Isidore of Seville and His Reception in The Early Middle Ages

L AT E A N T I Q U E A N D E A R LY M E D I E VA L I B E R I A
Edited by Andrew Fear and Jamie Wood
Isidore of Seville and his Reception

in the Early Middle Ages
Transmitting and Transforming Knowledge

Isidore of Seville and his Reception in the Early Middle Ages
Late Antique and Early Medieval Iberia
Scholarship on the Iberian Peninsula in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages
is burgeoning across a variety of disciplines and time periods, yet the publication
profile of the field remains disjointed. ‘Late Antique and Early Medieval Iberia’
(LAEMI) provides a publication hub for high-quality research on Iberian
Studies from the fields of history, archaeology, theology and religious studies,
numismatics, palaeography, music, and cognate disciplines.
Another key aim of the series is to break down barriers between the excellent
scholarship that takes place in Iberia and Latin America and the Anglophone
worlds.
Series Editor
Jamie Wood, University of Lincoln, UK
Editorial Board Members

Andrew Fear, University of Manchester, UK
Nicola Clarke, Newcastle University, UK
Iñaki Martín Viso, University of Salamanca, Spain
Glaire Anderson, University of North Carolina, USA
Eleonora Dell’Elicine, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina
Isidore of Seville and his Reception in
the Early Middle Ages
Transmitting and Transforming Knowledge
Edited by
Andrew Fear and Jamie Wood
Amsterdam University Press

Cover illustration: Statue of Isidore of Seville on the front steps of the Biblioteca Nacional de
España in Madrid (Wikimedia Commons, Luis García)
Cover design: Coördesign, Leiden

Lay-out: Crius Group, Hulshout
Amsterdam University Press English-language titles are distributed in the US and Canada by
the University of Chicago Press.
isbn 978 90 8964 828 0

e-isbn 978 90 4852 676 5 (pdf)
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nur 684
© Andrew Fear & Jamie Wood / Amsterdam University Press B.V., Amsterdam 2016
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Table of Contents
Preface 7
Paul Fouracre
1 Introduction 11
2 A Family Affair 31
Leander, Isidore and the Legacy of Gregory the Great in Spain
Jamie Wood
3 Variations on a Theme 57
Isidore and Pliny on Human and Human-Instigated Anomaly
Mary Beagon
4 Putting the Pieces Back Together 75

Isidore and De Natura Rerum
Andrew Fear
5 The Politics of History-Writing 93

Problematizing the Historiographical Origins of Isidore of Seville in
Early Medieval Hispania
Michael J. Kelly
6 Isidorian Texts in Seventh-Century Ireland 111

Marina Smyth
7 Isidore of Seville in Anglo-Saxon England 131

The Synonyma as a Source of Felix’s Vita S. Guthlaci
Claudia Di Sciacca
8 Hispania et Italia 159

Paul the Deacon, Isidore, and the Lombards
Christopher Heath
9 Rylands MS Latin 12 177
A Carolingian Example of Isidore’s Reception into the Patristic
Canon
Melissa Markauskas
10 Adoption, Adaptation, & Authority 209

The Use of Isidore in the Opus Caroli
Laura Carlson
Abbreviations 231
Index 233
Preface
Paul Fouracre, University of Manchester
‘God’s anger was shown so clearly that a star appeared in the heavens – the
star astrologers call a comet: when it rises, they say, the earth is convulsed
with hunger, with the swift succession of kings, with the movement of
peoples, and the clashing of swords threatens it’. These are the words of a
Frankish hagiographer writing probably in the early 680s. He (we can be
almost certain that it was a ‘he’) was describing the interregnum of 675/6
which led to the death of his hero, Leudegar, bishop of Autun. The passage
just quoted came from Isidore’s Etymologies (3.71.16). For an author who
rarely moves beyond the scriptural in his borrowings, it is remarkable to see
him turning to Isidore in this way. The borrowing is testimony both to the
rapid dissemination of Isidore’s works across Western Europe and to their
importance as tools for explaining human vicissitudes in a turbulent world.
Several of the chapters in this volume derive from a day workshop that
was held at the Instituto Cervantes in Manchester in April 2013. The aim
in putting together the volume was to combine these pieces with some
specially-commissioned studies in order to create the first English-language
collected volume on Isidore. Drawing on the strong scholarly tradition in
the study of Isidore in France and Spain, as well as the increasing number
of new editions of key Isidorian texts, the volume incorporates original
contributions from established and early career scholars that provide a
chronologically and geographically coherent overview of Isidore’s impact
across Western Europe in the early medieval period, from Spain, Ireland,
England, Italy and Francia.
The debt Western European learning of the Early Middle Ages owed
to Isidore as a transmitter and translator of the classical tradition is more
or less a given in narratives of intellectual history. A collection of essays
that clarifies, highlights nuances and further explains his contribution is
therefore most welcome. It is particularly useful to juxtapose the Iberian
context of Isidore’s work with its reception in other cultures: the collection
demonstrates, as the editors put it, ‘that there was not one Isidorian legacy
but many’. And as Christopher Heath’s chapter suggests, we can identify that
legacy in works which do not actually quote him. Heath’s thinking was in
fact prompted by a question at a seminar in London where he presented a
structural analysis of the works of Paul the Deacon. There, a distinguished
classicist asked, ‘Where is Isidore in all this?’ Well, in linguistic terms,
8 PAUL FOUR ACRE
strictly nowhere, but was it conceivable that Paul, writing in the later eighth
century, was influenced by Isidore? Careful research reveals that indeed
he was: Paul’s praise of Italy turns out to owe a great deal to Isidore’s Laus
Spaniae. One reason for thinking that Paul must have been familiar with
Isidore’s work is that he was a fixture of the Carolingian cultural project
into which Paul was himself co-opted. Laura Carlson explains how the
Carolingian intelligentsia were reliant on Isidore to formulate their views
on spirituality, especially in relation to image and language. Interestingly
it was another Spaniard, Theodulf of Orléans, who led the thinking here,
and Theodulf was very proud of his Iberian heritage. Melissa Markauskas
further shows how Carolingians reached for their Isidore to help them
navigate Patristic material. In short, for the Carolingians Isidore was also
the ‘go to’ for political ideas, for explanations of natural phenomena, for
the definitions of orthodoxy and heresy, and for the conception of Iberia
itself. It is surely no coincidence that when the Carolingians tried to put that
religious definition into practice by presenting themselves as the standard
bearers of orthodoxy, they turned their fire upon Adoptionism, a peculiarly
Spanish (and frankly rather obscure) heresy. More surprising at first sight
is to find the influence of Isidore’s Synonyma upon Felix’s Life of Guthlac,
for this is set in the early eighth century in the badlands around Crowland,
still today a remote spot in the Lincolnshire fens. But as Claudia di Siacca
makes clear, it is not that surprising given the fact that Isidore was, in the
words of our editors, ‘a staple figure of early Anglo-Saxon libraries’.
Isidore’s influence spread like the Atlantic tide, up from Spain, round the
British Isles and down into Francia, as well as by land across into Francia
from the south. The two pulses met in Alcuin and Theodulf, the Northum-
brian and the Spaniard, two bitter rivals at Charlemagne’s court. Despite
their differences (porridge versus spicy sausage, according to Theodulf),
they shared political ideas about how society could be ‘corrected’ and how
it should be ruled that were ultimately derived from Isidore. The historical
importance of this political/cultural narrative demands that we get it right.
When, exactly, did Isidore’s works reach Ireland, Marina Smyth asks. How
did Isidore make use of Pliny? Critically, answers Mary Beagon. Did Isidore
really wish to preserve a separate sphere of secular learning? Definitely not,
argues Andrew Fear. These are questions and answers that bring us closer to
understanding the Isidorian phenomenon. As important is understanding
the context in which Isidore wrote, and how the whole project evolved. Jamie
Wood is enlightening on Isidore’s family and the importance of Leander’s
encounter with Pope Gregory I. Finally, Michael J. Kelly unsettles us with
the suggestion that there was actually a Spanish ‘school’ in opposition to
Preface 9
Isidore’s legacy. What, one wonders, would the early medieval intellectual
world have been like if they had succeeded in crushing it?
This last question points to an elephant in the room: evaluation. Was
Isidore’s legacy massive because his works were brilliant? Was his elision
of secular and Christian scholarship so successful that it set a template that
could not be improved upon? Did the legacy actually prevent alternatives
being developed? Or might it have been the case that there was simply no
effective competition because no one else had such a command of ancient
learning? This would certainly seem to be true for the Etymologies – hence
our Frankish hagiographer turning to them for the meaning of comets. It
does look, too, as if Isidore’s political ideas were about all that were available
to early medieval thinkers, from pseudo-Cyprian to Hincmar, from late
seventh-century Ireland to late ninth-century Francia (hence Alcuin and
Theodulf agreeing on rule and justice and very little else). Jacques Fontaine
hinted that it was the poverty of the barbarian intellect that threw Isidore
into such sharp relief and made his works so desirable to distant peoples.
But if it were Isidore who set the terms for relating knowledge to God,
showed the relationship between the natural and the divine orders, and
the way for rulers to obey a divine mandate, then should we also hold him
responsible for the unremitting masculinity of discourse in all of these
areas? His conception of Christian order was, after all, predicated on the
subordination of women. Starting from a counterfactual basis, these may
be unfair questions, and certainly a collection of essays around the theme
of Transmitting and Transforming Knowledge: Isidore of Seville and his
Reception in the Early Middle Ages has no brief to pose or answer them.
But it is testimony to the clarity with which these essays bring out the
importance of Isidore’s transmission and Christianisation of knowledge
that such questions creep into the readers’ minds. In other words, Isidore
is good to think with, and always fascinating to read about, as will become
very clear in what follows.
1 Introduction1
‘The Great Doctor of our times, the newest ornament of the Catholic
Church, last in time but by no means least in the field of doctrine […]
the most learned man in these latter times, he whom one should name
with reverence, Isidore […]’2
Such was the judgement on Isidore of Seville of the bishops who had gath-
ered for the eighth Council of Toledo in 653, some 18 years after his death.
Later ages have agreed – Dante placed the ardente spiro of Isidore alongside
Solomon and Boethius in Paradise;3 in the eighteenth century Isidore was
elevated to the status of Doctor of the church by the intellectually minded
Pope Innocent XIII; and in the late twentieth century he was to become
unofficially the patron saint of computer programmers and of the Internet.
Long the subject of detailed analysis in Spanish and French scholarship4,
the past decade has witnessed a flowering of interest in Isidore in the Anglo-
phone world.5 As well as playing an important role in the ecclesiastical and
1 We would like to thank the staff of the Instituto Cervantes for their support and the
participants at the workshop we held there in 2013 for their feedback on the papers that were
delivered there, as well as the members of the Medieval Studies Research Group at the University
of Lincoln for comments offered on an early draft of the introduction to this volume. Thanks
must also go to the four anonymous reviewers of the manuscript and to staff at Amsterdam
University Press, especially Erin Dailey and Tyler Cloherty, for their support in bringing this
volume to publication.
2 Nostri seculi doctor egregius, ecclesiae catholicae novissimum decus, praecedentibus aetate
prostremus, doctrinae comparatione non infimus… in seculorum fine doctissimus atque cum
reverentia nominandus Ysidorus, Canon 2, which cites Isidore’s Sententiae as justification for this
assessment. For the text of the council see Vives, ed., Concilios Visigoticos e Hispano-Romanos
pp. 260-296, the quotation can be found on page 276.
3 Paradiso 10.130.
4 For comprehensive bibliographies of studies on Isidore and his works see: Hillgarth, ‘The
Position of Isidorian Studies’; Hillgarth, ‘Isidorian Studies’; Ferreiro, The Visigoths in Gaul and
Spain, A.D. 418-711: A Bibliography, pp. 327-409; Ferreiro, The Visigoths in Gaul and Iberia: a
supplemental bibliography, 1984-2003, pp. 299-409; Ferreiro, The Visigoths in Gaul and Iberia
(Update): A Supplemental Bibliography, 2004-2006, pp. 113-144.
5 Recent monographs include, but are by no means limited to: Merrills, History and Geog-
raphy; Henderson, The Medieval World of Isidore of Seville; Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words;
Warntjes, The Munich Computus; Wood, The Politics of Identity. For extensive bibliography
on more recent work on Isidore, see: Ferreiro, The Visigoths in Gaul and Iberia (update): a sup-
plemental bibliography, 2004-2006, pp. 113-144; Ferreiro, The Visigoths in Gaul and Iberia (update):
12 Andrew Fear and Jamie Wood
royal politics of the first third of the seventh century, as the accolades above
demonstrate, Isidore had a considerable impact in the seventh century and
throughout the medieval period, especially in the Latin world. Sources
written and influenced by Isidore are fundamental to our understanding
of the seventh century in Spain and it could be argued that his influence on
the written record for the period lends him a higher historical significance
even than the Visigothic kings who were his contemporaries. Yet Isidore
did not work alone and we might do better imagining him as the best
remembered of a coterie of prolific Spanish bishops in the late sixth and
seventh centuries. As some of the studies in this volume demonstrate, his
legacy was by no means uncontested: the later reception and transmis-
sion of his works was both extensive and highly variable in both form and
content. The chapters in this volume explore the relationship between the
historical situation in which Isidore worked and his posthumous legacy; it
is through putting these contexts in dialogue with one another that we can
better understand both early seventh century Spain and the remouldings
of Isidore’s works and image later in the Middle Ages.
Isidore was probably born in the city where he would later become
bishop in around AD 601. Very little is known of his family who were of
Hispano-Roman, not Gothic, origin. Severian, his father, said in some
later accounts to have been a high-ranking official, was a native of the
province of Carthaginiensis in the south-east, but was forced to flee as a
consequence of either the Byzantine invasion of the Peninsula in AD 552
or of finding himself on the wrong side of the civil war that was raging
between King Agila and his rival Athanagild at that same time.6 Isidore is
often said to have been born in the 560s/570s, but the sole foundation for
this is an assumption that he became a bishop as soon as his age allowed.
This is itself a problematic point, though we know that the two councils of
the Trinitarian Church, those of Agde (506) and Arles (524), decreed that
30 was the youngest age for a man to be made a bishop or indeed a cleric
of any kind and that this was confirmed by canons 19 and 20 of the fourth
Council of Toledo in 633, which was presided over by Isidore. Nevertheless
it is dangerous to assume that Isidore’s elder brother, Leander, whom he
immediately succeeded as Bishop of Seville, died precisely at the time when
a supplemental bibliography, 2007-2009, pp. 135-174; Ferreiro, The Visigoths in Gaul and Iberia
(update): a supplemental bibliography, 2010-2012, pp. 133-168.
6 The most important biographical writings are collected in Martín, Scripta de vita Isidori
episcopi Hispalensis. For a discussion of the traditions concerning Isidore see Fontaine and
Cazier, ‘Qui a chasse de Carthaginoise Sévérianus et les siens?’ and Kelly’s chapter in this volume.
For Isidore’s family see Wood’s chapter in this volume.
Introduc tion 13
his younger sibling could take his place, so it may well be that Isidore’s birth
should be pushed back in time.
In his youth Isidore lived with his brother and, as Leander was a monk,
he may also have taken up the monastic life, although this is not clear.7
The elder brother was well educated and seems to have taken personal
care of Isidore’s education. The prose style of Leander’s surviving works is
decidedly Ciceronian and this has led Fontaine to insist that Severian had
given a good classical education to his son.8 Isidore in his brief biography
of his brother describes him as ‘eloquent in speech, most outstanding in
ability.’9 Sadly most of Leander’s work has been lost; all that remains are
a rule for nuns and a homily delivered on the conversion of the kingdom
to Trinitarianism (the De Triumpho Ecclesiæ ob Conversionem Gothorum).
From Isidore we learn that Leander also wrote ‘two books against heretical
dogmas (no doubt Arianism) full of learning from the scriptures’.10
Leander sought, it seems, to cultivate a culture of learning within the
Church in Spain in order to better serve the pastoral and spiritual needs
of the population. Isidore succeeded his brother as bishop of Seville in 601
and remained in office until his death on 4th April 636, producing a large
number of writings across a range of genres during his long episcopacy.
We have two lists of Isidore’s works. One was compiled by Ildefonsus of
Toledo in his De viris illustribus at some point between 659 and 667, the
other by Braulio of Saragossa not long after Isidore’s death, in what is now
known as the Renotatio librorum domini Isidori (praenotatio is also found).11
Braulio intended this document to be a supplement to Isidore’s own De viris
illustribus and his list is by far the more complete of the two.12 Besides ‘many
other minor writings’ that he does not name,13 Braulio lists the following
seventeen major works, perhaps in the order of their composition:14
7 Leander, De Institutione virginum et contempt mundi 31.

8 Fontaine, Isidore de Séville, p. 6. Fontaine believes that Leander’s prose is ‘nettement
superieure’ to that of Isidore. For a detailed examination of Leander’s prose style, see Martin,
Saint Leander, pp. 13-27.
9 Isidore, De Viris Illustribus 41: suavis eloquio, ingenio preastantissimus.
10 duos adversus haereticorum dogmata libros.
11 See Michael J. Kelly’s chapter in this volume for more on the relationship between these
two texts.
12 Edition and translation into Spanish by Martín.
13 Multa alia opuscula.
14 This has been the assumption of most scholars and was the basis for de Aldama’s chronology
of Isidore’s writings: ‘Indicaciones sobre la cronología’. For doubts see Elfassi in Chiesa and
Castaldi, p. 202.
The Differentiae (two books): a work which deals with the difference and
correct usage of apparent synonyms and homophones. Its second book
also deals with the differences between different categories of beings.15
The Prooemia: a summary of the contents of each of the books of the

Bible.16
De ortu et obitu Patrum: a series of short biographies of key Biblical

figures.17
De ecclesiasticis officiis (two books): dedicated to his brother Fulgentius,

the bishop of Écija. The first of the two books gives a history of the Catho-
lic liturgy, while the second describes the duties of ecclesiastic officials.18
The Synonyma (two books): sometimes known as the Liber lamentatio-

num, this is in fact a religious work set as a dialogue between Man and
Reason. Man laments his fallen state, while Reason consoles him by
showing how he might still be saved. The work takes its name from the
‘synonymous style’ of arguing, where the points made are repeated via
the use of synonyms. The popularity of this technique gave rise to the
so-called stylus Isidorianus in the Middle Ages.19
De natura rerum: dedicated to the Gothic King Sisebut, this is an exposi-

tion of the natural world and phenomena of nature. After the Etymologies,
it was perhaps the most widely read of Isidore’s works.20
De numeris: an examination of the mystical significance of the numbers

found in the Bible.21
15 Edition of book one and translation into Spanish, Codoñer; edition of book two, Andrés
Sanz; translation into English by Throop.
16 Edition by Andrés Sanz.
17 Edition by Carrecedo Fraga, another edition and translation into Spanish by Chaparro
Gómez.
18 Edition by Lawson, translation into English by Knoebel.
19 Edition by Elfassi; translation into Spanish by Viñayo González; translation into English
by Throop.
20 Edition and translation into French by Fontaine; translation into Italian by Trisoglio.
21 Edition by Arévalo, PL 83. 1293-1302 .The authenticity of this text has been challenged.
McNally, Isidoriana and Der irische Liber de Numeris, believes the original Isidorian work to be
lost and this text to be a product of an eighth century Irish author. However Dekkers and Gaar,
Clavis patrum Latinorum, consider that it could be a genuine work by Isidore.
Introduc tion 15
De nominibus legis et evangelorum [often referred to as the Allegoriae]: a

discussion of the allegorical meaning of Biblical names.22
De haeresibus [now lost]: this work is likely to have dealt with Arianism,
but also the Acephalites whom Braulio tells us Isidore expressly opposed.23
Sententiae (three books): a systematic treatise on church doctrine and

the Christian life. One important source for the work is the Moralia of
Gregory the Great.24
Chronicon: Isidore’s Chronicle draws heavily of that of Eusebius as trans-

lated by Jerome.25
De fide Catholica contra Judaeos (two books): allegedly written at the

request of Isidore’s sister, the abbess Florentina. This treatise is ostensibly
a polemic aimed at persuading Jews to convert to Christianity, but in
fact is a theological work which has a Christian audience as its target.26
De viris illustribus: a series of brief biographies of Church Fathers and

essentially a continuation of St Jerome’s work of the same name.27
Monastica regula: a discussion in praise of monastic life with practical

advice on its practice.28
De origine Gothorum et regno Suevorum et etiam Wandalorum: a history

of the Gothic people with (in the second redaction alone) shorter sections
on the Sueves and Vandals down to Isidore’s own day.29
22 Edition by Arévalo, PL 83.97-130.

23 See Etymologies 8.5.66. The De Haeresibus edited by Vega and later corrected by Bejarano
is normally regarded as Pseudo-Isidorian, see Díaz y Díaz, De Patrística Española, pp. 37-39, but
contra Vega,,El “Liber de haeresibus”.
24 Edition by Cazier; translation into Italian by Trisoglio.
25 Edition by Martín, translation into English by Wood and Koon.
26 Edition by Arévalo, PL 83.449-538; edition of book one by Ziolkowski. For a discussion of
the work’s purpose, see Bat-Sheva.
27 Edition by Codoñer. Martín, El Catálogo De Los Varones Ilustres, argues that this is probably
the earliest of Isidore’s works.
28 Edition by Campos Ruiz, translation into German by Frank.
29 Edition and translation into Spanish by Rodríguez Alonso, translation into English by Wolf
(without the sections on the Sueves and Vandals) and Ford.
Quaestiones (two books): an examination of various Biblical cruces

derived mainly from earlier Church Fathers.30
Etymologiae or Origines: Isidore’s last, and major, work, which was post-
humously divided by Braulio into 20 books.31 It was a compendium of
classical and Christian knowledge arranged according to the etymologies
of words and became a standard point of reference in the Middle Ages.32
Apart from these works, a small collection of thirteen of Isidore’s letters has
also survived.33 Not on Braulio’s list is the De ordine creaturarum, a further
treatment of the natural world which also incorporates the supernatural
heavens. This has often been accepted as Isidore’s work, but may well have
been composed by an Irish monk of the seventh century.34 The plethora of
other writings attributed to him are later, false accreditations, though are
a testament of his intellectual standing over the centuries.
For Braulio, through Isidore God had allowed Visigothic Spain ‘to mirror
the learning of antiquity’, as the bishop had brought back to light the works
of ‘the ancients’, thus stopping his own generation growing old through
its boorishness.35 As well as contemporary and earlier Christian authors,
Isidore makes many direct references to pagan authors as diverse as Aesop,
Apuleius, Aristotle, Caesar, Cicero, Lucretius, Ovid, Plato, the Elder Pliny,
Quintilian, Sallust, Solinus, Suetonius (in particular his lost encyclopaedia,
the Prata), Varro, and Virgil. Other classical authors, such as Verrius Flaccus,
who wrote his On the Meaning of Words in the Augustan period, and the
late fourth century grammarian Servius, also influenced Isidore’s work. It
is difficult, of course, to know with how many of these authors Isidore was
30 Edition by Arévalo, PL 83 .201-434. The two books or of very uneven size that for the New
Testament being very much shorter (PL 83.201-208). McNally, who believes that the text of this
book is not by Isidore, has produced a revised edition. The much larger book on the Old Testament
(PL 83.207-434) is often known as the Mysticorum Espostiones Saxramentorum.
31 Edition by Lindsay. Reproduced with a Spanish translation by Oroz Reta & Marcos Casquero.
For an annotated English translation, see Barney, Lewis, Beach and Berghof, The Etymologies of
Isidore of Seville.
32 Bischoff, ‘Die europäische Verbreitung’; Reydellet, ‘La diffusion’; McKitterick,, ‘Glossaries
and Other Innovations’, pp. 45, 49-50, 67, 71. See also the study by Carlson in this volume.
33 Edition by Arévalo, PL 83.893-914, translation into English by Ford.
34 Edition and translation into Spanish by Díaz y Díaz. For study and English translation see
Smyth, ‘The seventh-century Hiberno-Latin treatise Liber de ordine creaturarum’.
35 nostrum tempus antiquitatis in eo scientiam imaginavit […] ad restuaranda antiquorum
monumenta ne usquequaque rusticitate veteresceremus […], Martín, ed., Scripta de vita Isidori
Hispalensis episcopi, pp. 199, 205.
Introduc tion 17
directly acquainted; he would probably have known the majority only at

second hand via quotations in such authors as Augustine and Cassiodorus.36
It does seem likely however that Isidore had first-hand access to Cicero,
Quintilian, Virgil, Lucretius, and Martial. He may also have possessed some
of the works of Ovid and Sallust. The so-called Versus in bibliotheca, a series
of couplets modelled on Martial which were intended to be placed under
the busts surmounting the book cases in the cathedral library in Visigothic
Seville, mention the Greek Christian authors Origen and John Chrysostom.
Isidore devotes one chapter of his De viris illustribus to the latter, but it is
more likely that he knew John and Origen’s works in translation rather
than the original.37
Braulio asserted that Isidore’s learning was holistic – he had given an
account of all branches of knowledge. The Renotatio ended with a eulogy
of the bishop that was self-consciously adapted from Cicero’s praise of the
polymath of his own age, Varro.38 The breadth of his work and the sources
he drew on have sometimes led to him being described as the last scholar
of the ancient world.39 Nothing could be further from the truth. For Isidore
the road to hell was indeed paved with ignorance: ‘ignorance is the mother
of all error and the nurse of vice… the uneducated man is easily deceived,
the fool swiftly falls into sin’. 40 Nevertheless, he was also hostile towards
secular learning merely for its own sake; pagan poetry in particular was
something he detested.41 For the bishop the world was a mirror of heaven and
36 Fontaine, Isidore de Séville.

37 For a general discussion of Isidore’s sources, see Hillgarth, ‘The Position of Isidorian Studies’.
Although it is sometimes asserted that Isidore knew Greek and Hebrew, as he is described in the
late twelfth century Vita S. Isidori as Latinis Graecis et Hebraeis litteris instructus, there is no
good evidence that this was the case. For an overview of this problem, see Domínguez de Val,
Historia de la antigua literatura latina, pp. 27-30. There is an edition of the Versus by Martín.
For a discussion of the problems they raise, see Hamblenne, ‘Les Tituli bibliothecae’.
38 The adapted text is Cicero, Academica Posteriora 1.3.
39 ‘Le dernier savant du monde ancien’ – the view of the French historian Montalambert, cited
by Brehaut, An Encyclopaedist of the Dark Age, preface. Brehaut correctly notes that Isidore was
also the ‘first Christian encyclopaedist and immediately adds ‘His writings, therefore, while of
no importance in themselves, become important as a phenomenon in the history of European
thought.’
40 Synonima 2.65, ignorantia mater errorum est, ignorantia vitiorum nutrix … indoctus enim
facile decipitur. Stultus in vitia cito dilabitur.
41 One of Isidore’s concerns was that it was the pagan poets who had first distorted the meaning
of words in order to fit the metrical schemes of their poetry (Differentiae 1, praef.), but his main
animus was that such poetry was founded in pagan religion and thus: Ideo prohibetur christianus
f igmenta legere poetarum quia per oblectamenta inanium fabularum mentem excitant ad
incentiua libidinum. Non enim solum tura offerendo daemonibus immolatur, sed etiam eorum
knowledge of it was but a protreptic to draw the mind away from mundane
matters towards first the moral truth that they encapsulated, and finally
the theological truth which in turn lay behind the moral truth. 42 If there
was a choice to be made, knowledge of the divine was to be put before that
of the world:
‘It will be of no harm to anyone, provided that he speaks truly of God, that
through his simplicity he has insufficient knowledge of the elements. For
though someone may be unable to discuss the natures of the incorporeal
and corporeal, a good life lived with faith will make him blessed.’43
Far from being part of the rearguard of the classical world, Isidore was at
the forefront of a new Christian order. But this new order by no means
despised learning. Ideally the good man would be an educated man: ‘All
wisdom comes from knowledge and conjecture,’ Isidore believes, ‘but an
opinion derived from knowledge is better than one derived from conjecture
as the former is true, whereas the latter is open to doubt.’44 It is perhaps
unsurprising therefore that the fourth Council of Toledo over which Isidore
presided in AD 633, insisted that there should be an educated secular clergy
and made provision for cathedral schools to be set up in every diocesis. 45
While Isidore’s prose style may not be as ‘classical’ as Leander’s, Hender-
son has shown that he was not insensitive to careful prose composition. 46
According to Braulio, he could adopt his style to his audience and was
outstandingly eloquent when the occasion demanded. The practical nature
of the prose in his works shows that he wished them to be of real use,
not showcases for his rhetorical ability. His greatest wish was to spread
knowledge and thus his faith. In the short term he laid the foundations for
the so-called ‘Isidorian renaissance’ of Visigothic Spain, of which his friend
dicta libentius capiendo. ‘The Christian is forbidden to read the compositions of their poets
because by the pleasure of their inane fables they provoke the mind to incitements of lust. For
a man burns not merely from offering incense to demons, but by too willingly plucking at their
words.’ Sententiae 3.13.1
42 This is described by Isidore as the trimodum intelligentiae genus, ‘threefold form of knowl-
edge’, Differentiae 2.154.
43 Nihil obesse cuiquam si per simplicitatem anquam de elementis indigne sentiat, dummodo
de Deo vera pronuntiet. Nam quamvis de incorporeis corporeisque naturis nequeat quisque
disputare, beatum tamen illum facit vita recta cum fide, Sententiae 2.1.1.
44 Omnis sapientia ex scientia et opinatione consistit. Melior est autem ex scientia veniens
quam ex opinatione sententia. Nam illa vera est, ista dubia, Sententiae 2.1.8,
45 Canons 24, 25.
46 Henderson, The Medieval World of Isidore of Seville.
Introduc tion 19
and posthumous editor of the Etymologies, Braulio of Saragossa, was a key

part. In the long term the influence of his work in both its geographical and
temporal extent show the degree to which that wish was fulfilled.
The aim of this volume is not, however, to offer a ‘maximalist’ interpreta-
tion of Isidore’s impact. 47 Isidore exercised agency in writing his works and
intervening in the world around him, yet so too did those who worked with
him, notably Braulio, in the early seventh century, as well as those who
interacted with and sought to mould his legacy in the decades and centuries
that followed. As Michael J. Kelly’s chapter demonstrates, Seville was not
the only intellectual centre in the Spain of Isidore’s day. Other cities strove
to establish – and in the case of Toledo succeeded – their ecclesiastical and
literary dominance within Spain.
Recent studies have begun to reconceptualise the ways in which knowl-
edge was preserved and transmitted in the Roman and post-Roman worlds.48
Scholars have explored how information moved between different contexts,
in the process charting the varying ways in which cultural objects were
transmitted, translated and transformed. Such work has demonstrated how
the people of the medieval world – writers, copyists, translators, teachers,
students, and other audiences – engaged actively with the cultural legacy
of the ancient classical and Christian past. They did not simply pass on the
knowledge and traditions that they had inherited from earlier civilisations,
even those from which they claimed ancestry and legitimacy, but developed
what they had received in many new ways that were designed to respond
to contemporary needs. 49
It is within this context of creative and contextually-grounded engage-
ment with the cultural world of Graeco-Roman and Patristic antiquity that
this volume seeks to understand Isidore. Work over the past half-century
has demonstrated that the construction of Isidore’s main works was deter-
mined, above all, by the context in which he was operating and his desire
to influence the society for which he saw the Hispano-Visigothic church as
responsible. Political, religious and social considerations influenced Isidore’s
writings, but studies have revealed that those writings were intended, in
47 For a ‘minimalist’ view on the impact of Isidore, see: Collins, Visigothic Spain.
48 Notable recent work on the Roman context includes König, Oikonomopoulou and Woolf,
eds., Ancient Libraries; König and Woolf, eds., Encyclopaedism from Antiquity to the Renaissance.
49 Wisnovsky, Wallis, Fumo and Fraenkel, eds., Vehicles of Transmission, Translation, and
Transformation in Medieval Textual Culture; Fischer and Wood, eds., Western Perspectives on
the Mediterranean; Bremmer and Dekker, eds., Foundations of Learning; Bremmer and Dekker,
eds., Practice in Learning.
turn, to influence the contexts from which they emerged.50 As has already
been noted, Isidore was not writing in a vacuum and his works represented
part of a thorough programme of spiritual education that was intended to
have a positive impact on the training of the clergy of Visigothic Spain and,
through them, the population as a whole.
The first three chapters in this volume examine some of the innovative
ways in which Isidore was influenced by, and made use of the works of, ear-
lier classical and Christian writers. Jamie Wood’s ‘A Family Affair: Leander,
Isidore and the Legacy of Gregory the Great in Spain’ examines the rapid
and wide-ranging influence of Pope Gregory I (d. 604) in seventh-century
Spain. Gregory’s works were cited extensively in Spain within a few years
of his death and he found eager biographers among the episcopate there.
The chapter argues that the cultivation of Gregory’s memory aligned well
with the efforts of Leander and Isidore to promote an image of their family
as a coherent and powerful unit of exceptional Christian leaders. Gregory’s
meeting with Leander in Constantinople in the early 580s opened up a
channel of communication between Rome and Spain that resulted in the
early dissemination of Gregory’s works there and provided Isidore with the
opportunity and the ammunition to build up Gregory’s image in Spain.
Two imperatives underpinned Isidore’s positive portrayal of Gregory and
attempt to harness his legacy. First, his writings, especially the Moralia in
Job, provided vital resources for Isidore’s efforts to promote the education
of the clergy and, through them, the evangelisation of the population.
Second, the association with Leander enabled Isidore to bolster the status
of members of his own family, especially Leander, as foundational figures
in the history of the Spanish Nicene church.
From Isidore’s engagement with the Patristic canon, the next two
chapters move on to his use and refutation of classical interpretations of
the natural world. In ‘Variations on a Theme: Isidore and Pliny on Human
and Human-Instigated Anomaly’, Mary Beagon examines the use Isidore
made of Pliny’s Natural History, written in the late first century AD, when
discussing human and animal anomalies in the Etymologies. The chapter
demonstrates that Isidore’s engagement with Pliny’s work was by no means
uncritical. Rather than simply copying Pliny’s work, Isidore adapted his
source so that it accorded with his own ideas about a divine plan that had no
room for natural creativity which, if admitted, would undermine the entire
50 E.g. Cazier, Isidore de Séville et la Naissance de l’Espagne Catholique; Henderson, The Medieval
World of Isidore of Seville; Martin, La géographie du pouvoir dans l’Espagne visigothique; Merrills,
History and Geography; Stocking, Bishops, Councils and Consensus Wood, The Politics of Identity.
Introduc tion 21
Isidorian project of rational categorisation. Isidore’s theory of etymology

