Industrial Drives

Module 1

ELECTRONICS AND
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Tarakeshwari v

SJB
I N S T I T U T E O F T E C H N O LO G Y
CHAPTER 1

Dynamics of Electrical Drives

Whenever the term electric motor or electrical generator is used, we tend to think that the speed of
rotation of these machines is totally controlled only by the applied voltage and frequency of the
source current. But the speed of rotation of an electrical machine can be controlled precisely also by
implementing the concept of drive. The main advantage of this concept is, the motion control is easily

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 •   C o n t r o l l e d R e c t i fi e r ( a c t o d c )

Basic Elements of the Electric Drive Systems:

•   Inverter (dc to ac

• A C Vo l t a g e R e g u l a t o r ( a c t o a c

• DC Chopper (dc to dc)

• Cyclo-converter (ac to ac) (Frequency converter)

Controller:
A well designed controller has several functions. The basic
Fig 1.1
function is to monitor system variables, compare them with desire
A modern electric drive system has five main functional blocks as values, and then adjust the converter output until the system
shown above a mechanical load, a motor, a power modulator, a achives a desired performance. This feature is used in speed and
p o w e r s o u r c e a n d a c o n t r o l l e r. position control.
Power source: The power source provides the energy to the drive
system. It may be dc or ac (single- phase or three-phase)
Electric motor: i) The basic criterion in selecting an electric motor
Power Converter: The converter interfaces the motor with the for a given drive application is it meets power level and
power source and provides the motor with adjustable voltage, performance required by the load during steady state and dynamic
current and frequency. During transient period such as starting, operation.
braking and speed reversal, it restricts source and motor current ii) Environmental factors: In industry such as in food processing,
within permissible limits Also the converter converts the electric chemical industries and aviation where the environment must be
waveform into required signal that requires the motor. clean and free from arc. Induction motors are used instead of DC
motor.
Types of modulator:

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Mechanical Load: constant and independent of speed, it may be some function of
The mechanical load usually called as machinery such as flow rates speed, it may be time invariant or time variant, and its nature may
in pump, fans, robots, machine tools, trains and drills are coupled also vary with the change in the load's mode of operation. The
with motor shaft. friction torque ‘TF’ can be resolved into three components as
Classification of Load torque: Various load torques are broadly shown in figure 1.2b.
c l a s s i fi e d i n t o t w o c a t e g o r i e s .

A) Active Load Torque

B) Passive Load Torque

Load torques which have the potential to drive the motor under
equilibrium conditions are called active load torques. Such load
torques usually retain their sign when the direction of the drive
rotation is changed. Torque due to the force of gravity, hoists, lifts
or elevators and locomotive trains also torques due to tension,
compression, and torsion undergone by an elastic body come
under this category.

C o m p o n e n t s o f t h e L o a d To r q u e ( T L ) :
The first component Tv which varies linearly with speed is called
The load torque TL can be further divided into the following
viscous friction and is given by the following equation:
components:
1.Friction torque TF: The friction will be present at the motor shaft
and also in the various parts of the load.
2.Windage torque TW: When a motor runs, the wind generates a
torque opposing the motion. This is known as the windage torque. w h e r e B i s t h e v i s c o u s f r i c t i o n c o e f fic i e n t .
3.Torque required to do the useful mechanical work, TM: The The windage torque Tw , which is proportional to speed squared,
nature of this torque depends on the type of load. It may be is given by the following equation:

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 where C is a constant. Where C is a proportionally constant,Tr is the load torque at the
rated speed nr, n is the operating speed , and k is an exponential
coefficient representing the torque dependency speed. Figure
So,T is taken in account. shows the typical mechanical loads.

Now, the load torque can be represented by

In many applications Tw = Cwm2 is very small compared to Bwm

and negligible compared toTM . To simplify the analysis, the term
Tw is neglected.

