DESIGN CONSTRUCTION OF ONE UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY

(UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or

battery/flywheel backup is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a
load when the input power source or mains power fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary
or emergency power system or standby generator in that it will provide near-
instantaneous protection from input power interruptions, by supplying energy stored in
batteries, supercapacitors, or flywheels. The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible
power sources is relatively short (only a few minutes) but sufficient to start a standby
power source or properly shut down the protected equipment.

A UPS is typically used to protect hardware such as computers, data centers,

telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where an unexpected power
disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or data loss. UPS
units range in size from units designed to protect a single computer without a video
monitor (around 200 volt-ampere rating) to large units powering entire data centers or
buildings. The world's largest UPS, the 46-megawatt Battery Electric Storage System
(BESS), in Fairbanks, Alaska, powers the entire city and nearby rural communities
during outages.

Common power problems

The primary role of any UPS is to provide short-term power when the input power source
fails. However, most UPS units are also capable in varying degrees of correcting
common utility power problems:

1. Voltage spike or sustained overvoltage

2. Momentary or sustained reduction in input voltage

3. Noise, defined as a high frequency transient or oscillation, usually injected into the

line by nearby equipment

 4. Instability of the mains frequency

5. Harmonic distortion, defined as a departure from the ideal sinusoidal waveform

expected on the line

UPS units are divided into categories based on which of the above problems they address,
[dubious – discuss]
and some manufacturers categorize their products in accordance with the
number of power-related problems they address.[2]

Technologies

The three general categories of modern UPS systems are on-line, line-interactive and
standby. An on-line UPS uses a "double conversion" method of accepting AC input,
rectifying to DC for passing through the rechargeable battery (or battery strings), then
inverting back to 120 V/230 V AC for powering the protected equipment. A line-
interactive UPS maintains the inverter in line and redirects the battery's DC current path
from the normal charging mode to supplying current when power is lost. In a standby
("off-line") system the load is powered directly by the input power and the backup power
circuitry is only invoked when the utility power fails. Most UPS below 1 kVA are of the
line-interactive or standby variety which are usually less expensive.

For large power units, Dynamic Uninterruptible Power Supplies (DUPS) are sometimes
used. A synchronous motor/alternator is connected on the mains via a choke. Energy is
stored in a flywheel. When the mains power fails, an eddy-current regulation maintains
the power on the load as long as the flywheel's energy is not exhausted. DUPS are
sometimes combined or integrated with a diesel generator that is turned on after a brief
delay, forming a diesel rotary uninterruptible power supply (DRUPS).

A fuel cell UPS has been developed in recent years using hydrogen and a fuel cell as a
power source, potentially providing long run times in a small space.[5]

Offline/standby
Offline/Standby UPS: The green line illustrates the flow of electric power. Typical
protection time: 0–20 minutes. Capacity expansion: Usually not available

The offline/standby UPS (SPS) offers only the most basic features, providing surge
protection and battery backup. The protected equipment is normally connected directly to
incoming utility power. When the incoming voltage falls below or rises above a
predetermined level the SPS turns on its internal DC-AC inverter circuitry, which is
powered from an internal storage battery. The UPS then mechanically switches the
connected equipment on to its DC-AC inverter output. The switchover time can be as
long as 25 milliseconds depending on the amount of time it takes the standby UPS to
detect the lost utility voltage. The UPS will be designed to power certain equipment, such
as a personal computer, without any objectionable dip or brownout to that device.

Line-interactive
Line-interactive UPS: The green line illustrates the flow of electric power. Typical
protection time: 5–30 minutes. Capacity expansion: Several hours

The line-interactive UPS is similar in operation to a standby UPS, but with the addition of
a multi-tap variable-voltage autotransformer. This is a special type of transformer that can
add or subtract powered coils of wire, thereby increasing or decreasing the magnetic field
and the output voltage of the transformer. This is also known as a Buck–boost
transformer.

This type of UPS is able to tolerate continuous undervoltage brownouts and overvoltage
surges without consuming the limited reserve battery power. It instead compensates by
automatically selecting different power taps on the autotransformer. Depending on the
design, changing the autotransformer tap can cause a very brief output power disruption,
[6]
which may cause UPSs equipped with a power-loss alarm to "chirp" for a moment.

This has become popular even in the cheapest UPSs because it takes advantage of
components already included. The main 50/60 Hz transformer used to convert between
line voltage and battery voltage needs to provide two slightly different turns ratios: One
to convert the battery output voltage (typically a multiple of 12 V) to line voltage, and a
second one to convert the line voltage to a slightly higher battery charging voltage (such
as a multiple of 14 V). The difference between the two voltages is because charging a
battery requires a delta voltage (up to 13–14 V for charging a 12 V battery). Furthermore,
it is easier to do the switching on the line-voltage side of the transformer because of the
lower currents on that side.