also required the imposition of a sort of natural order on the text that
mitigated any possibility of deviation from the divine plan.
Andrew Fear’s ‘Putting the pieces back together: Isidore and De natura
rerum’ examines Isidore’s De natura rerum (DNR), arguing that the work
was written to respond to a specific problem – the appearance of a number
of disconcerting natural ‘omens’ at the beginning of King Sisebut’s reign in
the early 610s. Isidore used this context to develop a Christianised vision
of the natural world in order to reject excessive ‘superstition’ at the same
time as firmly integrating the natural world into a Christian framework.
Rather than, as scholars such as Fontaine have suggested, wishing to pre-
serve a separate sphere of secular learning, Isidore actually wished to elide
secular and Christian scholarship. The very title De natura rerum presents
a challenge to Lucretius’s didactic poem the De rerum natura written in
the first century BC. Lucretius’s work became a classic in the ancient world
and was still read in Visigothic Spain. In it, Lucretius, as a follower of the
Greek philosopher Epicurus, presents an entirely atheistic picture of the
world whose phenomena carry no meaning beyond themselves. Isidore,
deliberately using a title which closely parallels the previous work, mounts a
determined refutation of Lucretius, using his themes to argue for a “natural
theology” and that in fact only a belief in God can elucidate the natural
world.
Isidore thus played the role of a kind of filtering agent, receiving, trans-
forming and reconfiguring existing learning in order to make it useful for
the Christian present in seventh century Spain. Alongside work that has
explored how Isidore reacted to previous authorities, classical/pagan and
Christian, perhaps the strongest trend in recent Isidorian scholarship is to
examine the later reception and transmission of his memory and his works
across the Latin West.51 Much of this work has stressed the variability and
creativity of the ways in which later writers made use of Isidore’s works. The
chapters in the second half of this volume underline the fact that Isidorian
legacy was by no means monolithic and was at times contested, even within
Spain.
Isidore’s legacy was by no means unproblematic for the bishops of seventh
century Spain, especially those of Toledo who were striving to establish
51 For a survey of the transmission of Isidore’s works see: Codoñer, Martín & Andrés Sanz,
‘Isidorus Hispalensis ep.’ and Reydellet, ‘La diffusion’ for the Etymologies. More recent focused
studies include: Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words; Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’; Warntjes,
The Munich Computus.
their city as the ecclesiastical centre of the kingdom. The Isidorian legacy
and the lustre that it lent to Seville were highly problematic in this regard.52
Michael J. Kelly’s chapter, ‘The Politics of History-Writing: Problematizing
the Historiographical Origins of Isidore of Seville in Early Medieval Hispa-
nia’ argues that conflict over Isidore’s memory began almost immediately
upon his death in 636. Kelly posits the existence of two ‘schools’ within
seventh-century Iberia – that of Isidore/Seville and that of Agali/Toledo
– and suggests that competition between the two was manifested, above
all and amongst a range of different media, by the production of historical
texts that constructed very specific memories of past events and people.
Above all, it was in historiographical texts produced by and about Isidore
that this conflict played out in the later seventh century and beyond.
Marina Smyth’s ‘The Reception of Isidore’s Writings in Early Medieval
Ireland’ opens a series of chapters that explore concrete instances of the
reception and reuse of Isidore’s works outside Spain in the seventh, eighth,
and ninth centuries. Some of the earliest traces of Isidore’s works outside
Spain can be found in manuscripts of Irish provenance and it has long
been assumed that Irish monks played a key role in the preservation and
transmission of the Isidorian legacy.53 Smyth explores the longstanding
assumption that, due to trading contacts between Spain and Ireland, the
complete works of Isidore found their way to Ireland very soon after his
death in 636.54 This assumption has been rendered increasingly untenable by
recent studies of the early manuscript transmission of Isidore’s works.55 The
chapter pays particular attention to the De Natura Rerum and the various
books of the Etymologiae in order to generate a more nuanced profile for
the transmission of Isidore’s works in Ireland.
‘Isidore of Seville in Anglo-Saxon England: The Synonyma as a Source of
Felix’s Vita S. Guthlaci’, by Claudia Di Sciacca, focuses on Anglo-Saxon Eng-
land. Scholars have long debated the extent to which Bede was influenced
by Isidore (both positively and negatively), but more recent works have
begun to examine the transmission and impact of Isidore’s works on other
early Anglo-Saxon writers.56 Isidore is now recognised as one of the staple
52 Wood, ‘Playing the Fame Game’.

53 See Warntjes, The Munich Computus, for the most recent treatment of Isidore’s specific
legacy in Ireland, Irish-influenced institutions, and the manuscripts that they produced.
54 See Hillgarth, ‘Visigothic Spain and Early Christian Ireland’ for more general contacts
between Visigothic Spain and Ireland.
55 E.g. Warntjes, The Munich Computus.
56 E.g. Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, and Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’ both explore
the transmission of the Synonyma. For the influence on Bede see: Fanning, ‘Bede, Imperium,
Introduc tion 23
figures of Anglo-Saxon libraries. Di Sciacca investigates the Synonyma as

a source for one of the founding and most popular texts of Anglo-Saxon
hagiography, the Latin life of the hermit-saint Guthlac, a highly literary
work authored by the learned monk Felix, an elusive figure of whom nothing
is known except that he dedicated his Vita S. Guthlaci to Ælfwald, king of
the East Angles (c. 713-749). The setting of Guthlac’s life itself is Crowland,
a demon-infested islet in the fenland between Mercia and East Anglia, and
the Mercian-East Anglian associations of the saint and his uita seem to
offer precious evidence as to the circulation of the Synonyma in an age
and area of Anglo-Saxon England where knowledge of this Isidorian text is
otherwise hardly documented. Moreover, an appreciation of the Synonyma
within the milieu that produced the Vita S. Guthlaci, a locale which seems
to have nurtured an interest in eremitic values and a detailed knowledge of
some of the key hagiographies concerning the founders of Eastern monasti-
cism, namely the Vita S. Antonii and Vita S. Pauli eremitae, offers new and
tantalising insights into the literary corpus with which the Isidorian text
was probably associated. Such an appreciation can therefore help to further
sketch out the Anglo-Saxon library to which the Synonyma belonged.
Christopher Heath’s ‘Hispania et Italia: Paul the Deacon, Isidore and the
Lombards’ fills a surprising gap in scholarship on early medieval historiog-
raphy by exploring Isidore’s influence on the works of Paul the Deacon in the
eighth century. Heath demonstrates that despite the somewhat peripheral
role that Spain and the Visigoths played in the Historia Langobardorum,
there are indications that Isidore had a significant influence on specific
sections of the work, such as the ethnographic and historical-geographical
materials. Moreover, there are indications that certain key parts of Paul’s
work were crafted with an eye to the Laus Spaniae of Isidore. Just as Isidore
used previous historians creatively in order to present his Visigoths as a
legitimate people in political and religious terms, so Paul the Deacon made
selective use of Isidore in order to demonstrate that the Lombards were a
gens with a long and illustrious history.57
Melissa Markauskas’s ‘Rylands MS Latin 12: A Carolingian example of
Isidore’s reception into the Patristic Canon?’ demonstrates the selective use
that later copyists made of Isidore’s writings. The chapter examines Rylands
MS Latin 12 as a specific and concrete example of unacknowledged copying
and the Bretwaldas’; Wallis, Bede: The Reckoning of Time, pp. lxiv -lxvi, lxxx-lxxxiii; Laistner,
‘The library of the Venerable Bede’, pp. 241, 244, 247, 256, 265. Kendall and Wallis, Bede: On the
Nature of Things and On Times, 13-20.
57 See Wood, The Politics of Identity, for Isidore’s presentation of the Visigoths in his histories.
of Isidorian material in the Carolingian period. Markauskas demonstrates

that Isidore’s De ortu et obitu Patrum was frequently used as a source for the
homiliary, but was clearly marked as a secondary authority through the col-
lection’s organisation and visual presentation of Patristic material. Rylands
MS Latin 12 thus provides an interesting instance of Isidore’s reception in a
Carolingian liturgical context, where daily Patristic readings expounding
the gospels were valued alongside supplementary biographical material
concerning the saint for that day. In this context, it was Isidore’s ‘data’ rather
than his ‘authority’ that was desired. He emerges as a second-level authority
who was important, but not so illustrious as to merit explicit citation like
the Fathers of the Church.
In the final chapter, ‘Adoption, Adaptation, & Authority: The Use of
Isidore in the Opus Caroli’, Laura Carlson delves into the broader influence
of Isidore on the Carolingian intelligentsia, a massive topic in need of further
study.58 The chapter discusses the prevalence of Isidore in the eighth-century
Opus Caroli regis contra Synodum, the largest extant work on Carolingian
spirituality and a text which serves as a signpost to not only his rapid rise
to the status of almost Patristic authority, but also his contribution to the
development of a Carolingian linguistic philosophy. Isidore’s growing
status and accessibility within the eighth-century Carolingian intellectual
landscape is easily confirmed by both the extant number of his works, not
to mention the frequency with which Carolingian writers cite him. The
chapter demonstrates that the exposition on the relationship between
images and language in the Opus Caroli derived from Isidore’s linguistic
philosophy, developed in his Etymologiae, which advocated the widespread
applicability of classical linguistic disciplines, such as grammar, rhetoric,
and dialectic within the context of Christian spirituality.
Alongside other chapters in the second half of this volume, the explora-
tion of Carolingian-era uses of Isidore by Heath, Markauskas, and Carlson
provide further evidence for the flexibility with which Isidore’s legacy was
treated from 636 onwards. Just as the chapters by Beagon, Fear, and Wood
demonstrate that Isidore himself interacted with his sources freely and was
not constrained by any particular need to remain ‘faithful’ to the writings
of his predecessors, the chapters on the western European transmission
of Isidore’s work demonstrate that there was not one Isidorian legacy, but
58 See, for example, Magnou-Nortier, ‘L’Admonitio Generalis’; Eastwood, ‘The astronomies of

Pliny’, pp. 174-177; McKitterick, History and Memory, pp. 238-239, 247; McKitterick, ‘Glossaries
and Other Innovations’, pp. 56, 60. Elfassi, ‘Les Synonyma d’Isidore de Séville’. For Isidore in
Carolingian schools see Roger, L’Enseignement des lettres classiques, pp. 195-201.
Introduc tion 25
many.59 Furthermore, these legacies were by no means fixed – they were

made and remade in response to specific historically-grounded agendas. It
is beyond the scope of this volume to examine the continued transmission
and transformation of Isidore’s works and his image in post-Carolingian
Europe (and beyond). It is enough to note that creative adaptation continued
to typify the ways in which Isidore was used by later writers and to hope that
future publications will explore what is, given the central role of ‘Isidorian’
methods for organising and transmitting knowledge, a fundamental ele-
ment of the medieval thought-world.60
The interplays between text and context examined in the various studies
in this volume demonstrate the need to understand the varied and creative
ways by which Isidore’s works, wholly and in part, were transmitted and
transformed over time. In summary, it is necessary to comprehend the
origins and early receptions of Isidorian texts if one is to unpick their later
transformations. The chapters in the first half of the volume thus establish
the context from which to understand those in the second half, which
provide an overview of the different ways in which Isidore’s works were
received across early medieval Western Europe. Both sections create the
necessary context from which to develop a fuller understanding of later
receptions of Isidore’s work in the post-Carolingian era.
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Franklin-Brown, Mary, Reading the World: Encyclopedic Writing in the Scholastic Age (Chicago
and London: University of Chicago Press, 2012).
Hamblenne, Pierre, ‘Les Tituli bibliothecae sont-ils d’Isidore?’, La Revue Belge de Philologie et
d’Histoire 80 (2002), pp. 239-256.
Henderson, John, The Medieval World of Isidore of Seville: Truth from Words (Cambridge: Cam-
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Irish Academy 62 (1961-1963), pp. 167-194.
Hillgarth, Jocelyn N. ‘The Position of Isidorian Studies: a critical review of the literature, 1936-
1975’, Studi Medievali III Serie 24 (1983), 817-905 [reprinted in his Visigothic Spain, Byzantium,
and the Irish [Collected Studies 216] (London: Variorum, 1985)].
Hillgarth, Jocelyn N. ‘Isidorian Studies, 1976-1985’, Studi Medievali III Serie 31 (1990), 925-976.
Hussey, Matthew T., ‘Transmarinis litteris: Southumbria and the Transmission of Isidore’s
Synonyma’, Journal of English and Germanic Philology 107 (2008), pp. 141-168.
Kendall, Calvin B. and Faith Wallis, Bede: On the Nature of Things and On Times [TTH 56]
(Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2010).
Knoebel, Thomas L., Isidore of Seville: De Ecclesiasticis Officiis [ACW 61] (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist
Press, 2008).
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Cambridge University Press, 2013).
König, Jason and Greg Woolf, eds., Encyclopaedism from Antiquity to the Renaissance (Cambridge:
Laistner, Max L.W., ‘The library of the Venerable Bede’, in A. Hamilton Thompson, ed., Bede: His
Life, Times and Writings (Oxford: Clarendon, 1935), pp. 237-266.
Lawson, Christopher (ed.), Sancti Isidori Episcopi Hispaliensis De Ecclesiasticis Officiis = CCSL
113 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1989).
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Jornades internacionals d’estudi sobre el bisbe Feliu d’Urgell. La Seu d’Urgell, 28-30 de setembre
de 1999 [Studia, Textus, Subsidia 9] (Barcelona: Facultad de teologia de Catalunya, 2000),
pp. 195-242.
Martin, Céline, La géographie du pouvoir dans l’Espagne visigothique (Paris: Septentrion, 2003).
Martin, John R.C., Saint Leander, Archbishop of Seville. A book on the teaching of nuns and a
homily in praise of the Church (Plymouth: Lexington Books, 2009).
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tenidos y Datación’, Studia Historica: Historia Antigua, 31 (2013) pp. 129-151.
Martín, José Carlos, Isidori Hispalensis Chronica = CCSL 112 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2003).
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19 (1963) pp. 37-50.
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d’archéologie et d’histoire 78 (1966), pp. 383-437.
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estudio, edición crítica y traducción (León: Centro de Estudios e Investigación “San Isidro”,
1975).
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translation’, Journal of Medieval Latin, 21 (2011), pp. 137-222.
Introduc tion 29
Stocking, Rachel L., Bishops, Councils and Consensus in the Visigothic Kingdom, 589-633 (Ann
Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2000).
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Text), Saint Louis University, PhD (1982).
2 A Family Affair
Leander, Isidore and the Legacy of Gregory the Great in
Spain
Jamie Wood
Gregory
Hippo, as much as you are distinguished for your teacher Augustine,
So much is Rome for its Pope Gregory
Leander
You are held to be not much unequal to the ancient Doctors,
Leander the Bishop: your works teach us this
Gregorius
Quantum Augustino clares tu Hippone magistro
Tantum Roma suo praesule Gregorio
Leander
Non satis antiquis doctoribus impar haberis
Leander vates hoc tua dicta docent1
Introduction
There is no doubt that Pope Gregory I (r. 590-605) had a deep and lasting
impact on the religious life of early medieval Spain.2 It would be easy, with
the benefit of hindsight, to look back from Gregory’s status as one of the
fathers of the Latin Church and see this as an inevitable outcome of his
exemplary life and work in organising the papacy and sending missions to
the Anglo-Saxons. Yet, his memory was by no means uncontested in Rome
in the decades after his death and no hagiography was authored there
until the ninth century. A famous Life of Gregory was written at Whitby in
northern England around the year 700 which drew on interest in his cult
in later seventh century England, Ireland and Gaul, as well as Rome.3 This
1 Isidore, Versus 13-14, Sánchez Martín, ed., Isidori Hispalensis Versus, p. 225.
2 Collins, Early Medieval Spain, pp. 60 and 73: the influence of Gregory’s ‘work on the Spanish
Church at this time cannot be minimised’.
3 Thacker, ‘Memorialising Gregory the Great’.
32 Jamie Wood
chapter will demonstrate that beginning in the first decade of the seventh
century, Gregory’s status as a Father of the Church was actually established
more quickly and maintained more solidly in Spain than elsewhere in Latin
Europe.
The verse above, by Isidore of Seville (d. 636), is thus the first bloom of the
Gregorian legacy in seventh century Spain. The extremely positive view of
Gregory was not solely the result of his position as bishop of Rome, however.
Relations between the papacy and the bishops and kings of seventh century
Spain were infrequent and often fractious, so the memory of Gregory cannot
be attributed solely to royal or papal initiative. 4 Although there had been
ecclesiastical contacts between Rome and Spain throughout late antiquity,
such interactions had never been intense, at least insofar as they can be
pieced together from the surviving evidence.5 This chapter will argue that
Gregory’s popularity in the early seventh century was due to his connection
to Leander of Seville and thus to his brother Isidore of Seville. It was not
derived from respect for the papacy as an institution, nor did it result from
the active cultivation of Gregory’s memory in Spain by later popes or their
agents. Rather, it was the family connection to Isidore and Isidore’s intense
engagement with some of Gregory’s key works that conditioned the interest
of bishops and even a Visigothic king later in the seventh century.
A number of Gregory’s hagiographical, exegetical and pastoral writings
were transmitted to Spain during his lifetime and almost immediately used
as sources and taken up as models by Spanish writers such as Isidore of
Seville, Taio of Zaragoza and the author of the collective hagiography known
as the Lives of Fathers of Mérida.6 Figures from Isidore to Eugenius of Toledo
engaged with, and sometimes sought to replicate, Gregory’s self-presentation
as monk, reluctant leader, theologian, and even hypochondriac.7 Historical
as well as literary circumstances contributed to the rapid spread of Gregory’s
popularity within Spain. He wrote letters to Spanish laymen and church-
men, including several to Leander of Seville, Isidore’s brother, and received
a letter from King Reccared I (r. 586-601) announcing the conversion to the
Visigoths from Arian to Nicene Christianity.8
It was Isidore of Seville, however, who made the earliest and most exten-
sive use of Gregory’s writings. The rapid adoption of Gregory’s works was
4 King, Law and Society, p. 123.

5 Ferreiro, ‘The Iberian Church’.
6 For surveys of Gregory’s interactions with Spain see: Orlandis, ‘Gregorio Magno’; Wood,
‘The Rhetoric of Due Process’.
7 Fear, ‘Moaning to Some Purpose’, pp. 62-3 and 67-8.
8 For a survey of these contacts see Orlandis, ‘Gregorio Magno’.
A Family Affair 33
aided by the fact that his legacy was so flexible: his focus on the pastoral
role of leaders could be applied to thinking about monastic, episcopal and
even royal authority.9 Other works by Gregory, such as the Moralia in Job,
could have served as educational texts in an additional sense by providing
learners with models for conducting exegesis, for example.10 Although the
theological and pastoral weight of Gregory’s surviving writings cannot be
ignored and they certainly contributed to the depth and longevity of his
impact in Spain, this chapter argues that the key to his influence lies in the
connection to Leander of Seville and, through Leander, to Isidore. A meeting
with Leander in Constantinople in the mid-580s opened up opportunities
for the exchange of texts and letters and, more importantly, created a close
association that Isidore was able to exploit as part of his efforts to boost
the status of the Spanish Church and his own family. Importantly too, via
Leander, Isidore had easy access to a number of Gregory’s writings, which
proved extremely useful in his efforts to create compendia of Christian
knowledge for use by Spanish ecclesiastics.
Gregory’s Contacts with Hispania
The relative number of Gregory’s letters to Spain is low, at least in compari-

son with the volume of letters to other western provinces, especially Italy.
However, as has already been noted, such communication took place at
significant moments such as the conversion, was conducted with important
figures such as Reccared I and Leander of Seville, and was accompanied
by the exchange of gifts and texts.11 It may also be significant that letters
were exchanged with a geographically disparate area, encompassing a large
part of what would later become Visigothic Hispania: from the Byzantine-
controlled territory in the southwest, to the capital at Toledo, and the small
province in Gaul, Narbonnensis.12 Gregory also intervened directly to try to
9 The influence of Gregory’s Regula Pastoralis on Spain is brought out by Fernández Alonso,
La cura pastoral, pp. 125-129; Wood, The Politics of Identity, p. 143: as part of this process the
king’s role became increasingly analogous to that of the episcopate; Martin, La géographie du
pouvoir, p. 348: on the role of the king as a pastor to his people. Cf. Gregory’s thought on the key
role of episcopal ministry within church and society, Markus, Gregory the Great, pp. 17-33.
10 Gregory’s works, alongside those of Jerome, provided Isidore with useful aids for the study of
scripture, primarily for use by those who had to expound the scriptures in public or for monks,
Collins, Early Medieval Spain, p. 63.
11 For an overview of Gregory’s contacts with and writings about Spain see: Thompson, The
Goths in Spain, pp. 41, 66, 73, 76-77, 90, 94, 109-112.
12 Orlandis, ‘Gregorio Magno’.
34 Jamie Wood
uphold religious discipline and resolve ecclesiastical disputes within Spain,

to encourage Nicene orthodoxy, and to act as a diplomatic intermediary
between the Visigothic kings and the Byzantine government.13
There were a number of different means by which communication was
established with Spain. Diplomacy was perhaps the most important of these
and although such interactions were reciprocal in nature, with Spaniards
requesting advice, information and intervention, responding to Gregory’s
messages and sending gifts to him, the sources suggest that Gregory was
the more active ‘partner’ in this exchange. This can be seen most clearly
in the exchange of gifts. The relatively few letters that survive record the
dispatch of relics to Reccared, a pallium for Leander and copies of Gregory’s
Regula Pastoralis and Moralia in Job.14 It is important to note that this was
not a one-way exchange and that gifts were sent to Gregory from Spain, but
the overall pattern was for materials and texts to be sent out from Rome
to Spain.
In terms of diplomatic exchanges, it was while Gregory was acting as
papal apocrisarius (envoy) in Constantinople in the first half of the 580s
that he f irst came into contact with Leander, who was conducting an
embassy with the emperor on behalf of Hermenegild, a Visigothic prince
who had rebelled against his father, King Leovigild (r. 568-586). There were
later exchanges of letters and gifts with Reccared, Leovigild’s successor,
about the conversion of the Visigoths to Nicene Christianity. The king also
requested that Gregory obtain a copy of an old treaty that had been made
between the Visigoths and the Byzantines, and Gregory sent messages to
Duke Claudius, the governor of Narbonnensis, in Visigothic-controlled
southern Gaul.15 As well as direct contact with Spain, there is evidence that
Gregory obtained information from intermediaries. He sent legal advisors to
the Byzantine-controlled province in south-eastern Spain to assist bishops
who had been deposed, supposedly illegally, and also used clergy to act as
intermediaries with the Visigothic kings.16 Information also seems to have
been gathered from people who had travelled there, perhaps for trading
purposes, because in the Dialogues Gregory says that he heard about the
death of Hermenegild from ‘many who come from Spain’.17 Of course, our
13 González Fernández, ‘Las cartas de Gregorio Magno’; Gregory, Ep. 9.228; Wood, ‘The Rhetoric
of Due Process’; Donaldson, ‘Studies in the Material, Political and Cultural Impact’, pp. 44-48,
212, 217, 236.
14 Wood, ‘The Rhetoric of Due Process’.
15 Orlandis, Historia, pp. 354, 375-376; Martin, La géographie du pouvoir, pp. 224, 242.
16 Wood, ‘Defending Byzantine Spain’, pp. 315-9.
17 Gregory, Dialogues 3.31.
A Family Affair 35
record of Gregory’s involvement in Spain is highly dependent on the vagaries

of the surviving documentation, which is the result of the choices made
by those who compiled the Register of Gregory’s letters.18 Nevertheless, in
comparison with earlier, and certainly with later, bishops of Rome, Gregory
seems to have communicated actively with Spain.
Early Citations of Gregory in Spain
A significant factor in the early and rapid rise in Gregory’s popularity in

Spain must have been the fact that his writings circulated there at an early
date. Gregory sent preliminary versions of some of what were to become his
most influential works to Leander, for example. Other sources suggest that
Gregory’s writings were desired by discerning bishops in Spain as early as
the 590s. We have already observed that Leander received early versions of
the Moralia in Job and the Regula Pastoralis and Licinianus of Cartagena,
a bishop in Byzantine-controlled Spain, sent a letter to Gregory about the
Regula Pastoralis and asked for a copy of some of Gregory’s homilies on the
book of Job. Apparently, he found out about Gregory’s work on Job when
Leander was travelling through Cartagena, presumably during his return
from Constantinople.19
Definite citations of Gregory’s works in Spain can be traced to the first
decade of the seventh century. Isidore’s use of Gregory will be explored in
more detail later in this chapter, but he was making use of the Moralia in Job
in some of his earliest works and mentioned both it and the Regula Pastoralis
in the biography of Gregory that he incorporated into the De viris illustribus
(written sometime between 604 and 608).20 The level of engagement with
Gregory’s writings, especially the Moralia, increased substantially during
the subsequent two decades. As was indicated by the quotation with which
this chapter began, Isidore’s admiration for Gregory was made even more
explicit in various biographical and encomiastic accounts of his life and
achievements. Engagement with the Gregorian legacy extended beyond
Isidore, however. We have evidence that Gregory’s Dialogues were circulat-
ing elsewhere in southern Spain by the 630s because the Vita Sanctorum
18 The letters were widely read in Spain. Hillgarth, ‘La conversión de los visigodos’, p. 28.
19 Licinianus, Ep. 1.6, Madoz, ed., Liciniano de Cartagena y sus cartas, pp. 92-96; earlier in the
letter Licinianus enthuses about Gregory’s Regula Pastoralis, to which he evidently already had
access.
20 For date of De viris illustribus, see Martín, ‘Une nouvelle édition critique’, pp. 141-4.
36 Jamie Wood
Patrum Emeritensium, a text that was redacted in two stages in 633 or

shortly thereafter and then sometime between 666 and 681, refers to the
text as a model for its collection of hagiographies.21 Collins has commented
that despite the fact that the Vita Sanctorum Patrum Emeritensium makes
only minimal direct use of its model, it ‘would be fair enough to say that the
spirit of Gregory informs the work as a whole, even if in a rather primitive
way’.22 All of this suggests that Gregory’s name had become by the 630s
a ‘tag’ that added value to a text, whether or not his work was used as a
specific source of information.
Family Values: Leander, Isidore and Family
Despite the quite low number of communications with Spain during

Gregory’s papacy, such contacts do represent an increase on previous
bishops of Rome and those exchanges that did happen took place at a high
level and occurred at important historical moments, for the Spanish Church
at least. Gregory’s works were transmitted to Spain, alluded to and cited very
rapidly. The earliest peak in Gregory’s popularity occurred in Spain in the
early and mid-seventh century and can be largely attributed to the influence
of Isidore and his followers. The connection to Leander was important here
because it put Gregory’s works in the hands of Isidore, an unofficial literary
executor who wielded considerable influence and who had an interest in
promoting his own family.
Scholars have long debated the origins of the family of Leander and Isi-
dore. The short biography of Leander in Isidore’s De viris illustribus, written
21 Vitas sanctorum patrum emeretensium, Prefatio, Maya Sánchez, ed., Vitas sanctorum patrum
emeretensium, pp. 3-4: Virorum ortodoxorum maximeque catholicorum prossus uera esse nullus
ambigeat miracula, qua sanctissimus egregiusque uates, Romane presul urbis, Gregorius inflam-
matus paracliti carismate Spiritus Dialogorum in libris ueridico edidit prenotationis stilo; qua
olim scilicet omnipotens Deus seruulis per suis sibi bene placitis propter honorem nominis sui
patrare dignatus est, trans. by Fear, Lives of the Visigothic Fathers, p. 45: ‘No orthodox believer
and above all no Catholic ought to disbelieve in the miracles which that most holy and famed
bishop, Gregory, Bishop of the city of Rome, fired by the grace of the Comforting Spirit, set down
in his books of Dialogues, writing them with a pen which told the truth: miracles which in olden
times Almighty God thought it fit to work for the glory of His name through humble servants
who were indeed pleasing to Him.’ For the two stages of redaction see: Velázquez, Vidas de los
santos Padres de Mérida, pp. 11-15. See also: Collins, Early Medieval Spain, p. 88.
22 Collins, ‘Merida and Toledo’, p. 193; cf. Velázquez, Vidas de los santos Padres de Mérida,
pp. 33-6 for a more positive appraisal of Gregory’s influence on the work, which extended to
other works besides the Dialogues.
A Family Affair 37
at some point between 604 and 608, is the best evidence, but its account is
opaque at best. The De viris illustribus lists thirty-three famous Christians,
mainly Spaniards, who lived in the fifth, sixth and seventh centuries. The
text fits within the context of an emerging interest in biographical and
hagiographical writing in Visigothic Spain in the early-seventh-century.23
Leander refers in passing to his homeland in his De institutione virginum
but does not provide any specific details. It is difficult even to ascertain the
geographical origins of the family. Isidore’s De viris illustribus states that
their father, Severianus, lived in the province of Carthaginiensis and that
the family was later forcibly moved to Baetica, although no clear indication
is given of who was responsible for this move.24 Roger Collins has suggested,
based on onomastic evidence, that the family had African roots, although
this must remain conjectural in the absence of confirmation from other
sources.25 It is clear that the family were influential because of the decision,
either by the Visigothic kings or the Byzantine government, to move them
away from the frontier province of Carthaginiensis. It is striking too that
all three brothers became bishops, both mother and daughter took up the
monastic life, and we know that both Leander and Isidore lived as monks
before taking up episcopal office. Leander seems to have occupied himself
primarily with administration, although at least two of his works have
survived, and Isidore’s literary output is nothing sort of monumental. The
family thus seems to have been of considerable status, was able to establish
its power base in the province of Baetica in southern Spain after being
moved there sometime in the mid-sixth-century, perhaps investing heavily
in ecclesiastical institutions and offices in order to hedge their bets against
a changeable political climate.
More is known about the interactions between Leander, Isidore and their
parents and siblings than about their family background. This is because
both Leander and Isidore make both specific and passing references to
members of their family in their writings. Most notable is Isidore’s biography
of Leander in the De viris illustribus. Isidore’s De viris illustribus was largely
designed to establish the status of Leander as a worthy historical figurehead
for the Spanish Church to stand alongside figures such as Gregory and
Augustine, a point underlined by the quotation from the Versus with which
this chapter began. There are references to Leander’s maltreatment by
the Arian kings of the Visigoths, his role in the fight against heresy and
23 Wood, The Politics of Identity, pp. 4, 75.