1 . To r q u e i n d e p e n d e n t o f s p e e d .
Torque-Speed Characteristics of Mechanical The characteristics of this type of mechanical load are represented
by setting k is equal to zero and C
Load:
equals to 1.While torque is independent of speed. Such examples
Fundamental Torque Equations
are hoists,the pumping of water etc.
Mechanical load exhibit wide variations of speed-torque
2. Torque linearly dependent on speed. The torque is
characteristics. Load torques are generally speed dependent and
linearly proportional to speed k=1,and the mechanical power is
can be represented by an empirical formula such as
proportional to the square of the speed. An example would be a
motor driving a dc generator connected to a fixed resistance load
with constant field. It can be shown as

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 Combined torque-speed characteristics of
Motor-Load system:

Speed-torque characteristics of motor and mechanical

load

3. Torque Proportional to square of speed

The torque-speed characteristic is parabolic, k=2. Such examples of
loads are fans, centrifugal pumps, and propellers.

4. Torque inversely proportional to speed Dynamic of Motor-Load System:

In this case, k=-1.Examples are milling, boring machines, F u n d a m e n t a l To r q u e E q u a t i o n s
The dynamic relations applicable to all types of motors and loads.
road vehicle and traction etc.
The dynamic or transient condition. These condition appears
during starting, braking and speed reversal of the drive.

A motor generally drives a load (machine) through some

transmission system. While the motor always rotates, the load may
rotate or may undergo a translational motion. It is convenient,

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however, to represent the motor load system by an equivalent negative sign for deceleration and positive sign for acceleration.
rotational system, as shown in figure . Acceleration or deceleration depends on whether Tm is greater or
less thanTL .During acceleration,

motor should supply not only load torque TL but also an

additional torque component called inertia torque J dwm to
overcome the drive inertia. During deceleration, dynamic torque J
dwm has negative sign.

The following notations is adapted:

J = polar moment of inertia of the motor-load system referred to Therefore, it assists the motor torque Tm and maintains drive
the motor shaft,Kg-m2 motion by extracting from stored kinetic

wm= instantaneous angular velocity of the motor shaft, rad/ sec the motor will continue to run the same speed, if it were running
Tm = developed torque of the motor, N-m or will continue to be at rest, if it were not running.

TL = the load (resisting) torque, referred to the motor shaft, N-m Stability:
Any motor-load system can be described by the following
Steady State Stability
fundamental torque equation during dynamic condition:
A) Transient state Stability or Dynamic Stability

Criteria for Steady State Stability:

Let us assume that the motor-load speed-torque curve is at in
equilibrium i.e. at steady state.

The disturbances changes the equilibrium states. The disturbances

are two types. Such as
1.Due to slow change of inertia of rotating masses or that of
inductances changes the equilibrium states slowly. So, effect of the
inertia and the inductances are neglected for dynamics.
2. Due to large and sudden changes of inertia and inductances

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there is a sudden changes of equilibrium states. So, the inertia and Tr a n s i e n t s t a t e s t a b i l i t y :
i n d u c t a n c e s a r e t a k e n f o r d y n a m i c s t u d y. C o n c e p t o f Tr a n s i e n t S t a b i l i t y
Study of stability under conditions given above for the first type of Thus the equation of motion in terms of power, can be written as
disturbance relate to the field of steady state stability while for the
second type of disturbance pertain to the field of dynamic or respectively.
transient stability.

Let the equilibrium values of the torques and speed be denoted by

Tm ,TL and wm Then at equilibrium, when deviation is not
occurred

T m = T L
Let a small deviation in load torque is done, so that all equilibrium
changes by

he dynamic power is determined from the angular acceleration.

Let the angular position of the shaft at any instant is taken as the
between a point and reference which is rotating at synchronous

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speed. With sudden application of load, since the rotor slows and fans etc. Frequent starting is not required. The rating of the
down, the angular acceleration will be negative and hence the machine is decided by input power.
dynamic power will be given by
If efficiency of the load and transmission is ,the input power to
the load is

Rating of Motor:
From the classes of duty the motor rating is selected. A motor can
be selected for a given class of duty based on its thermal rating
with due consideration to pull out torque i.e. the overload must be
within the pull out torque. The various classes of duties are

• Continuous duty

• Intermittent duty

• Short time duty

Continuous duty: T
wo classes of continuous duty are there.

a) continuous duty at constant load

b) c o n t i n u o u s d u t y w i t h v a r i a b l e l o a d

i) continuous duty at constant load: It denotes the motor operation

at a constant load torque for a long duration enough to attain the T= load torque (for linear motion)
steady state temperature. Ex. Paper mill drives, centrifugal pumps

