisproved.
name Iaôtheappears
Confessedly, inof athe
original rendering
Tetragrammaton in the Old Greek Bible (i.e. the reconstructed original LXX) is “a heavily
copy
debated subject.”of Was the Septuagint
the theonym
16
(below)
(a) replaced by a surrogate dated
like “Lord” and “God,”
(b) rendered phonetically, or rather (c) kept reverentially untranslated in Hebrew script?
c. 100 BCE found in Qumran.
As one can see in the text

Psalms (above) found at Qumran26
23 Figure 1: (Psalms 129:4-130:6), God’s name
The final H The being
phrase «εντολωνa vowel
ιαω» as foundit inshould
Leviticus 4:27be noted â.
It is for this reason within the text of 4Q120/4QpapLXXLev

that many authors
(fragment 20:4/plate 378, fragment 15).
b
write Juda Yah (bottom right) was written

instead of Judah. normally while on the other hand, the
24 fact that 4Q120 is antedating the mainline LXX tradition and it has some readings
The Alwah (Gn 36:40), (Eve) Hawwah (Gn 4:1), name YHWH was written in ancient
that have to be “regarded as more original than the majority of LXX manuscripts” led to
Ishwah (Gn 46:17), Iwwah (2R 19:13), Puwah (Nb
the conclusion that Ιαω “is the most likely candidate for the original reading of the LXX”
26:23)
and that and“asTiqwah
it was used (2Ki name
if it were a personal 22:14). However, According
in its transliteration.” 17
this to the Hebrew (framed in the upper part),
“prevailing assumption,” “the original translators of the LXX never rendered the divine
obvious fact only appears in Hebrew
name with κύριος, but kept the tetragrammaton in Hebrew or Palaeo-Hebrew characters,
because in furthermore, several Adonay
or thatAramaic,
they used the final gutturals
transcription Ιαω.”(H, This‘ evidenced
and ’) were assumption notwasany originally
(underlined) took the place of
rd
more
discussed by P.pronounced
Kahle and few decades already later G. inHoward
the 3extended century the same BCE,schema to
explain in a similar process the treatment of the Tetragrammaton within the New
which has influenced some Greek transcriptions YHWH. These errors show that
13
Tov like Eve
(2012) 132; instead
Pietersma (1984) 91, 92.of Hawwah,
Earlier, Tov wrote boldly: Iesou
while the main LXX tradition reflects a revision.” (2003:112)
“4QpapLXXLev instead
b
of text of LXX,
reflects the original God's name was sometimes replaced
I useYeshûa orforJoshua (Heb 4:8), Tekoue instead ofof the original by Adonay “My Lord”, Elohim
14
the term “surrogate” these Greek terms because all of them are lying outside the semantic domain
Hebrew term. The notions of “dominion” and “divinity” can only be considered as broad dynamic equivalents that
Tiqwah,
displace etc.
a proper name for Even
a generic the
divine title. Assyrian
This translational name
choice implies Nineveh
a shift in the theological understanding
of God. It is not implausible that κύριος might have been implemented in LXX translations of some of the rest Bible books.
15
(Gn 10:11), which is spelled NYNWH in Hebrew,
Defining more precisely such a “Hebraization” process is required in each and every reference. For example, the peculiar
language of the Alexandrine Jews observed within the LXX text was described as “Hebraizing tendency” by
J. A. H. Tittmann at 1837. uru
16 is written NINAki in cuneiform (probably from
Vasileiadis (2014) 60, 61.
26
J.P. SIEGEL -The Employment of Palaeo-
17
NIN.AN “Lady of Heaven”) and is read Ninua in
Ulrich (2015) 154; Tov (2012B) 132; Rösel (2007) 416, 417; Skehan (1957) 157.
Hebrew Characters for the Divine Names at
Akkadian or Ninuwa in Mari letters dated 18th Qumranin the Light of Tannaitic Sources
century BCE. in: Hebrew Union College Annual n°42 (1971), pp.
25
The H is rarely used in Latin proper names 159-172.
“God” or Yah. Other scrolls show Once more, some linguists
that God's name could also be disagree with this conclusion, arguing
replaced by a special substitute Hû’â that Iaho (Yahwoh) was not a
“He, himself”. substitute but rather an intermediate
However: 1) How can one form between Yah and Yehowah,
explain that a scribe of Qumran had according to an evolutionary process,
dared to write God's name as it is maybe like what follows: YaH >>
pronounced whereas he risked to be YaHu >> YaHuW >> YaHuWa >>
excommunicated while the Christian YeHuWa >> YeHoWaH. That kind
scribes of Jewish origin who did not of interpretation is strongly
risk anything had preferred to write influenced by the theory of evolution,
YHWH in their copies of the New which implies that YHW could be the
Testament instead of Iaô. 2) The “missing link”. Instead of searching
pagans would have known God's which linguistic interpretation is the
name whereas the Jews no longer "true one" regarding the
used it outside Israel for several pronunciation of God's name,
centuries, because of the ban on because there are many (as many as
pronouncing it imposed by the linguists), the true question is: who
Septuagint. 3) Josephus who knew has the truth? There is the same
that Iaô was known by the Romans problem with the meaning of God's
as the God that the Jews were name, because there are many
invoking, thanks to Terentius Varro theological interpretations (as many
and Diodorus, did not confirm this as theologians). The answer to this
widespread information but 4) on the very complex question “where to find
contrary wrote that YHWH had four the truth about God's name?” is very
vowels, whereas Iaô has three. 5) simple: in the Bible itself. If you had
Given that Rabbi Abba Saul forbade been in the first century, what would
(c. 130 CE): to pronounce God’s name you have done to find the truth about
according to its letters, this prohibition God's name? The apostle Paul, who
was implying a pronunciation of was a sincere Jew, gives the answer to
Y,H,W,H close to I,H,U,A, which is his fellow believers: he went to them, and
far from I,A,H,O. 6) At last, if for three Sabbaths reasoned with them from
Yahwoh (Iaô) was the true name of the Scriptures, explaining and giving
God at that time, how can one evidence (Acts 17:2-3).
explain that among the hundreds of One must note that according
theophoric names in the Hebrew to the New Testament there never
Bible there is not even one beginning were any linguistic controversies
with Yah-. The answer to these six among the Jews or even between
objections is simple: Iaô was simply a Jews and Christians regarding the
substitute of God's name, like pronunciation of God's name. There
sometimes the word Hu’a “Himself” were only theological controversies
in some scrolls of Qumran. concerning the identification of the
Messiah as well as the links between men. Since, therefore, the name of the Son
the “Lord God” of the Old belongs to the Father, and since in the
Testament and the new “god Lord omnipotent God the Church makes
(Jesus)” worshipped by Christians. offerings through Jesus Christ, He says well
However, when the Jews prohibited on both these grounds, And in every place
pronouncing God’s name, around incense is offered to My name, and a pure
130 CE, some Gnostic groups sacrifice (Against Heresies IV:17:6).
appeared both among Christians and Among the Jews the situation
Jews, who pretended to keep the true was quite different. Because they
name of God. For example among were not allowed to pronounce God's
Christians: name, they began speculations about
! Justin Martyr wrote (c. 150 CE): the substitute Yahû (YHW) they had
Moreover, in the book of Exodus we have used in the past, which was now
also perceived that the name of God considered as a secret name. This
Himself which, He says, was not revealed name played a great role in Jewish
to Abraham or to Jacob, was Jesus, and esotericism as one can see in a book
was declared mysteriously through Moses written around 80 CE: Go, Jaoel, and
(Dialogue with Trypho LXXV). by means of my ineffable Name raise me
! Christian gnostic (c. 150-170 CE): yonder man, and strengthen him (so that he
The Son is his name. He did not, therefore, recover) from his trembling. And the angel
keep it secretly hidden, but the son came came, whom He had sent to me, in the
into existence. He himself gave a name to likeness of a man, and grasped me by my
him. The name, then, is that of the Father, right hand, and set me up upon my feet, and
just as the name of the Father is the Son said to me: “Stand up, [Abraham,] Friend
(The Gospel of Truth). of God who loves thee; let not the trembling
! Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 170 CE): But of man seize thee! For, lo! I have been sent
what other name is there which is glorified to thee to strengthen thee and bless thee in
among the Gentiles than that of our Lord, the name of God —who loves thee— the
by whom the Father is glorified, and man Creator of the celestial and terrestrial. Be
also? And because it is [the name] of His fearless and hasten to Him. I am called
own Son, who was made man by Him, He Jaoel by Him who moves that which exists
calls it His own. Just as a king, if he with me on the 7th expanse upon the
himself paints a likeness of his son, is right firmament, a power in virtue of the ineffable
in calling this likeness his own, for both Name that is dwelling in me (The
these reasons, because it is [the likeness] of Apocalypse of Abraham X:3-7). The
his son, and because it is his own name of Jaoel is represented as a
production; so also does the Father confess being possessed of the power of the
the name of Jesus Christ, which is ineffable name, a function assigned in
throughout all the world glorified in the the Rabbinical writings to Metatron,
Church, to be His own, both because it is whose name is like unto that of God
that of His Son, and because He who thus Himself (Sanhedrin 38b). The name
describes it gave Him for the salvation of Yahoel “Yahô is God” is evidently a
substitute for the ineffable name. A
cryptic story in the Babylonian
Talmud states that: On the eve of every
Shabbat, Judah HaNasi's pupils, Rab
Hanina and Rab Hoshaiah, who devoted
themselves especially to cosmogony, used to
create a delicious calf by means of the Sefer
Yetzirah, and ate it on the Sabbath
(Sanhedrin 65b, 67b). The Sefer
Yetzirah (c. 150 CE), the earliest As one can see among these
extant book on Jewish esotericism, samples, numerous amulets of this
reads27: With three of the simple letters seal time, written in Greek, contain the
"above". Choose three and place them in name Iaô, occasionally written
His great Name: YHW. With them seal backwards29. Sometimes other names
the six extremities. Face upward and seal it like: Ia, Sabaot/Sabao, Adonai, etc.,
with YHW (Sefer Yetzirah I:15). The are found, but the most frequently
great Name used in Jewish magic was found in these Greek amulets is Iaô30.
therefore YHW (Yahû) instead of Origen who was the greatest textual
YHWH (Yehowah). The comparison critic of the early Christian Church
(below) between the Jewish amulets wrote (c. 250 CE): and from the Hebrew
written (from 150 to 400 CE) in Scriptures him who is termed in Hebrew Iaô
Hebrew28 and Greek confirms the or Jah, and Sabaoth, and Adonaeus, and
equivalence between YHW (Yahû) Eloaeus. Now the names taken from the
and Iaô as well as YH (Yah) and Ia. Scriptures are names of one and the same
God (Against Celsus VI:32). For Iaô
means etymologically lifting up, elation.
Now the Word comes to men who formerly
YH YHW
could not receive the advent of the Son of
God who is the Word (Commentary on
John II:1). His comment shows31 that
he was well aware of substitutes for
God's name but, despite the fact he
YHW YH 29
K. PREISENDANZ -Papyri Graecae Magicae I
27
A.P. HAYMAN - Sefer Yesira: Edition, 1928; II Berlin 1931 Stuttgart 1974 XVIIa 1-2.
30
Translation and Text-critical Commentary. M. PHILONENKO -L'anguipède alectorocéphale
Tuebingen 2004, Ed. Mohr Siebeck, pp. 89-90. et le dieu Iaô in: C.R.A.I.L. Paris 1979 Ed.
28
J. NAVEH - A Recently Discovered Palestinian Klincksieck pp. 297-304.
31
Jewish Aramaic Amulet in: Arameans, Aramaic He directed the production of the massive
and the Aramaic literary tradition (Tel-Aviv 1983, Hexapla ("Sixfold"), an Old Testament in six
Bar-Ilan University Press), pp. 81-88. columns: Hebrew, Hebrew in Greek characters,
J. NAVEH, S. SHAKED - Amulets and magic bowls the Septuagint, and the Greek versions of
Jerusalem 1985 Ed. Magnes Press pp. 40-61. Theodotion, Aquila of Sinope, and Symmachus.
J.A. MONTGOMERY -Aramaic Incantation Texts He was one of the greatest biblical scholars of the
from Nippur. Philadelphia 1913 Ed. University early Church, having written commentaries on
Museum, pp. 145-146,165,209-210. most of the books of the Bible.
was the most skilled Christian scholar reasoning: the God of the
of his time, he did not know the philosophers did not require worship
genuine pronunciation of the only polite acknowledgement of his
tetragram and he believed that Iaô existence, since it would be
meant etymologically: “lifting up, impossible to establish relations with
elation” (instead of “Yah himself”). a nameless God (Elohim). Then he
Rapidly the Jews were not proved that the tetragram YHWH is
interested anymore in the the personal name of God, that is to
pronunciation of God's name, but say the name distinctly read (Shem ha-
some small mystic groups continued mephorash), which is different from all
to speculate about the symbolic the other names such as: Adonay,
meaning or esoteric understanding of Shadday, Elohim (which are only divine
the letters of God's name that they titles having an etymology), because
were writing YY, YYY or YWY. This the tetragram has no etymology.
method is called Kabbalah. However, Maimonides knew
According to adherents of Kabbalah, well the problem of the
its origin begins with secrets that God pronunciation of God’s name
revealed to Adam. One of the central prohibited by Jewish tradition. On
doctrines concerns the 72-letter name the other hand, he also knew that
of God used for meditation some Jews believed in the almost
purposes32. For example, Abraham magical influence of the letters or the
ibn Ezra wrote a book (c. 1154) precise pronunciation of divine
entitled the Book of the Name (Sefer ha- names, but he warned his readers
Shem) in which he establishes links against such practices as being pure
between digital and also zodiacal invention or foolishness. The
values from the letters of the remarkable aspect of his
tetragram. Because Philosophy, argumentation lies in the fact that he
Gnosticism and mystical, even managed to avoid controversy on
astrological beliefs, had became such a sensitive subject. He asserted
increasingly influential, Maimonides a that in fact it was only true worship
Jewish scholar and famous Talmudist, which had been lost, and not the
in order to contend with such authentic pronunciation of the
influences, put forward a whole new tetragram, since this was still possible
definition of Judaism. His reasoning according to its letters. To support
centred on the Name of God, the this basic idea (true worship is more
tetragram, which was explained in his important than correct
book entitled The Guide of the Perplexed pronunciation), he quoted Sotah 38a
(Book I §64), written in 1190. There to prove that the name is the essence
he exposed the following powerful of God and that is the reason it
32
should not be misused, then he
This concept is derived from the Hebrew verbal
utterance Moses spoke in the presence of an quoted the text of Zechariah 14:9 to
angel, while the Sea of Reeds parted, allowing the prove the oneness of this name, also
Hebrews to escape their approaching attackers.
Sifre Numbers 6:23-27 to show that the verb “to be (hayah)” expressed above
priests were obliged to bless by this all a religious etymology, that is a
name only. Then, to prove that the teaching about God, who can be
pronunciation of the Name did not defined theologically as: the Being who
pose any problem in the past, and is the being or the necessary being. It is
that it had no magical aspect, he interesting to note that Judah Halevi,
quoted Kiddushin 71a, which said that another Jewish scholar, put forward
this name was passed on by certain almost the same arguments in his
rabbis to their sons. Also, according book The Kuzari published in 1140.
to Yoma 39b, this pronunciation was He wrote that the main difference
widely used before the priesthood of between the God of Abraham and
Simon the Just, which proved the the God of Aristotle was the
insignificance of a magical concept, tetragram (Kuzari IV:16). He proved
because at this time, the Name was also that this name was the personal
used for its spiritual not supernatural name of God (IV:1) and that it meant
aspect. Maimonides insisted on the according to the Bible: He will be with
fact that what was necessary to find you. To show once again that it was
was the spirituality connected to this the meaning of this name which was
Name, and not the exact important and not the pronunciation,
pronunciation. In order to he quoted Exodus 5:2 where Pharaoh
demonstrate this important idea of asked to know the Name: not the
understanding the sense and not the pronunciation which he used, but the
sound conveyed by this name, he authority of this Name (IV:15). He
quoted a relevant example. Exodus pointed out that the letters of the
6:3 indicates that before Moses the tetragram have the remarkable
Name was not known. Naturally this property of being “mother of reading”,
refers to the exact meaning of the that is the vowels associated with
Name, and not its pronunciation, other consonants, such as the spirit is
because it would be unreasonable to associated with the body and makes it
believe that a correct pronunciation live: Although its meaning is hidden, the
would have suddenly been able to letters of which it is composed speak. For it
incite the Israelites to action, unless is the letters alef, hē (H), wāv (W) and yōd
the pronunciation had magical power, (Y) which cause all consonants to be
a supposition disproved by sounded, as no letter can be pronounced as
subsequent events. To conclude his long as it is not supported by one of these
demonstration, Maimonides quoted four, viz. â by alef, and hē, û by wāv, and î
Exodus 3:14 to show that the by yōd. They form, so to speak, the spirit in
expression ehyeh asher ehyeh, which can the bodies of the consonants. The name Oh
be translated as: I shall be who I shall be, is like the tetragrammaton (Ex III:14). As
was above all a spiritual teaching. to EH’YEH, it can be derived from the
Because the tetragram had no latter name, or from the root hāyāh “to be”
linguistic etymology, this link with the (The Kuzari IV:3).
Contrary to a widespread words of Isaiah xxvi. 4: ‫בְּ יָהּ יְהוָֹה‬

opinion (conveyed by opponents), “Y’howah is Yah”. These issues are not
there were never any controversies new, since some Jewish scholars of
about the writing and pronunciation the past, who had edited grammars of
of God's name in Hebrew among Hebrew and translated the Bible into
Rabbis, except among small esoteric Latin, had already used the name
groups, the Name [of God] has Jehovah in their books. For example,
always been written YHWH and has Immanuel Tremellius, an Italian
been pronounced Yehowah33. In Jewish convert to Christianity, who
addition, contrary to a fairly was known as a leading Hebraist and
widespread idea, Jewish scholarly Bible translator36, wrote a Chaldaic and
authorities acknowledge without Syriac grammar (1569) and translated
difficulty that the name Jehovah is the Hebrew Bible into Latin (1579) in
the genuine name of God in Hebrew. which he systematically used the
For example it can be seen in a name Jehova (framed below) and did
technical book written for the Jews34, not translate the first Eheie (“I shall
prefaced by the French Chief Rabbi be”) in Exodus 3:14, which appears
Joseph Sitruk (1987-2008), that: the just before in verse 12 (Latin ero):
name Ye.ho.va (Jéhovah), written with the
Hebrew letters Yod, He Vav, He, is
considered as the genuine name of God.
Most people ignore this basic truth
because Jewish scholarly authorities
are much less known than the Jewish
religious authorities who teach that
God's name is Adonay. For example,
professor J.H. Levy explained in his
article published in 1903 in The Jewish
Quarterly Review35 that the vowel-
points of the tetragram (e,o,â) are not
those of Adonay (a,o,â) and Yâhû
(‫ )י ָהוּ‬is not a real name because the
final û (‫ )וּ‬is simply the old
nominative affix (which means “he”,
therefore Yâhû means “Yah [is] He”).
He concluded his article: My solution of
that problem may be tersely stated in the
33
Yehovah in Hebrew of today.
34
A.J. KOLATCH – Le Livre Juif du pourquoi ? T.
36
1. Genève 1993, Ed. MJR Editions, pp. IX, 347. In 1549 he succeeded Paul Fagius as Regius
35
J.H. LEVY – The Tetra(?)grammaton in: The professor of Hebrew at Cambridge. He also
Jewish Quarterly Review,Vol. 15, No. 1 (Oct., 1902), translated John Calvin's Geneva Catechism into
pp. 97-99. Hebrew (Paris, 1551).
Baruch Spinoza37 after he (2012) in which he explains that the
published his Hebrew grammar fact of not mentioning God’s name is
(Compendium grammatices linguæ hebrææ), unfounded and on the contrary one
regularly used the name Jehovæ in his must pronounce this name Yehovah40
Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (in 1677) (in modern Hebrew).
Similarly Alexander Harkavy38, who Samuel Cahen, who produced
was a lexicographer and linguist, used for Jews the first French translation
Jehova several times in his translation directly from the Hebrew text, began
of the Bible from the King James (in 1834) to systematically use the
version (The Holy Scriptures, 1916). Iehova vocalization (see below) in his
If today the vast majority of people French text instead of Eternal.
believe that the God of the Bible has
no name, but just a title “Lord
(Adonay)”, or that this name has
been lost, it is not the fault of Jewish
scholars, but of the Jewish religious
leaders condemning those who use
God’s name (Jehovah). That’s why
Nehemia Gordon39, a Karaite Jew
who holds a Master's degree in
Biblical Studies from the Hebrew
University of Jerusalem, published a
book Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence
37
He was a Dutch philosopher and was raised in
the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam.
38
He was a Russian-born American writer. After
the antisemitic pogroms of 1880 in Russia,
Harkavy joined the Jewish Am Olam (Eternal
People) back-to-the-land movement.
39
He explained that he used the
He was born to a Jewish family of rabbis. He
rejected the idea that the Talmud has divine
name Iehova because it was the most
authority and became a Karaite. Nehemia is a reliable reading according to all the
native of Chicago but has lived in Jerusalem, Israel best grammarians of Hebrew
since making Aliyah in 1993. Until recently
Gordon served on Universal Karaite Judaism's
including Wilhelm Gesenius, a
"Religious Council", and on the Board of renowned German orientalist and
Directors of the ancient Karaite synagogue in Biblical critic. This Hebrew scholar
Jerusalem. He is also a co-founder of the World
Karaite Movement, a Karaite revival group. From
recognized that theophoric names
2007 to 2008, Nehemia Gordon served in the were giving a powerful argument in
position of senior academic administrator of the favour of Yehowah in his Hebräisches
Karaite Jewish University. He assisted in the
translation of texts contained in The Dead Sea
und Chaldäisches Handwörterbuch über das
Scrolls Reader, was an assistant on the Dead Sea Alte Testament (1834): Several consider
Scrolls Publication project coordinated by
40
Emanuel Tov, and worked as a researcher on the N. GORDON –Shattering the Conspiracy of
Hebrew University Bible Project under the Silence. Arlington 2012, Ed. Hilkiah Press, pp.
auspices of Shemaryahu Talmon. 191-207.
that ‫( יַהֲ וֹה‬Yahawoh) is the true felt that the divine name should be
pronunciation (...) others as Reland (...) restored when they translate the New
following the Samaritans, suppose that ‫יַהְ וֶה‬ Testament. For example, many
(Yaheweh) was anciently the true African, American, Asian, and
pronunciation (...) Also those who consider Pacific-island language versions of
‫( יְהוָֹה‬Yehowah) was the actual the New Testament use the divine
pronunciation are not altogether without name liberally. Some of these
ground on which to defend their opinion. In translations have appeared recently,
this way can be abbreviated syllables ‫יְהוֹ‬ such as the Rotuman Bible (1999),
(Yehô) and ‫( יוֹ‬Yô), with which many proper which uses the name Jihova 51 times
names begin, be more satisfactorily in 48 verses of the New Testament,
explained41. Consequently, several and the Batak-Toba version (1989)
Jewish translators systematically used from Indonesia, which uses the name
the name Jehovah in their translation Jahowa 110 times in the New
of the Hebrew like the Bible of Rabbi Testament. The divine name has
Lazarus Goldschmidt42: appeared, too, in French, German,
and Spanish translations. For
instance, Pablo Besson translated the
New Testament into Spanish in the
early 20th century. His translation uses
or Joseph Magil43 (Deut 6:4): Jehová at Jude 14, and nearly 100
footnotes suggest the divine name as
a likely rendering. Below are some
examples of English translations that
have used God’s name in the New
All these Jewish translators, Testament:
who knew Hebrew as well as the ban ! A Literal Translation of the New
on pronouncing God's name, used Testament ... From the Text of the
the name Jehovah in their writings Vatican Manuscript, by Herman
(obviously they did not encourage Heinfetter (1863).
anyone to pronounce it). How many ! The Emphatic Diaglott, by Benjamin
used the name Yahweh: absolutely Wilson (1864).
none of them. ! The Epistles of Paul in Modern English,
Based upon the previous by George Barker Stevens (1898).
evidence, many Bible translators have ! St. Paul’s Epistle to the Romans, by W.
41
H.W.F. GENESIUS –Gesenius’ Hebrew-Chaldee
G. Rutherford (1900).
Lexicon to the Old Testament. Grand Rapid, ! The Christian’s Bible—New Testament,
Michigan 1979, Ed. Baker Book House, p. 337. by George N. LeFevre (1928).
42
L. GOLDSCHMIDT –Die heiligen Bücher des
alten Bundes übertragen durch Vol. 1. The Holy ! The New Testament Letters, by J.W.C.
Books of the Old Covenant, translated by Berlin, Wand, Bishop of London (1946).
Ed. Rosenthal & Co. 1925. Some critics argue that these
43
J. MAGIL –Magil’s Linear School Bible (1910
reprint) 1899 New York, Ed. J. Magil’s Publishing. Christian translators were not aware
that the name of God was not entitled: The Hebraic Tongue Restored:
Jehovah but Yahweh because those And the True Meaning of the Hebrew
who knew Hebrew well had preferred Words Re-Established and Proved by their
using Yahweh! For example, Levi Radical Analysis, in which he46 explains
Herzfeld, a German rabbi and there is no need of vowel-points to
historian, was the first scholar who understand Hebrew, because this
chose to replace systematically language can be vocalized through
Jehovah by Jahweh in his comments vowel letters. He applied this method,
on the Old Testament44 (1855). In of reading the words according to
fact, this rabbi did not know Hebrew their letters, in his translation of the
very well. In contrast, Johann Babor, Book of Genesis (1823) in which he
Doctor of Theology and historian, systematically used IHÔAH (Gn
professor of hermeneutics of the Old 8:20-21, below):
and New Testament and Director of
theological studies at the University
of Olomouc, used the name Ihoua
(Luke 4:18 below) in his translation
of the New Testament45 (1805).
Jean du Verdier, a colleague of

David Paul Drach, a Catholic convert
Why did Babor choose the from Judaism, and librarian of the
form Ihoua instead of Iehoua? The College of Propaganda in Rome, used
response is simple, at that time many the form IEOE in his Hebrew
Hebrew scholars wanted to improve grammar47 (1843) in which he
the pronunciation of God's name not explains that the Hebrew language
because of theological reasons, but can be read according to its letters (Y,
because of linguistic reasons. Indeed, H, W, ‘ and ’). Augustin Crampon
they had wanted to take into account who studied theology and biblical
that the tetragram had to be exegesis under the direction of the
pronounced “according to its letters” Orientalist Arthur Le Hir, then
before 130 CE (see Sanhedrin 10:1). carried out himself this teaching and
For example, Antoine Fabre d'Olivet translated into French all the
in his study of the Hebrew language canonical books from the Hebrew,
and the history of the human race Aramaic and Greek texts. He
44
systematically used the name Jova
L. HERZFELD -Geschichte des volkes Iisrael von
46
der zerstörung des ersten tempels bis zur Fabre d’Olivet was a French author, poet and
einsetzung des Makkabäers Schim, Vol 2. composer whose Biblical and philosophical
Rodhausfen 1855, Ed G. Westermann. hermeneutics influenced many occultists.
45 47
J. BABOR - Uebersetzung des Neuen Testaments J. DU VERDIER - Nova methodus hebraica
mit erklärenden Anmerkungen. Wien 1805, Ed. punctis masoreticis expurgata
J.V. Degen, pp. 147,152,168. Paris 1847, Éd. J.P. Migne, pp. 883-890.
(framed) in his Latin translation48 Yahweh is not the original