24 For a thorough review of the evidence, see: Fontaine and Cazier, ‘Qui a chassé’.
25 Collins, Visigothic Spain, p. 154.
38 Jamie Wood
the conversion of King Reccared to Nicene Christianity, and his work in

organising the Church. For Isidore, therefore, Leander represented the ideal
Spanish bishop, a bishop, furthermore, whose profile resembled very much
his own.26
The De viris illustribus also presents Leander – and, as author of the text,
Isidore – as protecting and promoting their family. Letters were exchanged
between family members, they dedicated texts to one another, and there
were cases where they looked after one another (or at least presented them-
selves as doing so). We shall see in what follows that this family did not just
‘stick together’. The textual productions of Isidore and Leander strained to
demonstrate this coherence rhetorically. In addition to referring briefly to
their father, in the De viris illustribus Isidore states that Leander wrote letters
to his brother, Fulgentius, and his sister, Florentina.27 Although it is often
described as a monastic rule for nuns, one of Leander’s few surviving works,
De institutione virginum, actually took the form of a letter to Florentina. In
the text Leander makes reference to his brothers, to their mother and to his
homeland in an effort to persuade Florentina, a virgin who had dedicated
her life to God, to adopt the monastic life in the manner that he prescribed.
Isidore also dedicated texts to his siblings. The prefatory letters to De
fide Catholica contra Iudaeos, written in 614/5, are to his sister Florentina
and that of the De ecclesiasticis officiis, written sometime between 598 and
615, to his brother Fulgentius, Bishop of Écija.28 In dedicating these works
to his brother and sister respectively, Isidore modelled himself on Leander,
demonstrated his commitment to his family and drew them into his own
efforts to provide useful educational resources for Spanish churchmen. The
De fide Catholica contra Iudaeos was intended for Florentina’s edification
and Drews has argued that Isidore’s overall aim was to make her a co-heir
in his programme of educating the clergy about the errors of Judaism.29 It
is interesting to note that the later end of the range of possible dates for
the De ecclesiasticis officiis, a text that provides an overview of the various
offices of the contemporary Church and which was in all probability used
by the clergy of the Visigothic kingdom to ensure the pastoral care of the
26 Wood, ‘Playing the Fame Game’, 625-8.

27 Isidore, De viris illustribus 28.
28 de Aldama, ‘Indicaciones’; Drews, The Unknown Neighbour, pp. 37-8; Knoebel, De Ecclesias-
ticis Officiis, pp. 12-13.
29 Drews, The Unknown Neighbour, pp. 39-46, 83, 113; the Spanish translators of the text also
interpret it as being underpinned by an edificatory aim, Castro Caridad and Peña Fernández,
Sobre la fe católica, p. 19.
A Family Affair 39
population, corresponds to the date of the De fide Catholica contra Iudaeos.30

Just as he depicted Leander as a protector and organiser of the Catholic
Church in Spain, Isidore seems to have deliberately associated Florentina
and Fulgentius with his own efforts to train the clergy there.
Leander and Isidore derived considerable rhetorical capital from
emphasising the connectedness of their family network. For example, in
comparison to earlier texts in the De viris illustribus tradition Isidore laid
particular stress on the writing of texts on virginity by famous men.31 Of
the five men Isidore outlined as having written on virginity, he stated that
four of them dedicated the texts to their sister, compared to none of the
illustrious men mentioned by Jerome or Gennadius, whose works he was
continuing. This seems to have been part of a deliberate attempt to centre
the De viris illustribus on Leander as the archetypal Spanish bishop.32 Textual
connectivity between brother and sister enabled Isidore to better pattern
the text and the model of illustriousness that it was generating on Leander.
In focussing a key element of the De viris illustribus on his siblings, Isidore
followed a path that had already been trodden by Leander who, in attempt-
ing to persuade Florentina to adopt a monastic lifestyle, had emphasised
the cohesiveness of the family unit. In the De institutione virginum Leander
stresses the dislocation of his mother (and himself) from their homeland
in a passage redolent of Augustine’s account of his mother’s travails in
Italy in the Confessions.33 Connections to various fourth century ascetic
writings have also been suggested, including those by Jerome and Basil the
Great.34 Whatever literary predecessors Leander referred to, the religious
life of reading, study and prayer that he outlined for Florentina and her
companions, was modelled on the Virgin Mary and their mother. According
to Leander, travel was out of the question because Florentina was, like their
mother, who had been forced to leave her home city, ‘a sojourner’ and should
remain so for the rest of her life.35 Metaphors of refuge and exile are used to
describe the life that Florentina has embarked on. Their mother’s physical
30 Knoebel, De Ecclesiasticis Officiis, pp. 13-15 for an overview of the text.

31 15.1% of Isidore’s authors had written on virginity, while 9.9% of Gennadius of Marseilles’
had and 3.7% of Jerome’s; for further discussion see Wood, ‘Playing the Fame Game’, pp. 626-8.
32 Leander to his sister; Osius of Córdoba to his sister; Bishop Avitus to his sister; Severus of
Málaga to his sister; Julianus Pomerius (undedicated).
33 Leander, De institutione virginum 31, Campos Ruiz and Roca Meliá, eds., Santos Padres
Españoles II, pp. 73-76 ; cf. Augustine, Confessiones, 9.13.
34 Dietz, Wandering Monks, pp. 167-8.
35 Leander, De institutione virginum 21.4, 31.3.
40 Jamie Wood
exile thereby becomes a model for the spiritual exile of the daughter.36
Leander depicted his mother in this way both to persuade Florentina, and
presumably her fellow nuns, to adopt a life of withdrawal from the world
and to provide them with a model for how to think about and cope with
their separation. Family thus served a persuasive and an educative function.
In De institutione virginum Leander also notes that he is fearful for the
well-being of Fulgentius, who he had sent homewards on some unspecified
business, and also stresses the importance of caring for Isidore, the youngest
member of the family.37 In the De viris illustribus Isidore records that among
Leander’s letters was one to Fulgentius on the fear of death.38 This letter
does not survive and therefore we cannot be sure if it was consolatory and
hence evidence of Leander taking direct responsibility for the psychological
well-being of his brother. Leander may also have been providing his brother
with resources for use in preaching and pastoral activities with his congre-
gation, further confirmation that Isidore saw some value in emphasising
the epistolary interconnections between Leander and the rest of his family.
The records of the second and third councils of Seville, held in 619 and
624 and presided over by Isidore, both contain references to disputes that
involved or originated in Écija, Fulgentius’ bishopric.39 Fulgentius attended
the second council and, although the acts of the third council are not extant
in their entirety, reference to a dispute in the bishopric demonstrates that
he must have passed away by the time it was held. Family interest in the
city perhaps resulted in it receiving significant attention from Isidore, the
leading ecclesiastic in the province of Baetica, and his fellow bishops. For
Leander and Isidore, therefore, there was considerable rhetorical value to
be derived from presenting their family as a cohesive unit, the members of
which stuck together.
Gregory and Leander
Another way for Isidore to bolster the status of his family, and of Leander in
particular, was to emphasise their connections to other illustrious ecclesi-
astics. In the De viris illustribus Leander is said to have written numerous
letters to his fellow bishops and the importance of the dedication of the De
36 Dietz, Wandering Monks, pp. 167-168.

37 Leander, De institutione virginum 31.
38 Isidore, De viris illustribus 28.
39 Wood, ‘Defending Byzantine Spain’, p. 306; Stocking, Martianus, ‘Aventius and Isidore’.
A Family Affair 41
institutione virginum to Florentina in terms of the overall literary profile

of the illustri has just been examined. Yet the association with Gregory
was perhaps the most important strand of Isidore’s efforts to focus the De
viris illustribus on Leander. He stresses their direct contacts through the
exchange of letters and also patterns the entries on Gregory and Leander
on one another: they engage in similar kinds of activity such as authoring
theological treatises, fighting heresy and organising the Church through
letter writing. 40 As we saw at the start of this chapter, Isidore associates
Leander and Gregory with one another by collocation in the Versus, a poem
by Isidore that outlines the contents of the library in Seville, in which the
verse on Leander is immediately after the one on Gregory. 41 Given these
associations, it is hardly surprising that Fontaine has suggested Gregory
and Leander were ‘inseparable’ in Isidore’s imagination. 42
All of this is not to deny that Leander and Gregory were connected in
life as well as in Isidore’s posthumous promotional activities and their
relationship has been the subject of a recent monograph by Martyn. 43 It is
well-known that Gregory and Leander met in Constantinople at some point
between 579 and 582/5.44 Gregory’s Dialogues attribute the conversion of the
Visigothic prince Hermenegild from Arianism to Catholicism to the efforts
of Leander, stating that he heard about these events from travellers from
Spain. 45 In one of Gregory’s letters to Reccared, the king who converted the
Visigoths to Catholicism later in the 580s, he granted a pallium, a sign that
its holder possessed one of the principal seats of Christianity, to Leander.
This was in recognition of Leander’s role in the conversion of Reccared and
was no doubt at least partially influenced by their friendship. 46 Gregory
dedicated the Moralia in Job to Leander, and signals the influence of the
Spanish bishop on the inception of the work in the letter to Leander which
prefaced the book. 47
A number of letters from Gregory to Leander have survived, although
none of the replies remain, while Isidore’s biography of Leander in the De
40 Wood, ‘Playing the Fame Game’, p. 625-8, argues that the work is focussed on Gregory,
Leander and John of Constantinople in order to exalt Leander.
41 Isidore, Versus, ed. by Sánchez Martín; Díaz y Díaz, ‘La Trasmission de los textos antiguos’,
esp. pp. 136-142.
42 Fontaine, Génesis y originalidad, p. 69; see also: Inglebert, ‘Renommée et sainteté’, pp. 984-5.
43 Martyn, Gregory and Leander.
44 Collins, ‘Merida and Toledo’, pp. 216-7.
45 García de la Fuente, Olegario ‘Leovigildo, Hermenegildo, Recaredo y Leandro’; Collins,
‘Merida and Toledo’, pp. 215-7.
46 Martin, La géographie du pouvoir, p. 242.
47 Collins, Early Medieval Spain, p. 60; DelCogliano, Gregory the Great, pp. 13-14.
42 Jamie Wood
viris illustribus suggests that their correspondence after meeting in Con-

stantinople may have been even more extensive.48 According to Collins, this
important and ongoing ‘channel of communication [...] meant that most of
Gregory’s works very quickly became available in the Visigothic kingdom
and they came to exercise, with the sole exception of [...] Augustine, the
greatest single influence upon the learning of the Spanish Church in the
seventh century.’49 It is to this influence that we now turn, beginning by
examining the use Isidore made of Gregory.
Gregory and Isidore
In addition to his efforts to associate Leander with Gregory, Isidore made

extensive use of Gregory’s writings as a source. These included explicit
references to Gregory’s writings, what we might nowadays describe as un-
referenced citations, and the biography in the De viris illustribus.50 Indeed,
the De viris illustribus may have been designed to celebrate the lives of
Leander and Gregory together, both of whom had died shortly before the
text was written.51
Gregory’s illustriousness is signalled even by the seemingly insignificant
conventions used to establish his dates: he took office under the Emperor
Maurice (r. 582-602) and died in the reign of Phocas (r. 602-610). Only one
other bishop, John of Constantinople, with whom Isidore may also have been
striving to associate Gregory and Leander, receives this level of chronologi-
cal detail.52 Isidore heaps plentiful praise on Gregory:
With the pricking [of conscience] of the full fear of God and with the
highest humility, so endowed with wisdom through the grace of the
Holy Spirit, that not only in the present is there no doctor equal to him
but there never has been at any time. [...] It is said nevertheless that this
same highly distinguished man [...]. Happy and rather too happy, he who
through all his study is able to understand [Gregory’s] words.
compunctione timoris Dei plenus et humilitate summus, tantoque per
gratiam Spiritus Sancti scientiae lumine praeditus, ut non modo illi
48 For overview of contents of the surviving letters, see Martyn, Gregory and Leander, pp. 1-14.
49 Collins, Early Medieval Spain, pp. 60-61.
50 Isidore, De viris illustribus 27, Codoñer Merino, ed., El “De viris illustribus”, pp. 148-9.
51 Wood, The Politics of Identity, pp. 4, 75.
52 On John of Constantinople see: Wood, ‘Playing the Fame Game’, p. 626.
A Family Affair 43
praesentium temporum quisquam doctorum, sed nec in praeteritis quidem

par fuerit unquam. [...] Fertur tamen idem excellentissimus uir [...]. Felix
tamen et nimium felix, qui omnium studiorum eius potuit cognoscere dicta.
According to Isidore the key reason for Gregory’s excellence was the qual-
ity of his writings, especially those to Leander. In the edition, only eight
lines are devoted to writings not directed to Leander. This includes the
Pastoral Rule, which was written at the start of the episcopate to Bishop
John of Constantinople, the third member of the international episcopal
triumvirate that Isidore centred on Leander:
In which he teaches what sort of person comes to the duty of office, indeed
how he should come to live, or [how] he should desire to teach his subjects
[...] And he has written other moral books, and he has expounded through
public sermons the whole text of the four gospels, a work unparalleled
to us.
In quo docet, qualis quisque ad officium regiminis ueniat, uel qualiter
dum uenerit uiuere uel docere subiectos studeat. [...] et alios libros morales
scripsisse, totumque textum quattuor euangeliorum sermocinando in
populis exposuisse, incognitum scilicet nobis opus.53
At fifteen lines, Gregory’s writings to Leander thus take up almost twice

as much space in the edition as those to other recipients. Isidore lists two
letters to Leander, one of which was the preface to the Moralia in Job. The
other warned against the practice of triple immersion at baptism, presum-
ably the reply to the letter on baptism that Isidore mentions Leander sent
to Gregory. Amongst other points, the letter stated:
He said that it can be by no means blame-worthy to submerge infants

in baptism, whether once or thrice, when through three immersions it
can denote the persons of the Trinity, and through one the unity of the
Divinity.
Reprehensibile, inquit, esse nullatenus potest infantem in baptismate
mergere, uel semel uel ter, quando in tribus mersionibus personarum
Trinitatis, et in una potest Diuinitatis singularitas designari.54
53 Isidore, De viris illustribus 27, Codoñer Merino, ed., El “De viris illustribus”, p. 148.
54 Isidore, De viris illustribus 27, Codoñer Merino, ed., El “De viris illustribus”, p. 149.
44 Jamie Wood
Disputes over baptism were a common feature of theological controversy

in late sixth century Spain, between Nicene bishops and between Nicene
and Arian authorities. The emphasis on baptismal practices and the use
of Trinitarian formulae in the De viris illustribus is hardly surprising given
the pivotal role that Leander played in the conversion of the Visigoths from
Arianism to Catholicism in the late 580s.55
Most importantly, the Moralia in Job was apparently written at the
request of Leander and underlined Gregory’s skills as an exegete:
And the same man also, at the request of bishop Leander, interpreted
the book of holy Job according to its mystic and moral meanings, and
explained with a fount of bountiful eloquence the full history of its
prophet in thirty-five volumes. Through these, how great the mysteries of
the sacraments were indeed uncovered, and how great the moral precepts
are for promoting love of eternal life or how great the decoration of words
makes this clear, no one has the wisdom to explain, even if all his skill
were to be turned solely to that of speech.
Idem etiam, efflagitante Leandro episcopo, librum beati Iob mystico ac
morali sensu disseruit, totamque eius prophetiae historiam in triginta
quinque uoluminibus largo eloquentiae fonte explicuit. In quibus quidem
quanta mysteria sacramentorum aperiantur, quantaque sint in amorem
uitae aeternae morum praecepta uel quanta clareant ornamenta verbo-
rum, nemo sapiens explicare ualebit, etiam si omnes artus eius uertantur
in linguam.
Again, Isidore emphasised two aspects of the work: first, that it was written
at the request of Leander; second, its technical (i.e. exegetical), moral and
literary excellence. As we shall see in the sections that follow, this was more
than a lot of rhetorical hot air. Isidore and his fellow bishops made extensive
and creative use of the Moralia in the following decades. Alongside works
such as Augustine’s City of God and Isidore’s Etymologies and Sententiae,
it quickly became one of the key resources for the churchmen of seventh-
century Visigothic Spain.
55 Wood, ‘Religious Strategies of Distinction’. For a brief comment on the impact of these
debates on the material record, see Chavarria, ‘Churches and aristocracies in seventh-century
Spain’, p. 6.
A Family Affair 45
Isidore’s Use of Gregory
Isidore’s highly positive appraisal of Gregory is reflected in the extensive use

he made of Gregory in virtually every one of his writings.56 Gregory is not
always Isidore’s main source, but he is usually prominent, from the Etymolo-
gies57, a compendium of late antique scholarship and Isidore’s magnum
opus, via exegetical58 and grammatical writings, to the De ecclesiasticis of-
ficiis, a guidebook to the various offices of the Church.59 The most extensive
borrowings took place from the Moralia in Job, a clear reflection of Isidore’s
highly positive opinion of the work. The Isidorian text with the highest level
of reliance on Gregory was the Sententiae, three books of spiritual instruc-
tion probably written in 614/5.60 Isidore’s earliest biographer, Braulio of
Zaragoza, picked up on the reliance of the work on Gregory’s Moralia shortly
after Isidore’s death, he published: ‘three books of Sentences, adorned with
choice selections from the books of Pope Gregory’s Morals’ (Sententiarum
libros tres, quos floribus ex libris papae Gregorii Moralibus decorauit).61
One of the main intellectual trends within Visigothic Spain was the
compilation and summarising of the writings of Church Fathers such
as Augustine and Gregory. Recent work has demonstrated the creative
uses Isidore made of his sources. He is no longer seen as an unreflective
‘cut-and-paster’ who sought to ‘save’ the knowledge of the ancient world
and make it useful for the medieval period. Isidore and other writers from
seventh century Spain formed anthologies that synthesised the work of
earlier Christian (and often non-Christian) writers. Their purpose was
56 E.g. O’Loughlin, ‘Isidore’s use of Gregory the Great’; Uitvlugt, ‘The Sources of Isidore’s
Commentaries’.
57 Díaz y Díaz, ‘Introducción General’: pp. 194-195: the main Christian sources for the Etymolo-
gies are Augustine, Jerome and Lactantius; less important, but still used frequently are Tertullian,
Cassiodorus, Ambrose and Gregory the Great. See Fontaine, La culture classique for specific
details of borrowings; Barney et al, Etymologies, p. 15: books 6 to 8 of the Etymologies constitute
the ecclesiastical and theological part of the work for which the primary sources are Augustine
and Jerome, who are used extensively, as well as Gregory the Great, Lactantius’ Divine Institutions
and Tertullian.
58 Díaz, ‘Visigothic Political Institutions’, p. 342 suggested that Isidore’s views on unction may
have been influenced by Gregory. Ullman, The Carolingian Renaissance, pp. 74, 76, however,
considers that Isidore would have had no knowledge of the Pope’s point of view, and that when
he wrote, unction did not exist as a practice.
59 Knoebel, De Ecclesiasticis Officiis, p. 5: Isidore’s Differentiae, Proemia and De Ecclesiasticis
Officiis contain material from Gregory the Great’s Moralia in Job.
60 Martín, ‘Une nouvelle édition critique’, pp. 141-5.
61 Braulio, Renotatio librorum Isidori, 10, Martín, ed., Scripta de vita Isidori Hispalensis episcopi,
p. 202.
46 Jamie Wood
not solely to preserve received Christian knowledge, but to facilitate bet-

ter understanding among the ecclesiastical elites and, through them, the
general public.62 Texts such as the Sententiae adapted carefully-selected
parts of the writings of earlier authors to generate original works that met
contemporary pastoral objectives.
Isidore did not simply use Gregory’s Moralia in Job, his main source when
writing the Sententiae, as a mine of quotations, but carefilly selected mate-
rial in order to mould one of the monuments of late antique exegesis to new
purposes. The key problem confronting Isidore was not lack of material,
but what to do with the vast amount of material, Gregorian and other, that
he had at his disposal. The list of definite and possible uses of Gregory’s
works in the Sententiae runs to four and a half pages in the index fontium
of the modern edition, with the Moralia in Job accounting for three and a
half of those pages.63
Given what is known about Isidore’s working methods, and the wealth of
sources at his disposal, it was inevitable that a reference work such as the
Sententiae would engage in a process of selection, editing and augmentation.
His construction of the Sententiae aligns well with practices that have
been observed in other Isidorian writings. In many instances he shortened
sources by excerpting and summarising them.64 This might have been at
least partly due to the fact that he possessed incomplete versions of the
source works or because he was reliant on collections of excerpts.65 Isidore
was interested in communicating as effectively as possible with his audi-
ence and, in his mind, the best way of doing this was to write with brevity
rather than in an overly rhetorical style. Although the admonition to write
simply and with clarity, even when producing quite complex works, was
commonplace by the time of Isidore, I have argued elsewhere that Isidore
deliberately wrote works that were characterised by their brevity in order
to improve the readability, communicative potential and ultimately the
didactic power of his work.66 Sometimes these works were indeed quite brief
62 Orlandis, Historia, p. 322.

63 Isidore, Sententiae, ed. by Cazier, pp. 355-359 (only books 3, 11, 13, 16, 20, 22 and 35 of the
Moralia are missing from the list). Despite the extensive use that Isidore made of Gregory’s
works in the Sententiae, there are no explicit references to Gregory by name in the text. This is
in line with Isidore’s citation practices in relation to Augustine, who is not mentioned by name
either, despite the frequent use made of his works. Even biblical authors are only mentioned by
name infrequently, usually when Isidore makes a direct citation.
64 Numerous examples throughout the text; on this Isidorian practice generally see: Mullins,
The Spiritual Life.
65 A point made by O’Loughlin, ‘Isidore’s use of Gregory the Great’, pp. 263-9.
66 Wood, ‘Brevitas’.
A Family Affair 47
but, on other occasions the claim to brevity meant that Isidore was dealing
in a relatively concise way with long sources rather than that his works were
objectively ‘brief’ themselves. So, although the Sententiae is actually quite
a long work, in comparison to the wealth of Patristic and other sources on
which it draws, it is characterised by brevity and hence, to Isidore’s mind at
least, clarity. Isidore also tended to reduce or remove Gregory’s digressions
in order to turn the interpretations in a more acceptable direction, for
example, in his efforts to combat what he saw as eastern heresies.67
Isidore sometimes rearranged material taken from the Moralia in other
ways, adding information taken from elsewhere in the text, condensing
and merging two chapters into one, splitting apart chapters that had been
together previously.68 Another practice was to collate Gregory’s words with
those of other, usually Patristic, authors.69 Augustine was the main choice
here, although on occasion the Moralia was spliced with other works by
Gregory, such as the Regula Pastoralis.70
All of this is not to deny the extent of Isidore’s own contribution, which
was signif icant and went beyond editing his sources, processes which
are indicative of his deep engagement with the source texts. On the most
basic level, and still pointing towards his compilatory attitude, there are
multiple examples of intertexts between the Sententiae and other Isidorian
writings. Sometimes earlier writings by Isidore, such as the Differentiae,
served as sources for the Sententiae, while on other occasions material
from the Sententiae could be found in later works, such as the Etymologiae.71
Finally, as was noted above, in other places Isidore introduced his own
reflections, often at the close of the chapter, in order to alter the meaning
or emphasis of the Gregorian source.72 This brief overview of the use Isidore
made of Gregory’s works, primarily the Moralia in Job in the Sententiae, has
demonstrated Isidore’s role as an active and thoughtful editor of his source.
67 On Isidore’s hostility to eastern heresies and his splicing of patristic sources, including
Gregory, see: MacCoull, ‘Isidore and the Akephaloi’.
68 E.g. Gregory, Moralia in Job 18.43.68 is used in Isidore, Sententiae 2.1.4, 3.16.7 and 3.21.2.
69 E.g. Isidore, Sententiae 1.8 (De mundo), Cazier, ed., Isidorus Hispalensis Sententiae, pp. 21-25
is composed primarily from a range of Augustine’s works (Confessiones, De Civitate Dei, De Genesi
ad litteram l. xii and De Genesi contra Manichaeos), but includes extracts from the book 6 of the
Moralia at the beginning and near the end.
70 E.g. Isidore, Sententiae 3.34 (De indignis prapositis), Cazier, ed., Isidorus Hispalensis Senten-
tiae, pp. 273-5 is composed of a combination of extracts taken from books 7, 24, 25 and 32 of the
Moralia in Job and the Regula Pastoralis 1.1.
71 For list of commonalities between the Sententiae and other Isidorian texts see: Cazier, ed.,
Sententiae, p. 359.
72 Mullins, The Spiritual Life, pp. 60-63.
48 Jamie Wood
His aim was to compose a new text that was useful for his audience in the
present. This inevitably involved addressing specific points which had not
necessarily been of concern or interest to Gregory and turning the contents
of his predecessor’s work in new directions.73
Another reason for Isidore’s intense engagement with Gregory’s works
is that their approaches to scriptural reading and exegesis were similar in
intention and in practice. In the preface to the Moralia in Job, written in the
form of a letter to Leander, Gregory explained that it was the job of those
who had a higher level of training and skill in scriptural interpretation to
provide access to the secrets of the Bible to those who were less educated.74
In the De institutione virginum Leander suggests that the untrained avoid
reading biblical books such as the Song of Songs.75 Leander’s advice that
certain scriptural passages should be interpreted spiritually rather than
historically was not intended to limit access to scripture, but rather to
ensure that knowledge was channelled through appropriate intermediaries
or was opened up after appropriate training had taken place. Isidore’s ideas
about the practice, purpose and pedagogy of reading drew extensively on
Gregory and others and in later centuries their works were excerpted and
spliced together by later commentators such as Smaragdus of St Mihiel.76
The views of Gregory, Leander and Isidore were therefore highly congruent
with one another on the purpose of scriptural exegesis.
After Isidore: Visions of Gregory the Great in Seventh-Century

Spain
Isidore’s highly positive appraisal of Gregory was shared by his successors

as leaders of the Spanish Church. The depth of this continuing engagement
with the Gregorian legacy is demonstrated by further positive judgements
on his status, by attempts to procure additional copies of his writings, and
by ongoing and active engagement with his work. Braulio of Zaragoza (d.
650), Eugenius II of Toledo (d. 657), Ildefonsus of Toledo (d. 667), Julian of
Toledo (d. 690) and Valerius of El Bierzo (d. c. 695), all made extensive use of
73 For a similar point about other Isidorian writings see: Uitvlugt, ‘The Sources of Isidore’s
Commentaries’.
74 See DelCogliano, Gregory the Great, pp. 66-67 for Gregory’s reading and exegetical tech-
niques as elucidated in the letter to Leander that introduced the Moralia in Job.
75 Leander of Seville, De institutione virginum 16, Campos Ruiz and Roca Meliá, eds., Santos
Padres Españoles II, pp. 54-55.
76 Robertson, Lectio Divina, pp. 107-119.
A Family Affair 49
Gregory in their writings on a range of topics. As with Isidore, scholars have

identified processes of attributed and unattributed citation, epitomisation
and adaptation across a swathe of writings.77
The most striking case of engagement with Gregory after Isidore is that of
Taio of Zaragoza (d. post-656) who, before he became bishop, journeyed to
Rome in the early 640s, possibly on the instruction of King Chindaswinth,
to find, copy and bring back works by Gregory which were not at that time
available in Spain.78 It is difficult to identify with any precision the specific
works that Taio brought back from Rome, although it seems certain that he
extended what was available in Spanish libraries.79 The output of all this
work, in addition to the copies of Gregory’s writings that Taio brought back
from Rome, was a text which later came to be known as the Sententiarum
Libri V, a series of extracts abridged from different parts of Gregory’s corpus
and combined with other writers such as Augustine.80 Taio describes, in a
letter to Bishop Quiricius of Barcelona, how he spent his nights working
on the project while Zaragoza was besieged by the usurper Froia in 653-4.81
Although the work has been described as ‘poorly organized’82, such value-
judgements are increasingly being overturned in favour of interpretations
which see successors of Isidore such as Taio as excerpting and compiling
Gregory’s works in a systematic fashion for highly practical purposes.83
77 For Braulio and Gregory see: Barlow, Iberian Fathers, vol. 2, p. 6. For Eugenius II and Gregory
see: Fear, ‘Moaning to Some Purpose’, pp. 62-3, 67-8: probable influence of Gregory’s Moralia
in Job and possibly that of the Registrum on the poetry of Eugenius II, especially on idea of
conpunctio. For Ildefonsus of Toledo and Gregory see: Collins, Early Medieval Spain, p. 77:
Ildefonsus’ treatises on baptism were ‘basically composed of selected extracts from writings
of Augustine, Gregory and Isidore.’ For Julian and Gregory see: Collins, Early Medieval Spain,
p. 78: the Prognosticum futuri saeculi draws principally on Augustine’s City of God, but also on
Jerome, Ambrose, Gregory, Isidore and others. On Valerius and Gregory see: Orlandis, Historia,
p. 322 and Collins, Early Medieval Spain, p. 45.
78 Miguel Franco, ‘Ecos del Epistularium’; Madoz, Tajón de Zaragoza; Orlandis, Historia,
pp. 405 and 409 suggests that the story that Chindaswinth ordered Taio to go to Spain was a
later invention. Martin, La géographie du pouvoir, p. 257, however, argues that the fact that Taio
was allowed to leave the country and made it to Rome and back suggests that the mission had
royal backing.
79 Barlow, Iberian Fathers, vol. 2, p. 95, n. 32; Orlandis, Historia, p. 407: Taio brought back
Gregory’s homilies on Ezequiel and perhaps the Dialogues and the commentary on the Song of
Songs. See also: Palacios Martín, Tajón de Zaragoza.
80 Collins, Early Medieval Spain, p. 73; Barlow, Iberian Fathers, vol. 2, p. 89, n. 2.
81 Thompson, The Goths in Spain, pp. 199-200; Collins, Visigothic Spain, pp. 84-85.
82 O’Callaghan, History, p. 87.
83 E.g. DelCogliano, Gregory the Great, pp. 49-50: ‘Taio systematizes Gregory’s thought in five
books [...]. Each of the five books has numerous chapters, each of which is devoted to a particular
subtheme.
50 Jamie Wood
Sometimes Gregory’s works were copied almost verbatim, but even copy-
ing and pasting can, in some cases, be highly creative exercises, especially
when done with specific aims in mind.84 A letter from Braulio of Zaragoza
to Taio in 649/50 reveals that the aim of Taio’s visit to Rome was to obtain
copies of the ‘books of the holy Pope Gregory’ (codices sancti pape Gregorii)
which had not previously existed in Spain.85 Barlow suggested that Taio was
trying to locate copies of Gregory’s later works because, as we have already
seen, some of them were circulating in Spain even before the end of the
sixth century.86 Braulio’s letter, in which he requests a copy of the books
of Gregory and promises to return them whenever Taio asks, reveals that
there was a demand for such works among the Visigothic ecclesiastical elite.
Braulio quoted directly from the beginning of Gregory’s Moralia at the start
of the letter, suggesting that the text was well-known enough to function
as a common reference point for two educated churchmen.87 Braulio noted
that Taio, and presumably other members of his circle, studied the writings
of the Church Fathers to such an extent that their words (eloquia) remained
‘nested in your heart’ (in pectore tuo […] nidauerint).88 Taio engaged with
the memory of Gregory and journeyed to Rome for practical purposes: to
make available edificatory works for his fellow bishops and to enable them
to use the insights from Gregory’s writings to instruct others.
At about the same time as Taio travelled to Rome and then worked up
his summary of Gregory’s writings, there was an increase in interest in
Gregory in the city of Toledo, the centre of Visigothic royal government
and in the process of establishing itself as the ecclesiastical head of the
kingdom. In the second canon of the eighth council of Toledo in 653 Gregory
was honoured as follows:
And also holy Pope Gregory, to be honoured for both his books and his
merits, and also due to his merit to be preferred in ethical matters to
almost anyone else, explains thus in his books on moral matters [in his
Moralia] [...]
84 Hillgarth, ‘Popular Religion’, p. 19, n. 3.