To gain the buck/boost feature, all that is required is two separate switches so that the AC
input can be connected to one of the two primary taps, while the load is connected to the
other, thus using the main transformer's primary windings as an autotransformer. The
battery can still be charged while "bucking" an overvoltage, but while "boosting" an
undervoltage, the transformer output is too low to charge the batteries.

Autotransformers can be engineered to cover a wide range of varying input voltages, but
this requires more taps and increases complexity, and expense of the UPS. It is common
for the autotransformer to cover a range only from about 90 V to 140 V for 120 V power,
and then switch to battery if the voltage goes much higher or lower than that range.

In low-voltage conditions the UPS will use more current than normal so it may need a
higher current circuit than a normal device. For example, to power a 1000-W device at
120 V, the UPS will draw 8.33 A. If a brownout occurs and the voltage drops to 100 V,
the UPS will draw 10 A to compensate. This also works in reverse, so that in an
overvoltage condition, the UPS will need less current.

Online/double-conversion

In an online UPS, the batteries are always connected to the inverter, so that no power
transfer switches are necessary. When power loss occurs, the rectifier simply drops out of
the circuit and the batteries keep the power steady and unchanged. When power is
restored, the rectifier resumes carrying most of the load and begins charging the batteries,
though the charging current may be limited to prevent the high-power rectifier from
overheating the batteries and boiling off the electrolyte. The main advantage of an on-line
UPS is its ability to provide an "electrical firewall" between the incoming utility power
and sensitive electronic equipment.
The online UPS is ideal for environments where electrical isolation is necessary or for
equipment that is very sensitive to power fluctuations. Although it was at one time
reserved for very large installations of 10 kW or more, advances in technology have now
permitted it to be available as a common consumer device, supplying 500 W or less. The
initial cost of the online UPS may be higher, but its total cost of ownership is generally
lower due to longer battery life. The online UPS may be necessary when the power
environment is "noisy", when utility power sags, outages and other anomalies are
frequent, when protection of sensitive IT equipment loads is required, or when operation
from an extended-run backup generator is necessary.

The basic technology of the online UPS is the same as in a standby or line-interactive
UPS. However it typically costs much more, due to it having a much greater current AC-
to-DC battery-charger/rectifier, and with the rectifier and inverter designed to run
continuously with improved cooling systems. It is called a double-conversion UPS due to
the rectifier directly driving the inverter, even when powered from normal AC current.

The working principle of ups

1. 1. The working principle of UPS From basic principles in terms of application, UPS
is a device that contains stored energy in order to inverter as the main
component, regulated stable frequency output power protection equipment.
Mainly by the rectifier, batteries, power inverters and static switch of several
components. 1) rectifier: rectifier is a rectifier device, simply means that the
exchange of (AC) into direct current (DC) devices. It has two main functions: First,
the alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC), through the supply of
filtered load, or the supply inverter; second, to provide battery charging voltage.
Therefore, it is also play a role in charger. 2) Battery: UPS battery is used as a
storage energy device, which consists of several cells in series, with a capacity to
maintain its size determines the discharge (supply) time. Its main function is:
 When the electricity is normal, the energy converted into chemical energy stored
in the battery internal; when the electricity fails, the chemical energy into
electrical energy provided to the inverter or the load. 3) Inverter: popular
speaking, the inverter is a DC (DC) into alternating current (AC) device. It consists
of inverter bridge control logic and filter circuit. 4) Static Switch: static switch also
known as static switch, which is a non-contact switch, is to use two SCR (SCR)
reverse parallel composition of a communication switch, its closed and
disconnected from the logic controller control. Conversion and the model is
divided into two kinds of type and. Conversion-type switch is mainly used for
two-way power supply system, its role is to achieve all the way to another road
from the automatic switching; and model switch is mainly used for parallel
inverters with electricity or more inverter.
2. 2. UPS's matching Generally based on facilities in the electricity environment, and