(1856), in accordance with all the pronunciation of God's name but a
theophoric names of the Vulgate supposed grammatical form of the
beginning with Jo-. meaning “He causes to be[come]” of
God's name. What is amazing is that
all academics have been hypnotized
by this demonstration, which served
and still serves to justify the Yahweh
shape, whereas it is absolute
nonsense. Indeed, even the Anchor
Bible Dictionary, which supports this
causative form, to prove the
vocalization Yahweh, must admit it
All these Christian translators does not exist: The reconstructed form
who knew Hebrew used the name yahwēh is the corresponding form of the
Jehovah, or a similar form (Jova, causative stem (of the Hebrew verb hāyāh,
Ihôah, Ihoua), in their writings. How “to be”). This analysis is encouraged by
many used the name Yahweh: theological notions of God as one who is, or
absolutely none of them. who exists, or who causes existence. Thus
If we believe that this name the explanation of Yahweh in Exod 3:14,
(YHWH) is really important to God, “I am who I am,” is a folk etymology based
this extraordinary coincidence that all on this verb. The analysis of the name as a
Jewish translators of the Old causative falters on the grammatical point
Testament as well as all Christian observed by Barr that “the causative of this
translators of the New Testament verb does not occur in Hebrew elsewhere49.
who have consented to use God's The absence of the causative form of
name in their translation, may have the Hebrew verb “to be[come]” is
chosen Jehovah instead of Yahweh well known by Hebrew scholars50.
the so-called “correct form”, this André Caquot noticed that the form
extraordinary coincidence seems to Iaoue (Yahweh) given by Clement of
be providential, in any case Yahweh Alexandria (c. 200 CE) and explained
is really unlucky. by him as “the being and having to be”,
Very few people know that the
name Yahweh is not a linguistic re- 49
D.N. FREEDMAN - The Anchor Bible
enactment based on theophoric Dictionary vol. 6. New York 1992, Ed. Doubleday
p. 1011.
names, but a conjectural form based 50
In a scholarly Bible (L. Pirot, A. Clamer 1956 p.
on a theological interpretation of 83) it is written that the causative form cannot be
God's name in Exodus 3:14 as being taken into account for two main reasons. Firstly,
the causative form of the verb “to be” is not
“He causes to be[come]”, God being the known in Hebrew, furthermore to express a
creator of all that is. Accordingly, causative sense, the piel form was used. Secondly,
this philosophical notion did not come from
48
A. CRAMPON - Supplementum ad commentaria Hebrew but from Greek philosophy and the more
in scripturam sacram R.P. Cornelii a Lapide natural meaning is: I shall [prove to] be (with you)
Paris 1856, Ed. Ludovicus Vives Bibliopola. according to Exodus 3:12.
was a theological choice rather than 6:3, Darby Bible). Consequently when
philological51. What's really amazing, Moses asked God his name, he
is that the decisive argument for wanted to know its meaning. In fact
choosing Yahweh is easy to refute. his real question53 was: “Suppose the
Just check in a Hebrew grammar for sons of Israel do say to me: Who is he?” in
beginners to notice that factitive and the same way when Pharaoh asked
causative forms of the verb HYH “to Moses: “Who is Jehovah?” (Exodus
be” do not exist52 and must be 5:2), not in order to know the
reconstituted. Bible readers were pronunciation of God's name (that he
blinded by scholarly explanations of knew!) but to know what kind of god
theologians who have never Jehovah was, because there were
understood that biblical etymologies 53
An inaccurate translation of Exodus 3:13 leads
are not “folk etymologies (for to a faulty understanding of this verse. In
simpletons)” but “prophetic numerous Bibles one can read the question: What
etymologies” based on wordplays (for is his name? as in Judges 13:17, when Manoah
wanted to know the name, that is the
believers)”. There is the key. pronunciation of the name, of the angel who came
For example, the very first to meet him; on the other hand the Israelites
question that Moses asked God when asked Moses: How is his name? that is: what does his
name/fame mean?. One can verify that in Hebrew
he was appointed as mediator was: the interrogation ‘what, how’ is mâ (‫ )מה‬and ‘who’
Suppose the sons of Israel do say to me: is mî (‫)מי‬. Thus, there is a big difference between
What is his name?, what shall I say to asking to know a name because one is in
them? (Exodus 3:13). The question of ignorance of it, as in Ezra 5:4, and asking the
meaning of a name which one already knows, as
course was neither about in Genesis 32:27 where the angel asks Jacob to
pronunciation because Moses knew remind him of the meaning ‘He will supplant’ of
it, as proves the name of his mother: his name, which meaning was already known to
him (Gn 27:36), in order to give him a new one
Jochebed “Jeho[vah] is Glory” (Exodus ‘He will contend’ (Gn 32:28). Thus, when Moses
6:20), nor about the grammatical asked God: How is his name? God, in fact, gave the
meaning of the Name because Moses explanation: I shall [prove to] be what I shall [prove to]
be (ehyeh asher ehyeh). Even here, regrettably,
knew the Hebrew language very well numerous translators are influenced by Greek
(we can guess), but the question, as philosophy on the being as existing, developed by
evidenced by God's answer, was Plato in some of his works, including Parmenides.
For example, the Septuagint translated this
about its significance. Besides, passage by: I am the being (egô eimi o ôn), that is: I am
Abraham who knew God's name did He who is; while Aquila's translation, more faithful
not know that meaning: I appeared unto to Hebrew, translates this sentence by: I shall be: I
shall be (esomai esomai). As indicated by a study on
Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, as the translation of this sentence, the difficulty
the Almighty God; but by my name Jehovah results from translators who want to explain this
I was not made known to them (Exodus translation by means of their personal beliefs very
often influenced by Greek philosophy; otherwise
51
A. CAQUOT - Les énigmes d'un hémistiche there is no difficulty (B. ALBREKTSON -On the
biblique in: Dieu et l'être (Paris 1978) Ed. Études Syntax of ‫ אהיה אשׁר אהיה‬in Exodus 3:14 in: Words
Augustiniennes C.N.R.S. p. 24 note 23. and Meanings (1968, Cambridge University Press
52
A. VANLIER HUNTER - Biblical Hebrew pp. 15-28). For example, one finds the word ehyeh
Workbook: An Inductive Study for Beginners just before (Ex 3:12) and just after (Ex 4:12,15)
Lanham 1988, Ed. University Press of America, and here translators have no problem translating it
pp. 140-141. by: I shall [prove to] be with you.
hundreds of gods in Egypt and (Abodah Zarah 16b-17a). Aristo of

Jehovah was an insignificant god for Pella tried (in vain) to answer some
Egyptians. Jewish objections in his book A
Consequently, controversies Disputation of Jason and Papiscus (c. 135
about God's name were about its CE). For example, to the objection
meaning or in a practical way his that Jesus’ divinity contradicts the
relationship with humans, never unity of God and is a blasphemy, he
about its pronunciation. For example, replied that Christians believe
when there were controversies likewise in only one God. The Old
between Christian theologians and Testament itself makes a distinction
Jewish rabbis the dispute about God's with the appearance of the three men
name was mainly about its exact at Mamre (Gn 18:22,33) one of
meaning as well as its links with whom was confessedly God, yet
Messiah's name, never with respect to distinct from the Creator56. Another
its pronunciation. However after 130 reason why the controversies with
CE, these controversies were rare Rabbis were rare also came from the
because Christian theologians didn't ban to pronounce God's name.
know Hebrew, except a few Evagrius Ponticus travelled to
Christians of Jewish origin called Jerusalem, where in 383 he became a
Judeo-Christians54. The Babylonian monk at the monastery of Rufinus
Talmud55 says that (c. 110-120 CE) and Melania the Elder, and wrote: The
Jacob of Kfar Sechania, a Nazarene, tetragram, which is ineffable, was written in
quoted Deuteronomy 23:18: You shall Hebrew: Ioth, e, ouau, e (YHWH), that is
not bring the fee of a whore or the price of a to say, πιπι the God57. He also explained
dog into the house of the Lord your God in that the name of the Lord (Jesus)
fulfilment of any vow. Jacob says that he was: ioth, e, ouab, eth, with the Hebrew
was taught this by Yeshu (Jesus), then letter “s” (called shin) in the middle
asked Eliezer whether it was (YHŠWḤ). In his comment, probably
permissible to use a whore’s money from Origen’s Selecta, Evagrius makes
to build a toilet for the high priest. a theological link between the name
When Rabbi Eliezer did not reply, of God YHWH and the name of
Jacob quoted Micah 1:7: For they were Jesus YHŠWḤ, but not linguistic
amassed from whores’ fees and they shall because in Hebrew this name is
become whores’ fees again. This was the written YeŠoWa‘ not YeHŠoWaḤ58.
teaching that had pleased Rabbi
Eliezer who was accused of heresy 56
P. SCHAFF - Literary Contest of Christianity with
Judaism and Heathenism in: History of the Church
54
As Symmachus the Ebionite (also called Vol II Chap III, 1997 Oak Harbor WA Logos
Symmachian). According to Eusebius and Jerome Research Systems.
57
he translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek (c. 165 P. DE LAGARDE - Onomastica Sacra
CE) in which he systematically wrote God’s name Hildesheim 1966 Ed. Georg Olms
in ancient Hebrew (YHWH). Verlagsbuchhandlung pp. 205-206,230.
55 58
The Talmud repeats the account about Rabbi Ad tomum III operum S. Hieronymi appendix
Eliezer ben Hyrcanus (Hullin 2:24) and adds in: Patrologiæ Latina XXIII (J.P. Migne, 1845), pp.
additional material. 1275-1280.
Similarly, Severus of Antioch
(465-538), who lived in Antioch the
main centre of Hellenistic Judaism,
used the form Iôa (c. 500 CE) in a
series of comments on chapter 8 of
John’s gospel (Jn 8:58), pointing out
that it was God's name in Hebrew59.
In its onomasticon sacrum, the

Codex Coislinianus 1 (dated 7th
century CE) explains (figures below
fol. 4r et 3v) that God’s name Ïôa
means “invisible” (αορατος) and
Ïéoua “Life of G[o]d” (ζωη θυ):
The Book of Nestor the priest60

is a dispute between a Nestorian and
Monophysist, which is commented
on by a Jewish scribe in the 7th
century61. This book teaches us that
(at that time) some Christian scholars In 1250 Ramón Martí63, in
had contact with Jews who were order to help Christian theologians to
using the Hebrew substitute Hashem, debate better with the rabbis, began
“The Name” in Hebrew, abbreviated writing from 126964 (until his death in
to H'62 (framed) in place of the 1284) a study book of biblical texts in
Tetragram (YHWH). Note also that Hebrew: called Pugio Fidei (“Dagger
Jesus (underlined name) is written of Faith”). Martí used the spelling
phonetically Yeshû (YŠW) in this Yohoua65 for God's name in his Pugio
passage from Matthew 4:1-10, instead Fidei (III:II) It is clear that this
of the usual Yeshûa‘ (YŠW‘). scholar who knew the Hebrew form
YeHoWâH, also abbreviated YeYâY
59
Baltasar Cordeiro - Catena patrum graecorum in
63
Sanctum Ioannem Paris 1630 (officina As Catalan Dominican friar and theologian, he
Plantiniana) p. 244. Roma Biblioteca Vallicelliana was one of eight friars appointed to make a study
ms. E40 (10th CE) fol. 153v line 33. of oriental languages with the purpose of carrying
60
J.D. EISENSTEIN - Ozar Wikuhim on a mission to Jews and Moors.
64
Israel 1969 pp. 310-315. It is noteworthy that around 1270 appeared the
61
D.J. LASKER, S. STROUMSA -The Polemic of first works dealing with Hebrew language like
Nestor the Priest in: The Jewish Quarterly Review Vol. those of Roger Bacon (Greek and Hebrew Grammar)
91:3/4 (2001, University of Pennsylvania Press), and Williams of Mare (Biblical Glossary of the Hebrew
pp. 471-474. and Greek Vocabulary).
62 65
One notes that the Jewish medieval anti-gospel R. MARTINI - Pvgio Christianorvm
“Toledot Yeshu” claims that Jesus performed Paris (c. 1300), Bibliothèque Sainte Geneviève
miracles by using YHWH in a magic way. ms.1405 fol. CLXIIv.
(framed), and did not transcribe it Yohonan (Johannes), Yohoyaqim

Yehouah in Latin as might be (Joiaqim), etc. At that time the
expected, but Yohoua. scholar transcription Y, instead of I,
was frequent and the use of the letter
H was erratic66. Martí did not claim
that Yohoua was the exact
pronunciation, but insisted on the
necessity of using it, quoting Isaiah
52:6: For that reason my people will know
my name. The Pugio Fidei impressed
very much a few Christian scholars
knowing Hebrew.
All these examples show that
the rabbis have always considered
that the true pronunciation of the
Martí explained at length the name of God (YHWH) was
reasons for his choice. He quoted the consistent with its reading “according
Talmudic references from Rabbi to its letters (IHUA)”. We have seen
Moseh Ben Maymon in his Guide of that the rabbis of today consider the
the Perplexed, especially those of reading of God's name (YHWH) as
chapters 60-64 of part I, which Yehovah (which is close to IHUA),
concern the Name. Thus, the which is authentic because it matches
tetragram, the only name of God with all theophoric names.
(elohim) according to Zechariah 14:9, How can anyone find the
was written in Hebrew Iod He Vau pronunciation of God's name when
He, and pronounced adonai. This one doesn't know Hebrew? You only
name was indicated by the word need three tools: a literal translation,
shemhamephoras, which means “the an encyclopaedic dictionary of the
Name distinctly read” or “the Name read Bible and a logical mind. Despite the
according to its letters”. Martí noticed fact that all translations of the Bible
that Abba Saul (a rabbi of 2nd have theological biases, mainly about
century) had forbidden the God's name, however their linguistic
pronunciation of this name according to its comments are generally of a scientific
letters. This knowledge led Martini to nature. For example, the well-known
deduce that the Name YHWH had to Greek expression: allelouia (Rv 19:1) is
be pronounced IHUA that is Ihoua. a transcription of the Hebrew word
However, because all theophoric HLLW-YH, which means “Praise
names beginning with Yehô-[] in (plural) Yah”. Yah does not mean
Hebrew had been transcribed Jo-[] in “God” but is a shortened form of
Latin, like Johannes (John), Martí God's name (Psalms 68:4).
chose to write Yo-houa instead of I- 66
Elohym for Elohim, Helye for Eli, Ysayas for
houa in order to harmonize this name Isaias, etc. In the same way Iesus was written
with all theophoric names like either Hiesu, or Jhesu and Iehsu.
Despite God’s name Yah believe that Yahû is the oldest form
appearing at the beginning of the of God's name, claiming: YHWH =
Hebrew Bible67 (Exodus 15:2; 17:16) YHW[H], which implies a
most translations have removed it. In hypothetical reading process:
fact it had already been suppressed in YaHuW[aH] >> YaHaWaH >>
the Septuagint and in the Samaritan YaHaWeH or YeHoWaH. However
Pentateuch68. Despite the fact that a careful examination of all
the name Yah is mentioned 43 times theophoric names rather proves that:
in the Psalms, it was systematically YHW = YH[W], with the mere
translated as “the Lord” in the equivalence: YaHU = YaH[U].
Septuagint, except in the usual Biblical names containing the
expression “Praise Yah” which was suffixes -yahû or -yah show a marked
transcribed as a new proper name: preference for the latter (340 -yah as
Alleluia (meaningless in Greek). opposed to 123 -yahû) and in several
Even if Yah is a shortened form cases (44) both -yahû and -yah
of Yehowah it is neither the same terminate, interchangeably, the names
name, nor an abbreviation of that of the same individuals69. This
name. Thus Yah is mentioned next to equivalence of theophoric names,
Yehowah (Isaiah 12:2, 26:4) and the both ending in -yahû and -yah, shows
abbreviation of God's name in Greek that for the Hebrews of that time
is always Iô, never Ia. For example, these two names were equivalent,
the name “Jôchebed” means “Jô is Yah being viewed as an abbreviation
glory”, not “Jah is glory”, similarly of Yahû. Similarly, and for the same
the name “Baaljah” (1 Chronicles reason, all theophoric names ending
12:5) means “The lord is Jah”, not in -yahû have been transcribed in the
“The lord is Jehovah”. Consequently Septuagint (as most translations do),
Yah is a substitute of God's name not either into -ia or into -iou70, but never
God's name itself. To summarize: into -iaou. In contrast, all theophoric
YaH = Y[eHoW]aH. names with YHW- as prefix are
It is easy to see that all always pronounced Yehô- in Hebrew,
theophoric names with -YHW as without exception, and are frequently
suffix are always pronounced -yahû in abbreviated as Yô- or exceptionally as
Hebrew, without exception. What is Ye- (Yeshu‘, Yehu’). All the
the link of this new name “Yahû” theophoric names in Yehô- or Yô-
with God's name? Most scholars have both been transcribed into Iô-
in the Septuagint.
67
My strength and song is JAH, And He is become my
69
salvation: This is my God, and I glorify Him; God of my J.D. FOWLER –Theophoric Personal Names in
father, and I exalt Him (Exodus 15:2, Young's Ancient Hebrew. A Comparative Study: Journal for
Literal Translation). And he said, For the hand is on the Study of the Old Testament. Supplement Series 49
the throne of Jah; Jehovah will have war with Amalek (1988), pp. 21-62.
70
from generation to generation (Exodus 17:16, Darby). For example, in III Kings 2:1-46, the name
68
A Hebrew manuscript of Exodus 17:16 found at Adoniyahû has been transcribed: Adonias (4),
Qumran (4Q14), dated 50-25 BCE, contains the Adonia (2) and Adoniou (2). The name Benayahû:
words “throne of Yah (KS YH)”. Banaias (3), Banaia (1) and Banaiou (3).
To summarize, the 3 prefixes: (dated 514-398 BCE), it is frequently

Yehô-, Yô- and Yê- are abbreviations replaced either by YHW or YHH.
of Yehowah71 and the 2 suffixes: -yah Given that Yah was viewed as an
and -yahû are substitutes of abbreviation of Yahû, the latter
Yehowah, Yah being an abbreviation would have been understood as Yah-
of Yahû. For example: hû “Yah-Himself”. For example:
Name MT LXX reference Name meaning
Abihu Abihû Abioud Ex 6:23; Abi.hû My Father: Himself
Abijah Abiyah Abia 1Ch 3:10 Abi.yah My Father: Yah
Abijah Abiyahû Abia 2Ch 13:20 Abi.yahû My Father: Yah-himself
Joab Yôab Iôab 2Sa 8:16 Yô.ab Y(eh)ow(ah): Father
Jehu Yêhu Iêou 1Ch 2:38 Yê.hu Ye(howah): Himself
Elihu Elihû Eliou Job 32:2,4 Eli.hû My God: Himself
Elijah Eliyah Elia Ezr 10:21 Eli.yah My God: Yah
Elijah Eliyahû Eliou 1Ki 17:1 Eli.yahû My God: Yah-himself
Joel Yôel Iôel 1Ch 5:12 Yô.el Y(eh)ow(ah): God
The famous French rabbi Rashi This logical conclusion is
of Troyes (1040-1105) explains in his disputed by some theologians who
commentary on Numbers 26:5 that argue that: YHH = YHW =
all God-bearing names begin with YHW[H] = YaHWo[H]. These
Yehô- or end with -yah (or -yahû): theologians are either incompetent
“Therefore, the Holy One, blessed is he, or, worse, dishonest. Indeed, all
appended His Name to them, the letters of competent Hebrew scholars know:
H' [YHWH] at the beginning and Y. ! While Hebrew does exceptionally
[YH] at the end, as if to say “I bear encounter the anomaly of a final -H
witness for them, that these are the sons of vocalized -ô72, this peculiarity does
their fathers.” This is stated explicitly by not exist in Aramaic73, the language
David « the tribes of Yah, testimony to in which these letters are written.
Israel » (Ps. 122:4) —this Name testifies ! Because the letter H had become
for them regarding their tribes”. almost inaudible, it was frequently
The origin and meaning of the doubled, as in the feminine suffix of
substitute Yahû are controversial the 3rd person singular, written
because this name only appears as interchangeably YH/ YH’/ YHH74.
suffix of some theophoric names in Consequently, the pronunciations:
the Bible, but never alone (contrary 72
to Yah), mainly after the monarchy Most cases when a Hebrew word ending in -H
is vocalized -ô instead of -â is due to a defective
period. In contrast, whereas God's writing -Hû, pronounced -(h)ô and sometimes
name YHWH does not appear in the written -W for indicating the sound -ô (like Nabaû
Aramaic letters from Elephantine which is written NabaW and NaBaHû).
73
F.I. ANDERSEN A.D. FORBES -Spelling in the
71
Even inside the names, as the name Eliehoenai Hebrew Bible (1986, Biblical Institut) p. 324.
74
which is written in Hebrew: El-yehô-‘enay E. QIMRON -The Hebrew of the Dead Sea
“Toward Yehow[ah] my eyes” (1 Chronicles 26:3), Scrolls in: Harvard Semitic studies n°29 (1986,
is written El-iô-naï in the Septuagint. Scholars Press), p. 23 §100.7 p. 58 §322.
Yâ (YH), Yâh (YHH) and Yâ’ (Y’) Some scholars argue that the
were the same in Aramaic. name YHW would have been
! No names ending in -HH are pronounced Yahô in Elephantine,
vocalized -Hô in the Bible. These instead of Yahû, because God's name
names are always vocalized -Hâ, as was Iaô in Greek. This argument is
Bilhâ (Gn 29:29), Yogbehâ (Nb wrong for the following reasons:
32:35), etc. In addition, at Qumrân, ! The Greek form Iaô appears only
words ending by -HH are always from the 1st century BCE, when
vocalized either -Hâ, or âH. Aramaic language became Middle
! Among Elephantine letters a few Aramaic (from c. 200 BCE to c. 200
theophoric names begin with YHH-. CE), whereas the Elephantine letters
If YHH was pronounced Yahô the had been written in Official Aramaic
name YHH’WR, for example, would (from c. 600 BCE to c. 200 BCE).
have ben pronounced Yahô’ûr ! In the Elephantine letters, most
“Yahô is light”, which implies that theophoric names ending with -yhw
the letter H would have been used as are frequently written –yw, as in
vowel inside a word, but the H is Samaria, where Aramaic was spoken.
75
never used as word-internal vowel . In contrast, this change never
Consequently, God's name occurred in Judea because all these
YHH (Yah) in the Aramaic letters names have always remained written
from Elephantine was the exact -yhw and read -yahû. Consequently,
equivalent of the Hebrew biblical we must have the following
name YH (Yah). It is of note that all equivalence: YW = Y(H)W, which
theophoric names found at implies YaW / YaU = Ya(H)U,
Elephantine are written with a rather because in Aramaic the equivalence
free spelling (phonetic in fact), which YW = YO is not possible77.
contrasts enormously with the rigor In conclusion, the Jews of
76
of the Masoretic text . In an Aramaic Elephantine used two Aramaic
context, the authors of these missives substitutes for God's name, the first
wanted to dissociate the divine name one YHH instead of YH (Yah) as
YH from the vocative particle YH well as YHW (Yahû) instead of
meaning “Oh!” as these two words YHWH (Yehowah). Why did they
are homonyms in Aramaic. avoid using the tetragram? First, there
75
F.I. ANDERSEN A.D. FORBES -Spelling in the was no ban of writing the word yhwh
Hebrew Bible (1986, Biblical Institut) p. 92. because in Elephantine, the Aramaic
76
One finds the same fluctuations in the biblical verbal form yhwh, read as yihweh “It
text, which indicates by a point inside the letter
(mappiq) if the final H must be pronounced or not. 77
Similarly, when the Jews changed their system
In the Bible all theophoric names ending in -yah of numbering, about the 2nd century BCE, they
are written without mappiq with the exception of scrupulously avoided the confusion of the new
Yedidyah (2 Samuel 12:25) and should thus be numbers with the two divine names YH and YW.
pronounced -yâ (‫)י ָﬣ‬. On the other hand, the So, the number 15 was never written YH (YaH)
divine name Yah alone is always written with a but rather TW; also the number 16 was never
mappiq except in Song of Solomon 8:6, and should written YW (YaW) but TZ; moreover, this
be pronounced Yâh (‫ )י ָהּ‬not Yâ. modification remains to our day.
will be”, appears frequently in those of heaven, the Most High, the heavens
letters. Second, the Bible provides a (Daniel 2:28,29,37,44; 4:17,24,26,32).
very simple explanation of the In the same way Ezra and Nehemiah
disappearance of the tetragram, used the tetragram with the Jews
outside the Bible, which occurred (Ezra 3:10,11 8:28,29; Nehemiah 4:14
when the Jews had to flee from 8:9) but they used substitutes with
Jerusalem after her fall in 587 BCE. non-Jews: God, the great God, God of the
When Pharaoh Necho defeated heavens, God of the heavens and the earth
King Josiah then established Eliakim (Ezra 5:8,11,12,17; Nehemiah 2:4,20).
“God will raise up” as vassal and Furthermore, these non-Jews no
perhaps as provocation, changed his longer used the tetragram in their
name to Jehoiakim “Yehô will raise answers to the prophets. Cyrus was
up”. This proves that Necho knew probably the last who used the name
the great name of the God of the Jehovah (Ezra 1:2). In the book of
Hebrews (2 Kings 23:34). Some years Esther there is no tetragram, but the
later, in a similar way and in the same last book (Malachi) written for the
context, the Babylonian king Jews, contains it many times.
Nebuchadnezzar would establish as In the first century, God's name
vassal King Mattanyah “gift of Yah” was still pronounced Yehowah (in
and change his name to Zedekiah Hebrew) by the high priest in the
“rightness of Yah”. This proves that Temple, but Adonai “my Lord” or
Nebuchadnezzar knew the divine Elohim “God” in synagogues.
name, but only the more familiar However most of the Jews who
form Yah, and not the form of the spoke Aramaic used either the
great name (2 Kings 24:17). It is easy Aramaic substitute Yaw (pronounced
to understand the chain of events Yaoo and transcribed Iaô into Greek,
after the destruction of the Temple. but pronounced Yawe by the
For the Jews it was a terrible Samaritans of that time) or the other
humiliation to be defeated by pagans. Aramaic substitute Shema’ “the
Likely at this time they took good Name” (used in the Talmud).
care in the use of the holy name in Therefore if you had asked to
order not to profane it (Ezekiel the early Christians how the name
36:20,21; Malachi 1:6) and they surely YHWH was pronounced, they would
remembered previous warnings on have answered: “the Lord” for those
the subject (Isaiah 52:5; Amos 6:10). who spoke Greek, Yahô for those
It is noteworthy that after the return who spoke Aramaic, Yawe for those
from exile even the prophets avoided who spoke Samaritan and Yehowah78
using the Name with non-Jews. For for those who spoke Hebrew (mainly
example, Daniel used the Tetragram the priests working in the Temple).
(Daniel 1:2; 9:2-20) but he used
several substitutes with non-Jews: 78
Given that the name YHWDH was transcribed
God in the heavens, Revealer of secrets, God Iouda into Greek, similarly YHWH could have
been transcribed Iou(d)a or Iôa (Iooa).
God’s name —Its meaning
Did Jesus know the meaning of Impressed by all these scholars
God's name? Yes, obviously, because you probably did not dare to search
he told the apostle John: Grace to you the answer by yourself, but you were
and peace, from him who is and who was wrong because Jesus said: I thank
and who is to come; and from the seven thee, O Father, Lord of heaven and earth,
Spirits that are before his throne and from because thou hast hid these things from the
Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness wise and prudent, and hast revealed them
(Revelation 1:4, American Standard unto babes (Matthew 11:25). To find
Version). However most theologians, the answer, simply take the famous
as well as linguists, do not agree with King James Bible and read Exodus
Jesus because his explanation is 3:13-14: And Moses said unto God,
slightly different from that one given Behold, when I come unto the children of
by God to Moses in Exodus 3:14. Israel, and shall say unto them, The God of
The verse of Exodus 3:14 is your fathers hath sent me unto you; and
certainly the most controversial verse they shall say to me, What is his name?
of the entire Bible. Because of those what shall I say unto them? And God said
endless controversies, which started unto Moses, I AM THAT I AM: and he
with the first translation of the said, Thus shalt thou say unto the children
Hebrew Bible into Greek (around of Israel, I AM hath sent me unto you.
280 BCE), most people today believe What did you understand? If
that the pronunciation of God's you are a “normal mind”, almost
name has been lost and its meaning nothing because God's answer is
must be unattainable. If you ask a really weird and Moses' question
rabbi how God's name must be read, even more strange. First step to
he will probably answer that God understand these verses, read the
gave his name to Moses in Exodus endnote79: To the question ‘what is his
3:15 not: “to time indefinite (le‘olam)” name?’, God says to Moses ‘I will be what
but “to be hidden (le‘elam)”, and a I will be’. The reading of the phrase ‘I will
Catholic theologian will probably be’ sends Moses to Egypt where he will
answer that the pronunciation of encounter whatever it is YHWH may be.
God’s name is uncertain and the best The AV favours a different translation of
is to use “the Lord”. If you ask a the evasive phrase and settles for the more
Jewish linguist what is the meaning misleading ‘I AM THAT I AM’, thereby
of Yehowah he will probably answer sacrificing the future aspect of YHWH’s
that this name means: “He was, he is, presence in the exodus story. First key to
he will be (haya, howeh, yihyeh)”. A unlock the mystery, you know now
Catholic linguist will probably that the translation ‘I am that I am
answer: “He is (yihyeh)”, a Protestant (there is no need to use capital letters)’ is
linguist: “He will form (yehaweh)” or 79
“He causes to be (yahweh)”. THE BIBLE. AUTHORIZED KING JAMES
VERSION (Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 331.
misleading because the correct Consequently to understand God’s