85 Braulio, Ep. 42, l. 150, Riesco Terrero, ed., Epistolario de San Braulio, p. 162, trans. by Barlow,
Iberian Fathers, vol. 2, p. 95.
86 Barlow, Iberian Fathers, vol. 2, p. 95, n. 32.
87 Braulio, Ep. 42, l. 22-23, Riesco Terrero, ed., Epistolario de San Braulio, p. 156, trans. by Barlow,
Iberian Fathers, vol. 2, p. 89; cf. Gregory, Moralia 1.1.
88 Braulio, Ep. 42, l. 10-15, Riesco Terrero, ed., Epistolario de San Braulio, p. 154, trans. by Barlow,
Iberian Fathers, vol. 2, p. 89.
A Family Affair 51
Beatus etiam papa Gregorius et libris et meritis honorandus, atque in

ethicis adsertionibus pene cunctis merito praeferendus, sic in libris infert
moralibus [...]
The same canon also honoured Isidore as:
The distinguished doctor of our century, the newest ornament of the

Catholic church, though the last when compared with the previous in
terms of time, but not least in terms of doctrine, and furthermore, the
most learned in the end times, and to be named with reverence, Isidore,
in the second book of his Sententiae relates to the same purpose: [...]
Nostri quoque seculi doctor egregius, ecclesiae catholicae novissimum
decus, praecedentibus aetate prostremus, doctrinae conparatione non
infimus, et quod maius est in seculorum fine doctissimus, atque cum
reverentia nominandus Ysidorus in libro Sententiarum secundo haec pro
tali narrat negotio [...].89
This is followed by a quotation from the Sententiae and one claiming to be

from Isidore’s Synonyma. It is also possible that the description of Isidore
as doctor egregius may be a deliberate lexical pun on (or at least a refer-
ence back to) Gregory/ Gregorius. Earlier in the second canon of the eighth
council of Toledo, direct quotations were taken from and references had
been made to Ambrose and Augustine, before the sections on Gregory and
Isidore. All of this suggests that by the mid-seventh century, deliberate
efforts were being made to associate Isidore with earlier Latin Church
Fathers. Isidore was being positioned as the father of the Spanish Church,
and the association with Gregory played a pivotal role in generating a direct
line of descent from Ambrose and Augustine.
A few years later Ildefonsus of Toledo (659-667) extended Isidore’s De
viris illustribus. In the process he wrote a new biography of Gregory, adding
the Dialogues, Commentary on the Song of Songs and the 22 Homilies in
Ezechiel to the list of writings.90 Martin has argued that, in contrast to
Isidore’s largely intellectual biographical catalogue, Ildefonsus was inspired
by Gregory’s Dialogues to stress the miracles that had been performed by
89 Vives, ed., Concilios Visigóticos e Hispano-Romanos, pp. 276-7; see also Fontaine, Génesis y
originalidad, p. 289.
90 Barlow, Iberian Fathers, vol. 2, p. 95, n. 32; on later addition of the commentary on the Song
of Songs to lists of Gregory’s works, see: DelCogliano, Gregory the Great, p. 29.
52 Jamie Wood
his illustrious men.91 It may also be the case that Ildefonsus’s extension of
Isidore’s biography of Gregory was part of a broader effort by the bishops
of Toledo to demonstrate the excellence of their bishopric in opposition
to Seville and other powerful ecclesiastical centres in Spain, as Michael
J. Kelly explores later in this volume.92 On this reading, control over the
dissemination of Gregory’s writings and the definition of his memory was
one way to demonstrate Toledan superiority within Spain.
Gregory’s works thus had an impact on the pastoral aims of the bishops
of the Visigothic kingdom and on how the basic tenets of Christianity
might best be communicated to the clergy and, through them, the people.93
This began during Gregory’s lifetime as Spanish bishops responded to
texts and letters that Gregory had sent there advising them on how to care
for those in their charge. Licinianus of Cartagena, for example, wrote to
Gregory in the 590s to say that if he obeyed Gregory’s advice in the Regula
Pastoralis to refrain from ordaining the ignorant, then he would not be
able to ordain anyone at all in his area.94 Although they form a relatively
small proportion of the contents of Visigothic-era homiliaries from Spain,
Gregory’s sermons were also used by the preachers of the period, further
demonstrating his direct influence on the pastoral efforts of the bishops
and clergy there.95
Conclusion
This chapter has explored the reception of the writings of Gregory I in

Spain during the Visigothic period, especially in the writings of Isidore of
Seville in the early seventh century. Isidore received the works of Gregory
so enthusiastically because of the very close association between Gregory
and Leander, Isidore’s brother. Contemporary sources suggest that Leander
and Isidore were particularly interested in emphasising the status of the
members of their family, the coherence of the family unit and in particular
its role in the development of the Church in Spain during the late sixth and
91 Martin, La géographie du pouvoir, p. 216; for more on differences between Ildefonsus and
earlier texts in the De viris illustribus tradition see Galán Sánchez, ‘El De viris illustribus’,
pp. 71-74, 79-80.
92 See also Wood, ‘Playing the Fame Game’, pp. 628-40.
93 Lozano Sebastián, San Isidoro, p. 224.
94 Licinianus, Ep. 1.1-5 Madoz, ed., Liciniano de Cartagena y sus cartas, pp. 83-91, King, Law
and Society, p. 150; Orlandis, Historia, p. 309.
95 Hillgarth, ‘Popular Religion’, p. 24.
A Family Affair 53
early seventh centuries. The connection to Gregory, Bishop of Rome at the

time of the conversion of the Visigoths from Arianism to Catholicism and a
correspondent of Leander, was cultivated in order to bolster the historical
status of Leander and because his writings had proved practically useful in
Isidore’s campaign to educate the clergy of the Visigothic kingdom. Due to
the close association with Leander, the early circulation of his writings in
Spain, and their usefulness to Isidore, Gregory virtually became a member
of the family of Leander-Isidore.
The Isidorian stamp of approval was particularly important for the
posthumous reputation of Gregory in Spain. Gregory and his writings
retained their prestige in Spain after the fall of the Visigothic kingdom
in the early eighth century. Works such as the Moralia were copied and
circulated in the centuries that followed96 and by the mid-eighth century
the story of Taio’s journey to Rome had taken on a distinctly legendary
tone.97 In later centuries, however, Gregory’s works became popular not
only because they were useful in the present and because of the association
with Leander (and Isidore), but also because they created a connection to
the Catholic-Visigothic past. Not only was Gregory the pope at the time of
the conversion of the Visigoths to Catholicism, a conjunction that probably
seemed more significant with hindsight than it did at the time, but he wrote
a biography of the Visigothic prince Hermenegild which became highly
popular in late medieval and early modern Spain.98 Gregory presented
Hermenegild as a martyr rather than the traitor of the accounts of John
of Biclarum and Isidore and it was this version that served as a model
of Catholic leadership for the Hapsburg monarchs.99 Gregory’s writings,
bolstered by their close association with Leander and Isidore, the fathers
of the Spanish Church, thus retained their utility for the educated elite
of early modern Spain as they had for the ecclesiastical elite of the early
medieval period.
96 E.g. Suárez González, ‘La edición riojana’; Shailor, ‘The Scriptorium of San Pedro de Cardeña’.
97 Orlandis, Historia, pp. 405-409 for Taio’s journey to Rome and the resultant development
of legendary accounts.
98 Collins, Early Medieval Spain, p. 45.
99 Lazure, ‘Possessing the Sacred’, pp. 78-9.
54 Jamie Wood
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3 Variations on a Theme
Isidore and Pliny on Human and Human-Instigated
Anomaly
Mary Beagon
It is impossible to say for certain whether Isidore actually read Pliny’s

Natural History at f irst hand. As anyone who has ever considered the
question of Isidore’s (or indeed Pliny’s) sources knows only too well, it
can be almost impossible to tell what the authors of encyclopaedic and
compilatory works such as the Natural History or the Etymologies, reliant
as they were on multiple secondary sources, used directly and which at one
or more removes. Material deriving ultimately from Pliny permeates the
entire Etymologies; whether it was sourced at first hand or derived from
an intermediary is impossible to say for certain.1 All we can be sure of is
a pervasive Plinian flavour or echo to much of Isidore’s material. Threads
of thought, recognizable from a reading of Pliny, recur in the books of the
Etymologies. This chapter will examine one such thread, human anomaly.
The aim is not primarily to locate inspiration from Pliny in Isidore but to
consider how each treated an idea of central importance to their respective
worldviews.
The animal kingdom for Pliny occupies five out of 37 books of his Historia
Naturalis (HN), while for Isidore two of the twenty books of the Etymologies
(Etym.) cover similar ground. In both writers, the human animal has a
special relationship with the creative divinity, in Pliny’s case Stoic nature
and in Isidore’s the Christian creator God. For Pliny, indeed, the rest of
creation is geared for the most part towards man’s needs (HN 7.3). For Isidore,
who implicitly recalls the Stoic pantheistic view of nature at the beginning
of Etym. 11,2 the human body uniquely is raised upright for contemplation
1 Oroz Reta, ‘Présence de Pline’, pp. 295-306 notes numerous echoes, in Etym.16’s treatment
of mineralogy, of the actual wording deployed by Pliny in his treatment of the same topic in
HN 36-7. This certainly suggests Isidore had access to works containing excerpts from the HN,
if not to the work itself.
2 ‘Hanc (i.e. naturam) quidam Deum esse dixerunt, a quo omnia creata sunt et existunt’: ‘Some
people say that this (i.e. nature) is God, by whom all things are created and exist’. Trans. Barney
et al., Etymologies, p. 231. (This translation of the Etymologies is used throughout this paper.
Pliny HN 7 translations are from my own 2005 translation and commentary. Other translations
are my own except where otherwise indicated). Later he acknowledges this more explicitly as a
58 Mary Beagon
of the Creator (11.1.5); another classical topos, specifically referenced in this

case to lines quoted from the beginning of Ovid’s Metamorphoses (Met. 1.84);
while his mind (mens), the superior part of the soul (11.1.11), is the cause of
his being said to be the image of God (imago dei).
For the Christian writer, then, the human animal is of dual aspect: a body
formed from the soil but raised upright from the soil to face upward, and
a soul.3 Isidore then proceeds to categorize the constituent parts of this
double nature: nearly three quarters of book 11 is devoted to an etymological
creation-by-verbal-dissection of a generic imago hominis. In his study of
the Etymologies, John Henderson contrasted Isidore’s man, ‘one and alone’
to the ‘rhetoric of plenitude’ which overflows in book 12 with its emphasis
on the numbers, variety and diversity of the rest of the animal kingdom. 4
The effect is perhaps exaggerated by Isidore’s cramming the whole of the
rest of the animal kingdom into one book, whereas Pliny uses four, rather
longer, ones to complete his survey. The fact remains, however, that Isidore’s
catalogue of parts (11.1-2) produces a single, photofit, image. Pliny, to be
sure, gives a generic treatment of human physiology in relation to that of
animals in the later sections of HN 10 and 11, following in the tradition of
the Aristotelian comparative biology of On the Parts of Animals and On the
Generation of Animals. However, his dedicated treatment of humanity in HN
7 is a riot of diversity, variation and exception. Sometimes characterised as a
book of records, the average or mean is not what HN 7 is about. Discussions
of human lifespan, reproduction, stature and death are predominantly
discussions of the exceptional rather than the norm.
Deviant Nature? Variety and Monstrosity
If we look at the treatment of the human face by each author, it is true that
Isidore mentions its function in distinguishing each individual human
(Etym.11.1.35), but only after noting its generic function in characterizing
the human animal as human. Pliny, however, revels in the innumerable pos-
sibilities which nature, more skilled than any human artifex, can produce
from just a handful of generic physical features (HN 7.7).
view held by some pagans: ‘unde et ipsi gentiles Deum modo naturam, modo Deum appellant’:
‘Even the Pagans address God sometimes as Nature, sometimes as God’ (Etym. 11.3.1. Trans.
Barney et al., Etymologies, p. 243).
3 ‘Duplex est autem homo: interior et exterior. Interior homo anima et exterior corpus’ (11.1.6).
4 Henderson, Medieval World of Isidore, p. 149.
Variations on a Theme 59
Should we read any significance into this difference of emphasis, other

than the fact that naming of generic parts is intrinsic to Isidore’s project,
just as emphasizing the infinite varietas of nature is intrinsic to Pliny’s? At
this point, we should consider the last quarter of Etym. 11, where Isidore, in
a sense paradoxically, attempts to define and categorize beings which defy
categorization according to the orderly arrangement of parts as previously
defined. For Isidore, the impression is that these ‘portents’ are a source
of anxiety: at first sight, they appear to be contra naturam. Indeed, he
quotes Varro’s definition of such beings as ‘seeming to have been born
contrary to nature’, but he explains that in fact they are part of the divine
plan, inscrutable as that may be to mere humans; they are not contrary to
nature, only contrary to what is known nature. His explanation is heavily
dependent, indeed almost word for word, on Augustine (‘portentum ergo
fit non contra naturam, sed contra quam est nota natura’, Civ. Dei 21.8). His
particular categorization carefully distinguishes the seriously anomalous
portenta, ostenta, prodigia, which are divine indicators and die soon after
birth, from the less serious variations, for example, people with extra digits
who are portentosa or portent-like, but within the parameters of the ac-
ceptably natural.
As far as these individual anomalies are concerned, Pliny is not interested
in deconstructing and de-mythifying them. There is some categorization in
their general arrangement; for example, we have multiple births, hermaph-
rodites and sex-changers (HN 7.33-6), but application of the term prodigium
and its associates is neither frequent nor of any particular significance. In
this, Pliny’s attitude is very different to that of Isidore or Augustine. Indeed,
his comment that hermaphrodites were once regarded as portents but
now as pets (deliciae, HN 7.33) may indicate underlying changes in social
attitudes in the first century AD, when negative religious interpretations
of physical anomaly are in decline, at any rate among the trend-setting
wealthy of Rome;5 though there was no simple temporal or social shift
either now or many centuries later and attitudes even in the early modern
era remained complex.6
After dealing with individual monstrosities, however, Isidore continues
to a more difficult and controversial set of anomalies: the reputed existence
5 Beagon, Pliny on the Human Animal, pp. 167-169; cf also Brisson, Sexual Ambivalence, pp. 31-
40; Boehringer, ‘Topique des thaumata’, pp. 77-80.
6 Park and Daston, ‘Unnatural Conceptions’, pp. 20-54.
60 Mary Beagon
of entire monstrous races of peoples7 for which the locus classicus is of

course Pliny HN 7.9-32, but which, for Isidore, could equally well have come
via an intermediary; and once again Augustine’s exhaustive examination
in Civ. Dei, this time 16.8, is an obvious one. Augustine had adopted Pliny’s
general stance on such oddities: ‘The observer who cannot see the whole
(of God’s plan) is offended by what seems to be the deformity of a part’ (Civ.
Dei 16.8).8 We may compare this with Pliny HN 7.6: ‘Indeed the power and
might of nature lacks credibility at every point unless we comprehend her
as a whole rather than piecemeal’.9
Pliny’s brisk survey of these monstrous races combined enthusiasm
with a certain detachment betrayed by his use of third person authority
(a feature of wonder literature)10 and indirect speech. No one had after
all actually seen any of these people: if they did exist they added to the
cheerful exuberance of the nature deity, created as ‘playthings (ludibria)
for herself and wonders for us’ (HN 7.32). If they did not exist, his overall
depiction of varietas naturae was not seriously dented. For the Christian
writer, however, the possible existence of such anomalies may have posed
theological problems. Hence, I think, it is not sufficient to interpret Isidore’s
similar use of third person authority and indirect speech merely as a sign
of scepticism; it seems also to betray a feeling of anxiety. Were such beings
human, and therefore part of the divine salvation plan? This anxiety is
clearly enunciated in Augustine: the individual anomalies, undeniably
born to human parents in our society, are not a problem; they are clearly
descendants of Adam. So, too, therefore, are the monstrous races, provided
that their categorization as human is correct (Civ. Dei 16.8). We should of
course remind ourselves at this point that it is soul not body which makes
man imago dei, according to Isidore (Etym. 11.1.11). But identifying what is
ensouled without a recognizable set of physical features as described in
the earlier part of Etym. 11 is the crux. Such races are so very different that
deception is a danger, as Augustine recognizes: ‘If we did not know that
monkeys, long-tailed apes and chimpanzees are not men but animals, those
7 A third group, of one-off mythical monsters (Etym. 11.3.28-39), is dismissed from considera-
tion as being symbolic representations of the truths at the heart of old stories, e.g. harlots who
lured people to destitution or ‘shipwreck’ become the Sirens (12.3.30).
8 ‘Sed qui totum inspicere non potest tamquam deformitate partis offenditur’. Trans.
Bettenson, City of God, p. 662.
9 ‘Naturae vero rerum vis atque maiestas in omnibus momentis fide caret si quis modo partes
eius ac non totam conplectatur animo’.
10 Schepens and Delcroix, Ancient Paradoxography, pp. 380-384; Jacob, ‘De l’art de compiler’,
pp. 121-140.
natural historians who plume themselves on their collection of curiosities

might pass them off on us as races of men, and get away with such nonsense’
(Civ. Dei 16.8).11
Let us return to Isidore’s definition of the human facies. As we saw, he
mentions its function as a repository for the uniqueness of each individual
but without embroidering on this in the manner of the Plinian celebration
of varietas. However, he also describes it as the part of the body which
above all reflects the characteristic form of a human being (‘Facies dicta
ab effigie. Ibi est enim tota figura hominis (et uniuscuiusque persona)
cognita’ (Etym. 11.1.33-4). It is therefore perhaps significant that, while by
no means all the monstrous races’ deformities are primarily facial, many
are and he specifically mentions the stories of ‘the monstrous faces of the
nations in the far east’ (Etym. 11.3.18: ‘In ultimo autem orientis monstruosae
gentium facies scribuntur’). More generally, the human head is the body’s
primary organ, where all senses and nerves originate, the source of all activ-
ity: to the extent that it ‘plays the role of the soul, so to speak’: ‘animae …
quodammodo personam gerit’ ( 11.3.25-6). For this primary indicator of soul
to be seriously malformed, even missing as in the case of those such as the
Blemmyae, with mouth and eyes in their chest (11.3.17) is clearly problematic
for the correct categorization of the human. Another case in point is that
of the dog-heads or Cynokephali. These, however, give themselves away
as being non-human in Isidore’s categorization by their barking (Etym.
11.3.15).12 They cannot talk and words, according to Isidore’s definition, are
signs of the mental processes by which people show their thoughts to one
another in speaking (Etym. 1. 9.1). Therefore they cannot possess human
mind and mind, as we saw, is the most elevated aspect of the human soul
and links man to God. The problematic nature of this religious conundrum
is reflected in Augustine’s extremely tentative conclusion to his discussion:
‘I must therefore finish the discussion of this question with my tentative
11 ‘Nam et simias et cercopithicos et sphingas si nesciremus non homines esse, sed bestias,
possent illi historici de sua curiositate gloriantes velut gentes aliquas hominum nobis inpunita
vanitate mentiri’. Trans. Bettenson, City of God, p. 663.
12 cf. Aug. CD 16.8. For the complex tradition of thought instigated by the ‘taxonomic ambiguity’
of the Cynokephali, see Romm, The Edges of the Earth, p. 79; Beagon, Pliny on the Human Animal,
pp. 152-154. For the importance of speech as a marker of humanity, see Friedman, Monstrous
Races, p. 29, who points to four other monstrous races who, implicitly or explicitly, lack speech.
However, of these, only one, the Trogodytae, makes non-human sounds, rather than being unable
to make any kind of noise due to their facial configurations. The source for the squeaking of the
Trogodytae is Herodotus 4.153, rather than Pliny, who mentions them but without comment on
their non-human speech (HN 5.44-5; 7.23: see Beagon, Pliny on the Human Animal, p. 154). This
may explain why they are not mentioned by Augustine or Isidore.
62 Mary Beagon
and cautious answer. The accounts of some of these races may be completely
worthless; but if such peoples exist, then either they are not human; or, if
human, they are descended from Adam.’ (Civ. Dei 16.8).13
Theological difficulties may have been enhanced by some of the contexts
in which monsters had appeared in earlier pagan accounts. Strange-looking
creatures had been central to some classical creation theories, such as
those of Empedocles and Lucretius, which avoided purposive design. Their
hallmark was randomness. Empedocles’ scheme had included the random
production of body parts, which then joined, equally randomly, to produce
creatures, some viable but many, like his man-faced oxen,14 not. Lucretius
deliberately set out to avoid the idea of a teleological creator God. Random
combinations of atoms in the earth produced a variety of creatures, only
some of which were viable and found compatible breeding partners to
produce a species. Even these, however, were subject to early extinction
by the law of survival of the fittest (Lucr. RN 5.837-854).15 A possible link
with non-purposive creativity might, then, have further lessened Isidore’s
enthusiasm for the idea of monstrous races.16 The distancing techniques
used by many classical authors take on new significance in his catalogue.
On the other hand, such theories tended to emphasize the non-viability
of oddities and thence the unlikelihood of races of such creatures being
perpetuated. It was, on the contrary, Pliny’s teleological Stoic Natura which
had enshrined them in an enduring tradition. We shall return to this later.
Deviant Minds? Maternal Impressions
Our second example of human variation relies in a sense on human rather

than divine creativity. Both Pliny and Isidore discuss a belief with a very
long history; the ability of visual and mental stimuli experienced by the
mother to modify the physical appearance of her unborn offspring.17 The
13 ‘Quapropter ut istam quaestionem pedetemtim cauteque concludam: aut illa, quae talia
de quibusdam gentibus scripta sunt, omnino nulla sunt; aut, si sunt, homines non sunt; aut ex
Adam sunt, si homines sunt’. Trans. Bettenson, City of God, p. 664.
14 Empedocles DK fr.61; Arist. Phys. 2.8, 198b16-32.
15 Campbell, Strange Creatures, pp. 33-35; cf. Campbell, Lucretius on Creation, pp. 103-123.
16 For Isidore’s opposition to Lucretius’ non-teleological view, see A. Fear, this volume, on
Isidore’s own work entitled De Rerum Natura.
17 Reeve, Conceptions’, pp. 81-112 is the classic treatment. Cf. also Boucé, ‘Imagination’, pp. 86-
100; Gourevitch, ‘Se mettre à trois’, pp. 559-563; Garland, Deformity and Disability, p. 151. Maire,
‘L’imprégnation par la regard’, pp. 279-94 places the idea in the context of ancient philosophical
and medical theories of vision.
basic idea can be found as early as Empedocles, whom Aetius (5.12.2 =

Dox. Graec. p. 423) cites to explain why some children do not resemble
their fathers: ‘Empedocles says that foetuses are shaped by what the
woman visualized around the time of conception. For often women have
fallen in love with statues and paintings and have produced offspring
which resemble them’. 18 Many writers from Dionysius of Halicarnas-
sus (De Imit. 6.1) to Augustine (Contra Iulian. 5.14.51) repeat the story
of the ugly king who fathered handsome children by making his wife
look at beautiful statues during intercourse. Medical acceptance is seen
in similar references in Galen (14.253-4 Kűhn), Soranus (Gyn. 1.39) and
later medical authorities. A rationale might be found in Aristotelian
physiology, according to which the female genetic material is essentially
passive and impressionable. In the cases described above, the normal
process by which the active male principle dominates and imprints its
form on female matter is hijacked by an outside force such as the sight
of a beautiful statue.19
Pliny’s version in HN 7.52 introduces an element almost unique in the
ancient testimony in allowing the father, as well as the mother, to be
susceptible to such outside influences, effectively doubling the potential
for variations and divergences from the expected patterns of heredity to
emerge in the newborn infant.20
Resemblances offer considerable food for thought. They are believed to

be influenced by many chance occurrences, including sight, hearing,
memory and images absorbed at the very moment of conception. Even
a chance thought which briefly crosses the mind of one or other parent
may form or confuse the resemblance. This is the reason why there are
more variations within the human race than there are among all the
other animals. The swiftness of men’s thoughts, his mental agility and the
versatility of his intelligence produce a wide variety of features; whereas
the minds of the other animals are sluggish and exhibit a uniformity in
keeping with their particular species.
18 Ἐμποδοκλῆς τῇ κατὰ τὴν σύλληψιν φαντασίᾳ τῆς γυναικὸς μορφοῦσθαι τὰ βρέφη· ανδριάντων
καὶ εἰκόνων ἠράσθησαν γυναῖκες καὶ ὅμοια τούτοις ἀπέτεκον. Trans. Inwood, Poem of Empedocles,
p. 192.
19 GA 716a47; 767a36-768b1; 728a28-b30.
20 Beagon, Pliny on the Human Animal, pp. 213-215.
64 Mary Beagon
Similitudinum quidem immensa reputatio est et in qua credantur multa

fortuita pollere, visus, auditus, memoriae haustaeque imagines sub ipso
conceptu. Cogitatio etiam utriuslibet animum subito transvolans effingere
similitudinem aut miscere existimatur, ideoque plures in homine quam in
ceteris omnibus animalibus differentiae quoniam velocitas cogitationum
animique celeritas et ingeni varietas multiformes notas inprimunt, cum
ceteris animantibus immobiles sint animi et similes omnibus singulisque
in suo cuique genere.21
The key to superior variety is superior brain power. The quality of mens
or ratio, deliberative thinking, was uniquely human in Pliny’s view, not
only in moral terms, as in the Stoic equation of moral excellence, virtus,
with ratio, but also in terms of pure intelligence or brain power: note the
emphasis on ‘swiftness […], agility […] versatility’ and compare what he
has to say of Caesar’s ‘innate mental agility, with the penetrating speed
and rapidity of fire’ (7.91: ‘proprium vigorem celeritatemque quodam igne
volucrem’). This mental superiority was the key to man’s pre-eminence in
the world of nature.22 It offered a link with the macrocosmic ratio of nature
herself, and by maximizing his potential for versatility and variety not just
in creative but even as here in procreative activities, allowed him to mirror
in microcosmic form the varietas of nature, the artifex of creation. The
only other source to suggest that the thoughts of both mother and father
are involved is the pseudo-Aristotelian Problemata (10.10) where, too, a
contrast is made with the other animals who for the most part focus on
the act itself. Here, however, the Plinian emphasis on the gulf in mental
processes between man and animal which causes it is absent.
Pliny, then, celebrates man’s super-charged brain power and the won-
drous effects it can have, even on the (self) creation of man himself. But if
the animals are too dull to produce mental fantasies of such strength that
they affect their unborn young, some sources do credit them with reac-
tion to direct visual stimuli: Oppian describes how horse-breeders parade
f inely adorned stallions before their brood mares and pigeon-fanciers
hang purple-dyed cloths near the female birds (Cyn. 1.328-48). It is animal-
breeding which is the cue for Isidore’s discussion in book 12, the section of
the Etymologies devoted to animals. The main source is Christian rather
than classical: Jerome’s commentary on the story in Genesis of Jacob’s ploy
to breed variegated sheep and the tone, unlike Pliny’s, is largely negative
21 Trans. Beagon, Pliny on the Human Animal, p. 70.

22 Beagon, Roman Nature, pp. 55-91; 133-137.
(Quaest. Heb. Ad Gen. 30.32-3). However, the fact that his focus is on animals
is not in itself a contradiction of Pliny’s emphasis on the phenomenon as
pertaining largely to the superior human mind. Not only are the sheep’s
reactions purely sensory but they are in any case ‘set up’ by the superior
ingenuity of the human breeder. This is already clear in the Oppian passage,
where the cleverness of the horse and dove breeders is stressed in tones of
admiration rather than condemnation: ‘O what a heart, what a mind have
mortal men! They do what they like’ (Cyn. 1. 330-1).23 Isidore’s main source,
Jerome, had stressed the natural cunning of Jacob: ‘So Jacob devised a new
artifice and fought against the nature of the black and white flock with an
artfulness produced by nature herself’.24 The tone is ambiguous: Jacob’s wits
may be a product of nature, but they are being deployed in the undermining
of a natural process: ‘contra naturam […] pecoris […] pugnavit’. The attitude
is reminiscent of Pliny’s condemnation of ambitious and arrogant modifica-
tions of nature, a misuse of humanity’s superior ratio, a topic to which we
shall return shortly. Isidore lays an even more negative emphasis on the
unnaturalness of the ploy, which is introduced with comments on a more
straightforward breeding trick: crossing species to produce hybrids, in this
case mules. Ana, Esau’s great-grandson, was said to have done this contra
naturam (Etym. 12.1.57). ‘Indeed’, Isidore continues, ‘human intervention has
forced animals of different species to breed with one another and has thus
developed another type of animal by means of an unnatural combination.
Thus too Jacob obtained similarities of colours contrary to nature, for his
sheep conceived offspring similar to the image of the ram mounting them
from above that they saw as a reflexion in the water’.25 He doesn’t actually
give the explanation of what Jacob had done to alter the reflexions, but
clearly intends to apply the same elements of ‘human intervention’, coercion
and unnaturalness, to Jacob’s breeding system.26
For Isidore, to act contra naturam is to contravene the natural order
as laid down in the divine plan of creation: a presumptuous and sinful
23 ὢ πόσση κραδίε, πόσση μερόπεσσι πέλει φρήν. / ἔρξαν ὄπως ἐθέλουσι·

24 ‘Itaque Jacob novam stropham commentus est, et contra naturam albi et nigri pecoris,
naturali arte pugnavit’ (Jerome Quaest.Heb Ad Gen.30.32-3). Trans. Hayward, Hebrew Questions,
p. 67.
25 ‘Industria quippe humana diversum animal in coitu coegit, sicque adulterina commixtione
genus aliud repperit; sicut et Iacob contra naturam colorum similitudines procuravit. Nam tales
foetus oves illius concipiebant, quales umbras arietum desuper ascendentium in aquarum
speculo contemplabantur’. Trans. Barney et al., Etymologies, p. 250.
26 He goes on to mention the examples of mares and doves, though here the doves are beguiled
by pictures of handsome doves, cf. Corp. Hipp. Gr. 2.11.7.2-8: horses can be shown paintings like
the doves here, as well as actual stallions.
66 Mary Beagon
challenge from the human mind to the superior mind of God. It is interesting
that no such disapproval of hybridization appears in Pliny’s Natural History
since he can be as condemnatory of human challenges to nature as his
Christian counterpart. The key is motivation and purpose: Pliny’s reserva-
tions about human modifications to nature centre on moral considerations
of arrogance, greed and decadent living.27 Thus the only exception to his
positive attitude towards hybridization is in his discussion of trees in HN
12.11-12 where he criticizes the breeding of a type of plane-tree which doesn’t
shed its leaves in winter and the practice of creating dwarf varieties for
fancy hedging. In both cases, the criticism derives from the fact that both
types are purely decorative and serve no useful purpose: a plane tree’s
natural function, he says, is to give shade in summer but to allow light
through in winter. In contrast, there is much on grafting and hybridization
of fruit, which is regarded as a useful practice, giving nature a legitimate
helping hand in the pursuit of salus humana. Similarly, the hybridization
of domesticated animals, such as mules, is described enthusiastically in
HN 8.171-5, and the high quality of Spanish donkeys for mule-breeding is
praised (HN 8.170). Interestingly, Isidore makes no reference to Spanish
horse and mule breeding, though it is possible that the detailed catalogue of
horse types and colours (Etym. 12.1.41-56) reflects this local interest. Jerome,
indeed, says that the Spaniards practise Jacob’s trick on their horses.28 This
sentence immediately follows one that Isidore quotes verbatim and which
we will discuss shortly.
Finally, it should be noted that Pliny does not mention any instances of
maternal impressions in animals, even when devised by humans. Presum-
ably these might detract, however slightly, from the emphasis he wishes to
place on the supremacy of the human mind. Isidore, on the other hand, uses
the practice to criticize human presumptuousness even where the outcome
is useful, rather than the destructive luxuries to which Pliny confines his
moral reservations on human ingenuity.
So much for the first half of Isidore’s passage on maternal impressions.
In Etym. 12.1.60, he turns to humans and thence to the rationale behind
the phenomenon:
27 Beagon, Roman Nature, pp. 33-50; 55-79