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continuous duty with variable load: Load has several steps in one Intermittent periodic duty: Here, the temperature neither reaches
cycle. The motor rating is the steady state value during on nor reaches to ambient
temperature during off period. So, the over-loading can be applied
neither selected for highest load nor lowest load rather the rating is
to the motor to bring to the steady state temperature for which the
selected on average losses for the load cycle. Ex. Metal cutting
motor rating can be selected. The overloading factor can be found
lathes, conveyors etc.
as
For variable motor mechanical load, the current to the motor is
variable. To find the rating of the motor the equivalent current Ieq
Load Equalization:
method is used for finding the motor rating. Load Equalisation in Electrical Drives – In some drive applications,
Let each step of the load the power loss is composed of constant load torque fluctuates widely within short intervals of time. For
loss which is independent of load called core and variable loss example, in pressing machines a large torque of short duration is
called copper loss. The variable load consists of motor current required during pressing operation, otherwise the torque is nearly
I1,I2....I6 for one zero. Other examples are electric hammer, steel rolling mills and
reciprocating pumps. In such drives, if motor is required to supply
After Ieq is determined, a motor with next higher current rating (= peak torque demanded by load, first motor rating has to be high.
Irated) from commercially available ratings is selected. Secondly, motor will draw a pulsed current from the supply. When
DC motor: For the design of dc motor, the maximum allowable amplitude of pulsed current forms an appreciable proportion of
current is 2 times the rated current. Induction and Synchronous supply line capacity, it gives rise to line voltage fluctuations, which
motor: Here the maximum breakdown torque to rated is 2 to 2.25 adversely affect other loads connected to the line. In some
applications, peak load demanded may form major proportion of
Short Time Duty: In short time duty, the time of operation is less
the source capacity itself, as in blooming mills, then load
than the heating time constant and the motor is allowed to cool
fluctuations may also adversely affect the stability of source.
down to the ambient temperature before it is required to start
again. If a motor

rating of power Pr is subjected to short time duty load of Pr , then

the temperature rise will be far below than the permissible
temperature per . Therefore, the motor can be overloaded by a
factor K>1 such that,

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Variation of motor and load torques, and speed for a periodic load In variable speed and reversible drives, a  flywheel cannot be
and for a drooping motor speed-torque curve are shown in Fig. mounted on the motor shaft, as it will increase transient time of the
2.11. It shows that peack torque required from the motor has much drive by a large amount. If motor is fed from a motor-generator set
smaller value than the peak load torque. Hence, a motor with (Ward-Leonard Drive), then flywheel can be mounted on the shaft
much smaller rating than peak load can be used and peak current of the motor-generator set. This arrangement of Load Equalisation
drawn by motor from the source is reduced by a large amount. in Electrical Drives on the source, but not the load on motor.
Fluctuations in motor torque and speed are also reduced. Consequently, a motor capable of supplying peak-load-torque is
Since  power drawn from the source fluctuates very little, this is required.
called load equalisation.

Moment of inertia of the flywheel required for Load Equalisation

in Electrical Drives is calculated as follows: Assuming a linear
motor-speed-torque curve in the region of interestThe symbols
used have their respective meaning.

From the action-reaction theory of Newton’s Law, when an electric

From the equations, the overloading factor In application such as motor driving a mechanical load in a steady state operation, a force
electric hammer, pressing job, steel rolling mills etc, load fluctuates exerted by either part (motor or load) of drive system, is opposed
widely within short intervals of time. In such drives, to meet the by a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction from the
required load the motor rating has to be high or the motor would other. This can be understood by taking a bidirectional drives with
draw the pulse current from the supply. Such pulse current from unidirectional speed and bidirectional load torque.
the supply gives voltage fluctuations which affects to the other
Bi-directional speed drive (1st and 4th quadrant)
load connected to it and affects to the stability of the source. The
above problem can be met by using a flywheel connected to the In the figure shown below an elevator is moving passengers in
motor shaft for non-reversible drives.This is called load both directions (up and down).For simplicity, let us assume that
equalization. The moment of inertia and the mechanical time the elevator does not have a counterweight. In the upward
constant can be found out from the load equalization problem. directions,the

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motor sees the load force Fl which is a function of the weight of the Movie 1.1
passengers plus elevator cabin,cable etc. Since the weight and Fl
are unidirectional, the motor force Fm is also unidirectional. The
speed of

the motor in this operation is bidirectional.