want to achieve power conservation purposes, select the appropriate UPS. For
example: built-in switching power supply for low-power devices typically can
choose Off-line UPS; in the electrical environment to poor areas should use on-
line interactive type or on-line UPS; while the right does not allow the time or
times required intermittent sine wave AC equipment that can only use on-line
UPS. But also based on your device to select the general ordinary PC, or the IPC's
power in the 200W or so; Apple machine is around 300W; server between 300W
and 600W, other equipment, the power values refer to the device's instructions.
Secondly, we should understand the UPS's rated power of representation:
apparent power (in VA); the actual output power (in W). Due to the presence of
reactive power it had contributed to this difference, the conversion relationship
between the two: Apparent Power * Power Factor = actual output power. Off-
line, on-line interactive power factor between 0.5 and 0.7, on-line power factor is
generally 0.8. With UPS for equipment should pay attention to: The UPS output
 power to match the actual basis, and some dealers intentionally or
unintentionally, it will cause confusion (VA) and (W) the difference, which points
to draw the user's attention. Use UPS of should be noted that UPS the use of
items: 1) UPS's use of the environment should pay attention to well-ventilated,
which will help heat and keep the environment clean. 2) Do not bring inductive
load, such as the Counter, fluorescent lights, air-conditioning so as to
3. 3. avoid 3) damage. UPS's output load control is about 60% of the best, most

reliable. 4) UPS with load is too light (for example, 1000VA, UPS with 100VA load)
may cause the battery depth of discharge, will reduce the battery life, should be
avoided. 5) Appropriate discharge, contribute to the activation of cells, such as
the long-term non-stop electricity, every three months to be artificially cut off
electricity to use UPS with a loaddischarge time, so you can extend battery life. 6)
For most small UPS, to work to open UPS, with load at boot time to avoid startup,
work should be shut down UPS; for network computer room UPS, because most
of the network is 24 hours, so UPS must also be running around the clock. 7) UPS
charge promptly after discharge to prevent battery damage due to excessive
selfdischarge. UPS maintenance and repair The use of an uninterruptible power
supply system in the process, people tend to one-sided view that is maintenance-
free battery and not take this seriously. However, there are data show that due
to battery failure caused by the host UPS failure or an abnormal proportion of the
work of about 1 / 3. Thus, to enhance the proper use of the UPS batteries and
maintenance, to extend the battery life, lower failure rate UPS systems, has
become increasingly important. In addition to matching the regular brand
batteries other than the following aspects should be the proper use and
maintenance of batteries: 1) Maintain the appropriate environmental
temperature: an important factor affecting battery life
4. 4. is the ambient temperature, the general requirements of the battery

manufacturers the best ambient temperature is between 20 ~ 25 ℃. Although

the temperature of the battery discharge capacity has increased, but the cost is
the battery life significantly shortened. According to test the determination of the
ambient temperature whenever they exceed 25 ℃, is increased by 10 ℃, the
battery life should be cut by half. UPS is currently used batteries are generally
maintenancefree sealed lead-acid battery, universal design life is 5 years, which is
required in battery manufacturers environment can be achieved. Not reach
specified environmental requirements, the length of their life there is a huge
difference. In addition, the ambient temperature increase will lead to increased
chemical activity within the battery, resulting in a lot of heat, in turn prompted
ambient temperature, this vicious cycle will accelerate to shorten battery life. 2)
periodic charge-discharge: UPS power supply in the float voltage and discharge
voltage, in the factory have to debug into the rating, while the size of the
discharge current increases as the load increases, the use of reasonable
adjustments should be load, , such as controlling the use of computer and other
electronic equipment, the number of units. Under normal circumstances, the
load should not exceed 60% of rated load UPS. In this context, the battery
discharge current will not over-discharge. UPS due to long-term and electricity
connected, in the supply of high quality, rare use of mains power failure
environment, the battery will be a long period of float charge state, the course of
time will cause the battery chemical energy and electrical energy conversion
activity decreased with each other to accelerate the shorten the life of aging.
Therefore, generally every 2-3 months should be fully discharged once, discharge
time can be battery capacity and load size of the set. After a full load discharge,
according to the provisions of recharge for more than 8 hours.
5. In large business environments where reliability is of great importance, a single
huge UPS can also be a single point of failure that can disrupt many other
systems. To provide greater reliability, multiple smaller UPS modules and
batteries can be integrated together to provide redundant power protection
equivalent to one very large UPS. "N+1" means that if the load can be supplied by
N modules, the installation will contain N+1 modules. In this way, failure of one
module will not impact system operation.[9] Multiple redundancy[edit] Many
computer servers offer the option of redundant power supplies, so that in the
event of one power supply failing, one or more other power supplies are able to
power the load. This is a critical point – each power supply must be able to power
the entire server by itself. Redundancy is further enhanced by plugging each
power supply into a different circuit (i.e. to a different circuit breaker).
6. Redundant protection can be extended further yet by connecting each power
supply to its own UPS. This provides double protection from both a power supply
failure and a UPS failure, so that continued operation is assured. This
configuration is also referred to as 1+1 or 2N redundancy. If the budget does not
allow for two identical UPS units then it is common practice to plug one power
supply into mains power and the other into the UPS.[10] Outdoor use[edit] When
a UPS system is placed outdoors, it should have some specific features that
guarantee that it can tolerate weather with no effect on performance. Factors
such as temperature, humidity, rain, and snow among others should be
considered by the manufacturer when designing an outdoor UPS system.
Operating temperature ranges for outdoor UPS systems could be around −40 °C
to +55 °C.[citation needed] Outdoor UPS systems can be pole, ground (pedestal),
or host mounted. Outdoor environment could mean extreme cold, in which case
the outdoor UPS system should include a battery heater mat, or extreme heat, in
which case the outdoor UPS system should include a fan system or an air
 conditioning system. Internal systems[edit] UPS systems can be designed to be
placed inside a computer chassis. There are two types of internal UPS. The first
type is a miniaturized regular UPS that is made small enough to fit into a 5.25-
inch CD-ROM slot bay of a regular computer chassis. The other type are re-
engineered switching power supplies that utilize dual AC or DC power sources as
inputs and have built-in switching control units. Most of us take the mains ac
supply for granted and use it almost casually without giving the slightest thought
to its inherent shortcomings and the danger posed to sophisticated and sensitive
electronic instruments/equipments. For ordinary household appliances such as
incandencent lamps, tubes, fans, TV and fridge, the mains ac supply does not
make much difference, but when used for computers, medical equipments and
telecommunica¬tion systems, a clean, stable interruption free power supply is of
the utmost importance. Of the myriad of devices, processes
7. 7. and systems which rely on ac power, computers are probably the most