28 ‘… cum hoc ipsum etiam in equarum gregibus apud Hispanos dicatur fieri’ (Quaest. Heb.Ad
Gen. 30.32-33). ‘For this very thing is reported by the Spaniards to happen even among herds of
horses’ (trans. Hayward, Hebrew Questions, p. 67).
Whence also people advise pregnant women not to gaze at repulsive

animal faces, such as cynocephali29 or apes, lest they should bear offspring
resembling what they have seen. Indeed, the nature of females is such
that, whatever sort of thing they look at or imagine in the extreme heat of
pleasure, while they are conceiving, is the sort of progeny they will bear.
Inde est quod quidam gravidas mulieres iubent nullos intueri turpissimos
animalium vultus, ut cynocephalos et simios, ne visibus occurrentes similes
foetus pariant. Hanc enim feminarum esse naturam ut quales perspexerint
sive mente conceperint in extremo voluptatis aestu, dum concipiunt, talem
et subolem procreant.30
A noticeable variation on the theme as seen so far is the idea that impres-
sions can affect the woman even after the act of conception. Striking too
is the idea that the sight of a creature of another species might affect the
foetus, though this was a possibility mooted already in Soranus, who warns
against viewing monkeys during conception (Gyn. 1.39). Michael Reeve, in
his ground-breaking article on the history of this idea, speculated that both
notions, which were to have such a pronounced effect on the development
of the tradition in later centuries, may owe their dissemination largely to
the popularity of Isidore.31 However, the idea that a woman may be affected
during pregnancy is not in fact completely new: it is already there in Oppian,
who says that the Spartans show their wives images of handsome young
men ‘when their bellies are swelling’ (ὅτε γαστέρα κυμαίνουσι, Cyn. 1.359).
The implications of this, slightly later, section of Oppian’s discussion seems
to have escaped the notice of commentators. It is also there to an extent
in a bizarre passage in Augustine’s City of God (Civ.Dei 18.5), in which he
suggests that demons display to the cow pregnant with the next Apis a
phantom bull which only she can see, thus ensuring that the calf will be a
lookalike of its predecessor. Note too the implication in Aristotle that the
woman’s mind should be kept as undisturbed as possible since children are
affected by the mother before birth as plants are by the earth (Pol. 1335b).
Isidore’s explanation, however, focuses on the mechanics of impres-
sions at the time of conception, taking as its lead a comment he has lifted
word for word from Jerome on Jacob’s sheep: ‘The nature of females is such
29 Here Isidore, like Pliny in HN 8.216 cf. 7.31 and Solinus 2.58 p. 143 Münzer, evidently refers
to the baboon, to which the term cynokephalus was also applied.
30 Trans. Barney et al., Etymologies, p. 251.
31 Reeve, ‘Conceptions’, p. 88.
68 Mary Beagon
that, whatever sort of thing they look at or imagine in the extreme heat of
pleasure while they are conceiving, is the sort of progeny they will have’.32
The manuscripts bar one all follow this with: ‘etenim animal in usu Venerio
formas extrinsecus intus transmittit, eorumque satiata typis rapit species
eorum in propriam qualitatem’ (‘Thus in the act of procreation, the animal
transmits external forms to the interior and since she is filled with the
images of those things, she combines their appearance with her own par-
ticular quality’).33 We should understand here animal in the sense of living
creature, whether human or otherwise. André, however, in his 1986 edition
of book 12,34 chose the reading anima, attested in just one manuscript, but
bringing the explanation much closer in wording to other, more precise,
descriptions of the process. He justified his choice by reference to Pliny’s
use of animum in ‘cogitatio etiam utriuslibet animum subito transvolans
effingere similitudinem aut miscere existimatur’ (‘Even a chance thought
which briefly crosses the mind of one or other parent may form or confuse
the resemblance’, HN 7.52). Augustine Contra Iulianum 5.14.51 (PL 44, 812)
is, however, even closer, using the exact term anima and applying it to
animals not just of the human variety: ‘nam colores virgarum quas variavit
Iacob, afficiendo transierunt in animas pecorum matrum atque inde rursus
eadem affectione transeundo apparuerunt in corporibus filiorum’. (‘The
various colours of Jacob’s rods affected the breeding ewes and passed to
their souls; then, passing from the souls of the ewes by the same kind of
influence, these colours appeared in the bodies of their lambs’). Isidore, as
befitted a categorizer of words, recognised a nuanced difference between
animus and anima. Although they can both essentially signify ‘soul’, anima
is indicative of vita, life, while animus is indicative of consilium, deliberation
(Etym. 11.1,11), and he goes on to associate the latter with mens, mind: mens
‘knows’, sciat, while animus ‘wills’ velit. Anima can be the generic word for
soul, but more specifically it refers to the basic life force, as can be seen
in his categorization of different aspects in Etym. 11.1.13: when it enlivens
(vivivicat) the body, soul is anima, when it wills (vult), it is animus, when
it knows (scit), it is mens, when it recollects (recolit), it is memoria, when
it judges correctly (rectum iudicat), it is ratio, when it breathes (spirat), it
is spiritus, when it senses (aliquid sentit), it is sensus. Animus, together
with mens, memoria and ratio belongs to the more sophisticated activities
32 Etym. 12.1.60, above, n. 30, trans. Barney et al., Etymologies, p. 251; cf. Jerome, Quaest. Heb.
Ad Gen. 30.32-33.
33 Thus Lindsay, OCT vol 2, (no page refs). Trans. Barney et al. Etymologies, p. 251.
34 André, Etymologiae XII, pp. 84-85.
which tended to be associated with man. Aristotle describes the increase in

sophistication of the soul the higher up the biological ladder a living thing
is. Animals have not merely the nutritive soul of plants but also sensation
ranging from just touch in the lower orders to the five senses higher up.
This ‘sensate’ soul can exercise imagination and desire (de An. 3.10-12; EN
1.1102b 13) and manifest them in courage, timidity, etc.; but only humans
have nous = mind and reasoning ability.35 Thus, both animus and anima are
more appropriate readings in the Isidore passage than animal, since all our
other Latin texts have one or the other.36 Animus is, however, restricted to
Pliny: it is particularly suited to his context, which focuses purely on mental
images and in humans only, rather than on the perception of visual material;
whereas anima, as well as being closer to animal for a possible textual slip,
suits Isidore’s more general reference to primarily sensual impressions and
a female sex which embraces all animals, not just humans.
Unlike Pliny, but like all the other sources except the Aristotelian
Problems, Isidore keeps to the idea of female-only impressionability. Here
again, his word derivations underscore his interpretation of ‘feminarum […]
naturam’. Mulier comes from mollities, softness (Etym. 11.2.18), while one
derivation of femina is from the Greek for fiery force, because the female
desires more vehemently, ‘for females are said to be more libidinous than
males’ (Etym. 11.2.24)37 and the heat of their desire – ‘in extremo voluptatis
aestu’ – is emphasized in the sentence Isidore takes from Jerome.38 Jerome
in turn had made play of the double desire of the flock who, after the heat
of the day, were eager to drink as well as to copulate (‘[…] so that out of
two-fold desire, while they were eagerly drinking and being mounted by
the male animals […]’ etc.).39 They were thus ready to absorb both the male
seed and the cunningly variegated reflexion in the water. The admixture of
the heat which prompts thirst for water and thirst for sex is found in Pliny,
who comments that the great number of hybrid creatures spontaneously
produced in Africa is due to the crowding together of the different species in
the heat of the day at the scarce watering-places (HN 8.42). This, incidentally,
takes us back to Isidore’s starting place: hybrid animals bred contra naturam
35 Some animals have resemblances of intellectual understanding but not the real thing: Arist.
HA 588a.
36 cf. also Caelius Aurelianus 1.50, animae and the use of ψυχή in the Greek of Aristotle, Soranus
Gyn. 1.39 and the Problemata 10.10.
37 ‘Alii Graeca etymologia feminam ab ignea vi dictam putant, quia vehementer concupiscat’.
38 Above, pp. 67-68 and nn.30 and 32.
39 ‘[…] ut ex duplici desiderio, dum avide bibunt, et ascenduntur a maribus […]’, Quaest. Heb.
Ad Gen. 30.33. Trans. Hayward, Hebrew Questions, p. 67.
70 Mary Beagon
by man. It is surely significant that he does not acknowledge in the sections

of Etym. 12 devoted to wild animals the existence of ‘natural’ wild hybrids
such as these; those listed in Etym. 12.1.60 are all domesticated animals ar-
tificially bred; the emphasis is on hybrids as essentially perversions devised
by humanity rather than a natural variation ordained by the Creator. 40
Conclusion
On the topic of human anomaly, we have seen that Isidore in the Etymologies
reprises two ideas given a particularly memorable treatment in Pliny’s HN
over 500 years earlier. On the types of human monstrosities and maternal
(or, of course, in his case, parental) impressions, Pliny emphasizes the
potential for variety in the human form, since the former exemplifies the
inexhaustible variety of natura creatrix and the latter illustrates how the
rational creativity of nature is mirrored microcosmically in her highest crea-
tion, man. Humanity is enjoined to attempt to see the apparent oddities as
part of overall naturae vis et maiestas (HN 7.7). It is a power that is exuberant
to the point of capriciousness: the monstrous races are playthings for her,
wonders for us: ludibria sibi, nobis miracula (HN 7.32). When he describes
the potential for variation wrought directly by impressions processed by the
human mind at conception, Pliny underlines the link between human and
divine ratio by stressing the role of the mind’s imagery, rather than visual
stimuli and doubles the potential for variation by stressing the paternal as
well as the maternal involvement, specifically ruling out the capacity for
this sort of mental creativity on the part of other animals. Here, too, there
is a feeling of uncontrolled creativity, of the irresponsible capriciousness of
40 This is not to say that Isidore necessarily believes that nature cannot produce hybrids
spontaneously. Another, stranger, form of inter-species mutation is attributed to her at the
end of book 12, where the spontaneous generation of one life-form from the dead remains of
another is mentioned; a staple of biological theory which was not seriously challenged until
the seventeenth century (Harris, Things Come to Life: especially pp. 14-17). The mythical/folk
tales of metamorphosis which begin the paragraph are reported at one remove in typically
paradoxographical terms: ‘they write’, ‘they assert with historical confirmation(!)’, ‘they claim’.
However, the transformation of the appearance of criminals into wild beasts, assisted by charms
and poisons, is recounted without such literary intermediaries and returns us to the theme of
devious/deviant human activity. That (self) corruption of the soul can trigger change in the
body is not out of line with the belief in the transmission of changes from mind to body through
maternal impressions and, more specifically, with the engineering of the latter by a superior
mind deploying tricks of nature.
random thoughts which ‘briefly cross the mind’ (animo subito transvolans,
HN 7.52).
For Isidore in contrast, uncontrolled inventiveness and inexplicable or
unnatural forms not only raise difficult questions about the divine purpose
and the relationship between the creator God and ingenious humanity; they
also disrupt the order which lies at the heart of his project and undermine
his rationale of categorization. The individual human monstrosities, though
explained in a similar way as part of an overall divine plan whose entirety is
beyond the comprehension of men, are brought under some sort of control
in the Etymologiae by marshalling them in accordance with meaning,
extremity and types of deformity. As for the monstrous races mentioned
earlier, it was noted that their lack of a head, the prime physical indicator of
the possession of a soul, raised questions as to their correct categorization
as humans. As humans, they do not make sense. Would even God have
gone that far?
Deviations caused by the human mind are viewed with considerable
distrust. Pre-birth impressions are limited to women and females generally,
and are a sign of weakness – the ease with which their minds and bodies
can be overpowered – rather than an indication of an intellect whose power
rivals the creative deity’s. In the case of animals, indeed, the intellect of
man is involved, but the tone is critical: his cunning is directed towards
unnatural ends, the creation of species not ordained by God. As for Isi-
dore’s deity, He may be inscrutable in his creation of monstrosities, but the
undisciplined, wild frivolity suggested by Pliny’s natura happily creating
ludibria for herself seems far removed from the Christian’s ultimately rather
serious divine plan.
This leads to a second, more specific, point about Isidore’s overall project:
for etymology to work, it requires a basis of rationality from which to derive
a word’s meaning. 41
However, not all words were established by the ancients from nature;
some were established by whim, just as we sometimes give names to
our slaves and possessions according to what tickles our fancy. Hence
it is the case that etymologies are not to be found for all words, because
some things received names not according to their innate qualities, but
by the caprice of human will.
41 On Isidore’s recognition of the limits of etymology as a methodology to promote understand-

ing, see Merrills, Isidore’s Etymologies, p. 311.
72 Mary Beagon
Non autem omnia nomina a veteribus secundum naturam inposita sunt,

sed quaedam et secundum placitum, sicut et nos servis et possessionibus
interdum secundum quod placet nostre voluntati nomina damus. Hinc
est quod omnium nominum etymologiae non reperiuntur, quia quaedam
non secundum qualitatem, qua genita sunt, sed iuxta arbitrium humanae
voluntatis vocabula acceperunt.42
According to Isidore, then, words which derive not from nature but from
human whim cannot have etymologies. In addition, Adam ‘conferred names
on all the animals, assigning a name to each one from its visible conforma-
tion according to the position in nature that it holds’ (12.1.1). 43 Humanity
may make the words, but God made the creatures. It is certainly not for
man to manipulate those natural conformations. 44 A deus ludens is not
an impossibility: the Christian creator in a sense sets the rules, and is the
ultimate arbiter of the ‘natural’, as Isidore himself says even more clearly in
Etym. 11.3.1: ‘the nature of everything is the will of the Creator’. 45 However,
it would make the task of revealing an overall logic in the world’s verbal
manifestation much more difficult. Caprice, either of man or God, would
seem to lie outside the concept of the Etymologies. Sporting with nature
undermines the natural order of etymology itself.
Works Cited
André, Jean, trans., and comm., Isidorus Hispaliensis: ‘Etymologiae’ XII (Paris: Les Belles Lettres,
1986).
Barney, Stephen. A., W.J. Lewis, J.A. Beach, and Oliver Berghof, trans., intro., and notes, The
Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, reprinted
with corrections 2010).
Beagon, Mary, Roman Nature: the Thought of Pliny the Elder (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).
Beagon, Mary, The Elder Pliny on the Human Animal: ‘Natural History’ Book 7 (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 2005).
Beagon, Mary, ‘Situating Nature’s Wonders in Pliny’s Natural History’, in Vita Vigilia est: Essays in
Honour of Barbara Levick, ed. Edward Bispham & Greg Rowe (London: Institute of Classical
Studies, 2007), pp. 19-40.
Bettenson, Henry, St. Augustine, City of God (Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, repr. 1984).
42 Etym.1.29.2-3. Trans. Barney et al., Etymologies, p. 55.

43 Trans. Barney et al., Etymologies, p. 247.
44 On the reinforcing of the relationship between humanity and God effected by the latter’s
giving the former permission to name the parts of creation and Isidore’s idea of language as a
symbol of a divinely-created reality see Laura Carlson, this volume, 215-218.
45 ‘Voluntas Creatoris cuiusque conditae rei natura sit’ (Etym. 11.3.1).
Boehringer, Sandra, ‘“Ces monstres de femmes” Topique des thaumata dans les discours sur
l’homosexualité féminine aux premiers siècles de notre ère’, in Conceptions et représentations
de l’extraordinaire dans le monde antique, ed. Olivier Bianchi et Olivier Thévenaz, Actes
du colloque international Lausanne, 20-22 mars 2003 (Bern: Peter Lang, 2004), pp. 75-98.
Boucé, Paul-Gabriel, ‘Imagination, Pregnant Women and Monsters in Eighteenth-Century
England and France’, in Sexual Underworlds of the Enlightenment, ed. G.S. Rousseau & R.
Porter (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987), pp. 86-100.
Brisson, Luc, Sexual Ambivalence: Androgyny and Hermaphroditism in Graeco-Roman Antiquity,
trans. Janet Lloyd (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 2002).
Campbell, Gordon Lindsay, Lucretius on Creation and Evolution (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2003).
Campbell, Gordon Lindsay, Strange Creatures: Anthropology in Antiquity (London: Duckworth,
2006).
Fontaine, Jacques, ed., Isidore de Seville: ‘Traité de la Nature’ (Bordeaux: Féret, 1960).
Friedman, John Block, The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Thought (Syracuse: Syracuse
University Press, 1981, new edition 2000).
Garland, Robert, Deformity and Disability in the Graeco-Roman World (London: Duckworth, 1995).
Gasti, Fabio, ed., trad. e comm., Isidoro di Seviglia: ‘Etimologie libro XI de homine et portentis’
(Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2010)
Gourevitch, Danielle, ‘Se mettre à trois pour faire un bel enfant, ou l’imprégnation par le regard’,
L’évolution psychiatrique, 52, no. 2 (1987), pp. 559-563.
Hagendahl, Harald, Augustine and the Latin Classics (Göteborg: Almquist & Wiksell, 1967).
Harris, Henry, Things Come to Life: Spontaneous Generation Revisited (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2002).
Hayward, Robert, ed., trans., and comm., Saint Jerome’s ‘Hebrew Questions on Genesis’ (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1995).
Inwood, Brad, The Poem of Empedocles: a Text and Translation, with an Introduction, revised
edition, Phoenix Supplementary Vol. 39 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001).
Jacob, Christian, ‘De l’art de compiler á la fabrication du merveilleux. Sur la paradoxographie
grecque’, Lalies, 2 (1983), 121-140.
Maire, Brigitte,’L’imprégnation par le regard ou l’influence des “simulacres” sur l’embryon’, in
Conceptions et représentations de l’extraordinaire dans le monde antique, ed. Olivier Bianchi
& Olivier Thévenaz, Actes du colloque international Lausanne, 20-22 mars 2003 (Bern: Peter
Lang, 2004), pp. 279-294.
Merrills, A.H., ‘Isidore’s Etymologies: on Words and Things’, in Encyclopaedism from Antiquity
to the Renaissance, ed. J. König and G. Woolf (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013),
pp.301-324.
Oroz Reta, José, ‘Présence de Pline dans les Etymologies de saint Isidore de Séville’, Helmantica,
38 (1987), pp. 295-306.
Park, Katharine, and Lorraine Daston, ‘Unnatural Conceptions: The Study of Monsters in Six-
teenth- and Seventeenth-Century France and England’, Past and Present, 92 (1981), pp. 20-54.
Park, Katharine, and Lorraine Daston, Wonders and the Order of Nature 1150-1750 (New York:
Zone Books, 1998).
Reeve, Michael D., ‘Conceptions’, PCPS, 215 (1989), pp. 81-112.
Romm, James S., The Edges of the World in Ancient Thought: Geography, Exploration and Fiction
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).
74 Mary Beagon
Schepens, G. and K. Delcroix, ‘Ancient Paradoxography: Origin, Evolution, Production and

Reception’, in La letteratura di consumo nel mondo greco-latino, ed. A. Pecere & A. Stramaglia,
Atti del convegno internazionale, Cassino, 14-17 settembre 1994 (Cassino: Università di
Cassino, 1996), pp. 373-460.
4 Putting the Pieces Back Together
Isidore and De Natura Rerum
Andrew Fear
The enormous achievement and success of Isidore of Seville’s Etymologies

has tended to eclipse the other works of this prolific author. Arguably the
most significant of these is his earlier and much smaller De Natura Rerum
(DNR) which comprises 48 short chapters, occupying a mere 55 columns
in the Patrologia Latina.1
The DNR is often known as the Liber Rotarum because of the six circular
diagrams with which it is illustrated. These are likely to be Isidore’s own as
the text makes reference to figurae or diagrams at the points where they
occur. Isidore can therefore be credited with popularising, if not devis-
ing, this standard mnemonic device of the Middle Ages which reached
its apogee in the works of his fellow Spaniard Ramon Llull.2 Four of the
diagrams contain an illustration of a human bust in the centre, a fact of some
significance, and a further diagram (that illustrating chapter 11) contains
the even more significant motto Homo Mundus Annus. The final chapter
of the De Natura Rerum, dealing with the parts of the world appears, like
chapter 14 of book 13 of the Etymologies, to have been illustrated with a
T-O map, again popularising this way of envisaging the world which was to
remain dominant in the medieval imagination. The best-known example
in Britain is the mappa mundi found in Hereford cathedral.3
Though slight, the DNR became a standard point of reference and copies
of the work spread across all of Western Europe and had a powerful influ-
ence on later writers, setting a template for discussion in this field. Bede’s
homonymous De Natura Rerum owes much to Isidore’s DNR, as do books
9-11 of Hrabanus Maurus’s encyclopaedia De Universo.4 The work itself is
composed in four sections. It begins with seven chapters of hemerology, the
science of the measurement of time, a topic which remained a particular
1 PL 83 963-1018. The best modern edition is that of Fontaine, which also contains a translation
into French. The work has also been translated into Italian by Trisoglio. For the work’s diffusion,
see Fontaine, ‘La diffusion carolingienne du De Natura Rerum’.
2 See Bonner, The Art and Logic of Ramon Llull and Fiodora and Rubio, Raimundus Lullus.
3 See Harvey, Mappa Mundi and Kline Maps of Medieval Thought.
4 Bede, see the discussion in Kendal and Wallis who also provide an English translation.
Habranus: PL 111 257-330, translated into English by Throop.
76 Andrew Fear
concern of Isidore’s throughout his life: the subject is also discussed at

length in the Etymologies. These chapters deal mainly with definitions of
certain lengths of time, beginning with the day (on the grounds that this is
what makes creation and its order visible) and in particular the question of
when it begins.5 Surprisingly Isidore is not dogmatic about this question – he
lists a variety of different starting points, but gives no firm conclusion
as to which is preferable. However, from the diagram accompanying the
discussion, it appears that his own preference was for the ‘Egyptian’ system
of calculating the day from dusk to dusk. After dealing with the day, Isidore
goes on to the definitions of ever-longer periods of time ending with the
year. Hemerology is followed by twenty chapters of astronomy, which in
turn give way to nine chapters on meteorology.6 These deal with phenomena
such as thunder, lightning, and rain, followed in their turn by a section on
miscellaneous natural phenomena such as the flooding of the Nile and the
eruptions of Mount Etna. The work was then probably brought to a close
with a concluding chapter which deals with the divisions of the world.7
Some of the DNR’s legacy in retrospect cannot be evaluated positively.
The T-O map found at its end, implying, as it does, that the earth was flat,
left a mixed blessing.8 Moreover, the notion of a flat earth runs throughout
the work. Chapter 10 deals with the ‘five circles’, quinque circuli, of the Earth.
At this point Isidore is giving a version of the zonal theory derived from
Hyginus’s De Astronomica.9 Hyginus’s zones were so named as they girdled
a spherical earth. However, in his explanation of Hyginus’s ideas, Isidore
has applied the theory of zones to an underlying conception of a flat earth
which the sun passes on one side. This perversely means that the Arctic
and Antarctic zones are placed adjacent to one another as they have both
to be located on the side of the earth opposite to that passed by the sun.
While educated society in the early medieval world believed that the earth
5 The latter has implications for the monastic day and the time of creation. See for example
the conclusions of Archbishop Ussher in 1658: ‘In the beginning God created Heaven and Earth,
Gen. 1, v. 1. Which beginning of time, according to our Chronologie, fell upon the entrance of
the night preceding the twenty third day of Octob[er] in the year of the Julian [Period] 710. The
year before Christ 4004. The Julian Period 710.’
6 See McCluskey, Astronomies and Cultures, pp. 123-6, 145-7.
7 Fontaine argues that this chapter only appeared with the second recension of the work,
but see the discussion by McCready, ‘Isidore, the Antipodeans, and the Shape of the Earth’, esp.
n.35.
8 See Brehaut, An Encyclopedist of the Dark Age, pp.49-50, Destombes, ‘Newton’s Commentary
on the Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus’ and McCready, ‘Isidore, the Antipodeans, and
the Shape of the Earth’. For a contrary viewpoint see Stevens, ‘The Figure of the Earth’.
9 Hyginus, De Astronomica 1.6.
Put ting the Pieces Back Toge ther 77
was a sphere – this, for example, was the view of Bede – the popularity of
the DNR may well have led to a continuing and widespread ‘semi-educated’
view that the world was flat. This notion may have been equally perpetuated
by Isidore’s sarcastic rejection of the antipodes found in the Etymologies.10
The DNR was therefore a great success, to the benefit or detriment of
mankind, but what prompted Isidore to write the work in the first place?
The piece is often referred to as a ‘text-book’; 11 however, though Isidore
was greatly concerned with improving education – the Etymologies, for
example, has often been seen precisely as a handbook for educating the
contemporary priesthood – there is no reason to believe that this was his
intention when writing the DNR. The work may well have taken on this
role in later years given its concise nature and its heavy use by the Church
Fathers, but nothing in it makes any reference to education being the initial
motive for its composition.
Rather, according to its preface, the work was a direct product of a royal
command, having been commissioned by the Visigothic king, Sisebut (612-
620). Caution needs to be exercised before accepting such a claim, as it
could simply be an attempt by the bishop to increase his readership and
add lustre to the work. However, here there do seem to be grounds to accept
that the king did indeed ask Isidore to write such a work. Isidore’s letters to
his colleague Braulio of Saragossa, where he implies that he is a confidant of
the king 12, provide some tenuous support, but Sisebut’s own poem on solar
and lunar eclipses, dedicated to Isidore and thanking him for composing
the DNR, seems conclusive.13
When addressing Sisebut in the preface to the DNR, Isidore says that
although his king already rejoices in intelligence, eloquence, and is an able
writer in a variety of genres (as well as poetry, Sisebut wrote hagiography 14),
he has nevertheless commissioned the DNR because he wished to have
10 Etym. 9.2.133.
11 See, for example, Stevens, ‘The Figure of the Earth’, p. 268.
12 Braulio, Ep. 4 and 6.
13 For an edition of this poem see Fontaine, Isidore de Séville: Traité de la Nature, pp. 328-35.
The king’s dedication to Isidore can be found in lines 166-169.
14 17-21: ‘ipse enim mihi dedit horum quae sunt scientiam veram ut sciam dispositionem orbis
terrarum et virtutes elementorum, initium et consummationem et medietatem temporum et
meditationem omnium morum mutationes et divisiones temporum, anni cursus et stellarum
dispositiones, naturas animalium et iras bestiarum vim ventorum et cogitationes hominum
differentias arborum et virtutes radicum, et quaecumque sunt absconsa et inprovisa didici
omnium enim artifex docuit me sapienta’. The king was the author of the short Vita et Passio S.
Desiderii = PL 80 377-384.
78 Andrew Fear
further knowledge: knowledge without which ‘that famous wise king’ could
never have said,
‘For he hath given me certain knowledge of the things that are, namely,
to know how the world was made, and the operation of the elements.
The beginning, ending, and midst of the times: the alterations of the
turning of the sun, and the change of seasons. The circuits of years, and
the positions of stars’.
The wise king here is Solomon, and Isidore’s quotation is drawn from the
Wisdom of Solomon. Solomon was certainly held up as a model ruler in
the early medieval period and we could therefore see DNR as part of a
propaganda campaign by the king to be acknowledged as the new Solomon,
and hence the ideal ruler, of Spain.
However, it is not without significance that Isidore’s quotation from the
Wisdom is carefully edited. In full the passage in Wisdom goes on to speak of:
The natures of living creatures and the furies of wild beasts: the violence
of winds, and the reasonings of men: the diversities of plants and the
virtues of roots, and all such things as are either secret or manifest.15
None of this latter wisdom features in the DNR. Isidore’s selective quotation
is obviously to his advantage as it connects his work more firmly with
Solomon, but it also casts some light on the circumstances of the DNR’s
genesis. Isidore, and perhaps his monarch, seem more concerned about the
propagation of some sorts of knowledge than others. At the time of writing
there appears to have been a recrudescence in the peninsula of heresy
centred on astronomical phenomena. Braulio, when writing to Fructuosus
of Braga in AD 651, speaks about the dangers of Priscillianism as if it was a
living threat to the church.16 Priscillian, an extreme ascetic, who enjoyed
the dubious distinction of being the first Christian to be executed by an
Orthodox Christian emperor, was, and remains, a controversial figure,
but astrology, rightly or wrongly, featured strongly in the reasons for his
execution.17 Whether Priscillian’s cult had survived some two hundred and
15 Wisdom of Solomon 7.17-21. Isidore cites only verses 17-19.

16 Braulio, ep. 44.
17 Priscillian was executed in AD 385 by the usurper Magnus Maximus. His guilt remains
doubtful and various respectable ascetics, most notably Martin of Tours, urged Magnus to
acquit him. For modern studies see Chadwick, Priscillian of Avila and Cabrera, Estudios sobre
el Priscilianismo en la Galicia Antigua.
fifty years is certainly open to doubt, but it is plausible that ‘Priscillian-

ism’ was used as a portmanteau term for astronomical/astrological-based
heresies and that Braulio’s concerns were genuine.18 Sisebut was a deeply
pious ruler and the existence, or indeed the growth, of heresy in his realm
is likely to have been a cause for personal concern as well as a potential
political threat to his rule.19
The probable date of the poem suggests that there may well have been
another, much more pressing, set of reasons for the king to commission
the DNR. Its composition is best dated to the very beginning of Sisebut’s
reign. This can be seen from the fact that the king’s own poem on eclipses,
written to thank Isidore for the DNR, refers to his campaigns in the north
of the peninsula against the Basques and Cantabrians.20 The Chronicle of
the Pseudo-Fredegar places these campaigns before those Sisebut waged
against the Byzantines.21 As these date to AD 615-616, the DNR must predate
Sisebut’s northern actions and the first year of Sisebut’s reign, AD 612, seems
not unreasonable for the composition of the DNR.
This had been a time of alarming phenomena in Spain. In AD 611 there
had been two total eclipses of moon visible in the peninsula which would
have turned the moon red, and on 2nd August in the same year a total eclipse
of the sun occurred. This was visible in the peninsula and its line of totality
may have fallen just to the north of Visigothic capital Toledo.22 The obvious
response to such matters at the time would have been to turn to the Bible for
solace. What Sisebut’s subjects would have found there, however, is likely to
have given cold comfort to them or to their king. According to chapter six
of Revelation such eclipses presaged the beginning of the end of the world:
And I beheld when he had opened the sixth seal, and, lo, there was a
great earthquake; and the sun became black as sackcloth of hair, and
the moon became as blood.23
18 For a possible parallel, see the use of ‘Pelagian’ in early medieval Ireland, O’Croinin, ‘New
heresy for old’.
19 See Hen, ‘A Visigothic king in search of an identity’.
20 usque nivosus cum teneat Vasco nec parcat Cantaber horrens.
21 Ps.Fredegar, Chronicon 4.7 (ed. Wallace-Hadrill, The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar).
22 This is the view of Fontaine, Isidore de Séville: Traité de la Nature, p. 5. For his information
Fontaine drew on Oppolzer, Canon der Finsternisse, a list of historical eclipses. However, recent
calculations by NASA suggest that the line of totality in fact lay in the Algarve rather than central
Spain.
23 Revelation, 6.12.
80 Andrew Fear
These signs lead to the collapse of all earthly kingdoms with their rulers
fleeing in terror:
And the kings of the earth, and the great men, and the rich men, and the
chief captains, and the mighty men, and every bondman, and every free
man, hid themselves in the dens and in the rocks of the mountains; And
said to the mountains and rocks, Fall on us, and hide us from the face of
Him that sitteth on the throne, and from the wrath of the Lamb: For the
great day of His wrath is come; and who shall be able to stand?
Obviously, Sisebut had a strong personal interest in ensuring that his sub-
jects did not see this passage as applying to the present, and in Isidore, who
was extremely hostile to millenarian speculation, he found the ideal scholar
to write a work ensuring that such pernicious notions did not spread.24
Isidore’s strategy to deal with these problems was to take a rationalising
approach to remove any aura of mystery from the heavens or phenomena
such as earthquakes or eclipses. The title of his work and its opening
statement that his king wished to know about ‘nature’ and its ‘causes’ are
themselves an act of persuasive definition, insisting that what is to be
described forms part of the normal order of things, natura, and is not a
set of supernatural signs or warnings from God. We are told firmly that
the workings of nature can be perfectly well explained by ‘sober, sensible
teachings’ and have nothing to do with ‘superstitious knowledge’.25 This is
a perfectly orthodox approach. Augustine taught that both Scripture and
science were of equal authority, and must always be interpreted so that
they are in agreement. Because of that, the Bible had to be interpreted
consistently with the natural world.26 Isidore effectively is presenting the
opposite side of the same argument – the natural world must be regarded
as in accord with the Bible. In his Etymologies we see him taking the same
attitude when dealing with human prodigies, another phenomenon that
caused much alarm in antiquity. There he notes that while pagans call such
things ‘contrary to nature’, this cannot be the case as they must be part of
24 Isidore’s hostility to millenarian speculation can be seen at the end of the small chronicle
that he inserts into the Etymologies. According to this his contemporaries were in the sixth age
of man whose duration was known to God alone, ‘Residuum sextae aetatis tempus Deo soli est
cognitum’. Etym. 5.39.42. For a discussion of millenarianism, see Landes, ‘Lest the Millennium
be fulfilled’.
25 ‘Neque enim earum rerum naturam noscere superstitiosa scientia est, si tantum sana
sobriaque doctrina considerentur’, DNR, Praef. 2.
26 St. Augustine, On the Literal Meaning of Genesis (=PL 34:245-486), sv Gen. 2.18.
God’s creation and hence part of the divine plan. As such, prodigies are not
contrary to nature, but only contrary to nature as it is known to man.27
In taking this approach towards his brief, Isidore was adapting to his own
very different ends the technique that the pagan poet Lucretius had used for
the same purpose some seven centuries before. Lucretius was well-known
in Isidore’s day. Sisebut’s poem on eclipses makes heavy use of his De Rerum
Natura and Isidore too discusses at length, and with some sympathy, the
theory of atomism in his Etymologies.28 As the title of his work, De Natura
Rerum, shows, Isidore was a conscious imitator of Lucretius whose work
was entitled De Rerum Natura. The title of the DNR is most unlikely to have
been a post eventum creation as it is found in the renotatio Isidori, a list of
Isidore’s works compiled by his near contemporary Braulio of Saragossa.
At first sight, Lucretius seems an ideal ally for Isidore. He too had wished
to dispel the belief that various natural phenomena were divinely inspired
through applying rationality to the natural world.29 He was also, as were
Isidore and the Visigothic Church, deeply opposed to attempts to consult
the supernatural through systems of divination. This was an enduring
problem for the Church as can be seen by the fierce condemnation of the
practice at the 4th Council of Toledo held under Isidore’s supervision at the
end of AD 633.30
Fontaine portrays Isidore in the DNR as drawing on Lucretius and other
pagan sources, along with the Church Fathers, most notably Ambrose’s
work on the creation, the Hexameron, to produce a synthesis of pagan and
Christian learning to make his case:
27 ‘Portentum ergo fit non contra naturam sed contra quam est nota natura.’ Etym. 11.3.1-2.
See also Beagon in this collection.
28 Etym. 13.2.
29 hunc igitur terrorem animi tenebrasque necessest
non radii solis neque lucida tela diei
discutiant, sed naturae species ratioque.
‘So this terror of mind and darkness must be dispelled not by the rays of the sun or the bright
shafts of daylight, but by observation and the laws of nature.’ Lucretius, DRN 1.146-8.
30 ‘Si episcopus quis, aut presbyter, sive diaconus, vel quilibet ex ordine clericorum, magos
aut aruspices aut ariolos aut certe augures vel sortilegos vel eos qui profitentur artem aliquam,
aut aliquos eorum similia exercentes, consulere fuerit deprehensus, ab honore dignitatis suae
depositus, monasterii poenam excipiat, ibique perpetuae poenitentiae deditus scelus admissum
sacrilegii luat.’ ‘If any bishop, priest, deacon, or anyone of the ordained clergy has been caught
consulting mages, soothsayers, diviners, or indeed augurs or casters of lots or those who profess
an art of this sort or others who exercise a similar arts, after being deposed from his rank, he
will receive the penalty of being sent to a monastery and given perpetual penance to atone for
his open sin of sacrilege’. Canon 29.
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‘Le merite de Isidore est d’avoir voulu égalment utiliser ces auteurs
chrétiens et ces sources antiques.’
It is to Isidore’s credit that he wished to use Christian authors and ancient
sources.
He goes on to argue that the work has another important intellectual aspect
– the conscious separation of secular and theological learning:
‘Isidore est soucieux de laisser à l’ordre rationnel et à l’ordre mystique