Four-Quadrant Drives

The Following conventions are to be followed.

1. 2.

When the torque of an electric machine is in the same direction as

system speed, the machine consumes electric power from the
source and deliver the mechanical power to the laod. The machine
i s t h e n o p e r a t i n g a s a m o t o r.
If the speed and the torque of the machine are in opposite
directions, the machine is consuming mechanical power from the
load and delivering electric power to the source. In this case, the
machine is acting as generator. Flywheel

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Interactive 1.1

Review 1.1 Quiz

Which of the following is an interface between Electric power supply & the motor

A. Load

B. Sensing unit

C. Power modulator

D. Mechanical gear

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CHAPTER 2

Control Electrical Drives

Electrical drives have become the most essential equipment now days in the electrical motors and
other rotating machines. We know that electrical drives mainly accomplishes three kinds of work,
" 1" Starting, 2" Speed control. 3Braking .It can be said that the electrical drives enable us to
control the motor in every aspect. But control of electrical drives is also necessary i.e,voltage, current,

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Closed Loop Control of Drives brought down below the safe limit the feedback loop again
deactivates and in this way the control of current takes place.
In a control system, there are two types of systems, one is open
loop and the other is closed loop control system. In open loop
control system the output has no effect on the input, i.e the
controlling phenomenon is independent of the output, on the other
hand closed loop control system is much more advanced and
scientific, here the output is fed back to the input terminal which
determines the amount of input to the system, for example if the
output is more than predetermined value the input is reduced and
vice-versa. In electrical drives feedback loops or closed loop
control satisfy the following requirements.

" 1" Protection

" 2" Enhancement of speed of response Closed Loop Torque Control

" 3" To improve steady-state accuracy This type of torque controller is seen mainly in battery operated
vehicles like cars, trains etc. the accelerator present in the vehicles
In the following discussions, we will see through different closed is pressed by the driver to set the reference torque T. The actual
loop configurations which are used in electrical drives irrespective torque T follows the T* which is controlled by the driver via
of the type of supply they are fed, i.e DC or AC. accelerator.

Current Limit Control

During the starting, we know if precautionary measures are not
taken there is a chance of huge current flow through the motor
circuit. To limit the current and sense the current fed to the motor,
current limit controller is installed. The feedback loop does not
effect the normal operation of the drive but if the current exceeds
the predetermined safe limit, the feedback loop activates and the
current is brought down below the safe limit. Once the current is

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 error ∆Wm, which indicates that the speed is needed to be
increased.
Closed Loop Speed Control
Interactive 2.1
Speed control loops are perhaps the most widely used feedback
loops for drives. If we first see the block diagram of this loop then
it will be a lot easier for us to understand.

We can see from the diagram that there are two control loops,
which can be said as an inner loop and outer loop. The inner
current control loop limits the converter and motor current or
motor torque below the safe limit. Now we can understand the
function of the control loop and drive by practical examples.
Suppose the reference speed Wm* increases and there is a positive

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 Movie 2.1

Now the inner loop increases the current keeping it under

maximum allowable current. And then the driver accelerates,
when the speed reaches the desired speed then the motor torque is
equal to the load torque and there is a decrease in the reference
speed Wm which indicates that there is no need of any more
acceleration but there must be deceleration, and braking is done by
the speed controller at maximum allowable current. So, we can say
that during speed controlling the function transfers from motoring
to braking and from braking to motoring continuously for the
smooth operation and running of the motor.

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Closed loop Speed Control of DC Motor

In closed loop system, the output of the system is feedback into the input.The closed loop
system controls the electrical drive and the system is self-adjusted.

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Drive

An ac drive is a device that is used to control the speed of an electric motor. The speed is
controlled by changing the frequency of the electrical supply to the motor. The three-phase
voltage in the national electrical grid connected to a motor creates a rotating magnetic field
in it

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Load equalisation

Load equalisation is the process of smoothing the fluctuate load

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Protection zone

Protection zone is defined as the part of the power system which is protected by a certain
protective scheme. It is established around each power system equipment. When the fault
occurs on any of the protection zones then only the circuit breakers within that zone will be
opened.

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Steady state Stability

Steady state stability is the ability of an electrical machine or power system to regain its
original state after its operation or we can say that stability is the ability of a system to
regain its original state after a disturbance occurs.

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