sensitive to power disturbances and failures. Interruptions in power supply may

cause the contents of a memory to be lost or corrupted, the entire system to
malfunction or fail, or even variety of components failures to occur, all of which
not only result in inconvenience but also loss of money. As more and more PCs,
word processors and data terminals find their way into small business, UPS
systems that meet the power requirements and price range needs of even the
small business organizations and offices are being manufactured. Uninterruptible
Power Supply Systems. There are three distinct types of uninterrupted power
supplies, namely, (£) on-line UPS (ii) offline UPS, and (Hi) electronic generators. In
the on-line UPS, whether the mains power is on or off, the battery operated
inverter is on all the time and supplies the ac output voltage. When the mains
power supply goes off, the UPS will be on only until the battery gets discharged.
When the main power resumes, the battery will get charged again. In off-line UPS
 and electronic generators, ther inverter is off when the mains power is present
and the output voltage derived directly from the mains is the same as the mains
supply voltage. The inverter turns on only when the mains supply goes off. The
block diagrams of on-line UPS, off-line UPS and electronic generators are given in
figs The ever increasing importance of computers in industry and commerce will
increase the need for quality, high stability and interruption free power supplies.
A clean ac power source is the fundamental to the operation of most sensitive
electronic equipment, and many new and sophisticated circuits are designed to
overcome the effects of disturbances normally found in the mains ac supply. In
order to protect a sensitive system from power losses and blackouts, an
alternative power source is required that can switch into operation immediately
when disruption occurs. An interruptible power supply (UPS) is just such an
alternative source. A UPS generally consists of a rectifier, battery charger, a
battery bank and inverter circuit which converts the commercial ac
8. 8. input into dc suitable for input to the battery bank and the inverter. The

rectifier should have its input protected and should be capable of supplying
power to the inverter when the commercial supply is either slightly below the
normal voltage or slightly above. Online UPS: Online UPS Block Diagram In case of
On-line UPS, the battery operated inverter works continuously whether the
mains supply is present or not. Triac T1 is on for all the times while Triac T2 has
been provided to bypass the UPS inverter, only when a fault develops in the UPS
inverter. When the mains supply fails, the UPS supplies power only until the
batteries get discharged. However, once the mains power resumes, the batteries
will get charged again. The switching times of these supplies is considered to be
zero. Usually sealed maintenance free batteries are used and the running time of
the inverter is low (approximately 10 to 30 minutes). Off Line UPS: Offline UPS
Block Diagram In the case of Off-Line UPS, the inverter is off when the mains
 power is on and the output voltage is derived directly from the mains. The
inverter turns on only when the mains supply fails. Its switching time is less than
5 ms. These UPS are generally used with PCs or computers
9. 9. or other appliances where a small duration (5 ms or less) interruption in power