translation is ‘I will be what I will be’. If answer we must understand first why
you use a literal translation, you will Moses asked God such a strange
see that in the “mysterious” Hebrew question?
utterance ‘ehyeh asher ehyeh’, the word Just before asking God, we
‘ehyeh’ appears just before (Exodus read that God said to Moses: So now,
3:12) and just after (Exodus 4:12,15) go. I am sending you to Pharaoh to bring
and here translators have no my people the Israelites out of Egypt. But
problem translating it by: I shall be Moses said to God: Who am I that I
[with you]. should go to Pharaoh and bring the
Why have most translators Israelites out of Egypt? (Exodus 3:10-
chosen to mislead their readers? The 11). Therefore the objection of
answer is simple: because Moses is quite realistic, because
mainstream translators must respect when he will appear later before the
the choices of theologians. For mighty Pharaoh of Egypt, the latter
example, we can see that the will say: “Who is Jehovah? I do not know
translation of Exodus 3:14 changed Jehovah at all” (Exodus 5:2). It is
in time according to the following obvious that the question of pharaoh
well-known mainstream translations: “Who is Jehovah” did not concern the
pronunciation and meaning of God's
Bible tongue date
Torah of Ezra Hebrew 400 BCE name, but rather “Who is he?”, in the
ehyeh asher ehyeh I will be what I will be same way Nabal said to David’s
Septuagint Greek 280 BCE servants: “Who is David, and who is the
egô eimi o ôn I am He who is son of Jesse?” (1 Samuel 25:10). The
LXX of Aquila Greek 130 CE rhetorical question “Who is he?”
esomai esomai I shall be: I shall be means in reality “Is he significant?”.
Vulgate Latin 400 CE Consequently, the significance of
ego sum qui sum I am who I am God's name is neither a theological
Why did these translators significance “He causes to be (as
choose to modify the phrase “I will be Creator)” nor a linguistic significance
what I will be”, easy to translate, in a “He is (the supreme Being)” but a
“cryptic sentence”, which leads the practical significance “He will be with
reader to believe that God allegedly his servants”, in the same manner the
refused to answer. In fact the apostle Paul wrote: “If God is for us,
explanation is simple: if you read the who can be against us” (Romans 8:31).
phrase “I will be what I will be” outside God gave an answer to Moses'
its context, its meaning is not quite question in order to strengthen his
clear even in Hebrew because faith, he did not give him a lesson in
normally when you say “I will be” you linguistics. Similarly Paul wrote to
usually must say after “what you will the Jewish Christians: without faith it is
be”, as the phrase “I will be [your king, impossible to please [him] well, for he that
or whatever you decide to be]”. approaches God must believe that he is and
GOD’S NAME —ITS MEANING 39
that he will be the rewarder of those “what I have written, I have written” can
earnestly seeking him (Hebrews 11:3). also be translated by “what I have
Therefore God was, is and will be written, I have chosen to write”.
the rewarder of his servants. In this Theologians and linguists who
sense, the “significance” of God's give academic comments on Exodus
name increases with time. For 3:14 usually make two big mistakes:
example, we read: And God went on to they forget that Moses knew very
speak to Moses and to say to him: I am well ancient Hebrew (consequently
Jehovah. And I used to appear to he knew the pronunciation and
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as God meaning of God's name) and 2)
Almighty, but as respects my name Jehovah when Moses asked God to know his
I did not make myself known to them name, it was in order to be reassured
(Exodus 6:2-3). Abraham, Isaac and on his mission, because if God had
Jacob knew that Jehovah was an answered “I am [the Supreme being]” or
almighty God but they did not know “I cause to be [everything]”, Moses was
that he would be later a saviour God. already convinced of that self
Similarly when Moses asked God “If evidency. In contrast, when God said
they say: Who is he?”, Jehovah did not to him: my name means “I shall be
answer “I shall be your saviour”, which with you” (Exodus 3:12), this
would have been the “normal” explanation certainly strengthened
answer but “I shall be” because this Moses' faith.
answer had a wider meaning: “I shall Moses knew the pronunciation
be [what I choose to be]” in the same of God's name, as proves the name
way that the phrase “I will favour the of his mother: Jochebed “Jeho[vah]
one whom I will favour and I will show is Glory” (Exodus 6:20), but he also
mercy to the one to whom I will show knew the linguistic meaning of this
mercy” (Exodus 33:19), not to express name because he knew Aramaic, a
an uncertainty or a refusal to tongue close to Hebrew (Genesis
intervene, but as a reminder that it 31:47). The name “Yehowah” does
depends on him alone, as confirmed not mean anything in Hebrew but it
in the Christian Greek Scriptures is identical to the Aramaic verbal
(Romans 9:15-18) which comment form yhwh vocalized yihewêh80, which
on this passage. Therefore, one could appears in Ecclesiastes 11:3: in the
translate Exodus 33:19 by “I will place where the tree shall fall, there it shall
favour the one whom I want to favour and I be (Septuagint). Because there is no
will show mercy to the one to whom I choose theological implication in this verse,
to show mercy”. In the same way, one most translators, including those of
could also translate “I shall be that I the Septuagint, are able to translate it
shall be” by “I shall be what I choose to easily “it will be”. This verbal form
be”. This type of expression is not was well known, it was used in an
unique to God as humans use it as 80
B. DAVIDSON – The Analytical Hebrew and
well. For example, in John 19:22 Chaldee Lexicon (1990, Hendrickson Publishers),
p. 51 note 4e, p. 300.
Aramaic inscription found at Sefire81 etymology”, but only a link based on

(below) dated around 750 BCE as vocal similarities85 as “same sound ≈
well as in the Aramaic letters from same sense”. For example, it reads:
Elephantine. This one will be called Woman, because
from man this one was taken (Genesis
2:23), but the biblical etymology of
“Woman” is obscure. In order to
keep the same spiritual significance,
we could say: This one will be called
Woman, because she is Wife of man, but
In addition, at that time there it would be absurd to argue that the
was only one verbal form written word “Woman” was pronounced
yhwh in Aramaic82. Consequently, if “Wifeman” according to linguistics86.
Moses guessed that God's name The biblical meaning of God's
meant linguistically “He will [come to] name was for Moses “He will be with
be83”, he was not able to know its you to free the Israelites”, for Abraham
spiritual significance, because if he this name meant “He is the Almighty”,
knew that God “will come or prove to be for the apostle Paul “He is and he will
[something?]”, his linguistic knowledge be the rewarder”, for the apostle John:
did not help him to understand what the One who is and who was and who is
was the “something”. This point is coming, the Almighty. Each significance
crucial, the biblical etymologies are enlightens an aspect of God's name.
not linguistic but spiritual teachings. To summarize, the name Yehowah
It is evident that the “folk means: He will [prove to] be what He
etymology” given in Exodus 3:14 “I chooses to be. Similarly, because we
will be whoever I will be” cannot be used have been made in his image, we will
to vocalise God's name84 because all prove to be (as well as our new
these biblical etymologies are name) what we choose to be. This is
wordplays, not linguistic definitions. not a question of linguistics.
There is generally no equivalence Paradoxically, the knowledge
between a biblical name and its “folk of Hebrew is often a handicap for
81
A. FITZMYER – The Aramaic Inscriptions of understanding the Bible. For
Sefire. Biblica et orientalia -19/A (1995, example, it reads: And he called his
Pontificio Istituto Biblico), pp. 18-20, 126 pl. IX. name Noah, saying: This one shall comfort
82
This verbal form is called peal “simple” and it is
vocalized yihewêh “He will be”. Much later (12th us concerning our work and concerning the
century CE) some cabbalists invented a new toil of our hands, because of the ground
verbal form called piel vocalized yehawwêh “He will which Jehovah has cursed (Genesis 5:29,
cause to be” or “He will form”.
83 85
The Hebrew verb HYH “to be” meant in fact H. MARKS - Biblical Naming and Poetic
“to be/ to become” in ancient Hebrew, but in Etymology. Journal of Biblical Literature 114/1
modern Hebrew it means “to be/ to exist”. (1995, The Society of Biblical Literature), pp. 21-
84
A.D. SURLS –Finding the Meaning of the 42. J. BARR - Etymology and the Old Testament.
Divine Name in the Book of Exodus: From Oudtestamentische Studiën XIX. Leiden (1974, Brill),
Etymology to Literary Onomastics. (PhD, pp. 1-28.
86
Wheaton College, November 2014), pp. 21-24. Woman << Wimman << Wifman.
GOD’S NAME —ITS MEANING 41
Darby Bible Translation). If you take was translated into Akkadian as Bab-
a encyclopaedic dictionary of the ilum. Afterwards, once the Sumerian
Bible you will see that the name language had disappeared, this name
Noah means “rest” in Hebrew, which was read as Bab-ili (Gate of god)87,
is very different from the name or sometimes as Bab-ilani (gate of
Menahem “one who comforts”. How each individual god). Furthermore, it
can one explain this oddity? The seems illogical that the builders of a
translators of the Septuagint chose to city would call it “confusion” especially
correct the verse in order to as the Bible recorded that her
harmonize the prophetic name Noah builders were presumptuous because
with its linguistic etymology “he will they hoped its top would be in the
comfort”, it reads: And he called his heavens (Genesis 11:4). Once again,
name Noah, saying: this one will cause us how can one explain this oddity? In
to rest from our works, and from the toils of fact, Babel, the famous Babylonian
our hands, and from the earth, which the “gate of heavens”, became for God the
Lord God has cursed. The Jerusalem “city in the confusion” by means of a
Bible adds in a footnote that Noah prophetic wordplay88. In the Bible,
was probably called Menahem at his that ancient city of Babylon is
birth and afterwards his name was depicted as the symbol of religious
changed to Noah (after the Deluge?). confusion (Revelation 18:2) more
All these linguistic explanations are than the confusion of languages.
misleading because according to the In fact, “folk etymologies” are
context, before Noah's time the badness in reality “prophetic etymologies”
of man was abundant (Genesis 6:5) and based on wordplays and the name
after the Deluge the earth had Abraham is a good example: Your
become restful again (Genesis 8:21). name will not be called Abram anymore,
Consequently, Noah was and your name must become Abraham,
prophetically called “rest” because because a father (ab) of a crowd (hamon) of
his parents knew that their son nations I will make you. (Genesis 17:5).
would bring comfort for mankind by If you take your encyclopaedic
means of a global rest. dictionary you will see that the name
In the same way, we read: Abram means “Father is exalted” and
Therefore was its name called Babel; 87
In this time the expression ‘Gate of God’ was
because Jehovah there confounded (balal) the understood as ‘Gate of Heavens’ or ‘Heavenly
language of the whole earth (Genesis Gate’, which is in agreement with the concepts of
11:9, Darby). The link between Babel this epoch, for example, to express his admiration
Jacob said: How fear-inspiring this place is! This is
and balal “confounded” is not clear. nothing else but the house of God and this is the gate of
In addition, in the most ancient the heavens (Genesis 28:17).
documents, the name of the city is 88
The change BaLaL into Ba-BîL is identical with
always written in Sumerian in the the name Be-ṢaL-’eL Bezalel (Exodus 31:3),
which means “in the shadow of God”. The word
form KA.DINGIR.RA(K) which ṢêL (shadow) comes from the verb ṢaLaL (to be
means “Gate of God”. This name shaded) in the same way that the Aramaic passive
participle bîl comes from the verb balal (to mix).
the name Baal-hamon (The Song of Joseph, saying: Jehovah is adding another
Songs 8:11) means “Lord of a crowd”, son to me (Genesis 30:23-24). The
but the name Raham does not exist name Joseph (Yôseph) means both
and worse does not mean anything in “He will take away (yê’soph)” and “He
Hebrew. Why did God change the will add (yôsiph). According to Jewish
name Ab-ram into Ab-raham, tradition the name Jerusalem means
instead of Ab-hamon, according to “Foundation of a double peace (yeru-
Hebrew linguistics? The explanation šalayim)” but according to Genesis
is found in the New Testament: but 14:18, Jerusalem was the “city of
also to that which adheres to the faith of Šalem”, which meant at that time “city
Abraham. He is the father of us all, just as of peace” (Hebrews 7:2), which can be
it is written: I have appointed you a father translated into Akkadian89: uru šalim.
of many nations (Romans 4:16-17). The conclusion, when all has
Abraham means in reality “Father of been heard, is: there is no need to
many nations” or “Father of a great crowd know Hebrew to understand the
(rab hamon)”. Consequently the full biblical etymologies because they are
significance of Abraham in Hebrew not based on Hebrew linguistic but
is Abrab-hamon “Father of a great on common wordplays implying a
crowd” and that name has been prophetic fulfilment for those who
merged phonetically (by wordplay) had received these names.
into Abraham. Consequently when God explained
Many biblical etymologies are to Moses that Yehowah meant “He
often in accord with Hebrew will prove to be [what he will prove to be]”,
linguistics, despite there not being he did not give him a lesson of
based on it. For example: My husband Hebrew linguistic90, but a spiritual
will join himself to me, because I have borne teaching91 in order to strengthen his
him three sons. His name was therefore faith because “He will prove to be” with
called Levi. And she became pregnant once him [Moses] to free the Israelites.
more and brought a son to birth and then That prophecy was in fact a small
said: This time I shall laud Jehovah. She fulfilment of what he will do in the
therefore called his name Judah (Genesis future when “He will prove to be
29:34-35). The name Levi “being with his servants to free them from
joined” is not quite identical to its death”, as Jesus reminded his
biblical etymology “He will be joined”, listeners (Matthew 22:32).
similarly the name Judah “He will be
laud (yehûdah)” is slightly different 89
In the Execration texts, dated around 1950
from its biblical definition “He will BCE; the name of Jerusalem is Urušalimum
which means “city of peace” in Old Babylonian.
laud (yehôdêh)”. Sometimes, the 90
Egyptians and Babylonians also believed that
biblical etymologies are multiple: the words, which own close sounds had also
And she became pregnant and brought a close meanings.
91
The spiritual meaning of God’s name (in
son to birth. Then she said: God has taken Hebrew) is “He will prove to be [what he will prove to
away my reproach! So she called his name be]”, which can be understood as “He will prove to
be [what he chooses to be]”.
The Divine Name Through the Ages
We know that Adam and Eve In the tablets of Ebla written in
were familiar with God’s name cuneiform (dated around 2300 BCE)
because after Eve gave birth to Cain appear several names with the
she said: I have acquired a man with the constituent ia or ia-u inside the name.
help of Jehovah (Genesis 4:1). Later we However, the word ia means “mine”,
read that Noah said: Blessed be Jehovah, implying “mine [of god]”. Thus the
Shem’s God (Genesis 9:26). However name Mi-ka-ia must be translated by
God's name was not used in worship “who [is] like mine [of god]” because
except by a few people: then a there was no worship of Yah at Ebla.
beginning was made of calling in the name Similarly the name Ia-ra-mu must be
of Jehovah (Genesis 4:26, Young's translated by “mine [of god is] exalted”,
Literal Translation). Furthermore, one not by “Yah is exalted” as well as Šu-
can note there are no theophoric mi-a-u “son of mine [of god]”, not “Son
names before the time of Moses, of Yahû”.
except: Mahalael “Praise of God” According to the Bible, the
(Genesis 5:12) and Jocheded “Yô is Pharaoh who opposed Moses knew
glory” (Exodus 6:20). Even among God’s name and was able to
pagan nations, the earliest theophoric pronounce it: After this, Moses and
names appeared only from 2450 Aaron went to Pharaoh and said to him:
BCE among the kings of Egypt, for This is what YHWH, God of Israel, says
example: Djedef-râ and Khâf-râ (râ “Let my people go, so that they can hold a
means “Sun” as god), and from 2350 feast in my honour in the desert”. Who is
BCE among the kings of Mari: Ikun- YHWH, Pharaoh replied, for me to obey
Šamaš and Iblul-Il (Šamaš means what he says and let Israel go? I know
“Sun” as god and Il means “God”). nothing of YHWH, and I will not let
Is there any evidence of God’s Israel go (Ex 5:1-2). According to the
name among extra-biblical Bible of Abbot Crampon (official
documents? According to the Bible, Bible of Catholicism in 1904),
before the time of Moses (c. 1500 Pharaoh would have said: Who is
BCE) there was only some private Jehovah (...) I know nothing of Jehovah,
adoration of Yehowah, in addition, however, according to the revision of
God decided to make his name 1923, he would have rather said: Who
known only from that time: But, is Yahweh (...) I know nothing of Yahweh.
indeed, for this reason I have allowed you According to the Jerusalem Bible
(Pharaoh Seqenen-râ) to remain, in order (official Bible of Catholicism since
to show you My power and in order to 1955) he would have finally said
proclaim My name through all the earth Yahve! There is something lost in
(Exodus 9:16). Consequently, translation, but the Pharaoh did not
evidence of the name Yehowah have to consult some skilled
before 1500 BCE is unlikely. Hebraists to know how to
pronounce YHWH (fortunately for The translation of that list of 4

him) because he spoke only Egyptian names (from left to right), according
like the Pharaoh Amenhotep III who to the conventional reading, is as
had engraved the tetragram in a follows, if the names are those of
shield92 on a column of the temple of gods (underlined) or place names95
Amun, to the north of an Eastern (second line with asterisk*):
portal (pointing towards Canaan),
1) t3 š3-sw-w s3 m-’-ti-i
containing a short list of 4 names93
Land of Shasu after Maat
(below), of which the second from
Land of Shasu [of] Samata*
the left is the tetragram94.
2) t3 š3-sw-w y-h-w3 w
Land of Shasu those of Yehua
Land of Shasu [those] of Yahwe*
3) t3 š3-sw t-w-r-ÿ b-l
Land of Shasu showing respect to Bel
Land of Shasu [of] Turbil/r*
4) b3-i-ti h ‘-[n-t]
Bait [house of] A[nat]
This document confirms the Bait [house of] A[nat]*
Bible, indeed the Egyptian pharaohs
The translation, which
knew, since the disastrous departure
supposes place names, is illogical96
of Israelites from Egypt, that their
for two reasons: Anat97 was a major
god was called Yehowah. To avoid
northwest Semitic goddess, not a
such a conclusion, Egyptologists
place name, and the three other
strongly discredit this document
“place names”: Samata, Yahwe and
arguing that the second name is not
Turbil/r are absolutely unknown in
God's name but a place name, the
the El-Amarna letters. In contrast,
Shasu people “Bedouin” mentioned
Maat, meaning “truth/ harmony” in
in the shield was only a small tribe
Egyptian, was a major goddess of
somewhere in Edom and finally the
Byblos, Yehowah was the Israelite
tetragram had to be pronounced
God, Bel was the Babylonian Baal,
Yahwe according to current studies,
meaning “Lord” in Canaan, and
not Yehua according to the
Anat was a major Syrian god. So, the
conventional reading of hieroglyphs,
Egyptians distinguished among
but these 3 statements are wrong.
different kinds of Canaanite Shasu
92
J. LECLANT - Les fouilles de Soleb. Annuaire du “Bedouin / nomads” by the chief
Collège de France 1980-1981, pp. 474-475.
95
93
M. SCHIFF GIORGINI – Soleb V Le temple bas- ALLEN, SPENCER L. -The Splintered Divine: A
reliefs et inscriptions (1998, Institut Français Study of Ištar, Baal, and Yahweh Divine Names
d'Archéologie Orientale), pl. 221. and Divine Multiplicity in the Ancient Near East"
94
J. LECLANT - Le "Tétragramme" à l'époque (2011, Penn Dissertations), pp. 350-354.
96
d'Aménophis III (Near Eastern Studies, 1991) C. ALING, C. BILLINGTON -The Name Yahweh
pp. 215-219. in Egyptian Hieroglyphic Text, in Autumn 2009
M.C. ASTOUR - Yahweh in Egyptian Topographic issue of Artifax.
97
Lists (1979, Festschrift Elmar Edel), pp.17-32. Hebrew and Phoenician ‫ענת‬, ‘Anāt; Ugaritic ‘nt.
THE DIVINE NAME THROUGH THE AGES 45
god they worshiped. In Ramses II’s Harru99 (Hurrians). Shortly after,
lists, the Shasu98 in Canaan are from Thutmose I (c. 1490 BCE) and
distinguished from one another. For up to Ramses III (c. 1160 BCE),
example, at the Battle of Kadesh, a appear (from nowhere!) in Palestine
text reads (pap. Anastasi): Came two an important new Asiatic people,
Shasu from the tribes of Shasu (...) He called Shasu, who are extensively
takes what is left and joined the (ranks of) described in the Egyptian
100
wretched. He mingles with the tribes of iconographic documents . “Shasu
Shasu land and disguises himself as those land” in the Egyptian inscriptions
Asiatics (aamu) (I, 23,7-8). We ended was not a small area of unknown
allowing to tribes of Shasu from Seir nomads because in the list of six
(Edom) to pass the fortress (VI, 54-56). place names on a chariot of
One notes that from Ahmose Thutmose IV, “Shasu land” was
(c. 1530 BCE) there is a complete considered potentially as a powerful
disappearance (into nowhere!) of any enemy by the Egyptians like Naharin
reference to the Hyksos in Egyptian land (Western Mesopotamia) or
documents and at the same time Shinar. In the tomb of Anen
Palestine, called “Lower Retenu”, (TT120), brother-in-law of the king
became suddenly the “land of Amenhotep III, the Shasu people is
98
Shasu refer to Bedouin (“wandering” in pictured (the first one starting on the
Egyptian), called Habiru (“emigrants” in left) as one of the nine traditional
Akkadian) by Canaanites. This identification is
confirmed by the Egyptian priest Manetho enemies of Egypt. Consequently, for
himself. He explains the word as Hyksos from Amenhotep III, Yehua’ was the god
hyk-sos "King Shepherd", which is relatively of Canaan, the country of Shasu
accurate, because the Egyptian word ḥeq means
"ruler/chief" and the word šos actually means
(Hebrew herders).
“shepherd”. Sahidic translation (late Egyptian) of Another controversy raised by
Genesis 47:6: if you know any able men among them, Egyptologists: how to pronounce
then make them rulers over my cattle, used for example
the word šos to describe these “rulers of cattle”. The
God's name written Y-h-w3 in the
Hyksos word actually comes from the Egyptian shield: Yehua or Yahwe?
ḥeqaw ḫa’sw.t “Rulers of foreign lands”, but
Manetho connected it to the Shasu appeared later
and thus translated it as “Rulers of shepherds”
ḥeqaw šosw (in Egyptian š3s means “travelling”).
Studies on Shasu tend to rehabilitate this so-
called popular etymology (M.G. HASEL -
Domination and Resistance. Egyptian Military Activity
in the Southern Levant, Leiden 1998, Ed. Brill, pp.
217-239). In fact, the Egyptians understood the
word shasu as a common noun designating semi-
sedentary shepherds staying mainly in the south
of Palestine. They used the phrase “Lands of
Shasu”, which shows that they originally included
99
this phrase as a geographical designation. The J-.C. GOYON – De l'Afrique à l'Orient (Paris
fact that they wrote the word sometimes shas (š3s) 2005, E.J. ellipses), pp. 57-61.
100
“wandering” instead of the usual shasu (š3sw) also R. GIVEON - Les bédouins Shosou des
shows that they originally included the word as a documents égyptiens (1971, E.J. Brill), pp. 248-
synonym for “transhumant”. 250.
This controversy illustrates the the equivalence: “u (w3)” = “u-a