leurs domains respectifs.’
Isidore is concerned to leave the rational order and the spiritual order in
their respective domains.
But, on reflection, it is difficult to maintain either of these positions. As we

shall see, Isidore does not give equal weight to his Christian and secular
sources nor can he be viewed as an early champion of granting secular
learning its own domain, still less as seeing it as an equal partner to reli-
gious speculation. In fact the reverse is the case. While it is noticeable that
Isidore’s magnum opus, the Etymologies, begins not with divine learning,
as was common with medieval encyclopaedists, but a description of the
fields of secular learning, it is also the case that he sees this learning as
useful only if it is applied to religious endeavours. In the Etymologies the
canonical seven subjects of classical education are portrayed as those which
free the mind from worldly care and lead it to higher things.31 In another
work, the Sententiae, Isidore, who had made a deep personal intellectual
investment in the study of grammar and closely related subjects, strik-
ingly compares grammarians to heretics. We are told that grammar is only
better than heresy on the grounds that while the latter is always fatal,
grammar can lead to salvation, if its teachings are refocused on better,
i.e. religious, themes.32 The bishop’s attitude to the study of the natural
31 Etym. 3.71.41: Ordo autem iste septem saecularium disciplinarum ideo a Philosophis usque
ad astra perductus est, scilicet ut animos saeculari sapientia implicatos a terrenis rebus abducer-
ent, et in superna contemplatione conlocarent. ‘This order of seven secular disciplines is thus
drawn from the philosophers up to the stars so that they might draw minds entangled in secular
learning from earthly affairs and set them to the contemplation of higher things.’ Etym. 3.71.41.
32 Meliores esse grammaticos quam haereticos. Haeretici enim haustum lethiferi succi
hominibus persuadendo propinant, grammaticorum autem doctrina potest etiam proficere
ad vitam, dum fuerit in meliores usus assumpta. ‘Grammarians are better than heretics. For
heretics, while the learning of the grammarians can lead to life, providing that it is taken up
for better purposes.’ Sententiae 13.11.
world was identical. Ignorance for Isidore is the mother of all evil.33 In the
natural sciences it could easily lead to precisely the sorts of superstitious
beliefs he detested. But while knowledge of the natural world would dispel
such superstitions, if it was not correctly appreciated, like grammar, it
could damn the soul in different, but equally deadly, ways. Lucretius was
especially dangerous in this respect as his false views were presented in
the seductive medium of poetry.34
Isidore’s quarrel with Lucretius was one of ideology. The Roman poet had
been an avowed Epicurean and Epicurus is praised throughout his poem.
At times Epicureanism had been quarried with profit by early Christian
authors: its ridicule of pagan religion was welcome, as was its insistence
that this world will pass away.35 Jerome praises Epicurus’s advice to remain
celibate and his championing of a simple diet.36 Nevertheless these Chris-
tian uses of Epicureanism were merely opportunistic: beneath them lay a
sustained hostility towards the philosopher and his devotees as, undeserved
though it was, Epicurus had long had an unenviable reputation in antiquity
for promoting debauchery and atheism.37 According to Augustine, carnal
pleasure, corporis voluptas, was the Epicureans’ highest good,38 and Epicurus
is also attacked as a champion of sensual excess by other influential late
antique authors such as Martianus Capella39 and Boethius. 40 The charge of
atheism served to blacken Epicureanism’s reputation still further. While
in fact Epicureans like Lucretius were deists rather than atheists, this was
of little help. 41 No Christian could accept the contention that God did not
create the world, had no care for what happened in it, or that the world
33 Ignorantia mater omnium errorum et ignorantia vitiorum nutrix … Indoctus facile decipitur.
‘Ignorance is the mother of all error, the nurse of the vices ... the uneducated man is easily
deceived’, Synonyma 2.65.
34 Isidore had a strong dislike of pagan poets: ‘Superficially the disquisitions of the gentiles
glisten with the eloquence of their words, but within they are devoid of the wisdom of virtue,
whereas superficially sacred eloquia seems inept in the way they are composed, within they
gleam with the wisdom of the mysteries. It was for this reason, the Apostle said: “This treasure
we possess in vessels of clay.”‘ Gentilium dicta exterius verborum eloquentia nitent, interius vacua
virtutis sapientia manent; eloquia autem sacra exterius incompta verbis apparent, intrinsecus
autem mysteriorum sapientia fulgent. Unde et Apostolus: Habemus, inquit, thesaurum istum in
vasis fictilibus, Sententiae 3.13.3. The quotation is from 2 Corinthians 4. 7
35 Lucretius, DRN 5.92-96.
36 Jerome, Contra Jovinianum 1.48 and 2.11.
37 See for example, Cicero, De Natura Deorum 1.123.
38 Augustine, Civitas Dei 14.2, ‘summum bonum hominis in corporis uoluptate posuerunt.’
39 Martianus Capella, De Nuptiis philolodiae et Mercurii et de Septem Artibus Liberalibus 2.213.
40 Boethius, De Consolatione Philosophiae 3 prosa 2.
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contained no message for mankind. 42 Still less would the Epicurean notion
that there was no afterlife have been acceptable – Isidore does not think it
even worthy of refutation. While Lucretius is keen to remove the fears of
hell by demonstrating that death brings a final end, for the early Church
Fathers the hope of reaching heaven and the fear of descending to hell were
an important part of the Christian message. 43 Finally, it is inconceivable that
Lucretius’s anthropology as expounded in book five of the De Rerum Natura
arguing that religion has evolved as a product of ignorance about natural
events could have been smiled upon by Isidore. 44 Given these problems, we
can see that any alliance between the church and philosopher was merely
one of convenience as their core beliefs are quite antithetical to one another.
St Ambrose, a favourite author of Isidore, was happy to term his ecclesiasti-
cal opponents ‘Epicureans’, 45 and Isidore himself attacks Epicurus in the
Etymologies as a lover of vanitas not sapientia and as asserting that pleasures
of the flesh are the greatest good. The bishop notes with satisfaction that
because of this ‘even [pagan] philosophers have named him “the pig”.’46
Above all for Lucretius nature is an entirely discrete field of study. The
world needs no explanation other than itself: it was not created for a purpose
nor does it serve a purpose. It is ignorance of these facts and the consequent
rise of religion which has led to human misery, while the realisation of this
truth leads to human happiness. Lucretius’s work begins with a paean of
42 Lucretius takes the classical line that there can be no creation ex nihilo: ‘nil igitur fieri de nilo
posse fatendumst’ It must be admitted that nothing can come into being from nothing – DRN
1.205. See also DRN 5.187-194. Isidore would have been equally enraged by the preceding passage
which argues that the world was not made for the benefit of mankind, in clear contradiction to
Genesis. The Christian position that the world was indeed created ex nihilo by God is found in
Ambrose’s Hexameron (1.16; 4.31), a work on which Isidore draws heavily in the DNR and is stated
by Augustine, Confessions 11.5.7. The insistence on this doctrine is found as early as Irenaeus,
AH 3.10.3.
43 See Augustine, Ep.104.3. In contrast Lucretius, De Rerum Natura 3.1023, declares hell exists
only in the mind of fools. The anonymous seventh century Spanish author of the Lives of the
Meridan Fathers (ch. 9) takes care to inform his readers that the deceased Arian king Leovigild
is now ‘subjected to peterpetual torments and eternally enslaved in the depths of hell, rightly
bound down there to burn forever amidst the ever-seething waves of pitch’.
44 Lucretius, DRN 5.925-1457, esp. 1186-1240.
45 Ambrose, Ep.63. Ambrose wanted to influence the election of the bishop of Vercellae. The
supporters of an alternative candidate, Sarmatio and Barbatian, are characterised as ‘Epicureans
– not a school of philosophers, as they themselves say, but of unlearned men who preach pleasure,
persuade to luxury, esteem chastity to be of no use’.
46 Isidore’s discussion of Epicureanism is found at Etym. 8.6.15-16.
praise to Epicurus for revealing this and thus crushing religion under foot. 47
Book six of the De Rerum Natura from which the bulk of the topics in the
DNR is drawn begins with another similar encomium of Epicurus. 48 These
are the conclusions from the study of nature which Isidore is anxious that
his readers should avoid. For him it would be pointless to avoid the scylla
of superstition merely to fall into the charybdis of atheism.
As Lucretius was well known in Visigothic Spain, 49 Isidore chose to
confront the dangers he posed head on. By its title his book throws down a
challenge to the Roman author. The De Natura Rerum is intended to replace
its rival, the De Rerum Natura. To do this Isidore focuses not on Lucretius’s
methodology, which he found acceptable, but rather its conclusions.50 For
Isidore, Lucretius is right that a wrong-headed view of natural phenomena
causes misery, but conceding this does not equally grant that a secular
approach is the correct solution to interpreting nature. In contrast to
Lucretius, Isidore was convinced that the natural sciences could not be
divorced from an understanding of the divine, indeed he held that this
could only be done through an act of deliberate perversity. Isidore’s world
is a source of natural theology which allows the faithful believer to discern
and confirm all around him God’s purpose and will. Therefore Lucretius
had missed the main point as to why man should contemplate nature and
had probably done so wilfully. In his later Sententiae, Isidore, speaking of
the matters found in the DNR, complains bitterly: ‘The philosophers of this
world speak a lot about the measurement of time, the course of the stars,
and the movement of the elements. But they only have this information
from God. Flying conceitedly like birds, they describe the air; plunging
themselves into the depths like fish, the sea, and walking like herds, the
land, but verily they have been unwilling to learn about their creator with
all their mind.’51 He continues: ‘The Way is Christ. Whoever does not walk
in it, will by no means come to God. So the philosophers of this world,
47 Lucretius, DRN 1.62-79, esp 68-9

quare religio pedibus subiecta vicissim
opteritur, nos exaequat victoria caelo.
‘Wherefore in its turn religion is crushed beneath our feet and our victory raises us to the
heavens’.
49 See the apparatus to Fontaine’s edition (Isidore de Séville: Traité de la Nature) and Riché,
Education and Culture in the Barbarian West.
50 For example, Isidore seems attracted by the Epicurean theory of atomism, but only with
the modification that the ‘swerve’ of atoms is produced by divine will and not at random.
51 Multum mundi philosophi praedicantur in dimensione temporum, cursuque siderum, ac
discussione elementorum; et tamen hoc non nisi a Deo habuerunt. Volando enim superbe, ut
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indeed recognise God, but, because the humility of Christ does not find
favour with them, they cross into where there is no way and do not walk
in the Way. And so as they melted away, they twisted the glory of the Lord
into lies, and, abandoning the righteousness of the Way, have fallen into
the morass of error.’52 In his introduction to the DNR Isidore speaks of the
need to use sober doctrina, or learning, to interpret the natural world, but
also of the ‘true knowledge’, scientia vera, which was given to Solomon to
understand these things. It can be seen that for Isidore this true knowledge
was a contemplation of the natural world through the mediation of the
scriptures and faith. Contra Fontaine, Isidore does not reserve a place apart
for secular learning, but rather wishes to remove the possibility of such a
space. For him the natural scientist is on but the first rung of the ladder of
understanding and it is a perilous one, as partial apprehension of the truth
could easily blind the unwary to true knowledge. The De Natura Rerum
attempts therefore both to reject the wilder and, worryingly, politically
destabilising claims which some would read into natural phenomena, but
also to re-Christianise natural science in order to turn society away from
what Isidore saw as the equally wrong-headed secular approach to nature
found in Lucretius.
Part of this process of reclaiming nature for Christ is carried out by
the choice of authorities cited in the DNR. Lucretius, despite inspiring the
title of the work, is firmly relegated to a minor position in it and although
other pagan authors, both of prose and poetry, are cited by Isidore, they are
rarely the primary witnesses he chooses to produce for his readers. This is
a deliberate ploy by the bishop. According to Howard Jones, ‘Isidore is a
compiler, and Epicurus [in fact Lucretius] is just one line of ancient thinkers
whose opinion on various topics is to be recorded in order to render the
account as complete as possible’.53 But it is naive to see Isidore as a simple
collector of opinions and assert as does Jones that there is no sustained
engagement with Epicurean arguments in the DNR. Far from being the
casual act of a compiler, Isidore’s relegation of Lucretius in his text is a
conscious part of his strategy of re-Christianisation. He centres the bulk
of his arguments around quotations from the Church Fathers, especially
aves, aerem; et demergentes se in profundum, ut pisces, mare; et ut pecora gradientes, terram

descripserunt, verumtamen tota mente Auctorem eorum intelligere noluerunt, Sententiae 1.17.2.
52 Via Christus est. Si quis in ea non graditur, non est quomodo ueniat ad Deum. Philosophi
autem mundi utique Deum cognouerunt, sed quia displicuit illis humilitas Christi, in inuio
transierunt, et non in uia. Ideoque euanescentes, gloriam Dei in mendacio mutauerunt, et
rectitudinem uiae relinquentes, in anfractus inciderunt errorum, Sententiae 1.17.4.
53 Jones, The Epicurean Tradition, p.138.
St. Ambrose’s Hexameron, upon which he leans heavily, and passages from
the Old Testament. His intention is to assure his readers that Christian
learning is more than sufficient to explain the natural world. This message
is re-enforced by his use of quotations from pagan authors. These are pre-
dominantly used in a supporting rôle to buttress the material he has drawn
from the Church Fathers. This is not co-incidence or caprice. Isidore wishes
to show that while pagan authors may be of some use, their blindness to
the truth precludes them being major sources for understanding the world
and that, so far from having a distinct set of insights about the world, the
pagan past merely foreshadowed imperfectly the message of the Christian
revelation which brought complete understanding in its wake. As for all men
of his time, antiquity carried weight for Isidore, but true gravitas was to be
found among the Christian, not pagan, classics. In the preface to the DNR
Isidore makes this approach clear: ‘We have made a concise record of all
these matters according to what was written by men of old, and especially
according to what has been written in the works of Catholic authors’.54
A good example of Isidore’s technique can be seen in chapter 13 of the
DNR, which deals with the seven planets. His discussion starts with a refer-
ence to Ambrose’s hexameron, which in turn is a quotation from ‘David’, i.e.
the Psalms (here Psalm 148): ‘Praise him heavens of the heavens’. Isidore
then goes on to say that ‘pagan philosophers’ have introduced the notion
of seven heavens. Herein, he argues, lies their mistake, as in ‘the books of
the church’, ecclesiastici libri, we are told about ‘the heavens of heaven’
and also that St Paul was taken up to the third heaven, but it is folly, and,
perhaps, dangerous – Isidore speaks of temeritas, rashness – to speculate
further on the matter.55 A similar approach is taken to the question as to
whether stars have souls. Isidore again starts with patristic writing and
the Bible.56 A pagan source, Virgil, is then used to back up the conclusion
that this question will only be resolved on the Day of Judgement. Lucretius
in the DRN categorically denies the possibility of the stars being animate.
Isidore’s careful use of Virgil aims to show his readers that Lucretius was
out of step with learned opinion even in his own times.
Although the above examples show that Isidore was willing to use un-
certainty as a weapon to undermine the statements of pagan authors, he
54 ‘Quae omnia, secundum quod a veteribus viris, ac maxime sicut in litteris catholicorum
virorum scripta sunt, proferentes, brevi tabella notavimus,’ DNR, praef. 2.
55 For Paul’s journey see 2 Corinthians 12.1. This question is also debated at length by St
Augustine throughout book 12 of his On the Literal Meaning of Genesis.
56 St. Augustine, On the Literal Meaning of Genesis 2.18.38; Virgil, Aeneid 3.284 and 6.725-6.
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also attempts to create authority through certainty. Here the late antique
convention of brevitas comes to his aid.57 Isidore describes the DNR as a
short record, a brevis tabula, and concision is an important virtue for him,
but he is also able to use this notion to give the DNR an air of authority.
Often Lucretius is open-ended in his explanations of natural phenomena: he
gives, for example, several alternative accounts of the flooding of the Nile.58
Isidore, on the other hand, tends to give one, definitive explanation. In the
case of the Nile unfortunately he incorrectly settles on the Etesian winds
as the cause of the river’s flooding. This creation of certainty perhaps led
to the DNR becoming a basic textbook, but that was not the reason for the
change of approach. This was to allow Isidore once more to make a point
about the unreliability of pagan philosophy’s ability to explain the world.
Pagan doubt is replaced by Christian certainty. This seems all the more the
case when we ask why the flooding of the Nile or the eruptions on Etna are
found in the DNR’s miscellany at all. It could be argued that Lucretius had
created, or was already following, a canonical list of wonders and that it
was therefore inevitable that Isidore would engage with these. If that was
the case, we can see how Isidore turned the list to his advantage. Isidore,
however, does not deal with all the material found in Lucretius. There
is no mention, for example, of the ‘Avernian places’ on which Lucretius
spends so much time in the De Rerum Natura. We are left with a selection
of Lucretian material and once again this selection is deliberate, not capri-
cious. After all, Isidore could easily have replaced the flooding of the Nile,
which would have been of no immediate interest to his readership, with
more local phenomena, such as the tidal range in the Straits of Gibraltar,
which provoked considerable interest in antiquity.59 Isidore throws down
a deliberate challenge to Lucretius and shows him wanting. This is equally
true of the DNR’s account of Mount Etna which, despite Isidore’s protests of
brevity, provides more information about the physical reasons for volcanic
eruptions than is found in Lucretius’s account.60
Isidore therefore takes great care both to invoke Lucretius and to margin-
alise him depending on the context. The main difference, however, between
the two authors is not in the number or depth of the explanations of natural
phenomena they give, but rather in the style of explanation presented.
57 For Isidore and brevitas, see Wood, ‘Brevitas in the historical writings of Isidore of Seville’.
59 They provoked, for example, visits from the pagan wise man Apollonius of Tyana. See
Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 5.1-10.
60 Lucretius DRN 6.680-702.
Lucretius, following Epicurus, wished to show that nature was all that
exists, and that the supernatural was not merely an otiose, but an actively
pernicious delusion brought on by muddled thinking. For Isidore the reverse
is the case. Far from proving that there is no supernatural world, nature
allows us a glimpse into that world. Where Isidore feels that a naturalistic
explanation of phenomena will avert the problems of superstition associ-
ated with them, this is what the DNR gives. More often however the DNR
allegorises its subjects and makes a firm link between the natural and
supernatural. This approach is in sharp contrast to that later found in the
Etymologies, which shows no interest in allegorising its subject matter. But
this reveals a difference of purpose, not a change of intellectual approach.
In the Etymologies the words discussed are themselves allegories as their
roots reveal their true meaning.61
We can also see Isidore’s keen interest in allegorical exegesis from his
other works. His Allegoriae quaedam Sacrae Scripturae is an extended
exposition of allegories which he believes to be present in the Old Testa-
ment, while the Liber Numerorum qui in Sanctis Scripturis occurrunt deals
with the hidden significance of numbers occurring in the Bible. The DNR is
another instance of this interest. Through allegory our world and the true
heavenly world can be linked together and seen to be one whole. The DNR
reverses the message of the De Rerum Natura: Nature does not disprove,
but proves the existence of a world beyond it. It is partially explicable in its
own terms, but also yields a higher interpretation and it is this allegorical
explanation which is of greater value to the believer – something to which
the pagan philosophers’ pride has blinded them. This contrast is explicitly
pointed out in chapter 20 of the DNR which deals with solar eclipses. After
giving a naturalistic explanation of the eclipse, Isidore continues: ‘This
is what the physicists and the worldly-wise say. But our teachers say that
mystically the mystery of this eclipse finds its completion in Christ’, and
continues to give an exposition of the Passion.62 In chapter 15 of the DNR
after a naturalistic description of the sun, we are told: ‘This pertains to its
form, but according to a spiritual understanding (spiritualis intelligencia)
the sun is Christ, for as the sun gives light and blazes forth and fosters the
healthy at times of shade, but enflames those with fever with an inferno
of redoubled heat, so Christ illuminates the believers in the faith with his
61 Etym. 1.29.
62 Hoc physici et sapientes mundi dicunt. Caeterum doctores nostri mystice hujus eclipsis
mysterium in Christo dixerunt esse completum...
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living spirit, but roasts those who deny him in the heat of eternal fire’.63
Similarly in chapter 18, which deals with the moon, Isidore comments: ‘This
same Moon can be seen to symbolise the Church because just as she takes
her light from the sun, so the Church takes hers from Christ. And just as
the moon waxes and wanes so the Church has her low and high points’.64 By
an extension of the same allegory, lunar eclipses, which turn the moon red,
symbolise the persecutions of the church.65 The persecutions of the Church
are understood to be symbolised by the eclipse of the Moon.
Such interpretations are the doctrina sana and sapientia vera referred to
in the preface of the DNR. However Isidore’s world is not simply a theatre
of divine intentions – for as well as displaying how the cosmos has been
ordered by God, it also, being a model of man writ large, reveals how man
too is a product of intelligent design. In chapter 9 of the DNR Isidore notes
that the world ‘mundus’ signifies everything in heaven and earth, but that
‘in a mystic sense’ mundus signifies man, as he is composed of the four
elements that compose the world. The world is the κόσμος (cosmos), man the
μικρόκοσμος (microcosm). Isidore uses Greek script at this point and then
immediately glosses the latter phrase ‘that is he is called the smaller world’.66
Isidore therefore aligns himself with a Christianised version of the
Hermetic tradition which held that the earth was an accurate mirror of
the celestial world: ‘as above, so below’. He appears to have been the first
western scholar specifically to have used this Greek terminology. According
63 Haec quantum ad naturam eius pertinet – at vero iuxta spiritualem intellegentiam Sol Christus
est … item sol inluminat et exurit et opaco tempore confovet sanos, febricitantes vero flagrantia
geminati caloris incendit, ita Christus credentes fidei spiritu vegetante inluminat, negantes se
aeterni ingnis ardore torrebit.
64 eadem luna etiam ecclesia accipitur. pro eo quod sic ista a sole sicut ecclesia a Christo inlu-
minatur. sicut enim luna deficit atque crescit, ita ecclesia defectus habet et ortus.
65 Figuraliter autem per lunae defectum Ecclesiae persecutiones intelliguntur quando martyrum
caedibus et effusione sanguinis, tanquam illo defectu et obscuratione, quasi cruentam faciem
luna ostendere videtur, ut a nomine Christiano terreantur infirmi. Sed sicut ista post defectum
perspicua illustratione clarescit, adeo ut nihil detrimenti sensisse videatur, ita Ecclesia, postquam
per martyrum confessionem suum pro Christo sanguinem fuderit, majore fidei claritate refulget,
atque insigniori lumine decorata semetipsam latius in toto orbe diffundit. ‘Figuratively a lunar
eclipse is understood as symbolising the persecutions of the church when there was the slaughter
of the martyrs and an outpouring of blood, so when it gives way and is obscured the moon seems
to present a blood-red face that the feeble might be terrified by the name of Christ. But just as
after its eclipse it shines forth clearly with a clear light and is seen to have suffered no injury,
so the church after she has poured forth her bloody witness of the martyrs for Christ, shines
with a great light of faith and adorned with a more glorious light extends herself more broadly
across the whole world.’ DNR 21.
66 id est, minor mundus est appellatus.
to this interpretation of the world, Nature not only provides the proof that
all the world is an interconnected part of God’s design, but it also shows that
man is the key link between heaven and earth: the culmination of creation.
It is to emphasise this centrality of man to creation that the middle of four
of the circular diagrams found in the manuscripts of the DNR contain a
man’s bust at their centre and that a fifth, which shows the interconnection
of the four elements, the four seasons and the four ‘humours’ of man, bears
the hermetic motto drawn from Ambrose’s Hexameron – Mundus, Annus,
Homo – the world, the year, man.67
Isidore’s championing of this interconnected vision of creation was a
key moment in intellectual history. Though not of his devising, it was his
works, above all the DNR, that served to popularise and place this idea at
the centre of Western European thought well into the modern period, as
can be seen by its espousal by Sir Isaac Newton.68 The link it forged between
the heavenly and mundane was to ensure that the natural world remained
an important part of Western intellectual endeavours, albeit not in the
autonomous fashion envisaged by Fontaine. Moreover, as the power of
scientific positivism has waned in recent years, the potential of the work
to continue its influence on Western thought shows no sign of abating in
the near future.
Works Cited
Bonner, Anthony, The Art and Logic of Ramon Llull: A User’s Guide (Leiden: Brill, 2007).
Brehaut, Ernest, An Encyclopedist of the Dark Age (New York: Columbia University, 1912).
Cabrera, J., Estudios sobre el Priscilianismo en la Galicia Antigua (Granada: Universidad de
Granada, 1976).
Chadwick Henry, Priscillian of Avila: The Occult and the Charismatic in the Early Church (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1975).
Destombes, Marcel, Mappemondes AD 1200-1500 (Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1964).
Dobbs, Betty, J.T., ‘Newton’s Commentary on the Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus’ in
Ingrid Merkel and Allen G. Debus, Hermeticism and the Renaissance (Washington: Folger,
1988).
Dobbs, Betty, J.T., The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton’s Thought (Cambridge:
Fiodora, Alexander and Josep Rubio, Raimundus Lullus, An Introduction to His Life, Works and
Thought (Turnhout: Brepols, 2008).
67 Ambrose, Hexameron 3.4.18.

68 Bede, The notion is famously found in Isaac Netwon’s Alchemical Papers – Keynes MS. 28,
King’s College, Cambridge. See Dobbs, ‘Newton’s Commentary on the Emerald Tablet of Hermes
Trismegistus’ and Dobbs, The Janus Faces of Genius.
92 Andrew Fear
Fontaine, Jacques, Isidore de Séville: Traité de la Nature (Bordeaux: Féret et fils, 1960).
Fontaine, Jacques, ‘La diffusion carolingienne du De Natura Rerum d’Isidore de Séville d’après
les manuscrits conservés en Italie’, Studi Medievali 7 (1966), pp.108-27.
Harvey, Paul D.A., Mappa Mundi: The Hereford World Map (London: The British Museum and
Hereford Cathedral, 1996).
Hen, Yizak, ‘A Visigothic king in search of an identity – Sisebutus Gothorum gloriossisimus
princeps’, in Richard Corradini, Matthew Gillis, Rosamond McKitterick, and Irene Van
Renswoude, (eds.), Ego Trouble: Authors and Their Identities in the Early Middle Ages =
Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters 15 (Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der
Wissenschaften, 2010), pp. 89-99.
Jones, Howard, The Epicurean Tradition (New York and London: Routledge, 1989).
Kendall, Calvin B. and, Faith Wallis, Bede: On the Nature of Things and On Times = TTH 56
Kline, Naomi R., Maps of Medieval Thought (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2001).
Landes, Richard, ‘Lest the Millennium be fulfilled: Apocalyptic Expectations and the Pattern
of Western Chronography 100-800 CE’, in Werner Verbeke, Daniel Verhelst, and Andries
Welkenhuysen, eds., The Use and Abuse of Eschatology in the Middle Ages [Mediaevalia
Lovanensia Series I, 15], (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1988), pp. 137-211.
McCluskey, Stephen E. Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe (Cambridge: Cam-
McCready, William, ‘Isidore, the Antipodeans, and the Shape of the Earth’, Isis 87.1 (1996)
pp. 108-27.
O’Cronin, Daibhi, ‘“New heresy for old”: Pelagianism in Ireland and the papal letter of 640’,
Speculum 60 (1985), pp. 505-516.
Riché, Pierre. Education and Culture in the Barbarian West Sixth Through Eighth Centuries, trans.
J.J. Cotreni. (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1976).
Stevens, Wesley M., ‘The Figure of the Earth in Isidore’s “De Natura Rerum”‘, Isis 71.2 (1980)
pp. 268-277.
Throop, Priscilla, Hrabanus Maurus, De Universo: The Peculiar Properties of Words and Their
Mystical Significance (2 vols). (Charlotte, Vermont: Medieval MS, 2009).
Trisoglio, Francesco, Isidoro: La Natura delle Cose (Rome: Città Nuovo, 2001).
Ussher, James, The Annals of the Old Testament from the Beginnings of the World (London: E.
Tyler, 1658; reprinted Green Forest, Arizona: New Leaf Publishing, 2003).
von Oppolzer, Th. Ritter, Canon der Finsternisse (Wien: aus der Kaiserlich-Königlichen Hof- und
Staatsdruckerei in Commission bei K. Gerold, 1887).
Wallace-Hadrill, John Matthew, The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its Continuations
(Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1960).
Wood, Jamie, ‘Brevitas in the historical writings of Isidore of Seville’, in A. Deyermond and M.
Ryan, (eds.), Early Medieval Spain – A Symposium. Papers of the Medieval Hispanic Research
Seminar = Papers of the Medieval Hispanic Research Seminar 63 (London: Medieval Hispanic
Research Seminar, Queen Mary, University of London, 2010), pp. 37-53.
5 The Politics of History-Writing
Problematizing the Historiographical Origins of Isidore of
Seville in Early Medieval Hispania
Michael J. Kelly
Introduction
In a volume dedicated to exposing and critically exploring the reception

of Isidore of Seville (c. 560-636 AD1) and the complicated historiography
about him, what this chapter will do is take the reader back to the very ori-
gins of the historical memory of Isidore. It began in the year 636, in Seville,
when the illustrious bishop died and the first historical representation
of him was produced. This was followed by several other representations
from writers around Hispania. The intention of this chapter is not only
to introduce the reader to the inception of the written memory of Isidore,
but also to problematize the natures of these first-generation historical
representations. In so doing, the author shows that the long historiog-
raphy on Isidore began as competing constellations for the memory of
Isidore.2 There was never in pre-Islamic Iberia, a singular representation
of Isidore or agreement about the meaning and extent of his works or the
signif icance of his life. The differing accounts illustrate the vigor that
history-writing played in the f ierce struggles for authority endemic to
early medieval Hispania. They also demonstrate that any comprehensive
account of the reception of Isidore must begin by showing the disagree-
ments that characterized the original historiography of Isidore, which
was displaced in the generations after his death and outside his network
and kingdom.
1 All dates are AD unless otherwise noted.