supply can be tolerated. Usually, sealed batteries or lead-acid batteries are used.
The running time of these supplies is also low (about 10 to 30 minutes).
Electronic Generators: Electronic Generator An electronic generator is the same
as the off-line UPS system except for one difference that switching time from the
mains supply to battery driven inverter supply will not be small (over 10 ms) for
the electronic generator. Also, the electronic generators will run for longer time
(1 to 4 hours) than off-line UPS systems because, usually large size lead-acid
batteries are used with/electronic generators. These are meant for household
applications to run fans, coolers, fridge, lights, TV and VCR. The demand is the
highest for the electronic generators meant for house hold applications, followed
by the off-line UPS, and then the on-line UPS systems. The off-line or online UPS
systems are mainly used in places where PCs or computers are used. The demand
for on-line UPS systems is less than for off-line UPS systems because the price of
the on-line UPS systems is higher. Description. This is the circuit diagram of a
simple UPS that can deliver 12V unregulated and 5V regulated DC. The
transformer T1 steps down the mains voltage to 12V AC and then the bridge B1
rectifies it. The rectified signal is smoothed by the capacitor C1.When the mains
supply is available the battery will be charged via diode D3 and the regulator IC
gets supply via diode D5. 12V and 5V DC will be available at the output terminals.
When mains supply is not available the
10. 10. battery supplies current to the regulator IC and to the 12V DC terminal

through diode D4.Also, the diode D3 blocks reverse flow of current during battery
mode. Capacitors C2 and C3 acts as filters. Circuit diagram with Parts list. Notes.
 Assemble the circuit on a good quality PCB. The transformer T1 can be a 230V AC
primary, 12V secondary,3A step-down transformer. The bridge B1 can be a 2A
bridge. If such a bridge is not available, make one using four 1N4007 diodes. The
capacitor C1 must be rated at least 25V. Here the simple Mini UPS circuit
diagram. This circuit can provide an uninterrupted power supply (UPS) to operate
12V, 9V and 5V DC-powered instruments at up to 1A current. The backup battery
will take up the load with no spikes or delay when the mains electrical power gets
interrupted. It could possibly also be utilized as a workbench power supply that
delivers 12V, 9V and 5V operating voltages. The circuit instantly disconnects the
load when the battery voltage decreases to 10.5V to avoid deep discharge of your
battery. LED1 indication is presented to indicate the complete charge voltage
level of the battery. Miniature white LEDs (LED2 and LED3) are utilized as
emergency lamps especially during electrical power failure at night time. A
common step-down transformer delivers 12V of AC, that is rectified by diodes D1
and D2. Capacitor C1 features ripple-free DC to charge the battery and to the
remaining circuit. When the mains electrical power is on, diode D3 gets forward
biased to charge the battery. Resistor R1 limits the charging current.
Potentiometer VR1 (10k) with
11. 11. transistor T1 acts as being the voltage comparator to indicate the voltage

level. VR1 is so adjusted that LED1 is in the ‗off‘ mode. when the battery is
completely charged, LED1 glows indicating a maximum voltage level of 12V. The
following diagram is the basic design diagram of inverter circuit. The circuit will
convert 12V DC to 120V AC. This circuit can handle up to 1000Watts supply
depends the T1, T2 and transformer used. Please see the note.
12. 12. Components list: Part Total Qty. Description C1, C2 2 68 uf, 25 V Tantalum

Capacitor R1, R2 2 10 Ohm, 5 Watt Resistor R3, R4 2 180 Ohm, 1 Watt Resistor
D1, D2 2 HEP 154 Silicon Diode Q1, Q2 2 2N3055 NPN Transistor (see ―Notes‖)
 T1 1 24V, Center Tapped Transformer (see ―Notes‖) MISC 1 Substitutions Wire,
Case, Receptical (For Output) Notes: 1. Q1 and Q2, as well as T1, determine how
much wattage the inverter can supply. With Q1,Q2=2N3055 and T1= 15 A, the
inverter can supply about 300 watts. Larger transformers and more powerful
transistors can be substituted for T1, Q1 and Q2 for more power. 2. The easiest
and least expensive way to get a large T1 is to re-wind an old microwave
transformer. These transformers are rated at about 1KW and are perfect. Go to a
local TV repair shop and dig through the dumpster until you get the largest
microwave you can find. The bigger the microwave the bigger transformer.
Remove the transformer, being careful not to touch the large high voltage
capacitor that might still be charged. If you want, you can test the transformer,
but they are usually still good. Now, remove the old 2000 V secondary, being
careful not to damage the primary. Leave the primary in tact. Now, wind on 12
turns of wire, twist a loop (center tap), and wind on 12 more turns. The guage of
the wire will depend on how much current you plan to have the transformer
supply. Enamel covered magnet wire works great for this. Now secure the
windings with tape. Thats all there is to it. Remember to use high current
transistors for Q1 and Q2. The 2N3055′s in the parts list can only handle 15 amps
each. 3. Remember, when operating at high wattages, this circuit draws huge
amounts of current. Don‘t let your battery go dead . 4. Since this project
produces 120 VAC, you must include a fuse and build the project in a case. 5. You
must use tantalum capacitors for C1 and C2. Regular electrolytics will overheat
and explode. And yes, 68uF is the correct value. There are no substitutions. 6.
This circuit can be tricky to get going. Differences in transformers, transistors,
parts
13. 13. substitutions or anything else not on this page may cause it to not function.