dishonesty of Egyptologists because (w3-3)”, this is absurd. In contrast
in all the dictionaries of hieroglyphs the equivalence: “u-a (w3)” = “u-a-a
the reading of 3 is “a”, the reading of (w3-3)” is logical. Second logical
w is “u” and the reading of w3 is argument, if the sign w3 had been
“ua101”. Today the sign w3 is read pronounced “u”, why use it to
either “wa” or “oua” as in the word vocalize the sound “u” in foreign
w3-w3-t: Wawat or Ouaouat (Nubia) proper names whereas the usual
or the word w3-d-y-t: Wadjet or practice was to use the sign “w”. For
Ouadjet (the Green Crown). First example, Puduhepa (1297-1215), a
remark, the reading “Yahwe” of Y-h- Hittite queen married to the King
w3 is not possible because the value Hattusili III, was also well-known in
“we” for w3 never appears. Egypt. Given that she was cited on
Some Egyptologists state that numerous documents in different
the sign w3 could be read “u” or scripts, we know exactly her name,
“o”, instead of “ua”, because some which was read as Puduḫêpa and was
transcriptions of w3 have this value, transcribed in hieroglyph as:
consequently the name Y-h-w3 could
be read Yahu or Yaho. This
statement is false because all the p w t w ḫ ÿ p3
transcriptions, which are reliable Even if one ignores these
(dated after 300 BCE), are very ancient writings, careful observation
approximate102. The sign w3 at that of all these signs enables one to
time was probably read “oa” instead verify that the name of the queen in
of “ua”, not “u” or “o”. Egyptian hieroglyphs is written with
How could someone who does an alphabet using three main
not know Egyptian writing read the “vowels”: w = “u”, ÿ = “i” and 3 =
name Y-h-w3? First, if you take a “a” (thus w3 = “ua”). If there were
dictionary of hieroglyphs you will no vowels between two consonants
note that many words written with the Egyptians did as we do today,
the sign w3 are also written w3-3103. they used to put a short “e” (called
These variants prove that the sign w3 shewa F) like Egypt or Copt. The
was pronounced as w3-3, if w3 was syllable “pt” corresponds to Ptah (a
pronounced “u” one would have had creator god) written p-t-ḥ and
pronounced pFtFḥ or “pth”. It is
101
E.A.W. BUDGE –An Egyptian Hieroglyphic
noteworthy to note that Herodotus
Dictoniary Vo. I (London, 1920), pp. XLIV,145. (c. 450 BCE) vocalized the name of
102
Ptolemaios is written p-t-w3-lw-m-y-s pharaohs: Nêcôs (Nêkaô in the
Pharaoh w3-s3-i-r-k-n is read Osorkon or
Osokhor (Manetho), Sô in Hebrew (2 Kings
Septuagint) and Sabacôs (History
17:4) and Segor in the Septuagint. II,152) which are respectively written
Tiwlôn (1 Chronicles 4:10) = t-lw-w3-3-n in hieroglyph: N-k3-w (NFkau) and
Beth-hôron (Joshua 16:3) = b3-i-ti-ḥ—w3-3-rw-n
103
Like: w3-w3-t / w3-3-w3-3-t; w3-ḫ / w3-3-ḫ;
Š3-b3-k3 (Šabaka). So according to
w3-g / w3-3-g; t-w3 / t-w3-3. these equivalences, which confirm
the conventional reading, the became the first ruler (Judges 9:22),
Egyptian tetragram Y-h-w3 should be the Egyptians ceased to speak of the
read YFhua (Yehoua). If this “land of Shasu” but now they spoke
tetragram was pronounced Yahweh, of the “people of Israel”, as in the
Egyptians would have spelled it Merneptah Stele.
phonetically Y-3-h-w-h (YahuFh), not In fact God's name began to
Y-h-w3 (YFhua). spread when David started building
If the tetragram had been the Temple in Jerusalem. It is
pronounced Yahu, instead of Yehua, noteworthy that David's son, the
it would have been written Y-3-h-w famous Solomon, was the first
(Yahu) or Y-h-w (YFhu) not Y-h-w3 Israelite king who received a
(YFhua). For example the name of theophoric name: Jedidiah “Beloved
Jaffa was written Joppa in Greek of Yah” (2 Samuel 12:25).
(Joshua 19:46) but was vocalized God's name began to spread
Yæpô (Ypw) in Hebrew and Yapû again, even among foreign nations
(Ia-pu) in Old Babylonian. around Israel, like Moab. For
According to these witnesses the example, Mesha (2 Kings 3:4-6), a
original vocalization of the city Moabite king (c. 900-870), knew
should be Yæpû or Yopû because at God's name (YHWH) because it
that time the w was always read “u” appears in line 18 of his stele.
not “o”. Given that that city was
written Y-p-w in hieroglyph, its
vocalization should be YFpu which is
very close to Yopu, but neither
YFpo, nor YFpua, nor YFpue, etc.
When the Israelites entered in
Canaan one would have thought that
God's name was going to spread but
it was not the case for two reasons:
the priests neglected to read the
book of Moses to the people (who
therefore remained ignorant) and the
Israelites continued worshiping Baal
“the Lord” by means of sacred poles.
One notes that during the period of
the Judges, from Joshua to Samuel,
there were only two theophoric
names with El “God” (Othniel and
Samuel) but none with Yah or
Yehowah. When the Israelites were
able to make a kingdom, in fact
when Abimelech (c. 1260 BCE)
It is not by chance that king One notes that the vocalization

Mesha was able to pronounce God's of Hebrew names105 was similar to
name, because his main adversary the one from Akkadian, in addition,
was king Jehosaphat, the first Judean in all cases there was a systematic
king who had a theophoric name equivalence: Y = I, W = U.
“Yeho is judge” as birth name. How
Habor Nergal writing
did Moabite king Mesha pronounce
ḤBWR NYRGL Alphabetic
God's name? Given that the Ḫa-bur Ne-iri-gal Syllabic
theological vocalization Yahweh “He ḤaBUR NIRGaL Akkadian
causes to be” never existed, this ḤaBOR NeRGaL Hebrew
reading must be excluded. We have Abôr Nerigêl Greek
three strong clues to find the
pronunciation of God's name: Gozan Sasnuri writing
! The Mesha Stele contains two GWZN SS-NWRY Alphabetic
Gu-za-ni Šamaš-nu-ri Syllabic
Israelite names: Omri and Israel, and GUZaN SaS-NURI Akkadian
because these names were of foreign GOZaN - Hebrew
origin (for Moabites) they were to Gôzan - Greek
have been written phonetically. As
the name Omri is written ‘MRY Consequently the most likely
(‘oMRI) and Israel is written YŚR’L pronunciation of God's name in the
(IŚRa’eL), we can suppose that Mesha Stele was something like
God’s name, which was an Israelite Yehowah (likely) or Ihua.
name was pronounced in the same One must note that after
way (Y = I): YHWH (IHWaH). Jehoshaphat's reign many Israelite
! King Mesha knew king Jehoshaphat kings bore theophoric names. In
and obviously he had to know how addition, archaeology confirms that
to pronounce his name, which was during the period from the building
Yehô-shaphat “Yehô is judge” in of the temple of Jerusalem by
Hebrew. Consequently the name Solomon up to its destruction by the
YHW-H had to be pronounced Babylonians in 587 BCE, the
similarly as YeHoW-aH. tetragram was widely used in
! The orthography of the Aramaic inscriptions and also sometimes the
portion of the Tell Fekherye two other names: Yah and Yahu.
Bilingual104 (c. 850 BCE) proves that For example, several writings
for a long time three “vowel letters” dated c. 800 BCE have been found at
were used to vocalize proper names: Kuntillet Ajrud, near the Sinai; they
W for U, Y for I, and H for final A. contain either the name YHW or
Several names of that stele are also YHWH. The inscription reads: to
mentioned in the Bible. Obadyaw son of Adnah may he be blessed
104
by Yhw (l‘bdyw bn ‘dnh brk h’ lyhw)
D.N. FREEDMAN, A.D. FORBES, F.I.
ANDERSEN – Studies in Hebrew and Aramaic
105
Orthography (Biblical and Judaic Studies vol.2, Habor (2 Kings 18:11), Nergal (2 Kings 17:30),
1992), pp. 137-170. Gozan (2 Kings 18:11).
The inscription reads: Uriyahu

Other sentences read: I bless the rich has written it, blessed be Uriyahu
YOU by Yhwh of Samaria and by [his] by Yhwh (‘ryhw h’šr ktbh brk ‘ryhw
asherah (brkt ’tkm lyhwh Šmrn wl’šrth); I lyhwh). Hebrew inscriptions dated
bless you by Yhwh of Teman and by [his] around 700 BCE may be read on the
asherah (’t brktk lyhwh tmn wl’šrth), walls of a burial cave at Khirbet Beit
asherah being a sacred pole, tree or Lei near Jerusalem. The tetragram
totem (Dt 16:21-22); and let Yhw give appears in the following sentences106:
unto him as to his heart (wntn lh yhw Save us [Y]hwh
klbbh); does good, Yhwh (hytb yhwh). Yhwh the god of the whole earth (...) be
merciful forgive Yh Yhwh.
Dated around 775 BCE, a seal

was found with the following
inscription: Miqneyaw servant of Yhwh
/ to Miqneyaw servant of Yhwh (mqnyw
‘bd yhwh / lmqnyw ‘bd lyhwh). A limestone scaraboid (dated c.
700 BCE) found at Mamillah107, near
Jerusalem, reads:
Belonging to Yehowah ḥen, daughter of
Paqu‘oth (‫)יהוהחנ בת פקעת‬.
We can notice that these
theophoric names end in -yaw and
not in –yahu, but this anomaly only
appears in inscriptions found outside
Judaea, because in this territory
theophoric names were always A bullae from Samaria108 (dated
written with -yahu at the end not with c. 690 BCE), reads: [The] name of
-yaw. It is thought that Judaeans Yhwh on Manasseh (šm yhwh ‘l mnšh).
spoke a more correct Hebrew than
the Hebrews of the North (Samaria) 106
A few letters are hard to read but the two
whose language was more relaxed. words Yh Yhwh are clearly legible.
107
At Khirbet el-Qom, about 30 km R. DEUTSCH – Three Hebrew Seals from the
Iron Age Tombs at Mamillah, Jerusalem
south-west of Jerusalem, an epitaph (Eisenbrauns 2006), pp. 316-318.
dated c. 750 BCE was discovered, 108
R. DEUTSCH – New bullae: “The Name of
with the inscription: Yahweh on Manasseh” (Haivrit Weaḥyoteha Vols.
2-3, 2002-2003) p. 183.
5. Graciousness toward those who love

6. [hi]m and those who keep [his]
7. [commandments] ...
8. [?]
9. blessing more than any
10. [sna]re and more than Evil.
Two silver plaques have been 11. For redemption is in him.
found at Ketef Hinnom (near 12. For Yehowah
Jerusalem) dated 650-600 BCE. On 13. is our restorer [and]
plaque II there are three tetragrams, 14. rock. May bless
both contain the famous priestly 15. you Yehowah and
blessing109 recited in the temple for 16. [may he] keep you. [May] he
Yom Kippur. The exact quotation of 17. make shine Yehowah
18. [his] face [upon you ..]
Numbers 6:24-26 in an amulet shows
that the Bible had been known and Plaque II
read for several centuries.
Plaque I
1. [may he] be blessed

2. [-] by Yehowah
3. the helper and
4. the rebuker of
5. Evil. May bless you
6. Yehowah, may
The priestly blessing (Numbers 7. he keep you
6:24-26) is highlighted in bold in the 8. May he make shine
9. Yehowah his face
translation hereafter: 10. upon you and
1. Yehow[ah ..] 11. grant you
2. ... 12. peace
3. grea[t .. who keeps]
4. the covenant and
A few ostraca have been
discovered at the site of Tell Arad.
109
G. BARKAY, A.G. VAUGHIN, M.J. LUNDBERG, These texts date from 700 to 600
B. ZUKERMAN – The Amulets from Ketef
Hinnom: A New Edition and Evaluation (Bulletin
BCE. For example in ostracon N°18
of the American Schools of Oriental Research 334, we find the following text:
2004) pp. 41-71.
Consequently the tetragram
was widely used in daily life until 600
BCE. From an archaeological point
of view, the tetragram disappeared
just after the destruction of the first
temple (587 BCE), except in the
Bible. In the period from 900 to 600
BCE about 40 tetragrams can be
found. Thus, the tetragram played a
major role in worship, even though,
as indicated in the Bible, the short
name Yah was also used alone. As a
result, this name was used for less
1) To my lord Elia- formal occasions as in theophoric
2) -shib may Yhwh seek names or in engravings on jars. For
3) your welfare. And now example, several jars have been
4) give to Shemaryahu found dated c. 750 BCE with names
9) temple of Yhwh Yah and Yahu stamped on them111.
A few ostraca of the same
period (c. 600 BCE) have been found
at the site of Lakish with the
following inscription on ostracon110:
Yah to Yah
Yahû to Yaw
The destruction of the first
Temple had significant consequences
for worship and later the
pronunciation of the Name. As
1) To my lord Yoash May archaeology confirms, before this
2) Yhwh make my lord hear to a news of peace 111
Notice that these names are sometimes
3) in this very day, in this very day. Who is your preceded by the Hebraic particle L which means
servant, “to, for” implying that these objects were
4) a dog, in order for my lord to remember his intended for the Temple, perhaps as tithes. In a
servant? few cases the name YHW, during the period of
5) May Yhwh allow my lord ... the second temple, is surmounted by a Hebrew
symbol which means “shekel”, that is the
collection for the sanctuary (Exodus 30:13).
110
This inscription agrees with the events which During this period some parallel inscriptions are
were described in Jeremiah 34:6-7. written LMLK which means “to the king”.
destruction the Name was widely professional “printers”. Among the

used by the Hebrews, but, as hundred jars with the divine names
Maimonides pointed out, it also stamped on them, dated between
confirms that the Name did not 500 and 300 BCE, about 60 have the
possess any mystical power. name YH and 40 the name YHW113.
Knowing the proper pronunciation The resemblance between the
was for the Hebrews neither a Aramaic name Yehud (YHD) and
material advantage, nor a protection the Hebrew name Yahu (YHW)
against their enemies. certainly favoured the emergence of
Another very important the Hebrew name Yehud “Judea” on
consequence of the destruction of stamps and coins, because, as seen,
the first temple was the Jews’ 70 this defective spelling in Hebrew is
years of captivity in Babylonia during abnormal. Furthermore, when in
which time the people learnt observing the chronological
Aramaic. Thus, from this period frequency of these two names, one
some parts of the Bible were written notices that, at about the 3rd century
in this language112. Therefore, when BCE, there was a reversal of the
the Jews came back to Jerusalem, trend, with inscriptions of Yehud
many of them had forgotten their (YHD) replacing inscriptions of
mother tongue (Nehemiah 13:24). Yahû (YHW). The confusion in
Hence, to make the Bible more reading between Yahu and Yehud
readable, around 450 BCE, Ezra began when coins that actually were
changed the old Hebrew characters marked Yehud (YHD/ YHDH /
into Aramaic characters or “modern YHWD) were found (© = shekel?):
Hebrew” (Talmud Sanhedrin 21b) Paleo-Hebrew (c. 500 BCE)
and to help the people to
understand, read the text and
explained it. On the other hand, the
old Hebrew style was retained by the
Samaritans in their writings.
© YHW © YHW
However, the influence of
Aramaic, which affected slightly the Paleo-Aramaic
pronunciation of Hebrew also
affected its writing. One can
moreover observe, in the study of
inscriptions on stamps and seals, a
wide variety of shapes in Paleo- © YHD © YHD YHWD Yehud.
Hebrew. This variety is less evident YHW‘ZR Yehoezer
PḤW[’] Governor
on the seals than on the stamps. No
113
doubt, this conservatism in seals Y. AHARONI -Excavations at Ramath Rahel
1954 (I.E.J. vol. 6:3, 1956) pp. 144-151.
exists because they were made by Y. AHARONI -Excavations at Ramath Rahel 1961-
62 (1964, Centro di studi semitici), pp. 20-46 pl.
112
Daniel 2:4-7:28; Ezra 4:8-6:18; 7:12-28. 19,20.
priest Simon the Just, the use of the
tetragram was reserved for the
Temple only, and it specifies that in
time even the divine names stamped
on jars (YH and YHW because no
tetragram has been found) would be
removed to protect their holiness
YH YHW (Shabbat 61b, ‘Arakin 6a).
At the beginning of the 3rd According to the historic
century BCE most people in Judea testimonies of the Talmud, the Letter
spoke Aramaic, and most tradesmen of Aristeas (written c. 170-150 BCE)
also spoke Greek. The Jewish and Josephus (Jewish Antiquities
aristocracy spoke Greek and Hebrew XII:43), the translation of the
but this latter language was probably Septuagint and the disappearance of
a little different from the Biblical God’s name in Israel were
Hebrew, just as common Greek, or contemporary events, since all these
koine was a little different from accounts indicate that Ptolemy
literary Greek. Thus, in order to Philadelphus and Simon the Just
improve the people’s lived at the same moment115. Indeed,
comprehension, the Hebrew text of no divine names, whether under the
the Bible was paraphrased in forms: YH, YW, and YHW and
Aramaic. This vernacular translation YHWH, were exhumed in the
was called the Targum. Mainly to documents dated from 3rd century
help the Greek speaking Jews of the BCE to 2nd century CE.
Diaspora, a Greek translation of the While the Jews ceased to use
Pentateuch, the Septuagint was made ancient Hebrew for writing God's
around 280 BCE. It is noteworthy name, some Samaritans continued to
that, given the name Yahû was still use it as one can see in the Samaritan
used by Jewish people at this time, inscription116 (below) found at
“to protect” this substitute for the Syracuse (dated 2nd century CE): Do
tetragram, all theophoric names arise, YHWH, and let your enemies be
ending with -yahu were modified to ia scattered, similar to the text of
or iou, according to the preference of Numbers 10:35.
the translator induced by Greek
declensions. Furthermore the
number of theophoric names using
yahu declines sharply from this
period on114. The Talmud (Yoma
[QW]MH YHWH WYPṢW ’YBYK
39b) indicates that at about the 3rd
century BCE, at the time of high 115
R. MARCUS - Jewish Antiquities Books XII-
XIII (1998 Loeb Classical Library), pp. 462-466.
114 116
Z. ZEVIT - A Chapter in the History of V. MORABITO - Les Samaritains de Sicile
Israelite Personal Names (BASOR 250), pp. 3-14. (1998, Zèbre), pp. 195-197.
We can see the same text in Septuagint of Qumran, since there

another inscription dated 3rd century was no ban (before 130 CE) on its
CE117. These few tetragrams show pronunciation? Philo of Alexandria
that there had never been any ban on explains why (c. 40 CE): there was a
writing God's name. gold plaque shaped in a ring and bearing 4
engraved characters of a name which had
the right to hear and to pronounce in the
holy place those ones whose ears and tongue
Q]WMH: YHWH
have been purified by wisdom, and nobody
else and absolutely nowhere else. And this
After 50 CE, Judeo-Christians holy prophet Moses calls the name, a name
who spoke mainly Aramaic were of four letters (‫)יהוה‬, making them perhaps
called “Nazarenes” in Greek (Acts symbols of the primary numbers (De vita
24:5) or “Nozrim” in Hebrew. They Mosis II:115,132). At that time the
soon split into numerous small sects Jews had the habit of writing God's
(Ebionites, Elcesaites, Hermits, etc.) name in Hebrew because they
whose main teaching about God was considered it as most holy. In fact,
his uniqueness. Because they spoke that Jewish custom was a way of
Aramaic, they did not substantially sanctifying God's name. Given that
spread outside Palestine except in the custom of writing God's name did
south of Babylonia. With the arrival not violate any biblical command the
of Islam some Jewish Christians apostle Paul complied. In his letters
were converted and introduced into to the Corinthians he explains why:
Muslim religion the concept of a For though I am free from all people, I have
unique god with 99 beautiful names made myself the slave to all, so that I may
(the one hundredth name being the gain as many people as possible. To the
supreme name). Jews I became as a Jew in order to gain
When the apostle wrote his Jews; to those under law I became as under
letter to the Hebrews in Judea, he law, though I myself am not under law, in
quoted many times the Septuagint, order to gain those under law. To those
which contained the tetragram at without law I became as without law,
that time (61 CE), for example: I will although I am not without law toward God
declare your name to my brothers; in the but under law toward Christ, in order to
middle of the congregation I will praise you gain those without law. To the weak I
with song. And again: I will have my trust became weak, in order to gain the weak. I
in him. And again: Look! I and the young have become all things to people of all sorts,
children, whom ‫ יהוה‬gave me (Hebrews so that I might by all possible means save
2:12-13). Why did Paul observe that some. But I do all things for the sake of the
Jewish custom of writing God's good news, in order to share it with others
name in Hebrew (‫ )יהוה‬instead of (...) You cannot be drinking the cup of ‫יהוה‬
writing Iaô in Greek, as in the and the cup of demons; you cannot be
117
J. NAVEH - Early History of the Alphabet partaking of the table of ‫ יהוה‬and the table
(1982, E.J. Brill), p. 124.
of demons. Or, are we inciting ‫ יהוה‬to him. Who are you to judge the servant of
jealousy? We are not stronger than he is, another? To his own master he stands or
are we? All things are lawful, but not all falls. Indeed, he will be made to stand, for
things are advantageous. All things are Jehovah can make him stand. One man
lawful, but not all things build up. Let each judges one day as above another; another
one keep seeking, not his own advantage, judges one day the same as all others; let
but that of the other person. Eat whatever each one be fully convinced in his own mind.
is sold in a meat market, making no The one who observes the day observes it to
inquiry because of your conscience, for “to ‫יהוה‬. Also, the one who eats, eats to ‫יהוה‬,
‫ יהוה‬belong the earth and everything in it.” for he gives thanks to God; and the one
If an unbeliever invites you and you want to who does not eat does not eat to ‫יהוה‬, and
go, eat whatever is set before you, making yet gives thanks to God. Not one of us, in
no inquiry on account of your conscience. fact, lives with regard to himself only, and
But if anyone says to you: This is something no one dies with regard to himself only. For
offered in sacrifice, do not eat because of the if we live, we live to ‫יהוה‬, and if we die, we
one who told you and because of conscience. die to ‫יהוה‬. So both if we live and if we die,
I do not mean your own conscience, but that we belong to Jehovah. For to this end Christ
of the other person. For why should my died and came to life again, so that he
freedom be judged by another person’s might be Lord over both the dead and the
conscience? If I am partaking with thanks, living. But why do you judge your brother?
why am I to be spoken of abusively over Or why do you also look down on your
that for which I give thanks? Therefore, brother? For we will all stand before the
whether you are eating or drinking or doing judgment seat of God. For it is written: As
anything else, do all things for God’s glory. surely as I live, says ‫יהוה‬, to me every knee
Keep from becoming causes for stumbling to will bend, and every tongue will make open
Jews as well as Greeks and to the acknowledgment to God. So, then, each of
congregation of God, just as I am trying to us will render an account for himself to
please all people in all things, not seeking God. Therefore, let us not judge one another
my own advantage, but that of the many, so any longer but, rather, be determined not to
that they may be saved (1 Corinthians put a stumbling block or an obstacle before
9:19-23; 10:21-33). The main reason a brother. I know and am convinced in the
why the apostle had respected some Lord Jesus that nothing is unclean in itself;
Jewish laws, despite the fact he was only where a man considers something to be
not obliged to do so, was to save as unclean, to him it is unclean. For if your
many Jews as possible: Welcome the brother is being offended because of food,
man having weaknesses in his faith, but do you are no longer walking according to love.
not pass judgment on differing opinions. Do not by your food ruin that one for whom
One man has faith to eat everything, but Christ died. Therefore, do not let the good
the man who is weak eats only vegetables. you do be spoken of as bad. For the
Let the one eating not look down on the one Kingdom of God does not mean eating and
not eating, and let the one not eating not drinking, but means righteousness and
judge the one eating, for God has welcomed peace and joy with holy spirit. For whoever
slaves for Christ in this way is acceptable to of writing God's name in Hebrew
God and has approval with men. It is was no longer necessary to observe.
noteworthy that there was a ban on Probably from 100 CE the Christian
pronouncing God's name at Qumran leaders of Alexandria decided to
(before 70 CE), consequently the replace the name ‫ יהוה‬written in
form Iaô (Ιαω) which appears in one Hebrew by some nomina sacra “sacred
copy of the Septuagint must be a names” like “L[or]d (ΚΣ)” or “G[o]d
(authorized) substitute, like Adonai (ΘΣ)” written in Greek. How were
(Άδωναΐ) the usual substitute for these names L-d and G-d
God’s name which equally appears in pronounced? It is noteworthy that
some copies of the Septuagint, current religious Jews still use this
including the Codex Alexandrinus (in system, the word L-d is read “Lord”
1 Kings 1:11 for example). but if you know Hebrew you could
When the letters of Paul were say “Yehowah”. For example,
read, how did early Christians Samuel Cahen, who was the first
pronounce God's name? The answer Jewish Bible translator in French
depended on the public: when it was (1831-1851) systematically used the
a pagan the reading could be theos name Iehovah instead of the
“God”, when it was a Greek believer substitute Lord (Adonay) or Eternal.
the reading could be kurios “Lord”, After 100 CE, most Christians
when it was a Jewish believer who were Gentile Christians living in
spoke Hebrew the reading could be Greece (Revelation 1:4) who, from
Yehowah, but there was no absolute 150 CE, made a strong connection
rule, the Talmud only says that the between the Lord god (Jesus) and
usual substitute was adonai “my the god Lord (Jehovah). The two
Lord” in Hebrew. lords were completely merged after
After 90 CE, the majority of 300 CE (beginning of the Trinity).
Jews were affiliated to the Jewish For these Christians (Roman
Council (the rabbinate) founded at Catholics), God’s name was either
Yabneh by Johanan ben Zakai, KS “L-d” or IHS “J-E-S”).
whose main objective was to keep When Hebrew was no longer
the synagogue worship and preserve spoken after 200 CE, the oral
the oral teaching from the Pharisees teaching called Mishnah was put in
and because Christian Jews were writing (Talmud of Jerusalem). There
considered by other Jews as heretics, was no controversy among Jews on
they introduced the Birkat ha-Minim how to pronounce God's name,
“Blessing on the heretics” in order to because after 130 CE its
stop contact with them. Because of pronunciation was forbidden, but
that cursing (called “blessing”), what was really the genuine name of
discussions with Jews were no longer God, the “hidden name”? Some
possible, consequently the Jewish mystics began to teach that
compliance with the Jewish custom God has many names beside the
great name YHW (Sefer Yetzirah called the Masoretes “Tradition
I:15). In time, Kabbalists “Those Keepers119”. We do not know what
who have received [the knowledge]” happened exactly to the Sadducees
would look at each of the 72 triads and Essenes after the Bar Kokhba
and consider them as one of the 72 revolt (132-135), but we know that
Names of God, others would teach the Karaites who appeared around
that God’s name is the Torah 700 CE were the successors of the
itself118. Sopherim (Sadducean scribes).
The name YHW (Yahô) played
119
a great role in Jewish esotericism as The ben Asher family of Masoretes was largely
responsible for the preservation and production
one can see in a book written around of the Masoretic Text, although an alternate
80 CE: Go, Jaoel, and by means of my Masoretic text of the ben Naphtali Masoretes,
ineffable Name raise me yonder man, and which differs slightly from the ben Asher text,
existed. The halakhic authority Maimonides
strengthen him (so that he recover) from his (1138-1204) endorsed the ben Asher as superior,
trembling (...) I am called Jaoel by Him although the Egyptian Jewish scholar, Saadya
who moves that which exists with me on the Gaon al-Fayyumi (882-942), had preferred the
ben Naphtali system. The ben Asher family and
7th expanse upon the firmament, a power in the majority of the Masoretes have been Karaites.
virtue of the ineffable Name that is dwelling Karaite Judaism “Readers [of the Hebrew
in me (The Apocalypse of Abraham Scriptures]” is a Jewish movement characterized
by the recognition of the Tanakh alone as its
X:3-7). The name of Jaoel is supreme legal authority in Jewish religious law
represented as a being possessed of and theology. It is distinct from mainstream
the power of the ineffable name, a Rabbinic Judaism, which considers the Oral
Torah, as codified in the Talmud and subsequent
function assigned in the Rabbinical works to be authoritative interpretations of the
writings to Metatron, whose name is Torah. Karaites maintain that all of the divine
like unto that of God Himself (Sanhedrin commandments handed down to Moses by God
were recorded in the written Torah without
38b). The name Yahoel “Yahô is additional Oral Law or explanation. As a result,
God” was evidently a substitute for Karaite Jews do not accept as binding the written
the ineffable name Yehowah. collections of the oral tradition in the Midrash or
Talmud. According to Rabbi Abraham ben
Similarly for the same reasons, the David, in his Sefer HaQabbalah, the Karaite
name Iaô (Yahô) played a great role movement crystallized in Baghdad in the Gaonic
in Christian Gnosticism. period (c. 600-1050), under the Abbasid
Caliphate in what is present-day Iraq. The
After 135 CE, a minority of Geonim played a prominent and decisive role in
Jews (Sadducees, Essenians, etc.) the transmission and teaching of Torah and
continued to copy the Bible without Jewish law. Anan Ben David (c. 715-795) is
considered to be a major founder of the Karaite
being affiliated to any religious movement. Karaites were already living in Egypt
organizations. We know that the in the first half of the 7th century, the evidence
groups of Jewish scribe-scholars who consisting of a legal document that the Karaite
community in Egypt had in its possession until
worked to copy the Torah between the end of the 19th century, which was said to be
the 6th and 10th centuries CE, were stamped by the palm of ’Amr ibn al-’As, the first
Islamic governor of Egypt, in which he ordered
118
When Arabic began replacing Aramaic, the the leaders of the Rabbanite community not to
Babylonian rabbis decided to fix the Talmud (c. interfere in the way of life of the Karaites nor
500 CE), which became the reference with the way they celebrate their holidays. This
(Babylonian Talmud). document was reported to be dated 641 CE.
What happened between 100

and 1200 CE regarding copies of the
Hebrew Bible and the writing and
reading of God’s name?
GOD’S NAME THROUGH THE DARK
AGES (100-1200 CE)
Contrary to Christians, Jewish

copyists carried on the use of writing
God’s name in Hebrew until around
300 CE. For example, the tetragram
was written in paleo-Hebrew in a
copy of the Septuagint of
Symmachus (c. 300 CE), an Ebionite
(Judeo-Christian) who had revised
the Septuagint around 165 CE.
After 300 CE, Eusebius and