2 For elaboration on the Schools debate and Isidore-moment see Michael J. Kelly, ‘Writing
History, Narrating Fulfillment: the “Isidore-Moment” and the Struggle for the “Before Now” in
‘Late Antique and Early Medieval Hispania’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Leeds,
2014).
94 Michael J. Kelly
First-Generation Historical Representations
There are four first-generation representations and historical accounts of

Isidore. The first is the praise obituary known as the Obitus Beati Isidori
written by Redemptus, a cleric at or near Seville. The text is from 636 and
is preserved in a problematic eighth-century manuscript at El Escorial
(R.II.14).3 The second account of Isidore is Braulio of Saragossa’s (590-651),
Renotatio Isidori a Braulione Caesaraugustano episcopo edita (Renotatio),
added to Isidore’s De Viris Illustribus (DVI), and three of his letters (Epis-
tolae), all of which are preserved in the ninth-century Toledan-Cordoban
manuscript, León Cathedral 22 (c. 830-839). 4 All that can be said of the
dating of the Renotatio is that it was written before Braulio’s death in 651.5
The forty-four letters in the collection were written over the course of two
decades and include letters to and from Isidore. Third is the second canon
of the Eighth Council of Toledo held in December 653, the oldest extant
versions of which come from ninth-century manuscripts.6 Finally, there is
the representation of Isidore in Ildefonsus of Toledo’s (c. 607-667) De Viris
3 For the edited text see Scripta de Vita Isidori Hispalensis Episcopi, ed. by Martín, or the older,
Obitus Beati Isidori, PL 81, cols. 30-32.
4 For the most current edition and elaborate discussions, including full manuscript details,
of the Renotatio, see Martín, La ‘Renotatio Librorum’, and Scripta de Vita Isidori Hispalensis
Episcopi, ed. by Martín. In general these are the editions to refer to for the Renotatio, which
Braulio may simply have titled, as a DVI chapter, Isidoro episcopo or Isidorus episcopus (Martín,
Renotatio, p. 56). For editions of the letters and the Renotatio see also PL 80, cols. 649-700 and PL
81, cols. 15-17, as well as the edition of Lynch and Galindo that also contains a reproduction of
the text of the León Cathedral 22 manuscript, San Braulio, Obispo de Zaragoza, ed. by Lynch &
Galindo. The León Cathedral 22 manuscript is a composition of two manuscripts from 830 and
839. The first was made in Toledo and the latter in Cordoba. The first may have been a copy of an
eighth-century exemplar. For a review of the bibliography of MS León Cathedral 22 see Scripta,
ed. by Martín, pp. 104-05. For translation and discussion of the letters see Barlow, Iberian Fathers
2, Braulio of Saragossa, pp. 15-112, and Miguel Franco, ‘Braulio de Zaragoza, el rey Chindasvinto
y Eugenio de Toledo’. For a recent translation of the Renotatio see The Etymologies of Isidore of
Seville, trans. by Barney, Lewish, Beach and Berghof, pp. 7-9, and for more information generally
see Martín, Renotatio, pp. 55-84 and 167-209, and de Aldama, ‘Indicaciones sobre la cronología
de las obras Isidorianas’.
5 On the date of Braulio’s death see Martín, La ‘Renotatio Librorum’, pp. 18-19.
6 Citations from and references directly to the collection of Spanish councils known as the
Hispana are all from, unless otherwise noted, the authoritative edition, La Colección Canónica
Hispana, ed. by Martínez Díez and Rodríguez, referred to hereafter simply as CCH. For a full
discussion of the manuscripts see CCH, VI (2002), pp. 12-15.
The Politics of History-Writing 95
Illustribus continuation, written around the middle of the 660s. The oldest
remaining copy of this text is in the manuscript León Cathedral 22.7
Redemptus: Obitus Beati Isidori
This short text of about seven hundred and fifty words is the obituary of
Isidore composed by a cleric named Redemptus. The account is based on
the first-hand experience of the clerics around Seville who knew Isidore the
most intimately, and were there for the last days of his life. This list includes,
notably, John, Bishop of Ilipla and Eparcius of Italica (both relatively near to
modern Seville). The Obitus Beati Isidori was the first posthumous account
of Isidore. The point of the short text is to announce Isidore’s death and to
demonstrate that he spent his last days honorably, in peace and in a proper
Catholic manner.8
Braulio: Epistolae, Renotatio and Isidore’s De Viris Illustribus
The three letters of Braulio that were written after Isidore’s death do not
provide a detailed narrative of Isidore’s life. They do, however, demonstrate
Braulio’s fidelity to the positive image of Isidore as an authority encountered
in the Obitus Beati Isidori. In letter 14, written to Fronimian, a priest near
the tomb of St. Aemelian, and perhaps the brother of Braulio, Isidore is
cited in regards to liturgical protocol.9 In another letter (22) to Eutropius, a
bishop near Zaragoza, Isidore is noted because of his authority on the date of
Easter. In letter 44, a response to Fructuosus (unknown-665), Braulio refers
to Isidore as an incomparable man of learning (incomparabilis scientiae
vir Isidorus), using him to prove a point concerning the age of the Biblical
Methusala. In addition to providing evidence of his support for Isidore,
7 For the text and discussion see Ildef., DVI, 8 (PL, 96, cols. 201-2), Fontaine, ‘El De Viris Il-
lustribus de San Ildefonsuo de Toledo’, Codoñer Merino, El ‘De Viris Illustribus’ de Ildefonsus de
Toledo, Ildefonsus Toletani Episcopi, ed. by Urquiola and Codoñer Merino, and Codoñer, ‘El libro
de ‘Viris Illustribus’ de Ildefonsus de Toledo’.
8 See Castillo Maldonado, La Época Visigótica en Jaén; Obitus B. Isidori a Redempto Clerico
recensitus, Variae lectiones ex mss. Codicibus, PL 81; Castillo Maldonado, ‘La Muerte de Isidoro
de Sevilla’, p. 596, Kampers, ‘Exemplarisches Sterben’.
9 That he was Braulio’s brother is a weak argument based on Braulio’s dedication of the Vita
S. Aemiliani to his ‘brother’ ( frater), Fronimian. On Braulio’s family see note 17. For an edited
version of the text see, PL 80, cols. 699-714, and for a translation see Lives of the Visigothic Fathers,
ed. and trans. by Fear, pp. 15-43.
96 Michael J. Kelly
recently it has been argued that the letter collection was arranged by Braulio
to advance a critical narrative about the monarchy in Toledo. This is consist-
ent with the wider use of historical representations for subtle, sustained
criticisms of the monarchy and others.10
The Renotatio of Braulio was added to Isidore’s De Viris Illustribus as a
continuation, and offers a much fuller account of Isidore’s life and character
than that in Braulio’s letters or in the obituary by Redemptus.11 The Renota-
tio tells when Isidore lived, [supposedly all of] the councils he attended, and
that he successfully fought heresy.12 Braulio also spends significant space
telling his readers that Isidore was an eloquent, intelligent and talented
orator, and a skilled and knowledgeable writer. Braulio even graces his
readers with an encomium to Isidore, quoted from Cicero, via Augustine’s
City of God (6.2).13
The most important feature of the Renotatio, however, is the list and short
explanation of each of Isidore’s works (missing a few small ones, Braulio
says). Braulio lists seventeen works by Isidore in an order that is gener-
ally accepted as chronological.14 The list goes from Differentiae, Proemia
(introductions to Holy Scripture), De Ortu et Obitu Patrum, [De] Origine[m]
Officiorum (known widely, and incorrectly, since at least 1534 as the De
Ecclesiasticis Officiis15) through his Sententiae, Chronicon (Chronicles), De
Origine Gothorum and his last work, the Origines (Etymologies). Braulio also
10 See Miguel Franco, ‘Braulio de Zaragoza’.

11 In lines 29-30 of the Renotatio, in the middle of the list and description of Isidore’s works,
Braulio adds, De viris inlustribus librum unum, cui nos ista subiunximus.
12 Isidore was at the Council of Gundemar in 610 and the Third Council of Seville in the 620s,
yet Braulio does not include either. The reasons for excluding them concern the memory of
Isidore that Braulio and perhaps his collection editor wanted to preserve. For discussion of
these councils see Chapter 4 of Kelly, ‘Writing History, Narrating Fulfillment’.
13 On the quote see Barlow, Iberian Fathers 2, Braulio of Saragossa, p. 10.
14 Since Aldama’s thesis, there have been challenges to the chronology of Braulio’s list, from
Jacques Fontaine to Pierre Cazier, the latest editor of Isidore’s Sententiae (Isidorus Hispalensis
Sententiae, ed. by Cazier). The most recent is that of Carlos Martín, in his edition and introduction
to the Renotatio. Carlos Martín admits that there are potential problems with the order of the
works, but that any alternative conclusions on the chronology should wait for reassessments
of each work and their respective manuscript transmissions. For the theses and arguments
see Martín, La ‘Renotatio Librorum’, pp. 74-84, Aldama, ‘Indicaciones sobre la cronología’, and
Fontaine, Isidore de Séville, pp 217 and 436.
15 See the introduction to the De Ecclesiasticis Officiis by Christopher Lawson who proves the
original name of De Origine Officiorum through extensive manuscript and contextual research,
Sancti Isidori Episcopi Hispalensis, ed. by Lawson. Carlos Martín maintains this naming of the
text in his edition of the Renotatio (Martín, La ‘Renotatio Librorum’, p. 260).
provides a short description of each work and tells the readers for whom
they were written.
Isidore’s De Viris Illustribus was written about the year 619. It was a
significant year in which he presided over the Second Council of Seville
and finished the first version of the De Origine Gothorum. It was also when
his pupil in Seville, Braulio, may have left Seville to return to Zaragoza.16
The year 619 is also when Bishop Maximus of Saragossa (c. 574-619) died,
and his successor John (unknown-631), the brother of Braulio,17 took over
the bishopric of Zaragoza.18 It was at that point – the end of Maximus and
the transfer of the bishopric to Braulio’s family, the point at which Braulio
himself may have returned to Zaragoza – that Isidore ended his DVI.19 In
so doing, Isidore tied the bishopric and city of Zaragoza, and the family of
Braulio in particular, to a list of illustrious Christian men. Furthermore, the
inclusion of Zaragoza in a list that proceeded through Pope Gregory I (c.
540-604) and Leander (c. 534-c. 600), Isidore’s own brother and predecessor
in Seville, connected Braulio’s family and the cities of Seville and Zaragoza
as twin spiritual centres. The allusion to the conversion of the kingdom to
build legitimacy for particular bishoprics is a literary device common in
seventh-century Hispania.
In his editing of the DVI, Braulio appropriately repaid the favor to Isidore
by supplying an addendum on Isidore to the DVI that continued the story
16 See Barlow, Iberian Fathers 2, Braulio of Saragossa, p. 4.

17 On Braulio’s family see Valcárcel Martínez, ‘Sobre el origen geográfico de la familia de
Braulio’.
18 In the past, scholars have had doubts concerning the historical authenticity of Gundemar’s
council, but it is today widely accepted that it was a real event and the records authentic. For
records of the decretal and council of Gundemar see XII Toledo, CCH, VI (2002), pp. 205-13.
In support of the authenticity of Gundemar’s council and decretal see Concilios Visigóticos e
Hispano-Romanos, ed. and trans. by Vives, pp. 403-10, CCH, I (1966), pp. 209-20, Séjourné, Le
dernier pére de l’église, pp. 86-88, Thompson, Goths in Spain, pp. 159-60, Orlandis and Ramos-
Lissón, Historia de los concilios de España romana y visigoda, pp. 248-52, Velázquez Soriano and
Ripoll López, ‘Toletum, la construcción de una urbs regia’, and Pérez Martínez, Tarraco en la
Antigüedad tardía, pp. 355-61, p. 403, and, Stocking, Bishops, Councils and Consensus, p. 121, and
n. 13. For arguments questioning the authenticity of the texts see Giovanni Domenico Mansi,
Conciliorum omnium maxima collectio, 10.511, Dahn, Die Könige der Germanen, 5, p. 175, González
Blanco, ‘El decreto de Gundemaro’, and González Blanco, ‘La historia del S. E. peninsula’, p. 71.
19 In 619 there was also an inscription to Saturninus prespiter raised in Seville. The inscription,
according to its inscribed dates, suggests that it refers to a local priest, but, given the relative lack
of inscriptions from Seville, and all that had been happening between Zaragoza and Seville in the
year it was presented, one wonders if this did not also serve as a reference to that S. Saturninus
of the Eighteen Martyrs of Zaragoza, the sepulchral site next to which John was abbot and to
which Eugenius II would flee to from Toledo. For the inscription see Inscripciones Cristianas de
la España Romana y Visogoda (ICERV), ed. by Vives, no. 112, p. 38.
98 Michael J. Kelly
of Hispania’s spiritual centres and illustrious figures. It is with this text

that the Renotatio is transmitted in the manuscript tradition.20 Thus, the
Bishop of Zaragoza repaid the compliment from Seville with one for Seville,
and the student also confirmed the legacy of his teacher, reinforcing and
developing new channels between centres and networks of power.
Braulio was faithful to Isidore to such an extent that he respected his
predecessor’s historical lacunae in relation to certain controversial ec-
clesiastical events. For example, in the Renotatio, Braulio notes Isidore’s
role in the Second Council of Seville, yet he says nothing about the Third
Council of Seville, which was presided over by Isidore. This council was
particularly contentious since at it a certain bishop, Martianus, was stripped
of his rank and see, which were transferred to one Aventius. This established
a battle between Martianus and Aventius that would be played out on the
streets around Baetica and eventually in the court at Toledo and subse-
quent councils.21 By remaining silent about this council in the Renotatio,
Braulio followed the suppression of the records and memory of the council
established with the Hispana, the conciliar collection edited by Isidore’s
network in the early 630s, and reinforced at the Fourth Council of Toledo
in 633 (also presided over by Isidore).22
The Eighth Council of Toledo
The second canon of the Eighth Council of Toledo in 653 has the following to
say about Isidore: ‘The illustrious doctor of our time, the newest glory of our
Catholic Church’ (‘Nostri quoque seculi doctor egregius, ecclesiae catholicae
novissimus decus’).23 These flattering words about Isidore presented nearly
twenty years, and four plenary councils, after his death represent the first
recognition of Isidore’s authority by the monarchy and church in Toledo.
Followed by citations from two of his books, the Sententiae and Synonyma,
this also marks the first moment at which Toledo sought to lay out its vision
of the historical image and memory of Isidore.
20 MS León Cathedral 22 may contain an exact copy of the original version of Isidore’s DVI.
See Barlow, Iberian Fathers 2, Braulio of Saragossa, p. 9.
21 For a full discussion of the Third Council of Seville and the evidence for it see Chapter 4.4
of Kelly, ‘Writing History, Narrating Fulfillment’.
22 Councils will be abbreviated throughout the article in the following manner: Third Council
of Seville = III Seville.
23 VIII Toledo 2.
That this long overdue recognition of Isidore’s spiritual authority was

to happen at VIII Toledo should be no surprise. This council was a serious
attempt by Recceswinth (d. 672) to soothe critical rifts caused by his father
Chindaswinth (c. 563-653).24 Recceswinth hoped to achieve this through
an interrelated combination of concession and clemency, the association
of this council with III Toledo, at which King Reccared (559-601) had cel-
ebrated the conversion of the Visigoths to Nicene Catholic Christianity in
589, and the sublimation of any threats to Toledo’s authority. At VIII Toledo
imaginary capital – in the sense of the council as the mirror to III Toledo
– was ubiquitous, from superficial connections between the two names
of the kings – Reccared and Recceswinth25 – to their personal lineages to
Liuvigild (c. 525-586), to their votive crowns, to their shared presentations
as good, holy king in juxtaposition to their fathers.26 Also significant was
Recceswinth’s elevation of the bishops and bishoprics of Mérida and Seville
to the top two spots as signatories of the Eighth Council of Toledo – although
their bishops, Orontius (d. c. 661) and Antonius (d. c. 656), were not the most
senior at the council – as their predecessors had been at III Toledo. This
dual promotion associated VIII Toledo with III Toledo. VIII Toledo was one
of only three plenary councils from the 630s to the end of the Visigothic
kingdom in the 710s in which the signatory from Seville was positioned
higher than that of Toledo.
Making clear its theological position, the f irst canon of VIII Toledo
proclaims Toledo’s faith in the Holy Trinity, in consubstantiation, and in
single baptism. The second canon, in which Isidore is cited, sets out to deal
with deserters and traitors (refugis atque perfidis), in the context of the
recent rebellion of Froia. Recceswinth had taken an oath to his father that
24 For discussion of the events leading to VIII Toledo and Recceswinth’s position in 653 see
Chapter 5.2 of Kelly, ‘Writing History, Narrating Fulfillment’.
25 Some historians argue that this is no coincidence, in that Recceswinth was related, by
marriages, to Reccared’s family (see Garcia Moreno, ‘La sucesión al trono’). For more on the idea
of the Imaginary, as a primary order of identity and alienation, see Jacques Lacan’s Seminars
and Écrits.
26 The votive crown was a practice imitating the Byzantines, and perhaps, specifically, the
crowns in Hagia Sophia. It represented the symbolic connection between and opposition of the
earthly diadem and Heavenly crown, and as such the duality of Christ, but also the cooperation
between the Church and the monarch. As Isidore says in Sententiae 3.51.3, royal power is only
effective when subordinate to the higher authority. On the votive crowns see, Molina Gómez,
‘Las coronas de donación regia del tesoro de Guarrazar’, El Tesoro Visigodo de Guarrazar, ed.
by Perea, in particular the chapters by Arce, ‘El conjunto votivo de Guarrazar’, and Cortés,
‘Influencias bizantinas’, pp. 367-76, Fontaine, L’art préroman hispanique I, pp. 242-46, and the
benedictio corone in the Liber Ordinum, col. 165 (Le Liber Oridinum, ed. by Férotin).
100 Michael J. Kelly
demanded blinding and capital punishment for attempted usurpers and

their associates, a rule that was confirmed by holy authority.27 This commit-
ment placed Recceswinth in a tough position. On the one hand, he needed
to show clemency to the rebel Froia and his supporters (fautoribus), to show
that faith and holy authority were above the law, while at the same time he
had to maintain the integrity of oaths and the law, and deal with the real
threat of rebellion. The council’s solution was to cite Isidore, after presenting
him as a doctor of the church. After citing the authority of ancient writers
and doctors of the Church – Ambrose (c. 340-397), Augustine (354-430) and
Gregory I – and praising Isidore, the canon cites Isidore’s Sententiae 2.31.9,
which says that an oath promised incautiously should not be kept.28 The
canon goes on to cite Isidore again, this time from his Synonyma 2.58.29
As in the passage from Sententiae, it explains that promises given in bad
faith should be rescinded: that which was unwisely offered should not be
maintained because an oath should not comply with an evil deed. Toledo’s
initial historical representation of Isidore was, then, deeply rooted in the
context of a political negotiation between the royal power centred on Toledo
and aristocrats who sought clemency for former rebels.
27 On the oath see the preface to VII Toledo, omnes pene Hispaniae sacerdotes omnesque seniors
vel iudices ac ceteros hominess officii palatini, a definition Recceswinth essentially sums in up
in his tomus when he says that vos omnemque populum iurasse recolimus. On the rebellion of
Froia see the letter from Taio, Bishop of Zaragoza to the Bishop of Barcelona, Quiricius, Taio,
Ep. ad Quiricium, Sententiarum 5, PL 80, col. 727ff. For discussion of the council and rebellion
see Stocking, Bishops, Councils and Consensus, pp. 1-4 (the title of this text will be referred to in
the rest of the notes simply as BCC), and, Castellanos, ‘Political Nature of Taxation’, 214. It is also
possible that Eugenius II’s carm. 20 and 36 refer to a rebellion of Froia as well: the former speaks
of a current war in terms similar to Taio’s description of Froia’s attack on Zaragoza and the latter
of the return of refugi after the war. For discussion of the possibility of their reference to Froia’s
rebellion see Farmhouse Alberto, ‘Three historical notes on Eugenius of Toledo’s Carmina’.
28 In the chapter, de iuramento, it reads, Non conservandum sacramentum quod malum incaute
promittitur, veluti si quispiam adulterare perpetuam cum ea permanendi fidem polliceatur: tol-
erabilius est enim non implere sacramentum, quam permanere in stupri flagitium. The citation
from the Sententiae that is in the Vives edition of the canon is slightly different from other
earlier and later editions. For instance, in PL 83 it reads, Non est conservandum, and quo instead
of quod, logically presents adulterae over adulterare, and reads perpetuo against perpetuam
and flagitio over flagitium. Other than the differences with perpetuam and flagitium, the new
critical edition of the Sententiae (CCSL 111) follows the PL version.
29 In malis promissis rescinde fidem, in turpe votum muta decretum quod incaute voviste non
facias. Inpia est promissio quae sc[e]lere adimpletur.
Ildefonsus: Isidore and the De Viris Illustribus
Ildefonsus’ text on Isidore is noticeably shorter than Braulio’s Renotatio,

leaving out much about Isidore’s personality, for example. The reader is
not told about Isidore’s charity, his fight against heresy, and his knowledge
of antiquity. All that Ildefonsus repeated was that Isidore was a superb
orator and a man with intelligence and propriety. The smaller quantity of
general information about Isidore in Ildefonsus’ account is reflected in a
reduction in the number of Isidore’s texts to ten. The ten texts on Ildefonsus’
list of works attributed to Isidore are not in chronological order (if, indeed,
Braulio’s list is chronological in its organization), contain almost no descrip-
tions of the texts’ contents, and do not include all of the dedications of the
books. For example, Ildefonsus does not mention that the [De] Origine[m]
Officiorum (De Ecclesiasticis Officiis) was dedicated to Isidore’s brother
Fulgentius, Bishop of Astigi (modern Écija). The works that Ildefonsus
does not mention are: De Numeris, De Nominibus Legis et Evangelorum,
De Haeresibus, Chronicon, De Viris Illustribus, Monastica Regula, and the
De Origine Gothorum, et Regno Suevorum et etiam Vandalorum Historia.
Ildefonsus appears to have left the historical writings and origins stories out
of Isidore’s body of work. Upon reading Ildefonsus’ account of Isidore’s works
one is provided with a different image of Isidore in which he did not write
on history or origins, on spirituality and mysticism, or on monasticism. So,
the Isidore of Ildefonsus did not continue the Chronicles of Eusebius-Jerome,
did not claim that Swinthila was the king of totius Spaniae or declare Spain
to be the ‘ornament of the world’ (ornamentum orbis), nor is this Isidore the
grand architect of consensus and unity through historical discourse and
representation that recent studies have emphasised.30
The cutting of Isidore’s DVI from the lists of his texts in Ildefonsus’
continuation of the DVI tradition deserves special attention because it
suggests that the text as a whole was a response to Isidore’s DVI and Braulio’s
addendum. As the recent editor of the DVI has pointed out, Ildefonsus’
principal concern in writing the DVI was, in contrast to Isidore, to praise
the sedes regia, Toledo, but also to insert into the historical record the key
role of the Toledan monastery of Agali, from which a number of its bishops
were raised.31 Ildefonsus, who was the last bishop of Toledo to be raised
30 All quotes from and references to Isidore’s De Origine Gothorum are from the edition in
Las Historias de los Godos, ed. by Rodríguez Alonso, or, when appropriate or necessary, Historia
Gothorum Vandalorum Sueborum, ed. by Mommsen, pp. 267-303.
31 Codoñer, ‘Los De viris illustribus de la Hispania visigótica’.
through Agali, not only re-wrote the DVI in favor of Toledo and Agali, his
praise for Isidore was somewhat backhanded. In the preface to the work, he
acknowledges that Isidore wrote a DVI, but says that he did not do it well,
which Ildefonsus intends to remedy.32
Instead of writing from the second century forward, as Isidore had done,
Ildefonsus’ DVI includes only thirteen entries, starting with the Bishop
of Toledo, Asturias (late fourth century). The next entry is on Montanus
(d. c. 530s), the Bishop of Toledo that oversaw II Toledo in 527. Ildefonsus
rapidly moves forward, with the fourth entry, to Aurasius, Bishop of Toledo
from 603 to 615. In between Montanus and Aurasius, Ildefonsus mentions
no bishops, not even Eufemius of Toledo (d. c. 590s), who presided over III
Toledo, the council at which the Visigoths were converted to Catholicism in
589.33 Instead, he includes Donatus (fifth century), the North African monk
that had come to Spain with dozens of monks and books.34 In this entry, he
says that Donatus was the first to bring a monastic rule to Hispania, which
likely was not true. Ildefonsus may have included this ‘fact’ because Agali
used Donatus’ rule (in privileging the authority of the Toledan monastery
of Agali, Ildefonsus also ignored Isidore’s Monastic Rule).35 Ildefonsus’ leap
from Montanus to Aurasius allowed him to completely ignore III Toledo,
and hence Leander of Seville.
In Isidore’s DVI, the chapter on Pope Gregory I is followed by one about
Leander, a leading figure in the conversion of the Visigothic monarchy. This
literary construction placed Seville as the bishopric through which Hispania
became Catholic, legitimising its spiritual primacy within the kingdom. It
may be significant in this regard that Isidore mentions none of the bishops
32 Ildefonsus Toletani Episcopi, ed. by Urquiola and Codoñer Merino, p. 110.

33 Ildefonsus’ exclusion of Eufemius, the Bishop of Toledo at III Toledo, may seem strange:
if Ildefonsus was trying to build the legitimacy of Toledo as the primary Catholic see of the
kingdom, why would he not include Eufemius? One might reasonably believe that Toledo’s
bishop and signatory to the council at which the kingdom converted to Catholicism would be
a necessary person to include in such a version of the narrative. However, since Gundemar’s
decretal had, in 610, defamed Eufemius for his ‘mistakenly’ recognizing Toledo as in Carpetania,
not Carthaginensis, Ildefonsus had to be silent on Eufemius. For more on Gundemar’s decretal
and the problem of Eufemius’ signature see Chapter 4.3 of Kelly, ‘Writing History, Narrating
Fulfillment’.
34 Ildef., DVI 3. Donatus was a North African monk who brought the rule to Spain with him
and who built the monastery of Servitanum. Ildefonsus claims that this was the first rule in
Spain, a claim that Roger Collins says should be believed (Collins, Early Medieval Spain, p. 81). In
contrast, Andy Fear maintains that there were earlier rules in Spain (Visigothic Fathers, p. 112).
For discussion of the Visigothic monastic rules see Allies, ‘The Monastic Rules of Visigothic
Iberia’, pp. 30-31.
35 Collins, Visigothic Spain, p. 153.
of Toledo. Ildefonsus, on the other hand, glosses over the conversion and
its key figures – even Eufemius of Toledo – and charts an alternative story
of ecclesiastical primacy. The lack of detail was so evident here that later
scribes felt the need to add their own entries about the figures of this period,
especially Gregory I.36 Ildefonsus left Leander out of the narrative, instead
focusing on the bishops who had occupied the bishopric of Toledo since the
conversion, while the two bishops who were chronologically more distant
provided the appearance of historical depth. Ildefonsus’ DVI thus generated
a Toledo-centred ecclesiastical history for late antique Hispania.37 Ildefonsus
thus sought to reshape the legacy of Seville, and of Isidore in particular.
Ildefonsus’ historical representation of Isidore reveals that there were at
least two distinct historiographies of Isidore concurrent in the Hispania
of the mid-seventh century.
The Next Generation: Historical Representations of Isidore
In addition to the first-generation historical representations, other texts

were written about Isidore over succeeding decades in Visigothic Hispania:
the Vita Fructuosi, Epitaphion beati Leandri, Isidori et Florentinae and the
Chronica Regum Visigothorum. These reflect the divergent representations
which have been identified in the historiography of the first-generation.
The first post-Visigothic historical representation of Isidore is the eighth-
century Continuatio Hispana (also known as the Chronicle of 754). This text
demonstrates the merging of the original historiographical traditions.
The Vita Sancti Fructuosi was written by an anonymous disciple of Fruc-
tuosus, Bishop of Braga, after his master’s death in 665.38 The oldest extant
manuscript is the tenth-century MS 10.007 in the Biblioteca Nacional de
Madrid (formerly, MS Toletanus 10.25). In the Life of St. Fructuosus, together
with the opening laudatory remarks for the eponymous saint, Isidore is
praised for his divine love, brilliance, eloquent speech, personal charm, the
reintroduction, it is said, of Roman education, as well as his productivity,
in a description that is very similar to that of Braulio.39 Fructuosus himself
36 See Codoñer Merino, De Viris Illustribus.