This inverter circuit can be used to power electric razors, stroboscopes and flash
 tubes, and small fluorescent lamps from a 12 volt car battery. In contrast to the
usual feedback oscillator type of inverter, the oscillator of this inverter is separate
from the output stage, which allows easy adjustment of the oscillator frequency
to suit different applications. The oscillator circuit consists of a 555 timer
connected as an astable multivibrator. The inclusion of D1 ensures that the duty-
cycle of the squarewave output is maintained at about 50%. The output of the
555 drives the base of T1 which switches current through one half of the primary
of the transformer. T2 is driven from the collector of Tl and thus switches current
through the other half of the transformer winding on opposite half cycles of the
drive waveform. Zener diodes D4 and D5 protect Tl and T2 from any high-voltage
spikes generated by the transformer. The voltage applied to the transformer
primary is stepped up and the required high output voltage appears across the
secondary winding. Depending on the application the secondary voltage may or
may not be rectified. How to Make a Mini Homemade Uninterruptible Power
Supply (UPS) Circuit Posted by hitman
14. 14. Uninterruptible power supply units are always considered to be having

complicated circuitry and are therefore are costly, difficult to procure or build. A
simple idea presented here can be built at home using most ordinary
components to produce reasonable outputs. It may be used to power not only
the usual electrical appliances but also sophisticated gadgets like computers. Its
inverter circuit utilizes a modified sine wave design.An uninterruptible power
supply with elaborate features may not be critically required for the operation of
even the sophisticated gadgets. A compromised design of an UPS system
presented here may well suffice the needs. It also includes a built-in universal
smart battery charger. What‘s the difference between an uninterruptible power
supply (UPS) and an inverter? Well, broadly speaking both are intended to
perform the fundamental function of converting battery voltage to AC which may
 be used to operate the various electrical gadgets in the absence of our domestic
AC power. However, in most cases an inverter may not be equipped with many
automatic functions and safety measures normally associated with an UPS.
Moreover, inverters mostly don‘t carry a built in battery charger whereas all UPSs
have a built in automatic battery charger with them to facilitate instant charging
of the concerned battery when mains AC is present and revert the battery power
in inverter mode the moment input power fails. Also UPSs are all designed to
produce an AC having a sine waveform or at least a modified square wave
resembling quite like its sine wave counterpart. This perhaps becomes the most
important feature with UPSs. With so many features in hand, there‘s no doubt
these amazing devices ought to become expensive and therefore many of us in
the middle class category are unable to lay their hands on them. I have tried to
make a UPS design though not comparable with the professional ones but once
built, definitely will be able to replace mains failures quite reliably and also since
the output is a modified square wave, is suitable for operating all sophisticated
electronic gadgets, even computers. Understanding the circuit diagram The figure
alongside shows a simple modified square inverter design, which is easily
understandable, yet incorporates crucial features. The IC SN74LVC1G132 has a
single NAND gate (Schmitt Trigger) encapsulated in a small package. It basically
forms the heart of the oscillator stage and requires just a single capacitor and a
resistor for the required oscillations. The value of these two passive components
determines the frequency of the oscillator. Here it‘s dimensioned to around 250
Hz.
15. 15. The above frequency is applied to the next stage consisting of a single

Johnson‘s decade counter/divider IC 4017. The IC is configured so that its outputs

produce and repeat a set of five sequential logic high outputs. Since the input Is a
 square wave the outputs are also generated as square waves. Parts list R1=20K
R2,R3=1K
16. 16. R4,R5 = 220 Ohms C1=0.095Uf C2,C3,C4=10UF/25V T0 = BC557B T1,T2=8050

T3,T4=BDY29 IC1= SN74LVC1G132 or a single gate from IC4093 IC2=4017

IC3=7805 TRANSFORMER=12-0-12V/10AMP/230V Uninterruptible Power Supply -
Battery Charger Section The base leads of two sets of Darlington paired high gain,
hi-power transistors are configured to the IC such that it receives and conducts to
the alternate outputs. The transistors conduct (in tandem) in response to these
switching and a corresponding high current alternating potential is pulled
through the two halves of the connected transformer windings. Since the base
voltages to the transistors from the IC are skipped alternately, the resultant
square impulse from the transformer carries only half the average value
compared to the other ordinary inverters. This dimensioned RMS average value
of the generated square waves very much resembles the average value of the
mains AC that is normally available at our home power
17. 17. sockets and thus becomes suitable and favorable to most sophisticated