Jerome pointed out that the Jews
used again modern Hebrew to write
Psalm 69:30-31
the Name, and regrettably these
As Christians had no longer Hebrew letters (‫ )יהוה‬were confused
understood Hebrew for a long time, with Greek characters of similar
except rare scholars120, for most of shape (πιπι), as one can observe in
them that kind of writing was viewed many hexaplar122 “six columns”
as mysterious and meaningless. For copies. Accordingly, Pseudo-Denys,
example, Origen noted in his a Christian theologian and
comment on Psalms (c. 250 CE), the philosopher, probably Syrian,
Jewish custom of writing the demonstrated in his book The Divine
tetragram in old Hebrew embedded Names (dated c. 530 CE) that: it is
in the Greek text as one can see in impossible for man to name God, despite
this copy of Aquila's translation121 the name Iaô being still mentioned in
dated 5th century CE. some copies of the Septuagint (in
120
Among the early Christian Fathers, Jerome reference to theophoric names) as
was the only one who learned Hebrew well, even well as in some Apocryphal Christian
Origen who was born and spent the first half of
his career in Alexandria did not come to learn
writings. In commenting on a work
Hebrew. One must be careful with the use of of Severi of Antioch, the famous
Greek testimonies concerning God's name, got scholar James of Edessa made clear
from the Jews, because Hebrew stopped being
spoken after 135 BCE and most rabbis spoke
in a technical comment (c. 675 CE),
122
Aramaic in daily life, not Hebrew (cf. Talmud). ORIGÈNE -Origenis Hexaplorum tomus II
121
F. CRAWFORD BURKITT - Fragments of the (Psalm 26:1; 27:4,7; 28:1;Jes. I,2)
Books of Kings According to the Translation of 1964 Ed. Georg olms verlagsbuchhandlung
Aquila (1898, Cambridge), pp. 3-8. Hildesheim pp. 124,-127,431.
that the copyists of the Septuagint they read and therefore they were
(of his time) were divided over unaware that the strange word has a
whether to write the divine name pronunciation in Hebrew.
Adonai, to keep it within the Greek
text in the form Π Ι Π Ι (which was
the Hebrew name YHYH as he
mentioned), or to translate it as
Kurios “Lord” and write it in the
margin of the manuscript123. One can
see the use of modern Hebrew in the As seen in this codex126 of the
Ambrosiano O39 manuscript124 6th century, the word (ΚΣ) (Kurios)
dated around 900 CE. took the place of the divine name.
However, each time, the copyist
indicated the presence of the
tetragram (written Π Ι Π Ι) in the
margin, furthermore, as a marginal
As one can imagine, these note in Ezekiel 1:2 and 11:1 the
rapid changes would also have an name Iaô (Ιαω) appeared. Several
impact on the Septuagint of Jewish hexaplar manuscripts were written in
origin in which God's name in this way127. The procedure of the
Hebrew occurred. The Christian nomina sacra (ΚΣ instead of KYRIOΣ)
copyists, in copying out these was systematically used in all
manuscripts, would first transform Christian manuscripts after 135 CE.
these names, ‫ יהוה‬became πιπι, then Isidore of Sevilla for example (560-
replace them by the Greek 636), knew God's ten names (El,
abbreviation KS “L-d”. There was Eloim, Eloe, Sabaoth, Elion, Eie,
also a case where the copyist actually Adonai, Ia, Tetragram, Saddai) owing
read the word πιπι in Greek, or Pypy. to Jerome's letter number 25, but he
Thus, Bishop Paul of Tella, in his thought that the unspeakable
Syriac translation of the Septuagint tetragram resulted from the double
(c. 616 CE), used this strange name name IaIa. The erudite Photius
Pypy to refer to God125. These gross explained around 870 CE, in his
mistakes prove that Christian letter N°162 to Amphiloc, that the
copyists did not understand what tetragram was written with four
123
evanescent letters called in Hebrew
E. Nestle - Jacob von Edessa über den Schem
hammephorasch und andere Gottesnamen.
iôth, alph, ouauth, eth, and that this
(Zeitschrift der Deutschen morganländischen name was pronounced Aïa by the
Gesellschaft XXXII, 1878), pp. 465-508,735.
124
Jews but Iabe (Ιαβε) by the
G. MERCATI -Codex Rescriptus Bybliothecae
Ambrosiane O39 (Psalterii Hexapli Reliquiae.
Samaritans. These quotations are
126
Pars prima, 1958), pp. 11,97,101. I. COZZA -LUZI -Prophetarum codex Graecus
125
B.M. METZGER - Manuscripts of the Greek Vaticanus 2125 (1890, Biblioteca Vaticana), pp.
Bible (1991, Oxford University Press), p. 35, 94- 205,509,588.
127
95,108-109. Codices: Q, 86, 88, 234mg, 264.
exceptional, because the greater This diagram influenced many

majority tended towards the Christian biblical scholars. Petrus
ineffability of God's name. Albinus Alfonsi clarified the meaning of
Flaccus Alcuini (735-804), a famous several Hebrew names129, but he said
translator of the Bible into Latin, that the tetragram was secret, written
specified that although God's name in Greek with only three letters I, E,
was written Jod, He, Vau, Heth, it was V, and four figures (IEVE, IE, EV,
read Domini (“Lord” in Latin), VE) or three geometrical figures in
because this name was ineffable. one. In fact, he gave a transcription
As seen, Christian biblical of letters between Greek and
scholars had very little knowledge of Hebrew: I = Y, E= H, V = W, but
the Hebrew Bible, even among the he did not claim to give a correct
most prominent. In order to better pronunciation of God's name.
understand the Hebrew language, Petrus Blesensis (1135-1204), a
Christian scholars began an exchange Christian writer, completed these
with Hebrew scholars although not remarks. He said, in his short treatise
without disagreement. Additionally, a against the Jews130, and to prove the
small number of Jews had converted trinity, that the name of God was
to Catholicism and they greatly made up of four figures: Io, he, vaf, he
improved the knowledge of Hebrew God's name: Io, he, another name of
and above all of divine names. For God (Iah) and two altered names of
example, Petrus Alfonsi, called God: he, vaf (Hu) and vaf, he (??). The
Moses Sephardi before his baptism, Name thus began to reappear in the
was probably the first one to connect Christian world. However, Christian
the ‘ineffable’ trinity with the scholars were not interested in the
‘ineffable’ tetragram by means of the pronunciation of God's name but
Tetragrammaton-Trinity diagram in only in theological links between the
this manuscript128 dated 1109. three different letters (I, E, V) of the
tetragram and the three persons of
the Trinity. Despite the fact that
Petrus Alfonsi was a former Jew he
did not speak about the
pronunciation of God's name
because he believed, as all the Jews
of his time, that the Name (hashem)
was ineffable. Which Jewish scholars
knew at that time about the
pronunciation of the God's name?
129
For example: Eloha “god”, Elohai “my gods/ my
God”, Elohi “my god”, Elohim “gods/ God”, Adon
“lord”, Adoni “my lord”, Adonai “my lords/ my Lord”.
128 130
St John's College University of Cambridge. PETRI BLESENSIS - Contra perfidiam
Manuscript MS E.4 f.153v. Judæorum (Patrologiæ Latina CCVII), p. 833.
Yefet ben Eli (c. 920-1010) was It cannot be a mistake, because
perhaps the foremost Karaite the text concerns precisely God's
commentator on the Bible131, during name: Let them know that you alone bear
the “Golden Age of Karaism”. His the name of Yahuwa, Most High over all
commentaries were written in the earth (Ps 83:18). Furthermore one
Arabic, and covered the entire of the leading Karaite scholars of
Tanakh132 (Old Testament). In his that time, Jacob al-Qirqisani, a native
books the tetragram ‫ יהוה‬is of Upper Mesopotamia, wrote in his
represented most often in the large book135 entitled Kitab al-’Anwar (in
Hebrew text as ‫ אדני‬RS‫ـ‬UVWS. In other 937 CE): Some of the Karaites of
citations of the Hebrew text it is Khorasan ignore “ketib and qere” and read
most often represented by ‫ ייי‬or ‫יוי‬. only what is written. Some of them do in
Furthermore Yefet ben Eli the case of the Name which is written Yod
distinguishes between ‫יהוה‬/‫ אללה‬and He (YHWH) and maintain that he who
‫אלהים‬/‫אלה‬. Thus the translation of read reads it as Aleph Daleth (Adonay) is
‫ אללה‬is always The Lord and ‫ אלה‬is an unbeliever. Qirqisani also
God133. In some exceptional cases he mentioned the ancient tradition of
also vocalized the tetragram rendering the tetragram as al-rabb
“Yahuwa”, like in his Arabic “the Lord” or ’allah “the God136”
translation of the book of Psalms134. despite the meaning of the
tetragram137 being “He will be”.
So, why did Yefet ben Eli use
Yahuwa rather than Yehuwa, given
the name Jesus, for example, can be
better transcribed Yesua into Arabic
(ZV[R) rather than the current Yasu.
In fact he knew the ancient Hebrew
substitute Yahû “Yah-Him”, which
is pronounced correctly Yahuwa in
Arabic and means “Yâ Him”. For
131
He was a native of Basra (in present-day Iraq). example, a manuscript (a charm of
Later in his life, he moved to Jerusalem, between
950 and 980, where he died. The Karaites protection dated c. 940 CE)
distinguished him by the epithet maskil ha-Golah containing a text of 50 lines, reads138:
(teacher of the Exile).
132 135
They were accompanied by a very literal B. CHIESA, W. LOCKWOOD – Yaqub al-
translation of the Hebrew text, which often Qirqisani on Jewish Sects and Christianity
violated the rules of Arabic grammar. (Judentum und Umwelt 10 (Frankfurt 1984), p. 155.
133 136
I. SASSON - Methods and Approach in Yefet M. POLYAQ – The Karaite Tradition of Arabic
Ben ‘Ali Al-Basri's Translation and Commentary Bible Translation (1997, Brill), p. 70.
137
on the Book of Proverbs. PhD in Bible and For example, Aaron ben Joseph Ha-Rofe’, a
Ancient Semitic Languages (The Jewish Karaite scholar, wrote in his Sefer HaMivchar
Theological Seminary, 2010), pp. 39,344. (dated 1294) that God's name Yhwh had to be
134
J.J.L. BARGÈS - Libri psalmorum David Regis understood as yihweh/yihyeh "He will be"
et prophetae. Versio à R. Yaphet ben Heli (1861, according to Exodus 3:14.
138
Instituti Imperialis Gallicani Bibliopolam), pp. M. POLYAQ – Les grottes de Murabba‘ât
167,184. (1961, Clarendon Press), pp. 283-290.
ma hu illa hu, “O He (who is), O He

1) In the name of God the merciful, the (who is), O He whom no one knows what
compassionate. In the name of God He Himself is but Himself.” Some
commentators have supposed the
word Hu to stand for the exalted
name of God, the Ismu ‘l-a’zam (“the
supreme name”) which Muslim
doctors say is only known to God.
Mansur al-Hallaj139 (858-922), a
Persian mystic, revolutionary writer
and teacher of Sufism, wrote (in
8) I pray thee by thy names, numerous, large,
Arabic): Here are the words of which sense
9) desirable, satisfactory, powerful,
unapproachable, seemed ambiguous. Know that temples hold
10) perfect, complete, pure, [with whom] we by His Yâhuwah and that bodies are being
should moved by His Yâsîn. Now Huwa and Sîn
11) name nobody else but you. O God, I pray are two roads which end into the knowledge
thee by thy of the original point140. Yâ-Sîn is a
12) names that do not [pass? and] do not cease to reference to the Sura 36 and Yâ-
which only you respond Huwah written Y’HWH in Arabic,
13) [with] the reward, by which your patronage is
completed, to which you respond makes reference to the Hebrew
14) to that one who invokes thee. O God, O tetragram but the name Yâhuwah
God, O God, I pray thee was understood Yâ Huwa “Yâ Him”
or “Oh Him” in Arabic. However
the Yâhuwah vocalization influenced
several imams, such as Fakhr ad-Din
ar-Razi (1149-1209), a Persian Sunni
27) [...] and a cross. And by thy names, the Muslim theologian who, knowing the
illustrious ones, the pure ones
99 beautiful names of God,
28) the purified ones, the praised ones, the
sublime ones, the great ones, the noble ones explained that the supreme Name
29) the beautiful ones: Yâh, Yâh, Yâh, Huwa, (ism-al-a‘ẓam) of God was Yâ Huwa
Huwa, Huwa, O God not Allâh141. It is noteworthy that the
name Yahuwah is still found in a few
50) and through the seal of Solomon son of David Arabic Bibles142. As a result, some
Huwa is the personal pronoun 139
Mansur al-Hallaj was rejected as madman by
of the 3rd person, singular, masculine, his teacher, al-Junayd, and died crucified in
Bagdad as a heretic.
HE, i.e. God, or He is. It occurs in 140
L. MASSIGNON – Akhbar al-Hallâj (1975,
the Qur’an in this sense, e.g. Surah Vrin), p. 113 (French translation), p. 26 (Arabic).
141
III:1 S\ ]\S S\S ^S\SAllahu la ilaha illa IBN ‘ATA’ ALLÂH - Traité sur le nom ALLÂH
(1981, Les Deux Océans), pp. 146-147.
Huwa, “God there is no god but 142
FARES CHIDIAQ & WILLIAM WATTS -The Holy
HE”. The word is often used by Sufi Bible (London, 1857) Yahuwah in Ex 6:3, 6, 8.
mystics in this form: S\ _\ZR S_ V] S\S V] THE DOMINICAN FATHERS -The Dominican
Bible (Iraq, 1875) Yahuwah in footnote of Ex
SR V] SR U_ya hu, ya hu, ya man la ya’lamu 3:14 but Yahwah in footnote of Ex 6:3.
Karaites did indeed pronounce the Hebraic letters of the Tetragram
God's name but they used its Ioth, Eth, Vau (that is Y, H, W in
Hebrew substitute Yahu “Yah Him”, Hebrew) were used as vowels, and
which was pronounced Yahuwa in that the name IESUS had exactly the
Arabic and understood in this same vowels I, E and U as the divine
language as “Oh Him”. Accordingly, name. Like Joachim of Flora, he
Jewish scholars did not try to find broke up the divine name IEUE into
the genuine pronunciation of God's IE-EU-UE, which led him to
name and Christian scholars, at least suppose that the name IE-SUS
until 1200, were only interested in contained God's name IE. He also
finding theological links between drew a parallel between the name
God's name IEUE and the name written IEUE, pronounced Adonai,
IESU. For example, Joachim of and the name written IHS but
Flora gave a Greek transliteration pronounced IESUS144.
IEUE of YHWH in his Expositio in
GOD’S NAME, ITS REBIRTH INSIDE
Apocalypsim (finished in 1195) and
CHRISTENDOM (1200-1600 CE)
used the expression: Adonay IEUE
tetragramaton nomen in another book At the end of the 12th century
entitled Liber Figurarum (c. 1202). As CE, one notes there were no
seen in his illustration143, Joachim of controversies among biblical scholars
Flora also gave the three other because they all agree that God's
names: IE, EV, VE, which he name is ineffable. Some Christian
associated with the Father (IE), the scholars (very few) rediscovered that
Son (EV) and the Holy Spirit (VE)! the Hebrew tetragram YHWH can
be transcribed in Greek IEVE or
IEUE, and some Arabic scholars
(very few as well) rediscover that the
hidden name of God is: Yâ Huwa
“Oh Him”, an Arabic pronunciation
of the Hebrew substitute: Yah Hu‘.
The first Jewish scholars to be
interested in the pronunciation of
the tetragram were Kabbalists145.
The transcription of the Kabbalah is based on teachings used
Tetragram (IEUE) associated with by Jewish mystics to define the inner
the name of Jesus (IESU) would meaning of both the Hebrew Bible
soon be improved by Pope Innocent 144
INNOCENTII III papæ - Sermones de sanctis.
III in one of his sermons written Sermo IV, in circumcisione domini (Patrologiæ
around 1200. Indeed, he noticed that Latina CCXVII), pp. 465-470.
145
Kabbalah emerged, after earlier forms of
143
GIOACCHINO DA FIORE -Expositio in Jewish mysticism, around 1200 in Southern
Apocalypsim, Concordia Veteris et Novi France and Spain, becoming reinterpreted in the
Testamenti (c. 1200-1220) Library of the Jewish mystical renaissance of 16th-century
Seminary of Reggio Emilia, fols. 222-235. Ottoman Palestine.
and traditional Rabbinic literature Judah Halevi and Maimonides

and their formerly concealed gave convergent information which
transmitted dimension, including the marked a turning point in
pronunciation of the hidden name of pronouncing God’s name. However,
God. Some Kabbalists even thought the expression “pronounced according to
that the correct pronunciation of its letters” which Maimonides used is
God's name could produce miracles. strictly exact only in Hebrew, vowel
For example, Eleazar ben Judah of letters as pointed out by Josephus as
Worms (1165-1230) wrote in his well as Judah Halevi.
book Sodei Razayya (lost), that if the However, the explanations of
tetragram had been written on the Maimonides concerning God’s name
head of a human form made of clay “read as it is written” were really
he could become a Golem (human understood only when Christian
being)146 only if the tetragram was scholars began to take an interest in
pronounced correctly147. Hebrew which occurred when a few
In order to prevent the Jews had converted to Catholicism.
spreading of such esoteric teachings, These Jews, like Petrus Alfunsi
Maimonides explained in his Guide (1062-1110), greatly improved the
of the perplexed (1190) why these knowledge of Hebrew and above all
mystic beliefs were absurd. First, the of divine Names. With this new
correct pronunciation of God's name knowledge of Hebrew texts, the
in the past, before the prohibition to Dominicans (a powerful missionary
pronounce it (c. 130 CE), did not order) decided on a confrontation
give any magical power because the with the Jewish Authorities. The
high priests, who knew it, were Disputation of Barcelona (1263) was
unable to stop enemy armies which a formal ordered medieval debate
had come to destroy the Temple. between representatives of
Second, God's name is not hidden Christianity and Judaism regarding
because it is written YHWH and it is whether or not Jesus was the
easy to read it according to its letters. Messiah148. However, Christian
Flavius Josephus (37-100), who knew theologians did not succeed in
the priesthood of this time very well, 148
It was held at the royal palace of King James I
gave the same explanations, he wrote of Aragon in the presence of the King, his court,
that when the Romans attacked the and many prominent ecclesiastical dignitaries and
knights, between Dominican Friar Pablo
Temple, the Jews called upon the Christiani, a convert from Judaism to
fear-inspiring name of God, with no Christianity, and Rabbi Nahmanides (Ramban), a
result and that holy name is written leading medieval Jewish scholar. Since the
Dominicans claimed the victory, Nahmanides felt
with four sacred letters (YHWH) compelled to publish the controversy. King
which are four vowels (The Jewish James ordered to a committee the removal of
War V:235, 438). passages deemed offensive from the Talmud. It
consisted of Bishop of Barcelona Arnoldo de
146
The word golem means “embryo” (Ps 139:16). Guerbo, Raymond de Penyafort, and the
147
According to the Toledot Yeshu Jesus performed Dominicans Arnoldo de Legarra, Pedro de Janua
miracles by using YHWH in a magic way. and Ramón Martí (1220-1284).
winning that debate. In order to help Surprisingly, most of the
Christian theologians to debate academics who followed would not
better with rabbis, Ramón Martí be interested themselves in the
began writing from 1269, until his question of the pronunciation. For
death in 1284, a study book of example, Arnaldus of Villa Nova, a
biblical texts in Hebrew: called Pugio former student of Ramón Martí,
Fidei “Dagger of Faith”. would indeed be most interested in
Among the numerous God’s name, shown by his work
controversies between Christians and entitled Allocutio super Tetragramaton
Jews, Martí tackled for the first time (1292), but his considerations of the
the question of the pronunciation of pronunciation of the Name are more
God's name, not to know what was of cabalistic nature. He mixed the
its authentic pronunciation, but in vocalism and symbolism of the
order to know whether that name letters, in order to make links
could be pronounced, because the between the name ‘Jesus’ and the
rabbis used to say that it was Tetragram. Although he mentioned
forbidden to pronounce God's name the equivalences of the consonants Y
but according to Maimonides, who and W with their respective vowels I
quoted the Talmud in his Guide of and U, he did not come to any
the Perplexed, God's name could be conclusion on the pronunciation of
pronounced according to its letters. the Tetragram but instead he linked
Martí did not claim that Yohoua was its resemblance written IHVH, with
the exact pronunciation, but insisted the name of Jesus, written either
on the necessity of using it, quoting IHS, or IHESVS. He then speculated
Isaiah 52:6: For that reason my people on the place of these letters I, H, V
will know my name. within these names and on their
The work of Martí had a great respective symbolism in proving the
influence and was copied many Trinity. In contrast a Christian
times149. It is noteworthy that in the copyist made a lengthy
151
first copies of the Pugio Fidei during commentary (dated around 1300)
the 14th century, God's name is of the part dedicated to the name of
written Yohoua but in two copies it four letters Yohoua which is spelled:
is written Yehoua, instead of yod he uau he in Hebrew.
Yohoua150, the Codex Barcinonencis Another Christian scholar,
(c. 1350?) and the Codex Porchetus de Salvaticis, completed a
Majoricanus (dated 1381). book (dated 1303): Porchetus’ Victory
149
We still have five copies dated between 1300
Against the Ungodly Hebrews, in which
and 1400, see TRAVELLETTI D. -Front commun:
Raymond Martin, al-Ġazālī et les philosophes : 151
R. MARTI - Incipit phemium pugionem
analyse de la structure et des sources du premier christianorum ad impiorum perfidiam
livre du "Pugio Fidei" (2011, Thèse de Doctorat, jugulandam et maxime judeorum
Université de Fribourg), pp. 74-75. Coimbra (c. 1300), Biblioteca Geral Digital
150
G.F. MOORE - Notes on the Name ‫(יהוה‬The Universidade de Coimbra, ms.720 fol.
American Journal of Theology 12:1, 1908), pp. 34-52. CLXXXIIv, CLXXXIII.
he regularly used the spelling was in deep ignorance on this

