ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1

Week 13

Prof. Sarath Perera

Phone: 4221 3405 Room: 35-G33

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 Review of Week 12

• Renewable Energy Generation

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 Topics for Today

• Review

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 Review of Weeks 8 - 13

Review of the 2nd Part of ECTE324/8324

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 Overview of Rotating Electrical Machines

• Guiding principles

• Torque production

• Working principles of a DC motor, an AC induction motor and a

synchronous motor

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 Power Electronics

• Classification of power conversion by frequency conversion:

TO
AC DC
AC Cycloconverter Rectifier
FROM
DC Inverter Chopper

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 Linear Amplifiers

• Linear amplifiers are not suitable for high power applications.

(1) vT
Is
R
ns that the device T vdc T Vo
e desired voltage

r) is continually
linear power supply
produce constant

• According to KVL,
Vo = Vdc − VT

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 13 – 7 / 39

 Rectifier Circuit

• Used to convert AC to DC.

• For example, electronic power supply front end, ac motor drive supply
front end.

D1 D2
io
is
vs C vo
Single phase full
wave bridge to dc load eg SMPS,
rectifier circuit ac drive etc

D3 D4

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 The Switched Mode Power Supply

• The term ‘Switched Mode Power Supply’ (SMPS) refers to a family of

devices that
are able to convert from one voltage to another using a switching regulator.
voltage sensing

control hf
circuit dc output #1
rectifier

Vo

mains lf hf
supply inverter dc output #2
rectifier rectifier

hf transformers with multiple secondaries

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 Capacitor Selection

• Assume dc load is drawing an approximate constant current Io

• T = 1/f where f is the supply frequency

dv
i=C
dt

• Take worse case of decay over half period 1/2f

∆V
Io = C
1/2f
giving
Io
∆V =
2f C

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 Capacitor Selection

• Alternatively
Io
C=
2f ∆V

• Also if the maximum dc voltage is the supply voltage peak

Vo = Vpk − ∆V /2

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 Hold-up Time

• This is the time in cycles that the circuit can continue to operate if the
supply fails.

• Increasing C gives better smoothing and increases hold-up time.

• Rectifier output is Vo and the load operate with voltage Vo1 .

C(Vo2 − Vo12 )
THU =
2Po

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 Chopper With Resistive Load

• Vo can only take values of 0 or Vdc .

vo
+ Vs
Vdc vo (1) on-time Ton
+ - (2) off-time Toff
- (3) period T = Ton + Toff
S (1) (2) t
(3)

Ton
• Duty Cycle, D =
T

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 Chopper With Inductive Load

io

• Need to modify circuit so that: L

Df vo
◦ vo goes to zero when S turns off
Vdc R
◦ io is not suddenly interrupted +
-
• The solution is a freewheel diode Df . S

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 Inverter With Resistive Load

• Convert DC to AC with control over voltage and frequency.

• e.g.: ac motor drives, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).

vo

S1 S2
Vdc
vo
+ io
-
S3 S4
left S1 S3
right S4 S2

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 Inverter With RL Load

• The freewheeling diode is utilised once again.

S1, S4 on vo

io

S1 D1 D2 S2
Vdc vo
+ io

- S2, S3 on

S3 D3 D4 S4 left D1 S1 D3 S3
right D4 S4 D2 S2

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 Sinusoidal PWM

reference sinewave

identical areas
inverter output

one switching
period of inverter

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 Inverter Filtering

SPWM
inverter XL1

dc load
supply XC XL2
connection

• Series inductor L1 to decouple HF harmonics in inverter from load.

• Shunt capacitor C to bypass harmonic current around load.

• Shunt inductor L2 might be necessary to prevent C drawing excessive

fundamental current on no-load.

• It is not possible to use an RC filter.

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 Power Quality and Reliability

• Reliability: availability of supply

• Power Quality: purity of the supply

• Power Conditioning: shield equipment from PQR effects

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 Reliability of Supply

• Short Interruptions

◦ A short interruption occurs when the supply voltage decreases to less

than 10% of the nominal value for a period not exceeding one minute.

◦ Can be the result of system faults, equipment failure and control

system malfunctions.

◦ The duration of the interruption can be a function of the protection

settings.

◦ Delayed reclosing, for example, can produce short interruptions.

• May be preceded by a voltage sag; indicates that the source of the

interruption is a fault.

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 Reliability of Supply

• Long Interruptions

◦ When the voltage goes to zero for more than one minute.

◦ Caused by a fault in the distribution system which is not automatically

cleared.

◦ Failure to clear is due to the nature of the fault, or equipment failure.

• The permanent fault is one which cannot be cleared by normal recloser

operation.