electronic gadgets. The present uninterruptible power supply design is fully

automatic and will revert to the inverter mode the moment input power fails.
This is done through a couple of relays RL1 and RL2; RL2 has a dual set of contacts
for reversing both the output lines. As explained above an UPS should also
incorporate a built-in universal smart battery charger which also should be
voltage and current controlled. The next figure which is an integral part of the
system shows a smart little automatic battery
18. 18. charger circuit. The circuit is not only voltage controlled but is also includes an

over current protection configuration. Transistor T1 and T2 basically form an

accurate voltage sensor and never allows the charging voltage upper limit to
exceed the set limit. This limit is fixed by setting the preset P1 appropriately.
 Transistor T3 and T4 together keep an ―eye‖ over the rising current intake by
the battery and never allows it to reach levels which may be considered
dangerous to battery life. In case the current starts drifting beyond the set level,
the voltage across R6 crosses over – 0.6 volts, enough to trigger T3, which in turn
chokes the base voltage of T4, thus restricting any further rise in the drawn
current. The value of R6 may be found using the formula: R = 0.6 / I, where I is
the charging current rate. Transistor T5 performs the function of a voltage
monitor and switches (deactivates) the relays into action, the moment mains AC
fails. Parts list R1,R2,R3,R4,R7=1K P1=4K7 PRESET, LINEAR R6=SEE TEXT
T1,T2,=BC547 T3=8550 T4=TIP32C T5=8050
19. 19. RL1=12V/400 OHM, SPDT RL2=12V/400 OHM, SPDT, D1—D4=1N5408

D5,D6=1N4007 TR1=0-12V, CURRENT 1/10 OF THE BATTERY AH C1=2200UF/25V

C2 = 1uF/25V

and inductor can have a THD I as small as 2%. This completely eliminates the need to
oversize the generator (and transformers), without additional filters, investment cost,
losses, or space.

Communication

This section requires expansion. (December 2009)

Power management (PM) requires

1. The UPS to report its status to the computer it powers via a communications link

such as a serial port, Ethernet and Simple Network Management Protocol,

GSM/GPRS or USB
2. A subsystem in the OS that processes the reports and generates notifications, PM

events, or commands an ordered shut down.[15] Some UPS manufacturers publish

their communication protocols, but other manufacturers (such as APC) use
proprietary protocols.

The basic computer-to-UPS control methods are intended for one-to-one signaling from a
single source to a single target. For example, a single UPS may connect to a single
computer to provide status information about the UPS, and allow the computer to control
the UPS. Similarly, the USB protocol is also intended to connect a single computer to
multiple peripheral devices.

In some situations it is useful for a single large UPS to be able to communicate with
several protected devices. For traditional serial or USB control, a signal replication
device may be used, which for example allows one UPS to connect to five computers
using serial or USB connections.[16] However, the splitting is typically only one direction
from UPS to the devices to provide status information. Return control signals may only
be permitted from one of the protected systems to the UPS.[17]

As Ethernet has increased in common use since the 1990s, control signals are now
commonly sent between a single UPS and multiple computers using standard Ethernet
data communication methods such as TCP/IP.[18] The status and control information is
typically encrypted so that for example an outside hacker can not gain control of the UPS
and command it to shut down.[19]

Distribution of UPS status and control data requires that all intermediary devices such as
Ethernet switches or serial multiplexers be powered by one or more UPS systems, in
order for the UPS alerts to reach the target systems during a power outage. To avoid the
dependency on Ethernet infrastructure, the UPSs can be connected directly to main
control server by using GSM/GPRS channel also. The SMS or GPRS data packets sent
from UPSs trigger software to shutdown the PCs to reduce the load.

Batteries

Battery cabinet

The run-time for a battery-operated UPS depends on the type and size of batteries and
rate of discharge, and the efficiency of the inverter. The total capacity of a lead–acid
battery is a function of the rate at which it is discharged, which is described as Peukert's
law.
Manufacturers supply run-time rating in minutes for packaged UPS systems. Larger
systems (such as for data centers) require detailed calculation of the load, inverter
efficiency, and battery characteristics to ensure the required endurance is attained. [20]

Common battery characteristics and load testing

When a lead–acid battery is charged or discharged, this initially affects only the reacting
chemicals, which are at the interface between the electrodes and the electrolyte. With
time, the charge stored in the chemicals at the interface, often called "interface charge",
spreads by diffusion of these chemicals throughout the volume of the active material.