Yohouah152 (Ihouah in later versions subject, and, to make matters worse,
after 1500). some erudite theologians taught their
flocks that it was absurd to name
God. For example, the famous
theologian Thomas Gallus, abbot of
Verceil, asserted in many of his
works on God's name, such as
Explanatio de divinis nominibus (dated
1242), that it was impossible for man
to name God.
A famous Talmudist, Pablo de
Like Martini, he quoted Sancta Maria of Burgos, converted to
Maimonides to justify his assertions Catholicism in 1390, copied the Bible
on the Name. He repeated that the of Nicholas of Lyra adding his own
tetragram, written yod he uau he, was comments153 to those already
the only name of God. He insisted existing, including one concerning
on the fact that one had to mention the pronunciation of the Name.
God's name to be blessed (Psalms After comments on Exodus 3:14, he
20:1,7; 79:6,9; Micah 5:4), and that indicated that the Tetragram was
that name could not have spelt Y.h.b.h (in Spanish b is
disappeared, because it is written: pronounced as v), and that this name
only the very name of the wicked ones will was very close to the name of Jesus
rot (Proverbs 10:7). Concerning (Y.h.v.‘), because these two names
pronunciation, he showed the both had 4 letters, the 1st letter and
absurdity of agreeing on one hand to the 3rd one being the same (y and v).
pronounce the shortened name Yah He pointed out that the consonants y
in the expression Alleluia “Praise and v could serve as vowels (for i
Yah” and to refuse on the other and u), and that the Hebraic guttural,
hand to pronounce God’s name, that is the ayn, was unknown in the
since YH and YHWH are Latin language, which increased the
considered, each separately, to be resemblance between these two
God’s name (Psalms 68:4; 83:18); names (Ihua and Isuâ). However, he
Thus why allow the pronunciation of did not vocalize either of these
one and not the other? These names in the Hebraic language. Once
relevant remarks were reserved for again, the explanations given by
the very small circle of the Christian Paulos of Burgos did not concern
and Jewish scholars in their debates. the true pronunciation of God's
However, most of the population name but only its links with Jesus'
name (transcribed into Hebrew).
152 153
PORCHETO DE SALVAIGNIS - Victoria Porcheti PAULUS DE SANCTA MARIA - Additiones ad
adversus impios Hebraeos (1380, Bibliothèque Postillam Nicolai de Lyra (1429, Bibliothèque
municipale de Dijon ms 231 fol. 169). Royale Albert Ier, ms. 240 fol. 36-38).
Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa, an is spelt in Hebrew Ioth, He, Vau, He
erudite theologian, was fascinated by (YHWH); these four letters serve as
this subject on which he commented vowels, corresponding to I, E, O, A
repeatedly in his sermons. For in Greek157, because in this language
example he dedicated his first there is no specific vowel for the
sermon (on John 1:1) to explaining sound OU158. So, in Greek, the
the links between God's name and writing Ieoua would be more exact
the name of Jesus. For example, in than Ieôa and would better reflect
this sermon entitled In Principio Erat the OU sound of the Hebrew name
Verbum, written around 1428, he Ieoua, becoming in Latin Iehova or
explained, based on Maimonides’ Ihehova, because the letter H is
works, the various names of God inaudible and the vowel U also
and the meaning of the Tetragram, serves as a consonant (V). He noted
which he vocalized Iehoua. In this finally that the Hebraic form IEŠUA
sermon154, he began to develop the of the name “Jesus” is distinguished
idea that Jesus was the “speakable” from the divine name only by a holy
element (the Word) of the letter Š which is interpreted as the
“unspeakable/ ineffable” God. He “elocution” or the Word of God,
explained in another sermon155, also the salvation of God. He would
written around 1440, that the name continue this parallel, between God's
of Jesus “saviour” is pronounced name (Ieoua) and the name of Jesus
Ihesua in Hebrew, and this name (Iesoua) in yet another sermon159.
“Saviour” is also the Word of God. However towards the end of his life
He indicated that the unspeakable he wrote several important works: De
name is Ihehoua in Hebrew. In two Possest (1460), Non Aliud (1462), to
other sermons156, written in 1441, he explain the purely symbolic character
pursued the connection between the of God's name which had all names
unspeakable Greek Tetragram, spelt and so none in particular. Contrary
Iot, He, Vau, He, and the “speakable” to his books, his sermons were not
name of Ihesus which he often wrote widely diffused.
Ihus. Then in a sermon written in Cardinal of Cusa was the first
1445, he explained in detail the scholar who clearly distinguished
grammatical reasons permitting a between the transcription of the
link between these two names. God's tetragram in Greek IEUE and its
name is the Greek Tetragram which pronunciation in Greek IEOUA,
according to the Hebrew text, as well
154
NICOLAI DE CUSA -Opera omnia. Sermo I. In
157
principio erat verbum (1970, Felix Meiner. NICOLAI DE CUSA - Opera omnia. Sermo
Academia Heidelbergensis Tom.XVI:1, pp. 1-19). XLVIII Dies sanctificatus (1991) Tom. XVII:2,
155
NICOLAI DE CUSA - Opera omnia. Sermo XX pp. 200-212.
158
Nomen eius Jesus (1977) Tom. XVI:3, pp. 301- The letter U in Greek is pronounced as the
317. French Ü.
156 159
NICOLAI DE CUSA - Opera omnia. Sermo NICOLAI DE CUSA - Opera omnia. Sermo
XXIII, XXIV Domine, in lumine vultus tui LXXI (Felix Meiner. Academia Litterarum
(1984) Tom. XVI:4, pp. 358-433. Heidelbergensis, Tom. XVII:4).
as the transcription of the tetragram 1474, that God's name was

in Latin IHVH and its pronunciation Hiehouahi and that this name
in Latin IEHOVA160. expressed all the tenses of the verb
“to be” (Jewish tradition).
Johannes Wessel Gansfort, the

spiritual father of Martin Luther,
preferred (around 1476) the form
Iohauah in his treatises164.
Cultivated readers nevertheless
began to take advantage of this
important information. For example,
Denis the Carthusian, who was a
close friend of Nicholas of Cusa, was
also a fervent reader of Rabbi Paulus
(Paul of Burgos). Denis wrote a
commentary on the book of Exodus
Enarrationes in Exodum, around 1455,
Johann Reuchlin, one of the
in which he explained that from
founders of Hebraic and Greek
Rabbi Paulus he knew God's name,
studies in Europe, published his De
vocalized Iehouah161. However, at
Verbo Mirifico (in 1494) mainly to
that time, the knowledge of Hebrew
defend the IEUE transcription (liber
remained still low among Christian
III Cap. XII-XIX). He supposed that
scholars and they used variants of
the final letter of Jesus’ name had to
the pronunciation given by cardinal
be E because in the Vulgate the
of Cusa. For example, Marsilio
name IESU was sometimes spelt
Ficino162 indicated in his Book of the
IESUE165. He emphasized that this
Christian Religion163, published around
160
Greek transcription had the
NIKOLAUS DE CUSA - Codex Cusanus 220
dated 1430. Berkastel-Kues Germany. Bibliothek
advantage of reintroducing the four
des Cusanus Stites, fol. 56,57. vowels of God’s name, however, the
161
DIONYSIUS CARTUSIANUS - Enarrationes piae Latin transcription being IHVH he
ac eruditae: In quinque Mosaicae legis libros
Quentel, 1534, fol CLVI.
specified in order to harmonize these
162
He was an Italian scholar and Catholic priest two transcriptions that the Greek
who was one of the most influential humanist
164
philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance. He JOANNES WESSEL GANSFORTIUS - Tractatus ()
was also an astrologer, a reviver of Neoplatonism Wesseli. De Oriatione. Pars III lib III, cap XI-XI.
163
MARSILII FICINI FLORENTINI - Liber de 1521, British Library 477.a.41(3) fol XXXIX.
165
Chriftiana Religione. Capitum XXX (1474, Ezra 3:2 and 1 Samuel 6:14, Iesue is also found
British Museum Library C.9.b.4. fol. 83b). in the Septuagint in 1 Chronicles 7:27.
letter E was the equivalent of the Greek (IEUE) and Latin (IHVH)
Latin H. So the Greek form IESUE with those of the name of Jesus into
would give the Latin form IHSVH. Hebrew (YSW‘), Greek (IESUE)
One of the most brilliant scholars of and Latin (IHSVH) are false,
this time, the Italian humanist because the transcriptions of the
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, name of Jesus are ISU into Greek
friend and former student of and IHSV into Latin. Furthermore,
Marsilio Ficino, studied the the name of Jesus is usually
etymology of God's name in his vocalized in Hebrew: Yešua‘ (‫)ישׁוּע‬,
Disputianum Adversus Astrologos (in never Yehšuah (‫)יהשׁוּה‬.
1496). Due to his vast knowledge he The constructed form by
made brilliant links, which however Kabbalist Reuchlin of the Hebrew
proved to be rather daring. To prove name of Jesus, YHŠWH (‫)יהשוה‬, is
the superiority of the Bible he tried called the pentagram “five letters”
to demonstrate that heathen religions and it is usually vocalized Yahshuah.
were in fact plagiarisms of biblical The first ones to use a name of Jesus
religion. He asserted for example as pentagram YHŠWH “Yahshuah”
that the Roman god Jupiter was in were Renaissance occultists.
fact an idolatrous imitation of the Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples167
God of the Hebrews, and that even disagreed with the form IHSVH for
the etymology of this name Jupiter Jesus’ name. In his biblical
“IOVE-pater” (Jove-father) was a commentary of the book of Psalms,
fraudulent copy of it (Liber V,VI). Quintuple Psalms (in 1509), he explains
The scholarly explanations of that thanks to the remarks of
Reuchlin and Pico della Mirandola Reuchlin, it was easy to pronounce
have impressed very much, but they IHVH as it is written, that is I-HE-
were completely wrong. U-HE. However he observed a
! The etymology of God's name major disagreement because
which would have come from the according to Hebrew the name of
name Jove according to the change Jesus was IHSVA or IHESVA
in time: Jupiter << Jove-pitar << instead of IHESV but never IHSVH
Jova-pater, is completely fanciful166. (or IHESVHE).
! There is a constant confusion
between the transcription of the
name Jesus into Latin (IHSU) and
its usual vocalization IESU.
! The paralleling of transcriptions of
God's name into Hebrew (YHWH),
166
In fact the name Jove comes from an ancient
Mycenaean word Diwei “daylight” (c. 1200 BCE)
>> Diuvei >> Iouei >> Jove. There was another
167
change: Diwos >> Diuos >> Djios/Dieus >> He was the first French translator of the
Zeus/Deus. Hebrew Bible into French.
When Jacques Lefèvre though it might have a link with the

d'Étaples published a few sermons of name Iupiter (Jove-pater), should be
Nicholas of Cusa168 in 1514, he used used in the Bible, which he did in his
the form Iehoua for God’s name, Latin translation (in 1551). He used
but neither Ieheve nor Iova. the name Ioua systematically and
However, several Bible translators translated exactly the famous verse
influenced by the scholarly Exodus 3:14 as “I shall be who I
explanations of Reuchlin and Pico shall be (ero qui ero)”, not as the usual
della Mirandola regarding the “I am who I am” (ego sum qui sum).
etymology of God's name, chose to Despite appearances there was
use the new name Iova instead of no controversy in the early 16th
Iehova. For example, a friend of century on the pronunciation of
Pico della Mirandola, Agostino God's name among Hebrew
Giustiniani169 used it in his scholars. The only dispute was to
Psalterium170 (in 1516). The name know which language to use:
IOVA appears in Psalm L. Hebrew of the Torah, Greek of the
Septuagint or Latin of the Vulgate,
for harmonizing God's name Iehoua
with theophoric names. Indeed,
Giustiniani believed that the there was a problem with Jesus
name Iova (or Ioua) was an because this name vocalized Yešua‘
alteration of the name Jupiter. in Hebrew, was vocalized Iesous in
the Septuagint and Jesus in the
Vulgate of Jerome but the name
Joshua which is vocalized Yehošua‘
When the manuscript entitled in Hebrew, was vocalized Iesous in
Porchetus’ Victory Against the Ungodly the Septuagint and Josue in the
Hebrews was published in 1520, the Vulgate. Jerome chose to change the
name Yohouah was replaced by Greek name Jesus (Yehošua‘ in
Ihouah. Sébastien Chateillon Hebrew) to the Latin name Josue, in
explained in his book Dialogorum order to distinguish Joshua from
Sacrorum, published in 1549, that the Jesus, but this choice is incorrect
name IOVA (or IOUA), even because the Hebrew name Yošua‘
never existed. The best choice would
168
JACQUES LEFÈVRE D'ÉTAPLES - Nicolas de have been to vocalize this name
Cvsa Excitionvm Paris 1514 Bibliothèque de Jesua (Yehošua‘), rather than Joshua,
l'Arsenal Fol.B.1298(2) fol. XII,XIV,LII,LIV. to keep the closeness with the Greek
169
He was a Catholic bishop, linguist and
geographer. name Iesou (Yešua‘). This choice
170
Besides the Hebrew text, the Septuagint would have enabled the reader to see
translation, the Chaldee paraphrase, and an easily the phonetic similarity between
Arabic version, his Bible contains the Vulgate
translation, a new Latin translation by the editor, God's name: Iehoua (Jehova), and
a Latin translation of the Chaldee paraphrase, and Jesus' name: Iesoua (Jesua).
a collection of scholia.
At that time, Galatino wrote Ieho-, like Iehosua (‫ )יהושׁוע‬instead of
his chief work De Arcanis Catholicae Iosua. Consequently, if the tetragram
Veritatis (in 1516), at the request of were really pronounced Ioua it
the pope, the emperor, and other would have been written in Hebrew
dignitaries, at which time the famous ‫( יוּה‬YWH), which was never the
controversy on the authority of the case. So, because the tetragram is
Jewish writings was assuming a very written ‫( יהוה‬YHWH), one should
high profile. Resolved to combat the hear the letter H with its shewa, a
Jews on their own ground, he turned short “e”, inside the Name. He
the Cabbala against them, and sought concluded that, because God’s name
to convince them that their own is pronounced according to its
books yielded proof of the truth of letters, the best transcription was the
the Christian religion, hence their form Iehoua, because the name
opposition to it should be branded as Joshua is pronounced Iehosua in
obstinacy. He gave his work the Hebrew, which indeed is very close
form of a dialogue. He had to Iehoua with a “s”. Similarly the
borrowed largely from the Pugio Fidei name Juda is pronounced Iehouda in
of Martí, remodelling, however, the Hebrew, which is again very close to
material and supplementing it with Iehoua with a “d”.
copious quotations from the Zohar
and the Epistle of Secrets (Iggeret ha-
sodot) of the Jewish convert Pablo de
Heredia. Galatino dedicated a good
part of his work171 (Liber II Caput X)
to explaining how to pronounce
God’s name correctly.
First, he quoted profusely from
the book of Maimonides The Guide of
the Perplexed, as a reminder that the
tetragram is the proper name of God
and that it can be pronounced
according to its letters. However, he
demonstrated that the pronunciation
Ioua was inaccurate. He explained
for example that the proper name
Iuda, written ‫( יודה‬YWDH), was an
abbreviation of the name Iehuda
written ‫( יהודה‬YHWDH). All Hebrew
proper names beginning in YHW-
[‫ ]יהו‬are moreover always vocalized
171
Given that his demonstration
P. GALATINUS - Opus toti chriftiane reipublice was simple and logical, Galatino
maxime utile, de arcanis catholice ueritatis
(Hieronymus Suncinus, 1518). succeeded in unlocking completely
the uncertainty about the In his Epistle of Secret174, Paulus

pronunciation of God's name. This of Heredia distinguished between the
explanation marked a milestone in pronunciation of God’s name:
establishing the divine name as Iehoua, according to Hebrew, and its
Iehoua, and thus convinced some cabalistic meaning175 yehawe “He will
translators to use it in their make to be” according to linguistic. It
translations of the Bible, at least in is clear that the cabalistic meaning of
certain verses. To summarize: the God's name did not play any role in
Hebrew name (1st line) is vocalized its vocalization. For example,
according to the Septuagint (2nd line), Michael Servetus176 in his De Trinitatis
the Vulgate (3rd line), vowels letters Erroribus “On the Errors of the
(4th line), the Masoretes (5th line), Trinity” published in 1531, explains
Galatino (6th and last line). that the name Iehouah is close to the
Joshua Judah Jehu YHWH name of Jesus (Iesua), which means
Yhwšw‘ Yhwdh Yhw’ Yhwh “salvation” (Iesuah) in Hebrew. He
Iesus Ioudas Ieou (Adonay) also explained, that Iehouah means
Iosue Iudas Iehu Dominus “He causes to be” in Hebrew.
Ihôšûa‘ Ihûdâ Ihû’ Ihûâ
Y hôšûa‘ Yehûdâ
e
Yehû’ Yehowâ
Iehosua Iehouda Iehou Iehoua
Galatino did not use the
punctuation given by the Masoretes
to vocalize the tetragram but only
the vocalization of all Hebrew names The demonstration of Galatino
beginning with YHW-, which are was accepted by all Hebrew scholars.
always vocalized in Ieho-, without For example, Sebastian Münster, the
exception. It is noteworthy that he best German scholar in Hebrew of
used the book Epistle of Secrets172, this time, used the name Iehova in
written by Paulus de Heredia, a his Chaldean grammar177 published
Christian cabalist who explains that in 1526 (he also used the name
the Hebrew verbal form in Hebrew Iehosvae instead of Josue).
close to yhwh, is the imperfect piel of
the verb “to be”, vocalized yehauue
which means “He will make to be173”.
174
The Hebrew title of this booklet is Gale Razeya
(Cod. Vat. Lat. 4582, fol. 4r–24v).
175
The Cabalists despise the simplistic meaning
yihweh “He will prove to be” found in the Bible.
176
Michel Servetus was a Spanish theologian,
172
PAULUS DE HEREDIA - Epistola Neumia filii physician, and Renaissance humanist, was
Haccanae de Secretia (1488, Bibliothèque renowned for his scholarly study of the Bible in
Nationale Française, Res D-67975) fol. 1-5. its original languages.
173 177
Or “He will constitute”. The Qal verbal form S. MUNSTERUM - Chaldaica grammatical,
yihweh (in Ec 11:3) means “He will prove to be”. Basileae, 1527, p. 16.
The same year, Martin Luther Greek text. From 1523 to 1532 he
wrote in a sermon178 on Jeremiah published in several volumes a literal
23:1-8: This name Iehouah, Lord, belongs translation and commentary on the
exclusively to the true God. A few years Bible183. His emphasis on the search
later Münster used the name Iehova for the literal meaning of the text
in Exodus 6:3 when he published his places him at the origins of the
own translation of the Bible179, modern Catholic exegetical tradition.
despite the fact that he thought this Thanks to his knowledge of Hebrew
name came from “Iouis pater”. he improved the Latin translation of
the Bible, for example: The Book of
Iosue became The Book of Iehosuæ and
in his comments on the books of
Moses184, published in 1531, he used
William Tyndale, with his the name Iehouah frequently.
burning desire to make the Bible Many competent Hebrew
known to the people made a new scholars having been convinced by
translation. The Name first appeared the arguments of Galatino did not
in an English Bible in 1530, when he dare using the name Iehoua, except
published a translation of the first in private, in their Hebrew grammars
five books of the Bible. He included or in their translation of the Bible.
the name of God, usually spelled For example, Santes Pagnino185 was
Iehouah, in several verses180, and he the first Hebrew scholar after Jerome
wrote in a note in this edition: Iehovah to translate the Bible directly from
is God's name (...) Morever as oft as thou the Hebrew text alone. He was the
seist LORD in great letters (except there be 183
any error in the printing) it is in Hebrew Including a large part of the Old Testament
and almost all of the New Testament with the
Iehovah181. Thomas Cajetan182, He exception of the Apocalypse of John.
compensated his ignorance of 184
T. DE VIO CAJETAN -In quinque libros Mosis
Hebrew by consulting rabbis and juxta sensum lit. commentarii (1531, Antonium
Bladum).
through his familiarity with the 185
Pagnino was born 1470 at Lucca, in Tuscany,
central Italy. At sixteen he took the religious habit
178
M. LUTHER - Ain Epiftel aufz dem Prophete at San Domenico in Fiesole, where he studied
Jeremia. Wittemberg 1527. under the direction of Savonarola and other
179
S. MUNSTERI - En tibi lector Hebraica Latina. eminent professors. In acquiring the Oriental
Basileae 1534 pp. 56v, 57. languages, then cultivated at Florence, he
180
Genesis 15:2; Exodus 6:3 15:3 17:16 23:17 displayed unwonted quick sightedness, ease and
33:19 34:23; Deuteronomy 3:24. penetration. His genius, industry and erudition
181
Most English translations of this time won him influential friends, among them the
mentioned the name of God, very often in Cardinals de Medici, subsequently popes Leo X
Exodus 6:3, except for the Coverdale translation and Clement VII. He was the first to divide the
(1535). Matthew's Bible (1537) explained about text into chapters and verses. Ever since, his
Exodus 6:3: Iehouah is the name of God, and none division of the Old Testament has become
creature has been named like it, it means: this one who is standard. The merit of his Bible translation lies in
himself and who depends of no thing. its literal adherence to the Hebrew, which won
182
He was an Italian philosopher, theologian, for it the preference of contemporary rabbis and
cardinal and the Master of the Order of induced Leo X to assume the expenses of
Preachers, also stands as exegete. publication until his death.
author of a new Latin translation of translators adopted the form Iehoua,

the Bible from the original languages coming from Galatino, and some of
(Veteris et Novi Testamenti nova them used it systematically in the
translatio, 1527) as well as a entire Bible as did the French
monumental Thesaurus of the Holy translator Robert Estienne in 1556,
Tongue (Thesaurus linguæ sanctæ, the Spanish translator Casiodoro de
1529). However, among all his works Reina in 1569, and many others.
he never used the name Iehoua, only It is noteworthy that the form
Adonai, in order not to offend his Iehoua, used by Christian scholars,
colleagues among the rabbis has never been challenged by Jewish
Following the example of early scholars. For example, Immanuel
translators, Pierre Robert Olivétan Tremellius188 was an Italian Jewish
preferred to use occasionally the convert to Christianity. He was
form Iehouah in his Bible translation known as a leading Hebraist and
into French (in 1535), while Bible translator. He published his
recognizing that the tetragram could Grammar of Syriac and Hebrew
also be pronounced Ioua (according (Grammatica chaldaea et syra) in 1568
to the Vulgate). Antonio Brucieli but his chief literary work was a
preferred to use the form Ieova Latin translation of the Bible from
(once) in his Bible translation into the Hebrew and Syriac, published
Italian (in 1535) and François between 1575 and 1579, in which he
Vatable used frequently the form systematically used the name Jehova.
Iehoua in his Bible translation into However, suspicion towards
Latin (in 1545) but Martin Bucer the vocalization Iehoua had appeared
preferred to use systematically, either when it finally won linguistically. The
Iehouah or Iehouæ (in 1547) in his debate over the use of Iehoua or
translation of the book of Psalms. Ioua had been a technical quarrel
Strongly influenced by the restricted to Hebrew scholars.
remarks of Reuchlin and Pico della However, when the conclusions of
Mirandola, the grammarians of this their debate began reaching readers
time believed that Iehoua was an of the Bible, it became much more
improvement on the name Jupiter theological and controversial. As was
(Jove), a deformation of Ioua-pater the case in the past, the modern
“Father Ioua”. Angelo Canini186 prophets of the Lord are those: who
clarified however, in his grammar187, think to make my people forget my name by
written in 1554, that he preferred their dreams that they tell one another, even
Iehoua to Ioua, because Iehoua more as their fathers forgot my name for the
closely resembled names Ieshoua and “Lord (Baal)” (Jeremiah 23:27).
Iehouda. Consequently after 1555, all
188
He was born at Ferrara, and educated at the
186
Angelus Caninius was an Italian grammarian, University of Padua. He was converted about
linguist and scholar from Anghiari. 1540 to the Catholic faith through Cardinal Pole,
187
ANGELO CANINI- De nomine Iesv et Iova. but embraced Protestantism in the following
Institutiones lingua Syriacæ (Lyon, 1554). year, and went to Strasbourg to teach Hebrew.
Jehovah, a controversial pronunciation: why?
From the late 16th century the testimonies appeared unreliable
name of Iehoua began to be disputed because, at the time they were
not by linguists but by Christian written, the Jews had not
theologians. In fact, the real reasons pronounced the Name for several
behind this quarrel against God's centuries. Lastly, he claimed that
name was theological because the Galatino (as well as Pagnino), who
majority of Bible translators at that had used the form “Iehoua”, had not
time, as well as qualified Hebraists, accounted for the theological
were either Waldensian supporters meaning “He is” when searching for
like Pierre Robert Olivétan, François the right pronunciation. Indeed,
Vatable, Robert Estienne or worse, since the translation of the
anti-Trinitarians like Michael Septuagint (“He who is” in Exodus
Servetus and Sébastien Castellion. 3:14) it was known that the
The first antagonist was definition of the divine Name was
Archbishop Gilbert Genebrard, who, essentially “He is”. Genebrard tried
in his book written in 1568 to defend to confirm this definition due to his
the Trinity, dedicated several pages knowledge of the Hebrew language.
to God’s name in an effort to refute So, since in Exodus 3:14 God calls
Casteillon, Galatino, Pagnino, and himself “I am”, in Hebrew “Ehie”,
others who had used Iehoua. For one should say, when speaking about
example, he argued that the name God, “He is”, that is in Hebrew
Iehoua resulted from a change of the “Iihie”. Grammatically, the form
heathen name Ioue (Jupiter) into “Iihie” was likely derived from a
Ioua then Iehoua; he specified that more archaic form “Iehue”,
the verbal form yhwh “He is” should suggested in 1550 by Luigi
be read Iehue, not Iehoua. First of Lippomano. Genebrard then pointed
all, he rejected Chateillon’s Ioua out that Abbot Joachim of Flora
using Saint Augustine’s explanation, used this more exact form (Ieue) in
via Varro, that the Jews had his book on the Apocalypse.
worshiped Ioue (Jove-pater), and Genebrard’s explanations, although
therefore the use of Ioua was a unable to convince, impressed many
return to paganism. In the foreword because of its intellectual approach,
to his commentary on Psalms he and, during the century that followed
went so far as to state that the name Bible commentators often noted this
Ioua was barbarian, fictitious and form Iehue (or Iiheue) when using
irreligious. Concerning the writings the more accepted Iehoua. What is
of Clement of Alexandria (Iaou), really amazing for a modern reader
Jerome (Iaho) and Theodoret (Iabe), now is to see that his scholar
he considered these as mere explanations are either completely
variations of Ioue, and that these irrelevant, false, or absurd.
! There is absolutely no link between “Father of a great crowd”, obviously

the names Ioue (Jove) and Ioua that was not a linguistic explanation.
(Jova). In fact the Latin word “Jove” Similarly, Yehowah explained to
comes from the Old Greek word Moses that his name meant “He will
“Zeus” (originally written “Diwe” in be (yihweh) what he chooses to be”.
Minoan), and meant “heavens”. This Despite its gross mistakes,
word “Zeus” appears three times in Genebrard's explanations succeeded
the New Testament and meant to influence many Hebraists. For
“God” for Greeks. For example, it example, translator Benito Arias
reads: they were calling Barnabas “God” Montano explained in one of his
(Acts 14:12). Ironically, because the books (in 1572), that the divine name
word “God” meant “heavens” at the was never read Iehovih or Iehovah
origin, the expression “kingdom of by the Masoretes and he agreed with
heavens” meant “kingdom of Zeus” Genebrard that the old
for Greeks, accordingly some Jewish pronunciation was probably Iehveh.
translators prefer using the Hebrew Being afraid to favour a name of
word “Elohim” (which is holy) heathen origin, since he too thought
instead of the pagan word “God”. Iehoua resulted from a
As we have seen, the name Ioua transformation of Iouis into Ioua,
(Ihouah) is written without an H then Iehoua, he replaced this name
because theophoric names in the in his Latin translation of Psalms (in
Vulgate all lost their H, like 1574) with IA (surer form). Cardinal
Iehohanan which became Ioanne Robert Bellarmin asserted moreover
(John) instead of Ihohanan. (in 1578) that the form Iehoua was
! Genebrard's major error was to erroneous, because it had the vowels
introduce the theological meaning of e,o,a, of Adonay (a,o,a becoming
the Name into the search for its e,o,a for grammatical reasons!) the
pronunciation, a process that word usually read in place of God’s
provoked a profusion of new name. Although all these accusations
pronunciations due to the ever were actually a stacking of guesswork
increasing knowledge of the Hebrew based on uncertain knowledge, they
language and its history. He did not would be quickly “improved” by
understand that when God gave a Protestant theologians from 1600 on.
meaning for some names, including This time around, the real reasons
his own, God had spoken to his behind the quarrel against God's
prophets not to theologians and he name were once again theological
had given prophecies not theological because the majority of Catholic
interpretations. For example, when scholars of that time had finally
God changed Abram's name to accepted the form Iehouah and this
Abraham, he prophesied that his choice displeased Protestants
friend Abram was going to become scholars who felt more competent
the “Ab-rab-hamon”, that is to say the than Catholic scholars.
JEHOVAH, A CONTROVERSIAL PRONUNCIATION: WHY? 77
Attacks against the theorized, using a few examples that
pronunciation “Iehoua” focused the form Ieheve resulted from an
mainly on three points: 1) this archaic Iahave or Iahveh, and in
vocalization could not be true conclusion noted that this form
because it had resulted from a Iahave was very similar to the
misreading, the vowel-points of Samaritan pronunciation Iave given
Adonay (a,o,a) having been mixed by Theodoret. Although all these
with the consonants of YHWH; 2) arguments were backed by great
the vocalization Iehueh of the verbal scholarship, they remained still a
form “He is/ He will be”, matching stacking of guesswork based on an
to the religious explanation given in uncertain knowledge. However this
Exodus 3:14, was different to Iehoua very complicated explanation
and 3) the verbal form Iehueh could intended to justify the form Iahveh
come from an archaic Iahueh has disconcerted some translators
because the oldest testimonies of the who had used the “simplistic”
pronunciation of God's name were Iehoua. Once again, what is really
Iaô/ Iaho or Iave, according to amazing is to see that these scholarly
ancient historians. For example, explanations are either completely
Johannes van den Driesche, a irrelevant, false, or absurd.
Flemish Protestant divine, ! The vowels of Adonay are a,o,a,
distinguished specially as an obviously not e,o,a, and the vowels
Orientalist, published in 1603 a long of Yehowah are e,o,a not a,o,a.
article dedicated to the pronunciation ! The vowels e,o,a of Yehowah have
of God’s name (Tetragrammaton sive de never been used to vocalize God’s
nomine dei proprio) in order to discredit name, they were used to indicate the
the vocalization Iehoua. His main traditional reading Adonay, in the
arguments were that the Masoretic same way that the vowels ê,o,i were
punctuation of the tetragram (e,o,a) used to indicate the traditional
could not be used as a basis for reading Elohim, not to vocalize the
pronouncing God’s name because it tetragram “Yêhowih”.
was a traditional reading of Adonay; Louis Cappel, a French
hence the form Iehovih, resulting Protestant churchman and Hebrew
from Elohim (ê,o,i), would be scholar, dedicated almost one
nonsense. He thus concluded that hundred pages to the pronunciation
Iehovah was also a barbarism. He of the Name in one of his articles189
repeated the same arguments as published in 1650. As well as
Genebrard against Ioua, and then resuming many of Drusius’
reminded his audience that according arguments, he explained a few new
to the best grammarians of his time ideas. For example, he argued that
the expression “He is” should be the first syllable was certainly Iah-,
pronounced Ieheve meaning “He will because many names had lost their
be” (as in Ecclesiastes 11:3). He then 189
IOANNIS CAPPELLI -Critica Sacra, pp. 666-739.
initial vowel, for example Nabû in Aramaic (HWH). According to the