◦ Fallen tree(s)

◦ Faulty transformers, etc

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 Improving Reliability - Redundancy

• Defined as:

“Provision of alternative supply in the case of some

permanent faults”

• For example, feeder segmentation:

Customer Customer
CB1 CB1 CB2 CB3
(a) (b)

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 Estimating Reliability of Equipment

• Reliability is defined as:

The fraction of time that an item is available

and able to do its intended task

• From this notion, there are several other measures that help us define
reliability:

◦ Outage rate

◦ Repair time

◦ Unavailability rate

◦ Availability rate

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 Single Item Reliability

• Outage Rate, O , is the probability of failure in a period of 1 year.

• Repair Time, R, is the average time from item failure to its return to
service.

• Unavailability Rate U , is the fraction of time not the item is not able to
perform intended service. U = OR

• Availability Rate, A, is the fraction of time equipment is able to perform

intended service, A = 1 − U = 1 − OR

• Availability is the same as Reliability.

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 Series Combinations of Equipment

• Service is only available

Systems in if both
series items
: service are
is only available.
available if both items are available
U1 A1
U2

system
A2 available

O1,R1 O2,R2

• Total Availability = product of separate unavailabilities.

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 Parallel Combinations of Equipment

• The service isunavailable

only unavailable if both items are unavailable.
U1 A1
U2

O1,R1

A2 system not
available
O2,R2

• Total unavailability = product of separate unavailabilities.

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 Increase Reliability of the Supply System

• This is expensive and only feasible in local parts of the power system.

◦ Multiple transmission lines to substation.

◦ Underground supply

◦ Solid state switches which can quickly disconnect lines with disturbed
voltage waveforms and connect healthy lines.

◦ Dynamic voltage restorers to hold up any missing part of the voltage.

waveform

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 Power Quality

• What is Power Quality?

◦ Power Quality is the study of the sources, effects and control of

disturbances which propagate via the electric power supply.

• Modern equipment is electronic/digital and more susceptible (IT, variable

speed drives, etc).

• Modern equipment generates more disturbances in the supply!

◦ SMPS generate harmonics

◦ air-conditioners cause annoying light flicker

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 Is there a way of classifying PQ disturbances?

The ‘normal’ waveform has three parameters:

• Frequency: 50 Hz

• RMS value: 230 V rms (line-neutral) in LV systems

• Waveform: sinusoidal

Broadly, PQ disturbances can be classified as:

• Frequency disturbances – very unusual and not considered further here

• Voltage disturbances – rms value affected

• Waveform disturbances – non-sinusoidal

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 Disturbance Types

Vc
Va
Vb

2.2
2 2.3
3 2.4
4 2.5
5 2.6
6

• Voltage outside of normal range (too high or low)

• Unbalance (unequal voltages across the phases)

• Sag (short term reduction in V to 10-90%)

• Momentary interruption (short term reduction into 0-10%)

• Swell (short term increase in V above 110%)

• Fluctuations (continual small changes in V within the normal range)

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 Harmonic disturbance types.

3.1
7 3.2
8 3.3
9

• Harmonics

• Oscillatory transients

• Impulsive transients

• Notching (not that common)

10

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 How is it possible to mitigate PQ issues?

• Control can be oriented to reducing disturbance at the:

◦ source

◦ propagation path, or

◦ victim (affected equipment)

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 What is Power Conditioning?

• combination of clamping devices, filters, energy storage and energy

sources to smooth the flow of electric power.

• various designs depending on whether reliability or PQ disturbance type,

equipment size and requirements.

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 Location of power conditioning devices.

utility plant component

equipment
sub-circuit

increasing coverage

increasing cost

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 Simplified schematic of a transient suppressor

Active
L
M C C T T

to protected
Mains input

equipment
Neutral
L
M M C T

Earth

Symbols:
M Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) C Capacitor for LPF
L Inductor for LPF T Transient surge suppressor diodes

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 Constant Voltage Transformer, or CVT

• Transformer saturates from about half supply voltage and upwards, hence
output is constant for wide changes in input.

• Feedback winding and capacitor help keep voltage regulation acceptable

and remove harmonics due to core saturation.

• Galvanic and noise isolation.

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 The Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

controller

bypass
switch S1

mains critical
rectifier inverter
supply load
S2 S3

rechargeable battery
or other energy
storage means

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 Renewable Energy Generation

• Solar power

• Wind power

• Wave power

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 PV Cell Electrical Characteristics

• Varying load resistance between zero and infinity , the I − V

characteristic of the cell is determined.

• There is one point on the curve at which the cell delivers maximum
power; the Maximum Power Point (MPP).

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