If a battery has been completely discharged (e.g. the car lights were left on overnight) and
next is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, then during the short charging time it
develops only a charge near the interface. The battery voltage may rise to be close to the
charger voltage so that the charging current decreases significantly. After a few hours this
interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte, leading to an
interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start a car.[21]

Due to the interface charge, brief UPS self-test functions lasting only a few seconds may
not accurately reflect the true runtime capacity of a UPS, and instead an extended
recalibration or rundown test that deeply discharges the battery is needed.[22]

The deep discharge testing is itself damaging to batteries due to the chemicals in the
discharged battery starting to crystallize into highly stable molecular shapes that will not
re-dissolve when the battery is recharged, permanently reducing charge capacity. In lead
acid batteries this is known as sulfation but also affects other types such as nickel
cadmium batteries and lithium batteries.[23] Therefore, it is commonly recommended that
rundown tests be performed infrequently, such as every six months to a year.[24][25]

Testing of strings of batteries/cells

Multi-kilowatt commercial UPS systems with large and easily accessible battery banks
are capable of isolating and testing individual cells within a battery string, which consists
of either combined-cell battery units (such as 12-V lead acid batteries) or individual
chemical cells wired in series. Isolating a single cell and installing a jumper in place of it
allows the one battery to be discharge-tested, while the rest of the battery string remains
charged and available to provide protection.[26]

It is also possible to measure the electrical characteristics of individual cells in a battery

string, using intermediate sensor wires that are installed at every cell-to-cell junction, and
monitored both individually and collectively. Battery strings may also be wired as series-
parallel, for example two sets of 20 cells. In such a situation it is also necessary to
monitor current flow between parallel strings, as current may circulate between the
strings to balance out the effects of weak cells, dead cells with high resistance, or shorted
cells. For example, stronger strings can discharge through weaker strings until voltage
imbalances are equalized, and this must be factored into the individual inter-cell
measurements within each string.[27]

Series-parallel battery interactions

Battery strings wired in series-parallel can develop unusual failure modes due to
interactions between the multiple parallel strings. Defective batteries in one string can
adversely affect the operation and lifespan of good or new batteries in other strings.
These issues also apply to other situations where series-parallel strings are used, not just
in UPS systems but also in electric vehicle applications.[28]

Consider a series-parallel battery arrangement with all good cells, and one becomes
shorted or dead:

 The failed cell will reduce the maximum developed voltage for the entire series
string it is within.
  Other series strings wired in parallel with the degraded string will now discharge
through the degraded string until their voltage matches the voltage of the degraded
string, potentially overcharging and leading to electrolyte boiling and outgassing
from the remaining good cells in the degraded string. These parallel strings can
now never be fully recharged, as the increased voltage will bleed off through the
string containing the failed battery.
 Charging systems may attempt to gauge battery string capacity by measuring
overall voltage. Due to the overall string voltage depletion due to the dead cells,
the charging system may detect this as a state of discharge, and will continuously
attempt to charge the series-parallel strings, which leads to continuous
overcharging and damage to all the cells in the degraded series string containing
the damaged battery.
 If lead-acid batteries are used, all cells in the formerly good parallel strings will
begin to sulfate due to the inability for them to be fully recharged, resulting in the
storage capacity of these cells being permanently damaged, even if the damaged
cell in the one degraded string is eventually discovered and replaced with a new
one.

The only way to prevent these subtle series-parallel string interactions is by not using
parallel strings at all and using separate charge controllers and inverters for individual
series strings.

Series new/old battery interactions

Even just a single string of batteries wired in series can have adverse interactions if new
batteries are mixed with old batteries. Older batteries tend to have reduced storage
capacity, and so will both discharge faster than new batteries and also charge to their
maximum capacity more rapidly than new batteries.
As a mixed string of new and old batteries is depleted, the string voltage will drop, and
when the old batteries are exhausted the new batteries still have charge available. The
newer cells may continue to discharge through the rest of the string, but due to the low
voltage this energy flow may not be useful, and may be wasted in the old cells as
resistance heating.

For cells that are supposed to operate within a specific discharge window, new cells with
more capacity may cause the old cells in the series string to continue to discharge beyond
the safe bottom limit of the discharge window, damaging the old cells.

When recharged, the old cells recharge more rapidly, leading to a rapid rise of voltage to
near the fully charged state, but before the new cells with more capacity have fully
recharged. The charge controller detects the high voltage of a nearly fully charged string
and reduces current flow. The new cells with more capacity now charge very slowly, so
slowly that the chemicals may begin to crystallize before reaching the fully charged state,
reducing new cell capacity over several charge/discharge cycles until their capacity more
closely matches the old cells in the series string.

For such reasons, some industrial UPS management systems recommend periodic
replacement of entire battery arrays potentially using hundreds of expensive batteries, due
to these damaging interactions between new batteries and old batteries, within and across
series and parallel strings.[29]