the Septuagint had become Nebô in Septuagint, God’s name means “He
the Masoretic text, consequently who is” while according to the
Yahûh could have become Yehôh190, Vulgate it means “He is” whereas to
in addition he noted that most Hebrew it means “He will be”. To
ancient witnesses (hence the most solve the problem, Leclerc offered a
reliable) usually mentioned Iaô, and new definition of God's name,
for this last reason he preferred because God is the Creator of
Iahuoh to Iahave or Iahue. Cappel's everything “He makes to be”
work deeply impressed Protestant everything193. In Hebrew there are
circles. For example, Jean Le Clerc, a only two possible ways to express
Swiss Protestant theologian and this idea: 1) the factitive form yehawêh
biblical scholar, who was famous for (piel) “He makes to be” or the
promoting exegesis, or critical causative form yahawêh (hiphil) “He
interpretation of the Bible, quoted causes to be”.
Cappel in his Ars Critica published in
1696, to explain why he preferred
Jahvoh to Jehovah191. However, after
further examination of this complex
issue, Le Clerc changed his mind and
preferred Jahveh to Jahvoh.
What is surprising in his
argument is that it is purely
philosophical and takes no account
of linguistic laws. He explained first
that, according to the testimony of
Jerome (Iaho), the vocalization of
the tetragram could be Jahavoh,
Jahvoh or Jahwoh192 but according to
Theodotet (Iave), the vocalization of
the tetragram could be Javeh or
Jahweh. To choose between these
two possibilities he appealed to
philosophy. According to the text of
Exodus 3:14 the meaning of the
tetragram (YHWH) comes from the
verb “to be” in Hebrew (HYH) or
190
This hypothesis is absurd because if Yahûh
was the ancient vocalization of God’s name it
would have been Iaou in the LXX.
191
Ars Critica (Part II, Section I, Chapter XIII).
192 193
He considered that the vocalization given by JOANNIS CLERICI - Mosis prophetae Libri
Philo of Byblos (Ieuo) was a distortion of quatuor; Exodus, Leviticus, Numeri, et
Iahuoh. Deuteronomium (Amsterdam 1710), pp. 18-32.
The causative form (hiphil) who do it will not participate in the
whose meaning is close to the world to come. The rabbi Abba Saul
factitive form had the great added (c. 130 CE): as one who
advantage of starting with Yah-, pronounces the name according to its letters
which corresponded to the will not have his share in the world to come
testimonies of the past and (Sanhedrin 101a; 10:1). The term “to
particularly to that of Theodoret pronounce the Name according to
(Iaoue). The god Yahweh, who causes its letters” means to pronounce the
to be/become, the rival of the true god name as it is written, or according to
Jehovah, who will [prove to] be, was the sound of its letters which is
born at this very moment in 1710. different from spelling a name
When Hebraists are asked according to its letters. Indeed, it was
today why they read God's name allowed to spell the name YHWH
“Adonay”, instead of Yehowah, they according to its letters, as the
usually respond that it is for sake of Talmud itself does, that is to say in
the Jewish custom inspired by one of Hebrew: Yod (Y), He (H), Waw (W),
the “Ten commandments”, in order He (H); in contrast, it was forbidden
not to blaspheme God's name. Once to pronounce it according to these
again these Hebraists induce people letters. In the Talmud the tetragram
into error because the Torah by no is designated by the term Shem Ha-
means forbids the pronouncing of mephorash, which means “the name
God's name, but only not to use it in read distinctly” or "the name read
vain for worthless things: You shall according to its letters". Some
not take the name of the Lord, your God, Kabbalists claim that the word
in vain, for the Lord will not hold blameless mephorash means “hidden” but, once
anyone who takes His name in vain more, this statement contradicts the
(Exodus 20:7, The Complete Jewish sense that the Bible gives to this
Bible With Rashi Commentary). So this word: And they read in the scroll, in the
custom is not observed by all Jews, it Law of God, distinctly, and gave sense, and
is generally respected in Rabbinism, they explained the reading to them
the majority tendency of Judaism194, (Nehemiah 8: 8, The Complete Jewish
but not in Karaism. This unbiblical Bible With Rashi Commentary). The ban
practice emerged around the middle on not reading the name of God
of the 2nd century CE. The Talmud according to its letters has therefore
warns against the magical use of nothing mysterious or esoteric, it
certain biblical quotations such simply means that one should not
Exodus 15:26, and says that those pronounce the name of God as it is
written. For example, the name
194
Rabbanite Jews are the successors of the YHWDH is spelled Y, H, W, D, H
Pharisees, they consider that the Oral Law and is pronounced, according to its
(Talmud), which was finally written after 200 CE
is higher than the written law (Torah) in contrast letters: IHUDA (Yehudah in
the Karaites (such as the Masoretes) have the Hebrew, Iouda in Greek), because
opposite point of view.
the Y and W are semi-consonants (or (Yahaweh or Yahweh). The Divine name
semi-vowels: I and U) and the final was considered too sacred to be pronounced;
H is pronounced â (A) otherwise the so the consonants of this word were written
letter is inaudible. Similarly, the name in the text (Kethibh), but the word read
YHWH is spelled Y, H, W, H and is (Qere) was ‫( אֲ דֹנָי‬meaning 'Lord'). The
pronounced, according to its letters: consonants of the (Kethibh) ‫ יהוה‬were given
IHUA, which is close to Yehowah. the vowels of the (Qere) ‫ אֲ דֹנָי‬namely ◌ָ ֹ ◌ְ
God's name is really an producing the impossible form ‫יְהוָֹה‬
amazing paradox, because despite it (Yehōwâ). Since, however, the Divine name
being one of the easiest names to occurs so often in the Bible, the printed
read, since it is pronounced as it is editions do not put the reading required
written, theologians with the help of (Qere) in the margin or footnote; the reader
grammarians succeeded in is expected to substitute the Qere for
convincing ordinary people that the Kethibh, without having his attention
pronunciation had been lost and that drawn to it every time it occurs. For this
through their great knowledge they reason it has been called Qere
had managed to find again the Perpetuum, i.e. permanent Qere195. The
probable pronunciation of God's scientific explanation is repeated ad
name: Yahweh (based on a late nauseum by all Hebrew scholars
Samaritan testimony in Ιαβε) or worthy of the name. However, if one
Yahwoh (from a Greek papyrus of makes the effort to check this
the Septuagint with Ιαω at Qumran). sweeping statement (“the reader is
Although the study of the expected to be familiar”) it is easy to
Hebrew language has made immense see that this is a concentration of
progress, academic books continue nonsense. First, the printed editions
to spread the gross errors from the do not put the reading required
theologians of the 16th century. For (Qere) in the margin or footnote, the
example one reads: The uncorrected qere perpetuum (Latin words always
word in the text is the Kethîbh (‫כְּ תִ יב‬, 'it is impress more), it is for the simple
written'). The corrected reading in the reason: the qere perpetuum does not
margin or footnote is the Qerê (‫ק ְֵרי‬, 'to be exist! The only information from the
read'). NOTE: In the unpointed scrolls Masoretes about this important topic
read in the Synagogues, the Kethibh (i.e. the appears in their note on Genesis
uncorrected form) is similarly retained in the 18:3, which refers to the Great
text, but no Qere (corrected form) is given Masora listing the 134 places where
in the margin or footnote. The reader is the Sopherim (precursors of
expected to be familiar with the text and to Masoretes) had noted that the
know when a word is to be corrected, i.e. to tetragram was replaced by Adonay,
read the Qere instead of the (written) the traditional substitute. It is
Kethibh (...) Another type of deliberate therefore not a permanent Qere
change in reading due, in this case, to 195
J. WEINGREEN -A Practical Grammar for
reverence, is the Divine name ‫ יַהֲ וֶה‬ou ‫יַהְ וֶה‬ Classical Hebrew (1959, Ed. Oxford University
Press), pp. 22-23.
since it only covered 134 reading qamats) but only e, a, as can easily be
corrections, in addition, when the seen in the Biblia Hebraica
divine name was associated with the Stuttgartensia (Hebrew text for
word Adonay, it was read Elohim modern Bibles) which excludes
instead of Adonay, proving again grammatical reasons because it
that this qere was not permanent but becomes impossible to explain the
only traditional. If we look more disappearance of the vowel o in this
closely at the explanations in this qere way, unless re-invoking a magical
perpetuum, we enter into wonderland. process. A final comment on this
First, we read: The consonants of the magical explanation of permanent
(Kethibh) ‫ יהוה‬were given the vowels of the qere, the author states: producing the
(Qere) ‫ אֲ דֹנָי‬namely ◌ָ ֹ ◌ְ , which is impossible form ‫( יְהוָֹה‬Yehōwâ) and adds
obviously false since the word ‫ ֲאדֹנָי‬is in a footnote of the page: The English
punctuated by ָ◌ ֹ ֲ◌, not ָ◌ ֹ ְ◌. To Jehovah! to mock naïve ones who
reassure the reader, a footnote adds: know nothing in Hebrew. Naive
The composite shewa which was under the ones have not to worry, all
guttural ‫ א‬in the word ‫ ֲאדֹנָי‬becomes a theophoric names are always
simple shewa under the ‫ י‬of the Kethibh vocalized, without exception,
‫יְהוָֹה‬. It's absolutely illogical. Indeed, according to the so-called impossible
this scholarly explanation is triply form -‫( י ְהוֹ‬Yehō-) and none begins
absurd as already noted (in 1844) with Yahaw-, or Yah-, the supposedly
Paul Drach196 a former rabbi and authentic form of the divine name
eminent Hebrew scholar of the (naive ones are perhaps not those
Vatican. First, it is already untrue in one believed). If the name was
the case of YêHoWiH (‫ )י ֱהוִֹה‬read Jahweh, why is there absolutely no
’êLoHiM (‫הִים‬%‫ ) ֱא‬because, as can be theophoric name with Jau- or Ja- in
seen in many codex (cf. Codex of the Septuagint, but always with Jô-?
Petrograd dated 916 CE), the vowel The invention of qere perpetuum
ê (hatef segol) of the qere was not raises several questions: why do
modified into e (shewa) in order to highly competent Hebraists
give YeHoWiH (‫)י ְהוִֹה‬. Second, when propagate a patently false
the Masoretes indicate a qere, explanation about God's name? For
different from ketib, that is precisely example, The Anchor Bible Dictionary
not to confuse the two words (so it reads: The pronunciation of yhwh as
would be absurd to read the vowels Yahweh is a scholarly guess. Hebrew
of the qere with the consonants of the biblical mss were principally consonantal in
ketib, unless one is completely spelling until well into the current era. The
ignorant). Third, before the 12th pronunciation of words was transmitted in
century, the divine name YHWH a separate oral tradition. The
was not vocalized e, o, a (shewa, holem, Tetragrammaton was not pronounced at all,
196
P.L.B. DRACH – De l'harmonie entre l'Église et the word ˒ădonāy, “my Lord,” being
la synagogue (1978. Socii Sancti Michaelis), pp. pronounced in its place; ˒elōhîm, “God,”
480-481.
was substituted in cases of the combination chose to replace systematically

˒ădonāy yhwh (305 times; e.g., Gen Jehovah by Jahweh in his translation
15:2). (This sort of reading in MT is called of the biblical text198 (1855). This
a qere perpetuum.) Though the choice was decisive for most Bible
consonants remained, the original translators because after that date a
pronunciation was eventually lost. When growing number of Bibles replaced
the Jewish scholars (called Masoretes) added the name Jehovah by Jahweh (or a
vowel signs to biblical mss some time before variant like Yahweh or Jahve).
the 10th century A.D., the As one can see the work of
Tetragrammaton was punctuated with the Herzfeld published in 1855 had a
vowels of the word “Adonai” or “Elohim” great impact because after that date
to indicate that the reader should read more and more translators chose to
“Lord” or “God” instead of accidentally replace Jehovah by Yahweh or
LORD. When the Bible for French
pronouncing the sacred name. The form
Jews of Samuel Cahen was reprinted
“Jehovah” results from reading the in 1856 the name Iehovah was
consonants of the Tetragrammaton with the systematically replaced by “Eternel”.
vowels of the surrogate word Adonai. Why In 1906, the prestigious Jewish
do the Jews refuse to read God's Encyclopedia validated blindly all the
name as it is written and usually read erroneous conjectures of Jean Le
instead Adonay “My Lord” (a plural Clerc. When the Emphasised Bible
of majesty)? Why is God's name (1872) for American Protestants of
usually punctuated e,â (shewa, qamats) Joseph Bryant Rotherham was
by the Masoretes, making its reading revised in 1878, the translator
impossible since the 4 consonants extensively explained in his preface
(YHWH) of God's name must have the reasons which led him to replace
at least 3 vowels (long or short) in Jehovah by Yahweh199: (God’s name is)
order to be read, like the words erroneously written and pronounced
’aDôNâY and ’êLôHîM which have Jehovah, which is merely a combination of
4 consonants and 3 vowels? the sacred Tetragrammaton and the vowels
The solution of the returning in the Hebrew word for Lord, substituted
to a pronunciation of God’s name by the Jews for JHVH, because they
“according to its letters” was not shrank from pronouncing The Name,
deemed satisfactory by Bible owing to an old misconception of the two
translators who believed that the passages, Ex. xx. 7 and Lev. xxiv. 16 ...
form Yahweh was authentic197. Levi To give the name JHVH the vowels of the
Herzfeld, a German rabbi and word for Lord (Heb. Adonai) and
historian, was the first scholar who 198
L. HERZFELD -Geschichte des volkes Iisrael
von der zerstörung des ersten tempels bis zur
197
Like Antoine Fabre d’Olivet who used the einsetzung des Makkabäers Schim, Vol 2 (1855,
name Ihôah in his French translation of the book G. Westermann).
199
of Genesis (in 1823) or Augustin Crampon who J. BRYANT ROTHERHAM -The Emphasised
used the name Jova in his Latin translation of the Bible A New Translation (1916, The Standard
Hebrew Bible (in 1856). Publishing Company), pp. 22-29.
pronounce it Jehovah, is about as hybrid a is “become.” So that the force of Yahweh
combination as it would be to spell the thus derived, as a verb, would be “He will
name Germany with the vowels in the name become”. Impressive amount of
Portugal —viz., Gormuna. The monstrous scholarly twaddle relying on a
combination Jehovah is not older than prestigious Professor.
about 1520 A.D. —Professor Paul As one can see the vowels of
Haupt200, General Editor of “The Adonay are a,o,a, not e,a which come
Polychrome Bible,” in the Book of Psalms, from the Aramaic word ŠeMa’ “the
pp. 163,164 (...) The form “Yahweh” is Name201” and they have never been
here adopted as practically the best. The used to vocalize God's name202. One
only competing form would be “Yehweh,” must know that in most Hebrew
differing, it will be observed, only in a single Codex of the Bible before 1300, the
vowel —“e” for “a” in the first syllable. tetragram is punctuated e,a :
But even this difference vanishes on
date Codex (Adonay) (Elohim)
examination. It is true that “Yehweh” is
700? Geniza203 YeHWaH YeHWiH
intended to suggest the derivation of the 900 Berlin204 YHWaH YHWH
noun from the simple (Kal) conjugation of 916 Petrograd205 YHWH YêHoWiH
the verb, and that some scholars take 930 Aleppo206 YeHWaH YeHoWiH
“Yahweh” as indicating a formation from 950 Or.4445 YeHWaH YeHWiH
the causative (Hiphil) conjugation (...) The 1008 B19a207 (BHS) YeHWaH YeHWiH
true pronunciation seems to have been 1100 Urbinati208 YHWaH YHWiH
Yahwè (or Iahway, the initial I = y, as in 1105 Reuchlianus209 YeHWaH YêHWiH
Iachimo). The final e should be pronounced 1286 Paris Hébreu1 YeHWaH YêHoWiH
like the French ê, or the English e in there, 1300 Palatini210 YHWaH YêHoWiH
and the first h sounded as an aspirate (...) The second statement from the
Yahweh is almost always regarded as the Emphasised Bible is downright
third person, singular, masculine, imperfect absurd: how is it possible to have in
tense, from the root hawah, an old form of the same time a “simple” (Qal) form
the root hayah. The one meaning of hawah “He will become” Yehwêh and a
200 201
Paul Haupt was a Semitic scholar, one of the P. JOÜON, T. MURAOKA – A Grammar of
pioneers of Assyriology in the United States. In Biblical Hebrew. Part One (Pontifico Istituto
1880 he became privatdocent in the University of Biblico, 1993), p. 73 f6.
202
Göttingen and from 1883 to 1889 was assistant For example, Pope Innocent III explained in
professor of Assyriology. In 1883 he became one of his sermons (c. 1200) that IESU's name
professor of Semitic languages at Johns Hopkins has the same vowels of IEUE, a Greek
University, but until 1889 continued to lecture in transcription of God’s name (which was
the summer at Göttingen. In addition to punctuated e,a in Hebrew).
203
numerous smaller articles, he projected and I. YEIVIN (1973, Makor Publishing Ltd).
204
edited the Polychrome Bible, a critical edition of I. YEIVIN (1972, Makor Publishing Ltd).
205
the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, and a H.L. STACK - Codex Babylonian of Petrograd
new English translation with notes. A unique (1971, Ktav Publishing House).
206
feature of this edition is the use of different M.H. Goshen Gottstein (1976, Magnes Press).
207
colours to distinguish the various sources and D.S. LOEWINGER (1971, Makor Publishing).
208
component parts in the Old Testament books — E. LEVINE (1980, Makor Publishing Ltd).
209
each one of which is entrusted to a specialist in A. SPERBER (1956, Ejnar Munksgaard).
210
biblical studies. A. SPERBER (1959, Ejnar Munksgaard).
causative (Hiphil) form “He causes to hypothetical grammatical rule (one

become” Yahwêh. If you accept that contrary to the nature of the qere/
Yahwêh = Yehwêh (or Noah = kethib) was already demolished in the
Nahum, and so on), one dares say word Elohim which keeps its three
that Big Brother is watching you and vowels ê,o,i without the need to
is saying to you “2+2 = 5”. change them into e,o,i. With great
The reaction of the Catholic humour, he mocked those who
Church dealing with Yahweh has wanted to pronounce the tetragram
been more complex. Despite the by “Lord” or “Yahve” calling them
numerous improvements of biblical the Adonites or Yahvehites, because
texts made by Protestant scholars, according to their logic for those
always supporting the Vulgate until who worship Adonai they would
1904 (a Latin Bible which does not have to pronounce the well-known
contain God's name) as well as the names (in Hebrew): John (Yehohanan),
vocalization Jehovah! For example, Jonathan (Yehonathan), Joshua
Paul Drach, a rabbi converted to (Yehoshua), Jesus (Yeshua), Jehu (Yehu),
Catholicism who later belonged to as: Adonan, Adonathan, Adonshua,
the Sacred Congregation for the Adonsus, Adonhu, but for those who
Propagation of the Faith211, explained in prefer the name Yahve: Yahn,
his work Harmony Between the Church Yanathan, Yashua, Yasus, Yahu.
and the Synagogue published in 1842, Those who refuse to
why it was logical that the pronounce God's name in the New
pronunciation Yehova, which was in Testament and prefer to read “Lord”
agreement with the beginning of all are not logical because the God of
theophoric names, was the authentic Abraham, Isaac and Jacob was
pronunciation, contrary to the form Yehowah, according to Jesus himself
Yahve of Samaritan origin. He (Acts 3:13). Furthermore the name
disproved the foolish criticisms “Lord” (Kurios in Greek) never
against the form Yehova, like the appears neither in the Septuagint,
charge of erroneous reading nor in the New Testament, in copies
attributed to Galatino, quoting before 150 CE, in addition, from 150
Raymond Martini and Porchetus de to 400 CE the names “Lord”, “God”
Salvaticis to reject this assertion. and “Jesus” are only written LD (KS
Then he demonstrated the for kurios), GD (TS for theos) and JS
unreasonableness of the (cabbalistic) (for JESUS). How to read these
transmutation of the vowels a,o,a of “sacred names? Jerome had to solve
the word Adonay into e,o,a, since this this problem when he translated the
Bible into Latin (in 382), not from
211
The Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide was the Greek text of the Septuagint
founded by Pope Gregory XV in 1622 to arrange (Vetus Latina) but directly from the
missionary work on behalf of the various
religious institutions, and in 1627 Pope Urban Hebrew text (Vulgate).
VIII established within it a training college for
missionaries.
For Jerome, one of the biggest some people through ignorance,
linguistic undertakings was to learn write ΠΙΠΙ [instead of ‫ ]יהוה‬in Greek
the Hebrew language212. This man, and which can be pronounced Iaho.
later Doctor of the Church, was not Jerome also knew that God’s name
only the first Latin-speaking written YHWH was pronounced
Christian writer who started research Adonay “Lord” by Jews, a word
into the Hebrew Bible; he was also which has been translated Kurios
the person who achieved such “Lord” and written KS in Greek. For
mastery in Hebrew that no other example, how to translate into Latin
Christian writer —before and a few this verse of Joel: And it shall come to
thousand years after him— could pass [that] whosoever shall call on the name
compete with him. His first intention of YHWH shall be saved: for in mount
was rather the correction of the Sion and in Jerusalem shall the saved one
accepted version of the Bible based be as YHWH has said, and they that have
on the Septuagint213. However, glad tidings preached to them, whom
because the canon of the Septuagint YHWH has called (Joel 2:32). The
accepted by his Church contained first solution would have been to
several apocryphal books, not found follow the Jewish custom of writing
in the Hebrew canon, Jerome got God's name with four letters, for
converted to the revolutionary example IHVH in Latin instead of
principle of veritas hebraica “truth in PYPY (ΠΙΠΙ) in Greek, but as
Hebrew”, but paradoxically he did Jerome noticed, nobody understands
not apply it to God’s name. and, worse, this weird writing
Jerome knew that the oldest misleads the reader. The second
copies of the Septuagint contained solution would have been to replace
God's name written in Hebrew the Greek word KS by Iaho, because
YHWH in the Greek text, which as Jerome noticed, God's name can
212 be pronounced Iaho (according to
He had the first lessons of Hebrew during his
stay in the Syrian Desert (after 374) and then he Jewish tradition), but he knew that
was taught by some converted Jew. He continued this name (Yahu in Hebrew) was
(until 379) this education in Bethlehem under Jew only a substitute of the tetragram.
Bar Anina who is told to have come to teach
Jerome at night due to Anina's fear of other Jews. Given that Jerome knew Hebrew, he
At the turn of the years 383 and 384, Jerome was able to read and translate
started the biggest work of his life, on which he Hebrew names. For example, Joshua
was working for 20 years.
213
This improvement was to consist in using the corresponds to Jesus in Greek and
tools of text criticism as well as in comparing this could be transcribed Iehosua
text with other Greek versions and the Hebrew (Yehoshua‘) in Latin, but Jerome
original. Apart from the Septuagint, there were
other Greek translations of the Bible: literal chose to transcribe it as Iosue. If he
Aquila’s version, free Symmachus’ translation as had chosen Iehosua it would have
well as the corrected edition of the Septuagint been easier to see its meaning
prepared by Theodotion. However, none of these
texts was in sufficient conformity with the “Ieho[ah] is salvation”, accordingly,
Hebrew original in order to be the basis for Jerome had to know that YHW[H]
translation, as was claimed by Jerome.
could be read Ieho[ah] in Latin, but In the Bible, names are never
finally, he chose diplomatically to use translated. Replacing a name by a
the word Dominus “Lord” in Latin. title “Lord/ God/ Almighty”, or a
Because of Jerome's choice, symbol like the word “Heaven”, is a
most Christians today pray to the crime. When somebody was entering
“Lord” instead of Jehovah. Similarly, a concentration camp, the first act
because of Muhammad's choice made by Nazi officers was to replace
(when he dictated the Quran), most names by figures in order to deny the
Muslims pray to Allah instead of existence of these anonymous
Yâhuwa (YHWH), despite the name victims. The only character in the
Zakarîyâ “He has remembered Yâ” whole Bible who knows God and
being mentioned in the Quran214 refuses to pronounce his name is
(Surah VI:85). Muhammad's choice Satan, even when he discusses with
was not made by chance, because Jesus (Matthew 4:1-10).
when he realized that the Jews would Knowing God’s name would
never accept his Quran he decided to have to concern Christians because
modify the messianic lineage of Yasu the New Testament reads: Symeon has
(Jesus) changing his Jewish origin related thoroughly how God for the first
from Israel to an Arabic origin, Yasu time turned his attention to the nations to
“Yâ[huwa] is salvation” became ‘Isa, take out of them a people for his name
an Arabic vocalization of ‘Esau215 (Acts 15:14). Knowing God’s name
“Hairy”. Accordingly, God’s name would have to concern Jews because
Yâhuwa became Yâ huwa “Oh He”. the Old Testament reads: At that time
those in fear of YHWH spoke with one
GOD’S NAME, SO WHAT another, each one with his companion, and
The conclusion of the matter, YHWH kept paying attention and
everything having been heard, there listening. And a book of remembrance
is only one God, the God of began to be written up before him for those
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob whose in fear of YHWH and for those thinking
name is written YHWH in Hebrew, upon his name (Malachi 3:16).
more than 6000 times in the Old Knowing God’s name would have to
Testament. In the Lord's Prayer, concern everyone because one reads:
Jesus, whose name means “Je[hovah] For all the peoples, for their part, will walk
is salvation” said: Let your name each one in the name of its god (Adonai,
(YHWH) be sanctified (Matthew 6:9), the Lord, Allah, Jesus, Brahma, Love,
not Let my name be sanctified as well as: Peace); but we, for our part, shall walk in
I shall proclaim your name (YHWH) to the name of YHWH our God to time
my brothers, praise you in full assembly indefinite, even forever (Micah 4:5). If
(Hebrews 2:12). you still prefer pronouncing God's
214
name "Jahve", instead of "Jehovah",
Two other theophoric names are mentioned:
Yahyâ (John) and Ilyas (Elijah). you must know that Jahve is closer
215
Encyclopédie de l’Islam Tome IV (1978, E.J. to Jove (Jupiter) than to Jehovah.
Brill), pp. 85-90.
Common objections regarding God’s name
! Knowing the name of God is useless. are no Jewish documents specifying
Knowing the name of God is vital that the pronunciation of God's
for a religious Jew because it is name was lost in Hebrew. In
written: And it shall come to pass [that] contrast, some Cabbalists claim that
whosoever shall call on the name of the “true pronunciation (?)” of the 4-
YHWH shall be saved (Joel 2:32). It is letter name could give you direct
also vital for a religious Christian access to God, but this mystical
because the text of Joel is quoted in teaching contradicts the Bible (as
the New Testament (Acts 2:21; well as logic because Satan himself
Romans 10:13). Joel’s text has knows God's name).
become obscure today because the ! We cannot be dogmatic, the vocalization
name YHWH was replaced by KS in Jehovah is not certain.
Greek, from 130 to 400 CE, then by Generally, those who claim not to be
KURIOS (“LORD”). The last stage dogmatic are paradoxically extremely
was to replace “the name of LORD” dogmatic in their doubt. In addition,
by “the name of the LORD”. it is true that the pronunciation
! In the Old Testament, God’s name is not Jehovah is not absolutely certain, but
Jehovah but YHWH. like all the other names in the Bible,
Jehovah is the English vocalization no more no less. One supposes for
of the transcription Yehowah, which example that Jesus, the English
is written YHWH in Hebrew. pronunciation of the Greek name
Accordingly Jehovah is the usual “Iesus”, comes from the Aramaic
vocalization of YHWH in the same name Yeshu which comes itself from
way that Jesus (Yehôshûa) is the the Hebrew name Yehoshua‘, but
usual vocalization of YHWŠW‘. obviously nothing is certain,
! We don’t know the pronunciation of God’s including uncertainties.
name because it has been lost. ! The true pronunciation of God’s name is
According to the Talmud: Rabbah bar Yahwoh (Iaô) according to a copy of the
Chanah said in the name of Rabbi Septuagint found in Qumran.
Yochanan: The 4-letter Name of God is Given that it was forbidden to
transmitted by the Sages to their students- pronounce God's name in Qumran,
once every seven years. And some say twice under penalty of excommunication,
every seven years (Kiddushin 71a). consequently the form Iaô which
Maimonides wrote in his Mishna was a Greek vocalization of the
Thora-Hilchot Tefillah 14:10: Outside Hebrew substitute Yahû (YHW),
the Temple, the 4-letter Name “Yud Heh already used (6th century BCE) by the
Vav Heh” is pronounced “A-do-nai”. Jewish scribes of Elephantine, was
Inside the Temple, when the priests gave the not the complete name YHWH.
Priestly Blessing, they pronounced it (“I-eh- Given that the name Jesus means
u-a”) as it is written (“Y-h-w-h”). There “Je[hovah is] salvation” in Hebrew
(Yehoshua), if Yahwoh had been the which YHWH appears frequently. In

true pronunciation, the name Jesus addition, the prohibition of not
would have been Yahoshua in pronouncing God's name only
Hebrew (“Ya[hoshua is] salvation”) appeared from 130 CE onward. The
and consequently would have been discussion between Jesus and Satan
shortened into Jasus, not Jesus216. In in Matthew 4:3-10 highlights a
addition, when the Psalms of the crucial point: Jesus read aloud God's
Bible were sung, God's name was name in Hebrew and systematically
sometimes replaced by Adonay or used it, while Satan never did so
Elohim. Given that these two words because one notices that he preferred
have exactly 3 syllables (A-do-nay, E- to use the word God (Elohim). This
lo-him) they were used to replace choice was not made by chance
Ye-ho-wah. As one can see, the because Jesus quoted Deuteronomy
name Yahwoh has only 2 syllables. 6:13, which says: Yehowah your God
! The true pronunciation of God’s name is you should fear, and him you should serve,
Yahweh according to its linguistic meaning and by his name you should swear. It
“He causes to become (Yahaweh)”. reads: Yehovah your God in the Bible
The biblical meaning of Yehowah is of Rabbi Lazarus Goldschmidt
given in Exodus 3:14 “I shall [prove to] (1925) as well as Iehovah your God in
be what I shall [prove to] be”. Given that the Rabbinic Bible of Samuel Cahen
the question of Moses was not about (1938-1851). No Jewish Bible
the linguistic meaning of God's name contains the fanciful name Yahweh.
(because Moses knew Hebrew!), but ! Among the thousands of papyrus and
only regarding the personality of manuscripts of the New Testament there is
God (in the same way Pharaoh not one with Jehovah.
asked: who is Yehowah?) accordingly In fact, among the hundreds of
there is no reason to link God’s papyrus and manuscripts of the New
answer with the pronunciation of his Testament, between 150 and 400
name. Interestingly, the verbal form CE, there is not one with KURIOS
yihweh (= yihyeh) found in Ecclesiastes “Lord”, but only the cryptic name
11:3 means “he will [prove to] be” KS appears (similarly Jesus is written
which is identical to the biblical IS). Those strange names are called
meaning of Yehowah. In contrast, nomina sacra (“sacred names”). Before
the verbal form Yahweh “He causes to 150 CE, among all the Christian
be/come” never existed in Hebrew. papyrus, including those from the
! Jehovah is the God of the Old Testament, Septuagint, there is not one with
called Lord in the New Testament. KURIOS “Lord”, but only the name
Jesus and his disciples were Jews and YHWH written in Hebrew. In his
they regularly quoted and read some letter to the Hebrews the apostle
verses of the Old Testament in Paul [who knew Hebrew (Ac 22:1-3)]
216
Moreover, if the true name of God had been systematically quoted the Septuagint,
Iaô (instead of YHWH), the evangelical writers but never the Masoretic text.
would have used it in their writings.
COMMON OBJECTIONS REGARDING GOD’S NAME 89
! The vocalization Iehouah (Jehovah) is very of John's gospel (Jn 8:58), pointing
late. It appeared for the first time in 1518 out that it was God's name in
in the work of Galatino. Hebrew. Evagrius Ponticus wrote (c.
Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa in his 380 CE): The tetragram, which is
sermon on John 1:1: In Principio Erat ineffable, was written in Hebrew: Ioth, e,
Verbum (1428 CE), explained, based ouau, e, that is to say, πιπι the God. He
on Maimonides’ works, the various also explained that the name of the
names of God and the meaning of Lord (Jesus) is: ioth, e, ouab, eth, with
the tetragrammaton, which he the Hebrew letter “s” (called shin) in the
vocalized Iehoua. Judah Halevi, a middle. Maybe he meant that the
Jewish scholar, in The Kuzari (1140 name Jesus was pronounced Iesûa in
CE), wrote that the main difference Hebrew, involving Ieûa for God’s
between the God of Abraham and name, because the name Jesus is
the God of Aristotle was the written Iesoua (Dt 1:38) in the
tetragrammaton YHWH, which was Septuagint of Aquila. According to
the personal name of God. He the Talmud (c. 135 CE): They then
pointed out that the letters of God’s brought up R. Hanina b. Teradion and
name have the remarkable property asked him: Why hast thou occupied thyself
of being “mother of reading”: Y = Î, with the Torah? He replied: Thus the Lord
W = Û and H (final) = Â, implying a my God commanded me. At once they
reading IHUA for YHWH (Kuzari sentenced him to be burnt, his wife to be
IV:1-16). The Book of Nestor the slain, and his daughter to be consigned to a
idolatrous priest (Sefer Nestor Hakomer) brothel. The punishment of being burnt
is a dispute between a Nestorian and came upon him because he pronounced the
Monophysiste which is commented Name according to its letters. But how
by a Jewish scribe in the 7th century could he do so? Have we not learnt: The
CE. This book teaches us two things: following have no portion in the world to
some Christian scholars had contact come: He who says that the Torah is not
with Jews who (at that time) were from Heaven, or that the resurrection of the
using the Hebrew substitute Hashem dead is not taught in the Torah. Abba
(HŠM) which means “The Name”, Saul says (c. 130 CE): Also he who
abbreviated in H' in place of the pronounces the Name according to its letters
tetragram (in the passage of Matthew (I-H-U-A)? He did it in the course of
4:1-10 for example). In its onomasticon practising, as we have learnt: Thou shalt
sacrum, the Codex Coislinianus 1 not learn to do after the abominations of
(dated 6th century CE) explains the those nations, but thou mayest learn [about
God’s name Ïôa means “invisible” them] in order to understand and to teach.
(αορατος) and Ïêoua “Life of G[o]d” Why then was he punished? —Because he
(ζωη θυ). Some authors, such as was pronouncing the Name in public (...)
Severus of Antioch (465-538), used The Executioner then jumped and threw
the form IÔA (Ιωα), not IAÔ, in a himself into the fire. And a bathkol
series of comments on chapter eight exclaimed: R. Hanina b. Teradion and the
Executioner have been assigned to the world god YHWH”, in the Septuagint (Jg
to come (Abodah Zarah 17b-18a). 7:1). On a shield from Soleb (Nubia)
Rabbi Tarphon, related the problem dated around 1350 BCE we read:
(90-130 CE) of the destruction of Land of Shasu (Israelites) those of Yehua.
Christian texts which contained the The name Y-h-w3, which is read
tetragram (Shabbat 116a). According Yehua (from conventional reading of
to Flavius Josephus (c. 95 CE): The Egyptian hieroglyphs), is still very
high priest had his head dressed with a close to Yehowah (in Hebrew).
tiara of fine linen embroidered with a purple ! The vocalization Yehowah comes from a
border, and surrounded by another crown in mix between the letters of God's name
gold which had in relief the sacred letters; (YHWH) and the vowels of Adonay.
these ones are 4 vowels (The Jewish War The vowels of “Adonay” are a,o,a,
V:235). According to Philo of not e,o,a, and up to 1300 CE the
Alexandria (c. 40 CE): there was a gold vowels of God’s name were only e,a
plaque shaped in a ring and bearing 4 (YeHWaH) originating from the
engraved characters of a name which had Aramaic word shema “The Name”.
the right to hear and to pronounce in the ! Yehovah is better than Yehowah.
holy place those ones whose ears and tongue Yehovah is God’s name in modern
have been purified by wisdom, and nobody Hebrew and it originates from
else and absolutely nowhere else. And this ‘Yehowah217’ in 1st century spoken
holy prophet Moses calls the name, a name Hebrew. Jesus was able to know and
of 4 letters, making them perhaps symbols pronounce God's name (Hebrews
of the primary numbers (De vita Mosis 2:12) because, before 70 CE, the
II:115,132). Philo of Byblos, a Punic high priest knew God’s name and,
writer of grammatical and historical above all, he had to pronounce it in
works, wrote (c. 100-120 CE): Of the the Temple of Jerusalem (Numbers
affairs of the Jews the truest history, because 6:24-27). Given that in the 1st century
the most in accordance with their places and we know that all theophorus names
names, is that of Sanchuniathon of Beirut, began with Yehô- (or Yehow-) in
who received the records from Hierombal the Hebrew, consequently YHW-H was
priest of the god Ieüô (Ιευω); he dedicated to be pronounced Yehow-ah (Iôa in
his history to Abibaal king of Beirut, and Greek) not Yahow-ah or Yahû (Iaô
was approved by him and by the in Greek).
investigators of truth in his time. Now the ! Yehovah is better than Jehovah.
times of these men fall even before the date Yehovah is God’s name in Israeli
of the Trojan war (1184 BCE), and rendered as Jehovah in English.
approach nearly to the times of Moses, as is ! Ihouah is better than Jehovah.
shown by the successions of the kings of Maybe, but all theophoric names
Phoenicia (Phoenician History IV). begin with Yehô- not Ihô-.
The character Hierombal (1300-1260 217
Until 130 CE, the Hebrew letter “W” (Û) was
BCE), priest of Ieüô (Yehowah), was always pronounced Waw (ουαυ) in the Septuagint
called “Hierobaal [Gideon], Judge of the not Vav “V” (βαβ), see: Lamentations 1:6; 2:6;
3:15,16; Psalms 118(119):41.
! I have kept for the end the most formidable objection: if the pronunciation of
the name of God in Hebrew was really Yehowah in the 1st century, Yehovah today, why is
there still no linguist of the Semitic languages (absolutely none indeed) who endorses this choice?
After reading this booklet the reader will have understood that the specialists
who discredit Yehowah’s vocalization are essentially theologians. Indeed, the
Old Testament asserts on many occasions that “the nations will have to know that I
am Jehovah (Ezekiel 37:28)”, and the New Testament confirms that God will
preserve “a people for His name (Acts 15:14)”. Consequently, God asserts
unambiguously that he will preserve his word and especially his great name. The
question of Moses about the name of God in Exodus 3:13-14 did not concern
its pronunciation since his mother was called Yochebed “Yehow[ah] is glory” but
its prophetic meaning “I shall [prove to] be what I shall [prove to] be” (and not its
linguistic meaning since Moses knew Hebrew). Very early the rabbis assumed
that the Hebrew pronunciation of God's name actually derived from the
amalgam of three verbal forms Yihyeh, howeh, hayah “He will be, (He) being, He
was”. Catholic and Protestant theologians have definitely obscured the name of
God by proposing new meanings as “he is/he will be (yihweh)” in the Septuagint,
then “he causes to be (yehaweh)” or “he causes to become (yahaweh)”. Evidently the
linguists of the Semitic languages (who are not theologians) rely solely on
linguistic and historical facts in order to recover the historical pronunciation of
ancient words or names. One might think that these specialists could have been
more objective than theologians but in fact this is unfortunately not the case
because the name of God is above all a religious subject that strongly interferes
with the religious beliefs of these specialists (atheism is also a strong belief).
In order to understand why professors of Ancient Languages are
systematically “silent” concerning God's name I recently sent an email to an
eminent Professor of Hebrew and Hamito-Semitic in which I said: Since you know
Emmanuel Tov I would like to ask you a question that I hope you will not judge impertinent.
Indeed, I do not understand why the academics in general continue to endorse the Omerta on
the pronunciation of God’s name (Yehovah in modern Hebrew). Indeed, I have observed many
times that this was an open secret (even among the rabbis) but that it should not be revealed to
the general public for reasons that I find indefensible. For example, I have a friend who is
finishing his thesis on the Greek transcriptions of the tetragrammaton in medieval manuscripts
and who has discussed several times with Emmanuel Tov. Although this eminent scholar never
vocalizes the name of God in his works, he confided to my friend, without difficulty, that this
name is actually pronounced Yehovah in Hebrew, but as he published in journals financed
mainly by religious institutions (mainly Jewish) he did not want to offend his readers. It is
because of this kind of behaviour that I admire the approach of Nehemia Gordon (who
worked extensively with Emmanuel Tov) when he denounces this “conspiracy of silence” in his
book Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence: The Hebrew Power Of the Priestly
Blessing Unleashed (2012). I also find that his attitude is also more honest than that of
other academics because he does not mislead his readers by making them believe that the
tetragrammaton cannot be pronounced or that its pronunciation is unknown. I know that you
mention several times in your thesis on the Hebrew of Baruch Spinoza that this Jewish
grammarian used the word Jehova several times, but you do not give any negative or positive
criticism of this controversial linguistic choice. So my question is quite simple: do you think that
this pronunciation Jehovah (Yehovah in modern Hebrew) is the right one? The first time I
asked this question was to Jean Margain (my Hebrew teacher at the beginning of my research).
He kindly replied in his letter dated February 22, 1998: « I cannot tell you that your
conclusions are false. Everything connected with the designation of a divinity is not merely
logical. Your work is to be placed on the subject of this delicate question in which beliefs of a
religious or emotional nature, taboos, pagan influences and superstitious practices are mingled
with the belief. I congratulate you for having carried out such an inquiry and I wish you to
continue your research successfully ». Henri Cazelles, after having also congratulated me,
registered my thesis in 1995 at the library of the Institut Catholique de Institute (T594GER)
but without further action. I also asked Jean Leclant, who at the time was professor of
Egyptology at the Collège de France, why he preferred to use Yahweh rather than Jehovah in
his transcript of the tetragrammaton appearing in the shield found at Soleb and dated the 14th
century BCE. He replied in his letter dated February 20, 1998: « It is very difficult to answer
your question and it is best to stick to the conventional transcription system (yhw3) ». Professor
Leclant obviously knew that the conventional transcription yhw3 was to be vocalized yehua
according to this conventional system, as confirmed to me and patiently explained Jean-Claude
Goyon, a research master at the CNRS and Professor Emeritus of Egyptology at the
University of Lyon II. I received many answers to my question and some even explained why
they were using Yahweh knowing it was wrong. For example, Alfred Kuen, a translator of the
Living Bible and a professor at the Bible Institute, wrote to me in his letter of January 11,
2011: « I confess that I did not research as thoroughly as you did on the name of God.
Personally, I do not like the name Yahweh (which sounds like the name of a foreign god), but
its use has spread so widely —erroneously as you say— it is hard to escape from it. The
reluctance to use the name of Jehovah doubtless comes, as you say, from the fear of being
confused with the Jehovah’s Witnesses. I carefully keep your letter with all this information to
use when the time comes (which I do not see yet) ». After reading this letter I wondered whether
the final remark was humour or involuntary mockery. As you see the subject is disturbing, but
thank you for having read me to the end. One day later, immediate reply by the
Professor (email written in French): « The reply of Jean Margain, [private information],
is the best answer that can be given. There is, therefore, no conspiracy and, for me, everyone is
free to utter the tetragrammaton as he sees fit, since academics have no elements to clarify their
reading. Yours sincerely ». Readers will judge.
As can be seen, the main objections to my conclusions are always the
same: 1) There is no conspiracy against the Name (given that Satan does not exist), 2)
everyone is free to utter the tetragrammaton as he sees fit (because of the right of free
speech), 3) since academics have no elements to clarify their reading (because there is no
absolute truth). These fallacious objections had already arisen when I published
my book: The Name of God Y.eH.oW.aH Which is Pronounced as it is Written
A FEW OBJECTIONS REGARDING THE NAME JEHOVAH 93
I_Eh_oU_Ah (University Press of America, 2002). As one can understand, the
main conclusion of my work is summarized in the title, which clearly contradicts
the three previous objections. When my book was accepted for publication, my
editor asked several peer review committees to give their opinion in order to
promote my academic work. Paradoxically, he received 2 contradictory opinions:
one short positive review (which he kept on his website, obviously) and another
long review, but very negative (which was largely promoted by those who did
not like my book, obviously).
! The first review was published in the Religious Studies Review218 (July 2003
Vol. 29:3 page 285) by Professor Won W. Lee, Calvin College, who wrote: This
detailed treatment of the Name is useful for those who are interested in the history of its
translation of the centuries. As can be seen the support was low (not to say
minimum) but it has been positive.
! In contrast the second review, which was published in the Review of Biblical
Literature (6/6/2004) by Professor John Laurence Gee, a Mormon apologist,
and Egyptologist at Brigham Young University, known for his writings in
support of the Book of Abraham, who wrote: Certain issues need to be examined at
least once a generation, if only to remind ourselves why the current consensus is what it is. The
pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton is one of those issues. In the book under review, Gérard
Gertoux, a French engineer, takes issue with the current consensus and contends that it is
incorrect. With excruciating detail and tortured logic, Gertoux passionately argues his point.
This work is a revision in English of the author’s thesis at the Institut Catholique de Paris.
The French stamp on the work is apparent not only in the extensive use of French sources but
in the transliterations throughout the work, which are into French rather than English. This
proves one of the more frustrating aspects of the work, as too many times the French-style
transliteration obscures rather than clarifies the argument, and in the case of the Egyptian
evidence it leads Gertoux to erroneous conclusions (...) A decent editor could have fixed some of
the book is obvious flaws. Errors of fact abound, and it would be pointless to attempt to correct
them all. One wishes that less effort had been put into the Paleo-Hebrew fonts and more into
fixing the transliterations used throughout the book. The book raises serious doubts about
whether Gertoux controls any of the languages necessary for his study. Assertions such as
“Hebraic language ... favors a vocalic reading of proper names instead of a consonantal reading
(Aramaic)” (42) and errors in his transliteration chart (230) do nothing to assuage our
doubts. Most of the relevant Egyptian evidence was passed over in silence, and what was used
was often misconstrued; his appendix on the subject should be ignored. The Akkadian
evidence was also underutilized. One wonders about his grasp of Greek phonetics when he
asserts that “iotacism ... led mainly to the confusion of the sounds” iota, epsilon, eta, and
alpha-iota (40). Examples could be multiplied ad nauseum, but possibly the best example of
Gertoux’s failure to master his languages is his advocacy of what he calls his letters method.
Gertoux’s letters method assumes that there is only one way to vocalize any particular
consonantal skeleton, which is not the case. Thus his method is fundamentally flawed.
218
RSR is published by the Council of Societies for the Study of Religion (Valparaiso University).
The first criticism of Gee gives the key to understand what lies behind the
curtain: With excruciating detail and tortured logic, Gertoux passionately argues his point.
Did he mean that my arguments were satanic? In addition why was it so
important to mention that I was a French engineer (from 1979 to 1983 to be
precise)? In any case, the main objections were as follows: A decent editor could
have fixed some of the book is obvious flaws. Errors of fact abound, and it would be pointless
to attempt to correct them all (...) Examples could be multiplied ad nauseum, but possibly the
best example of Gertoux’s failure to master his languages is his advocacy of what he calls his
letters method. Gertoux’s letters method assumes that there is only one way to vocalize any
particular consonantal skeleton, which is not the case. Thus his method is fundamentally
flawed. A child can understand that according to “my letters method” the name
Y-H-W-H can be read as I-H-U-A or I-eH-U-A, which is close to Yehowah, but
where in my book did I assume that there is only way to vocalize any particular
consonantal skeleton (in fact, I wrote the opposite). If you read again Gee’s
review you will see that the examples he gave are not samples of my “abundant
mistakes” but only samples of his prejudices about my understanding of
technical details, as: the French-style transliteration obscures rather than clarifies the
argument, and in the case of the Egyptian evidence it leads Gertoux to erroneous conclusions
(which ones?), most of the relevant Egyptian evidence was passed over in silence (which
ones?) and the Akkadian evidence was also underutilized (this last example proves that
he did not read my book correctly because I used a lot). My opinion on Gee's
review is that my book gave him nausea, but once again readers will judge.
Paradoxically the review of John Laurence Gee, who is not a Bible
scholar219, is quoted very often but the one of Won W. Lee, who is a skilled
Bible scholar220, is completely ignored (you can imagine why). Ironically, Gee,
who is a Mormon apologist and mocks my work, especially my conclusion that
Jehovah is the genuine name of God (rather than Yahweh), believes more in the
book of Mormon (by Joseph Smith) in which the name Jehovah appears twice
(2 Ne. 22:2; Moro. 10:34). Moreover Joseph Smith explained in his book entitled
the “Times and Seasons” Vol. 3 p. 358 (15th Nov. 1841): We believe in God the
Father, who is the Great Jehovah and head of all things, and that Christ is the Son of God,
co-eternal with the Father. If I dare say: Gee is more Catholic than the Pope.
Iehovah will [prove to] be King over all the earth; in that day Iehovah
will [prove to] be one, and his name one (Zechariah 14:9, Rabbinic Bible of
Samuel Cahen, 1843).
Copyright © 2017 by Gerard Gertoux
219
Gee earned his Ph.D. in Egyptology at Yale University in 1998, completing his dissertation on ancient
Egyptian ritual purity. He is a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church),
which believes Joseph Smith divinely translated the Book of Abraham from Egyptian papyrus in the 19th
century. Because of his expertise in Near Eastern studies and Egyptology, Gee is highly visible in the
debate over the authenticity of the Book of Abraham.
220
Professor Lee specializes in biblical exegesis, theology, and hermeneutics of the Old Testament. Since
2000, he organizes the biannual Calvin Seminar on Higher Education in Korea which involves 4-5 Calvin
faculty and 125-150 faculty members from various Korean Universities.

"Sanctified Be Your Name" Did Sus " (Hovah) - Salvation" Know God'S Name? H-W-H (H-Û-Â)

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“Sanctified be your Name”

Did Jesus “Je[HoVaH]-

THE CRYING STONES N° 1

“HALLOWED BE THY NAME” —WHAT NAME?............................................. 3!

Michael Servetus (1511-1553) participated in the Protestant Reformation

to replace Jehovah by Yahweh. the Lord, because Baal means “Lord”

received the Holy Spirit: When was unmasked by a relatively simple

description is excellent and completes

custom of reading the divine name as prominent example, consider the

read -wah / -wâ23, again without It is amazing that this

form Ieüô (Ιευω) given by Philo of

Byblos. Most scholars today refuse

reasons: Ieüô is rare in contrast Iaô is

As one can see in the text

It is for this reason within the text of 4Q120/4QpapLXXLev

write Juda Yah (bottom right) was written

Contrary to a widespread words of Isaiah xxvi. 4: ‫בְּ יָהּ יְהוָֹה‬

Jean du Verdier, a colleague of

(framed) in his Latin translation48 Yahweh is not the original

hundreds of gods in Egypt and (Abodah Zarah 16b-17a). Aristo of

In its onomasticon sacrum, the

The Book of Nestor the priest60

(framed), and did not transcribe it Yohonan (Johannes), Yohoyaqim

To summarize, the 3 prefixes: (dated 514-398 BCE), it is frequently

misleading because the correct Consequently to understand God’s

Aramaic inscription found at Sefire81 etymology”, but only a link based on

pronounce YHWH (fortunately for The translation of that list of 4

This controversy illustrates the the equivalence: “u (w3)” = “u-a

It is not by chance that king One notes that the vocalization

The inscription reads: Uriyahu

Dated around 775 BCE, a seal

5. Graciousness toward those who love

1. [may he] be blessed

destruction the Name was widely professional “printers”. Among the

We can see the same text in Septuagint of Qumran, since there

What happened between 100

Contrary to Christians, Jewish

After 300 CE, Eusebius and

exceptional, because the greater This diagram influenced many

ma hu illa hu, “O He (who is), O He

and traditional Rabbinic literature Judah Halevi and Maimonides

he regularly used the spelling was in deep ignorance on this

as the transcription of the tetragram 1474, that God's name was

Johannes Wessel Gansfort, the

When Jacques Lefèvre though it might have a link with the

the uncertainty about the In his Epistle of Secret174, Paulus

author of a new Latin translation of translators adopted the form Iehoua,

! There is absolutely no link between “Father of a great crowd”, obviously

initial vowel, for example Nabû in Aramaic (HWH). According to the

was substituted in cases of the combination chose to replace systematically

causative (Hiphil) form “He causes to hypothetical grammatical rule (one

(Yehoshua), if Yahwoh had been the which YHWH appears frequently. In

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