37 On Ildefonsus’ DVI empowering Toledo see Galán Sánchez, ‘El De viris illustribus de Ildefonso
de Toledo’, and Wood, ‘Playing the Fame Game’.
38 For a critical edition see Diaz y Diaz (ed.), La Vida de San Fructuoso de Braga.
39 […] Isidorum, reverentissimum scilicet virum Spalensem episcopum, atque beatissimum
Fructuosum, ab infantia immaculatum et iustum. Ille autem oris nitore clarens, insignis industriae,
sophistae artis indeptus praemicans, dogmata reciprocavit Romanorum.
had been associated with Isidore’s network, specifically with Braulio, and
seems to have held similarly to anti-Toledan sentiments.
The short, metrical epitaph of twelve lines to the blessed Leander, Isidore
and Florentina (Epitaphion beati Leandri, Isidori et Florentinae) is presented
as the transcription of an inscription that was made at the time of the
death of Isidore in 636. The possibility that this represents an authentic
inscription from the 630s is slim. 40 A few puzzling questions come to mind
when one reads the text. First, there is no reference to the other brother,
Fulgentius, who died several years before Isidore. This absence implies that
the person who wrote the epitaph was did not know this fact, or chose to
ignore some rather basic information about the family. Second, the person
who transcribed or copied the inscription either did not understand the
Spanish aera dating system, or did not know when Isidore had died. This is
evident from the date of death assigned to Isidore as era DCLXXXIII (Spanish
era year 683), the year 645 AD. Jose Vives has argued that this mistake was
not the result of ignorance of the Spanish aera system, or Isidore’s date of
death, simply a mistake by a later hand, the scribe of the eighth-century
manuscript Paris, Lat. 8093, who ‘confundió la primera I con una X’. 41 If
Vives is correct, the transcription reflects an authentic contemporary
inscription, now preserved in an eighth- or ninth-century transcription. 42
Although it is possible that the epitaph/inscription could be a later inven-
tion, there does appear to have been a tradition in seventh-century Seville
of inscribing or writing epitaphs to recently deceased bishops. This can be
seen in the case of the Obitus Beati Isidori examined earlier in this chapter
and the epitaph to Isidore’s immediate successor, Bishop Honoratius, in
the Epitaphium Honorati episc. Hispalensis. In this context, the Epitaphion
beati Leandri, Isidori et Florentinae is simply part of an ongoing tradition
of episcopal commemoration in Seville. 43 Whether created in the mid-
630s or later, within Spain or outside, the fact that the Epitaphion has been
falsely attributed to both Braulio and to Ildefonsus is a good example of the
confused nature of early accounts of Isidore. 44
40 For the most recent edition see Martín, ‘El Epitaphium Leandri’.
41 ICERV, ed. by Vives, num. 272, p. 81.
42 On the manuscript tradition see De Rossi, Inscriptiones Christianae Urbis Romae, II, pp. 296-
97, ICERV, ed. by Vives, pp. 80-81.
43 Index Scriptorum Latinorum, ed. by Díaz y Díaz, no. 372, p. 98, and ICERV, ed. by Vives, no.
273, pp. 81-82, and 90, n. 287.
44 See Ledesma, El De Itinere Deserti, p. 68, and Index Scriptorum, ed. by Díaz y Díaz, no. 226,
and no. 380. Finally, preserved only in the same manuscript that contains the Epitaphium
Leandri, Isidori et Florentinae, MS Paris BN lat. 8093, there is an anonymous text, perhaps from
Chronica Regum Visigothorum
The Chronica Regum Visigothorum (CRV) is a basic, non-descriptive list

(laterculus) of the Visigothic kings from Athanaric in 362 to Ervig in 680.45 It
was originally composed in the late seventh century in Hispania. Appended
to the entry on Sisebut is a short note saying that he was king in the time of
Isidore, sisebudi temporibus fuit isidorus episcopus. Not much can be gleaned
from this reference since in it there is no detail about Isidore other than
the fact that he was bishop. Furthermore, the reference to Isidore was very
likely not from the original CRV. The oldest extant manuscript of the CRV is
the eighth-century MS Vat. Reg. Lat. 1024. Of the twelve extant manuscripts
of the CRV, only two contain the reference to Isidore: the tenth-century
MS Paris 1557, and the eleventh-century MS Casinas n. 1. Since the latter
manuscript is built on the former, there is only one manuscript family with
this entry on Isidore, and it is a late one, from the tenth century.
In addition to being the only manuscript tradition of the CRV to mention
Isidore, there are other anomalies in MS Paris 1557. First, there is no mention
in any of the other copies of the CRV of any figures other than Visigothic
kings. The scribe of this manuscript added Isidore to the reign of Sisebut,
but also Gregory I and the Byzantine Emperor Maurice (539-602) to the
reign of Liugivild (leuuigildus).46 The other relevant anomaly is that in the
MS Paris 1557 family, the CRV is not collected together with the laws of the
Visigoths, but rather, between a conciliar decree and letters of Gregory I. It
seems, therefore, that these additions were meant to clarify, for the reader,
the historical context of the life and times of Gregory I, not to discuss Isidore.
Thus, the entry on Isidore in the CRV appears to reveal little about the
developing historical representation of Isidore in later seventh century His-
pania. However, there are indications that some copyists were drawing an
the seventh century, titled confessio beati Isidori dicta (Index Scriptorum, ed. by Díaz y Díaz, no.
307). In the ninth century, the anonymous Ildemundus abbetis and versus de S. Iohanne were
added to the manuscript, and in the eleventh century a life of Isidore was also included in this
dynamic manuscript (Index Scriptorum, ed. by Díaz y Díaz, no. 370 and 377).
45 For the edition of the Chronica Regum Visigothorum (CRV) see the Laterculus regum
Visigothorum, in Chronica Minora., ed. by Mommsen, pp. 461-68.
46 This spelling reflects the general manuscript tradition, but also perhaps contemporary
disregard for Liuvigild’s attempt to Romanize (Byzantinize) his name into Leogivild. The
evidence suggests that various mints in the kingdom purposely ignored royal instructions to
write the king’s name as ‘Leo-’. On the coins and their relation to the names see Grierson and
Blackburn, Medieval European Coinage, pp. 49-54.
association between Maurice, Gregory and Isidore in this period. 47 Braulio

was the only early medieval author to associate Isidore and Maurice in the
same passage, and there is an early manuscript tradition of John of Biclar’s
(d. c. 621) Chronicle, which continues the text to 602 with supplementary
discussions of Gregory I and Maurice alone. The Maurice-Isidore-Gregory as-
sociation may therefore reach back into the seventh century if MS Paris 1557
is built on this textual tradition. 48 This supposition receives further support
from the claim by the author of the Chronicle of 754 that a continuation of
John of Biclar’s Chronicle until the year 680 was a source. This continuation
itself was likely a continuation of the earlier extension to 602, which, as
noted above, focused on Maurice and Gregory I. 49 The Isidore reference
in the CRV reinforces the impression that divergent historiographical
traditions about Isidore were developing in the second half of the seventh
century, one of which drew a close association between Isidore, Gregory I
and Maurice.
Continuatio Hispana, or, Chronicle of 754
The Chronicle of 754 was written several decades after Arab-Berber armies
had overthrown the Visigothic kingdom and established a Muslim state
in much of Iberia. It is thus removed from the politics of the Visigothic
kingdom, which shaped the earliest accounts of Isidore’s life and works.50
The Chronicle of 754 mentions Isidore together with, but only after praising,
his potential rival, the Bishop of Toledo, Helladius (d. 633). All that is said
of Isidore is that he was an illustrious teacher and staunch defender of
the faith against heresy.51 Despite the brevity of this notice, this is the
first time that the two great, contemporary bishops of Seville and Toledo,
respectively, were included in the same discussion. In bringing Seville
and Toledo together in this way, the anonymous chronicler synthesised
the historiographical traditions, presenting, what might be said to be, a
47 See the chapter by Jamie Wood earlier in this volume for more on the important role that
writers from Visigothic Spain played in the early transmission of the works of Gregory I and in
the cultivation of his memory.
48 See Díaz y Díaz, ‘La transmisión textual del Biclarense’.
49 Juan de Biclaro Obispo de Gerona, ed. by Campos, p. 100.
50 For an edition of the Chronicle of 754 see López Pereira, Crónica mozárabe de 754, Chronica
Minora, ed. by Mommsen, pp. 334-60. For extended discussion of the Chronicle of 754 see Christys,
Christians in Al-Andalus, pp. 28-51 (esp. pp. 33-35).
51 Chron. 754, 16.
neutral discourse, or a non-dialectical, or non-historical, one. However,

this would be an unfair critique, since the chronicler was indeed speaking
within a dialectics of power, but it was not the one colored by competition
between Christians in Visigothic Hispania; rather, it was one that promoted
Christianity within an Islamic polity in Al-Andalus. The chronicler, writing
in Toledo or in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula, was also concerned
with the memory of Isidore, but his aim was to deploy the memory of Isidore
(and Helladius) as historical evidence for the achievements of Christianity
in Hispania: Isidore was now part of a ‘unity’ narrative, one which sought
to see Christians in pre-Islamic Iberia as one community united under
their Catholic king.
Conclusion
In summary, the historiography of Isidore emerged from his near con-

temporaries in Hispania as part of struggles between various networks
of power over the politics of historical memory and history-writing. The
participants in these debates over the historical representation of Isidore
were all Christian, the hegemonic religion in early medieval Hispania. Al-
though our knowledge of life in the Iberian Peninsula of the eighth century
is limited, it is evident that Christians living there, after the defeat of the
Visigothic monarchy in Toledo, lived under less stable conditions; their
religion was no longer an obvious marker of power and status, but put them
at a potential disadvantage. It is no surprise then that from the mid-700s the
history of Isidore began to be written differently. The anonymous author of
the Chronicle of 754 sought to promote Christianity and all of its illustrious
figures in the peninsula. The aim of the text was to encourage an image of
longstanding Christian, specifically Catholic, unity in the peninsula, and
so merge the historiographical traditions, and indeed the history, into a
narrative of consensus. The Franks especially, but others too, later found
a desire to use Isidore’s vision of what might be achieved when the church
and monarchy were intimately tied to one another.52 These two develop-
ments severed the historiography of Isidore from the historical conditions
in which his memory was originally competed over. This created a displaced
or re-territorialized concept of Isidore and his relation to specific pasts
52 The first hagiographies of Isidore are from after the Visigothic kingdom’s demise in the first
half of the eighth century. On the hagiographical tradition of Isidore see Guiance, ‘Dormavit
Beatus Isidorus’, Martín, ‘El corpus hagiográfico latino’.
and historical narratives. The story of the wider medieval reception of

Isidore, not to mention the theory of history, are, however, subjects for other
chapters in this volume.
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Lacan, Jacques, Écrits, trans. by Bruce Fink (NY: W.W. Norton & Co., 2006).
La Colección Canónica Hispana, ed. by Gonzalo Martínez Díez and (from 1982 forward as co-
editor) Félix Rodríguez, 6 vols (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas,
1966-2002).
Las Historias de los Godos, los Vandalos y los suevos de Isidoro de Sevilla, ed. by C. Rodríguez
Alonso (León: Centro de Estudios e Investigación “San Isidro”, 1975).
Laterculus regum Visigothorum, in Chronica Minora, saec. IV-VII, MGH, AA, 13, ed. by Theodor
Mommsen (Berlin: Weidmann, 1898), pp. 461-68.
Le Liber Oridinum en usage dans l’église wisigothique et mozarabe d’Espagne du cinquième au
onzième siècle, ed. Marius Férotin (Paris, 1904).
Ledesma, Juan Pablo, El De Itinere Deserti de San Ildefonso de Toledo (Toledo: Instituto Teológico
San Ildefonso, 2005).
López Pereira, José Eduardo, Crónica mozárabe de 754: edición crítica y traducción (Saragossa,
1980).
Maldonado, Pedro Castillo, ‘La Muerte de Isidoro de Sevilla: Apuntes de Crítica Histórico-
hagiográfica’, Habis, 32 (2001), pp. 577-96.
Maldonado, Pedro Castillo, La Época Visigótica en Jaén (siglos VI y VII) (Jaén: Universidad de
Jaén, 2006).
Martín, José Carlos, La ‘Renotatio Librorum Domini Isidori’ de Braulio de Zaragoza (Logroño:
Fundación San Millán de la Cogolla, 2002)
Martín, José Carlos, ‘El corpus hagiográfico latino en torno a la figura de Isidoro de Sevilla en
la Hispania tardoantigua y medieval (ss. VII-XIII)’, Veleia 22 (2005), 187-228.
Martín, José Carlos, ‘El Epitaphium Leandri, Isidori et Florentinae (ICERV 272) o la compleja
transmisión manuscrita de un texto epigráfico. Nuevo edición y estudio’, Evphrosyne: Revista
de Filologia Clássica, New Series, 38 (2010), 139-63.
Miguel Franco, Ruth, ‘Braulio de Zaragoza, el rey Chindasvinto y Eugenio de Toledo: imagen y
opinión en el Epistularium de Braulio de Zaragoza’, Emerita, Revista de Lingüística y Filología
Clásica, 79 (2011), 155-76.
Orlandis, Jose, and Domingo Ramos-Lissón, Historia de los concilios de España romana y visigoda
(Pamplona: Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, 1986).
Pérez Martínez, Meritxell, Tarraco en la Antigüedad tardía. Cristianización y organización
eclesiática (III a VIII siglos) (Tarragona: Arola Editors, 2012).
San Braulio, Obispo de Zaragoza (631-651), Su Vida y sus Obras, ed. by C.H. Lynch & P. Galindo
(Madrid: Instituto “Enrique Florez”, 1950).
Sancti Isidori Episcopi Hispalensis, De Ecclesiasticis Officiis, CCSL 113, ed. by Christopher Lawson
(Turnhout: Brepols, 1989).
Scripta de Vita Isidori Hispalensis Episcopi, CCSL 113 B, ed. by José Carlos Martín (Turnhout:
Brill, 2006).
Séjourné, Paul, Le dernier pére de l’église, Saint Isidore de Seville (Paris: Gabriel Beauchesne, 1936).
Stocking, Rachel, Bishops, Councils and Consensus in the Visigothic kingdom (Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press, 2000).
The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville, trans. by Stephen A. Barney, W.J. Lewish, J.A. Beach and
Oliver Berghof (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 7-9.
Thompson, Edward A., Goths in Spain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969).
Valcárcel Martínez, Vitalino, ‘Sobre el origen geográf ico de la familia de Braulio, obispo de
Zaragoza’, in Mnemosynum C. Codoñer a discipulis oblatum, ed. by Augustín Ramos Guerreira
(Salamanca: Universidad de Salamanca, 1991), pp. 333-40.
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in Sedes Regiae (ann. 400-800), ed. by Gisela Ripoll, José María Gurt and Alexandra Chavarría
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Wood, Jamie, ‘Playing the Fame Game: Bibliography, Celebrity, and Primacy in Late Antique
Spain’, Journal of Early Christian Studies, 20 (2012), 613-40.
6 Isidorian Texts in Seventh-Century
Ireland
Marina Smyth
When working in the 1980s on elucidating the cosmological views current

in Ireland during the seventh century, I came to question the prevailing
assumption that Isidorian works such as the Etymologiae and De natura
rerum were available in Ireland already ca. 650. It had become clear to me
that whereas Hiberno-Latin texts of the third quarter of the seventh century
shared much technical terminology with those two Isidorian treatises, the
Irish authors did not understand the meaning of these words.1 Hiberno-
Latin texts assigned to the mid-years of the seventh century had been
adduced as evidence for early borrowings from Isidore of Seville (d. 636).2
Variations on statements such as ‘… We can now be almost completely
confident that the writings of Isidore were known in Ireland in the 650s.
In the case of the Etymologies, it is at least possible that that work reached
Ireland before the middle of the seventh century’3 were commonplace in
the field. This conviction led to the assignation of Hiberno-Latin texts to
specific periods of the seventh century. Thus, for example, Aidan Breen
concluded from his demonstration that the Commentarius in Epistolas
Catholicas Scotti Anonymi was not influenced by the Etymologiae – contrary
to previous belief4 – that ‘since the text, however, emanated from that very
scholastic environment to which the works of Isidore were first introduced
in Ireland, a date of 660 seems highly unlikely. In all probability, the text
predates 650’.5 Luned Mair Davies gave a very clear and concise account
of the state of the question in the mid-nineties in her paper on Isidorian
texts and the Canones Hibernenses,6 but readers may not think to seek
this information in the study of a text generally dated to c. AD 700 or later.
1 Smyth, ‘Isidore of Seville’, pp. 72-82, and more specif ically pp. 82-91; Understanding,
especially pp. 114-123.
2 Hillgarth, ‘The East, Visigothic Spain’, p. 451 ; Hillgarth, ‘Ireland and Spain’, pp. 8-10 ; Ó
Cróinín, ‘A Seventh-Century Irish Computus’, pp. 413 & 416.
3 Herren, ‘On the Earliest Irish Acquaintance’, p. 250.
4 McNally, Commentarius, pp. 1-50.
5 Breen, ‘Some Seventh-Century Hiberno-Latin Texts’, p. 210.
6 Davies, ‘Isidorian Texts’, pp. 218-222.
112 Marina Smy th
An early transmission of Isidore’s works to a remote island lying to the

west of northern continental Europe was explained by the high level of clas-
sical culture and stability in the Visigothic kingdom at that time, combined
with maritime routes from northern Spain to Ireland.7 Jonathan Wooding
has pointed out: ‘The presence, or non-presence, of trade routes is not in
itself proof of the likelihood of the transmission of texts’, and he feels that
the ‘pre-eminence of Spanish learning in the sixth and seventh centuries
was sufficient that its influence was dominant’.8 Aldhelm of Malmesbury
(d. 709) is generally accepted as the first witness to the knowledge of Isidore
in Anglo-Saxon England, specifically to De natura rerum. This is consistent
with my understanding of the situation in Ireland: I agree with Hillgarth
that ‘it can be said that Isidore is omnipresent in the Irish writings of the
late seventh, eighth and ninth centuries’,9 but I believe one should be very
cautious for anything before the late seventh century… and this applies to
more than Isidorian texts relating to cosmology.
In this contribution, I investigate the recent research in two areas and
determine its implication for knowledge of Isidore’s works in seventh-
century Ireland: first, the dating of texts originating from Ireland, and
second, the extensive studies on manuscript transmission associated with
the ongoing (and now almost completed10) project of providing new editions
for the works of Isidore. I now present my findings on some further aspects
of the transmission of Isidorian works to Ireland from the middle of the
seventh century.
Changes in the Dating of Texts Written in Ireland
The dating of early Hiberno-Latin texts adduced to show that the works
of Isidore were available in Ireland already by AD 650 has been modified
7 Bischoff, ‘Die europäische Verbreitung’, pp. 327-330 ; Hillgarth, ‘The East, Visigothic Spain’,
pp. 446 & 454-455; Hillgarth’, ‘Visigothic Spain and Early Christian Ireland’, p. 168-172 & 175-179.
8 Wooding, ‘Trade as a Factor’, p. 24.
9 Hillgarth, ‘Visigothic Spain and Early Christian Ireland’, p. 189.
10 For a convenient list of editions available c. 2008, see M. A. Andrés Sanz, J. Elfassi & J.
C. Martín, L’Édition critique, pp. 253-254. We can now add for the Etymologies: Book III: De
mathematica (with French transl.; 2009), Book VI: De las Sagradas Escrituras (with Spanish
transl.; 2012), Book VII: Dieu, les anges, les saints (with French transl.; 2012), Book XI: De homine
et portentis (with Italian transl.; 2010), Book XIV: De terra (with French transl.; 2011), Book XVI:
De las piedras y de los metales (with Spanish transl.; 2011), Book XVIII: De bello et ludis (with
Spanish transl.; 2007), Book XX: De penu et instrumentis domesticie et rusticis (with French
transl.; 2010), all in the collection Auteurs latins du moyen âge (Paris, Les Belles Lettres).
Isidorian Tex ts in Seventh- Century Ireland 113
by recent scholarship. When preparing this paper, I was surprised to find

that in his 1985 edition of Isidore’s De ortu et obitu patrum,11 Chaparro
Gómez questioned the credibility of what seemed like perhaps the only
solid ground in the study of the spread of Isidore’s works to Ireland by the
mid-seventh century. Referring to the explicit mention of Isidore in the
text of Marc Adriaen’s edition of Lathcen MacBaith’s Egloga de Moralibus
in Iob, Chaparro Gómez commented: si damos credibilidad al testimonio
de Lathcen.12 I had previously accepted that in the beginning of his much
abbreviated version of the Moralia of Gregory the Great, Lathcen made
explicit reference to Isidore and to his De ortu et obitu patrum: under the
heading Dicta Isidori in libro de uita et exitu prophetarum, there is a close
paraphrase of the short section in Isidore’s work giving information on Job’s
origins and the duration of his life.13 The death of Lathcen of Clonfertmuloe
is recorded in the Annals of Ulster for the year 661,14 and the comment in his
Egloga seemed to make it secure that Isidore’s De ortu et obitu was known
in Ireland around the middle of the seventh century. Chaparro Gómez, on
the other hand, points out that despite the mutual contamination of the
various recensions, not all manuscripts of the Egloga contain this very
section attributed to Isidore.15 Since the earliest manuscripts of the Irish
text are from the eighth century, the section may have been inserted any
time before that. I also note that even though Ildefonsus of Toledo refers
to Isidore’s De ortu et obitu patrum as librum de ortu et obitu prophetarum,
in early manuscripts of that work, the title normally mentions the life and
death of sanctorum, not prophetarum.
Chaparro Gómez identified three main versions for De ortu et obitu
patrum,16 the f irst being the only one composed by Isidore himself at
the end of the sixth century, and remaining in Spain. Another version
was created soon thereafter, probably in Spain, adding material from the
Breuiarium apostolorum and Chapter 8017. This is the text that would have
been transmitted to Ireland and Anglo-Saxon England, and also across the
Pyrenees.18 It did not contain the eight sections concerning Old-Testament
11 Not to be confused with the similar De ortu et obitu patriarcharum (Carracedo Fraga, 1996),
probably composed in the late eighth century by an Irish author in Bavaria, or maybe in Salzburg.
12 Chaparro Gómez, Isidorus Hispalensis. De ortu, p. 93.
13 Adriaen, Egloga, p. 3, lines 12-21.
14 Mac Airt & Mac Niocaill, ‘The Annals’, p. 132.
15 Chaparro Gómez, De ortu, pp. 12-13.
17 PL 83:154 (Caput LXXXI.140-142); Chaparro Gómez, De ortu, pp. 215-216.
114 Marina Smy th
figures which were added later in some of the manuscripts: 46 = PL86: Mi-
cheas; 47 = PL87: Naum; 48 = PL88: Abacuc; 51 = PL91: Zacharias; 54 = PL94:
Achias; 55 = PL95: Iaddo; 56 = PL96: Azarias and 57 = PL 97: Zacharias.19
The third type is later, with numerous and varied accretions.
In her 2012 contribution on Lathcen in Te.Tra. 4, Lucia Castaldi thoroughly
reviewed and completely revised the stemma created by Adriaen, thereby
showing that he had unfortunately produced a misleading edition in that it
presents the text of one of the inflated Carolingian versions.20 She concludes
quite simply and emphatically: ‘Lathcen non conosce e non cita Isidoro’.21
The trump card for early seventh-century transmission of Isidore’s work
to Ireland is gone.
Bischoff mentioned the anonymous Versus cuiusdam Scotti de alphabeto22
in his 1961 paper on the early spread of Isidore’s works throughout Europe,
in this case specifically the Etymologiae.23 Manitius had assigned this riddle
poem to mid-seventh-century Ireland,24 and his dating had been accepted
by most scholars. This early dating hinged on Manitius’ belief that the
explanatio of the riddles in the poem was composed by the same anonymous
author as the verses, though it had been preserved separately, and only
in a single manuscript dated to the end of the ninth or to the early tenth
century (Chartres, Bibliothèque municipale 75 (55), since destroyed by fire).
In addition, Manitius argued that the statement in the explanatio: KARTAGO
est metropolis affricae could only be made before or soon after the Muslim
conquest, so that, in his view, it must have been made during the first
19 Chaparro Gómez, De ortu, p. 20.

20 The 1969 Adriaen edition of the Egloga says that Job lived for 228 (CCXXVIII) years, whereas
the 1985 edition of Isidore’s work follows Arévalo (and the Septuagint) in reading fuerunt omnes
dies uitae eius ducenti quadraginta octo anni, though the apparatus indicates that manuscripts
read septuaginta instead of quadraginta (pp. 137-139). This suggests that the number was not
spelled out in the manuscript available to the author of this addition to the Egloga and that the
L for fifty may have been missing in CCLXXVIII, or unclear in CCXLVIII (and therefore confused
with X). The St Gall manuscript of De ortu et obitu patrum (St. Gallen BA 240, s. IX) clearly reads
ccxlviii. Checking this small point in other manuscripts might shed light on the text available
to the interpolator of Lathcen’s work.
21 ‘Lathcen neither knows nor cites Isidore’, Castaldi, Lathcen, Egloga, p. 387. See Anspach, ‘Das
Fortleben’, pp. 337-38, where he suggests that a scribe might have inserted a marginal note into
his copy of the text. Anspach was mistaken when arguing that Isidore himself was the author
of the Egloga, but his instinct was correct as regards the possibility of an interpolation!
22 Edition by Fr. Glorie in CCSL 133A: 726-741, with a listing of earlier editions on p. 727; CPL
# 1562; Kenney # 103; Lapidge & Sharpe # 731 (among the works ascribed to Irish peregrini to the
continent).
23 Bischoff, ‘Die europäische Verbreitung’, p. 328, n. 59.
24 Manitius, ‘Geschichte’, p. 192.
half of the seventh century. (A puzzling statement since it was only at the
end of the seventh century that Carthage was destroyed in the course of
the Muslim expansion. It follows that insisting on historical currency for
the statement that Carthage was a major African city would merely imply
that the explanatio was composed before the end of the seventh century.)
Manitius added that frequent use of the Etymologiae in the Versus pushed
the date of composition forward to the middle of that century. In 1976,
Bischoff pointed out that this description of Carthage need not reflect the
historical situation when the explanatio was written and that the riddle
poem, composed presumably by an Irishman on the continent, fits in well
with an early Carolingian cultural environment.25 This observation is now
generally accepted and these verses are no longer cited as evidence for early
familiarity with the Etymologiae in Ireland.
Until the much-awaited 1992 edition of the Anonymus ad Cuimnanum
(CCSL 133D), this grammatical treatise was commonly cited as evidence
for extensive use of Isidore’s works in seventh-century Ireland (De natura
rerum, Differentiae, Etymologiae, De ecclesiasticis officiis). One example
among others: De natura rerum iii.1-4 is the source in the discussion of feriae,
as shown by the parallel passages presented by Hillgarth.26 However, in his
introduction to the edition, Bischoff assigned the text to the continent in the
early eighth century, and suggested it originated from Bobbio since it makes
use of texts known to have been available there at that time. He concluded
that, contrary to earlier assumptions,27 one ‘cannot use the Ad Cuimnanum
for information on sources available in Ireland’: ‘Angesichts dieser Bindung
an das Columban-Kloster sind aus den Literatur-Kenntnissen des “Anon.”
keine Rückschlüsse auf der Bücherbesitz in Irland möglich’.28
Toward the end of the twentieth century, developments in the study of
computistics related to early medieval Ireland seemed to provide another
avenue for demonstrating that the works of Isidore were available very early
in Ireland. It was argued that the collection of early computistical materials
in the manuscript Oxford, Bodleian Library, Bodley 309 (saec. XI) – the Sir-
mond manuscript – could be dated to 658,29 and thus provided evidence for
25 Bischoff, ‘Bannita’, pp. 246-247.

27 Hillgarth, ‘Visigothic Spain and Early Christian, Ireland’ p. 187, notes 102 & 103, citing
Bischoff, ‘Eine verschollene Einteilung’, pp. 14-20.
28 ‘In view of this connection with the Columban monastery, no inferences may be drawn from
the knowledge of literature displayed by “Anon.” about books available in Ireland’, Bischoff &
Löfstedt, Anonymus ad Cuimnanum, p. xxii.
29 Ó Cróinín, ‘The Irish Provenance’, pp. 233-238.
116 Marina Smy th
familiarity at least with Isidore’s Etymologiae at that time.30 I questioned this

in my 1987 paper, because such bookish collecting of data seemed at odds
with the approach to scientific knowledge I encountered in De mirabilibus
sacrae scripturae31 and Liber de ordine creaturarum,32 both from the third
quarter of the seventh century, and in which I could find no evidence for the
use of the Etymologiae. It seemed more likely that the short text containing
the dating clause AD 658 was another of the earlier compositions included
in the collection.33 In 2010, Immo Warntjes published his analysis of what
he identified as a new manuscript in the ‘Sirmond group’ of similar, but
not identical, collections of computistical texts known in Ireland which
would have been available to Bede. David Ganz had brought the manuscript
Bremen, Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek, MSC 0046 – originating from
St. Gall, c. AD 900 – to the attention of Dáibhí Ó Cróinín, who in turn
encouraged Warntjes to go and examine it in Bremen. In addition to items
found in other manuscripts in the Sirmond group, the Bremen compilation
contains a previously unknown Prologue for a Victorian Easter Table, and
this text can be dated unambiguously to AD 699. Warntjes points out: ‘This
is only the second post mid-seventh century and pre-Bedan dating clause
to be found in any manuscript of the Sirmond group’, and he concludes:
‘If both the Oxford and the Bremen dating clauses [AD 658 and AD 699,
respectively] are taken as indicative of the compilation of Sirmond material,
then this suggests at least two stages, almost fifty years apart, in the same
region, namely, southern Ireland’.34 At present, there is no way of knowing
precisely which texts would have been included in any one of such putative
stages in the collecting of these computistical materials. It follows that one
cannot assume that texts included in Bodley 309 demonstrate the use of
Isidorian texts already in AD 658.
30 Charles W. Jones published a numbered list of the contents of Bodley 309 on pp. 106-108 of his
1943 edition of Bede’s works on time. This list, as presented by Ó Cróinín (‘Bede’s Irish Computus’,
pp. 202-203) is also available in Graff, ‘The Recension’, pp. 137-138. Merely scanning through the
list makes it obvious that Isidore was known by the time the compilation was made: Sententiae
Sancti Augustini et Isidori in laude compoti is Item 3 (fols. 62v-64v) in that list and Item 35 (fols.
105v-106r) consists of excerpts from Isidore’s Etymologiae. In this connection, see footnote 55
on pp. XXVIII-XXIX of Warntjes, The Munich Computus, on the need to clarify terminology and
to separate out Carolingian items in Bodley 309.
31 PL 35:2149-2200; for an edition of both the long and the short versions, see MacGinty’s Ph.D.
thesis.
32 Díaz y Díaz published an edition and Spanish translation in 1972; Smyth provided an English
translation in 2011.
33 Smyth, ‘Isidore of Seville’, pp. 96-101.
34 Warntjes, ‘A Newly Discovered Prologue’, p. 275.
In 1982, Ó Cróinín announced that in fols. 77v-107v of the manuscript

Bruxelles, Bibliothèque Royale Albert Ier, MS 5413-22, s. IX-X, he had dis-
covered an Irish computistical treatise which he assigned to the circle of
Cummian, author of the AD 632 Paschal Letter, if not to Cummian himself.35
He gave this computus the name De ratione conputandi and provided an
edition based on the two known manuscripts.36 Isidore is frequently cited
by name in this treatise, with selections from both the Etymologiae and De
natura rerum. Warntjes recently carried out a very careful analysis of the
content of De ratione conputandi in relation to the two other ‘known Irish
computistical text books from the post-Isidorian and pre-Bedan period,
roughly to be dated to AD 650-750’37: the Munich Computus securely dated
to AD 71938 and the recently discovered Computus Einsidlensis.39 He eventu-
ally concluded that the Computus Einsidlensis was composed sometime
in the period 699-719, 40 and that De ratione conputandi must have been
written between 719 and 727. All these computi quote Isidore’s Etymologiae
extensively, thereby only establishing familiarity with this work in Ireland
at the very end of the seventh century and thereafter.
Bruno Krusch, Bartholomew Mac Carthy and Eduard Schwartz already
saw that a dating clause of AD 689, occurring twice in the Munich Computus
in the context of materials associated with the Victorian reckoning for the
date of Easter, points to the existence of an Irish computus from AD 689
advocating the Victorian system.41 Because of its association with Victorian
reckoning, this now lost computus probably originated from east Munster
where that system was observed – as opposed to the 84-year system ob-
served in the northern parts of the island – and material from this Victorian
computus was incorporated into the Munich Computus.42 It should be noted
that there is a reference to ‘Isidore’ in Section 63 of the Munich Computus,
one of the sections taken from the Victorian AD 689 computus: ‘Ysidorus ait:
35 Ó Cróinín, ‘A Seventh-Century Irish Computus’.

36 Walsh & Ó Cróinín, ‘Cummian’s Letter’, pp. 99-215.
37 Warntjes, ‘The Munich Computus’, pp. CXCI-CCI.
38 Warntjes, ‘The Munich Computus’, pp. LVII-LXI.
39 Warntjes, ‘A Newly Discovered Irish Computus’.
40 With the newly discovered evidence that Victorian reckoning was still current in southern
Ireland in 699 (Warntjes, ‘A Newly Discovered Prologue’, p. 278), Warntjes refined his earlier
estimate of 689-719 for the composition of the Computus Einsidlensis (The Munich Computus,
p. CC).
41 Warntjes, ‘The Munich Computus’, pp. LVII-LVIII.
42 Warntjes, ‘The Munich Computus’, pp. LVIII, LXXXII, CXXIV- CXXVI; see his recent ‘Victo-
rius vs Dionysius’ for a clear account of the situation in seventh-century Ireland regarding the
dating of Easter.
118 Marina Smy th
Quicumque ante XV luna pascha celebrari iubet, transgreditur mandatum’

– ‘Isidore says: Whosoever approves of Easter being celebrated before luna
15 violates the commandment’. This statement is consistent with Isidore’s
view that those who celebrate Easter on luna 14 are heretical, as expressed
in De ecclesiasticis officiis I.xxxii (xxxi).(8)43 and Etymologiae VIII.61, 44 so
that it could be a paraphrase, but it does not occur as such in the edited
works of Isidore of Seville. De ratione conputandi 98.21-22 follows the Munich
Computus in making this same attribution. 45 This putative borrowing from
the lost AD 689 Irish computus suggests that at least the name of Isidore of
Seville was well-known in Ireland by AD 689, and probably also his works
relating to the Easter question, though one cannot rule out the possibility
that the reference was simply to an Irishman named Isidore.
The Manuscript Transmission of Isidorian Texts
Recent studies of the extant manuscripts of Isidore’s works show that:

1 Some of Isidore’s works either remained in Spain or had very limited
circulation until the eighth century, as already noted by Hillgarth. 46
These include: De haeresibus (only one manuscript, Spain, saec. VII), De
fide catholica contra Iudaeos, Regula monachorum, De uiris illustribus,
Historia Gothorum.
2 Most of Isidore’s works circulated in two versions, if not more. De ec-
clesiasticis officiis and the Sententiae are exceptional in this regard. 47
3 There is very little seventh century manuscript evidence for Isidore’s
works, but it is increasingly clear that Lindsay’s edition of the Etymolo-
giae as well as the texts of the Arévalo edition in PL 83 are not reliable
representations of Isidore’s works as they were transmitted in this early
period.
In 1991, James P. Carley and Ann Dooley published their discovery on the
flyleaves of the codex Longleat House, Marquess of Bath, NMR 10589, of a
late-seventh or very-early-eighth century fragment of the Etymologies which
was almost certainly written in Ireland. The fragment contains text from
43 Lawson, De ecclesiasticis officiis, pp. 37-38.

44 Lindsay, Etymologiarum siue Originum libri, p. 314.
45 Walsh & Ó Cróinín, ‘Cummian’s Letter’, p. 204.
46 Hillgarth, ‘Ireland and Spain’, pp. 5-6.
47 Andrés Sanz, Elfassi & Martín, ‘L’Édition critique’, pp. 10-11.
Book VI:16 and Book VII:1 and deals with computistical matters, including
a copy of Isidore’s 95-year Easter table. The inclusion of Spanish era dating
(in addition to anno mundi dating) points towards an original text dating
from AD 655 which was written in Spain, but there is no way of knowing the
number of intermediate copies. This newly discovered fragment is consist-
ent with the interest in Isidore’s views on computistical matters which we
observed among Irish scholars at the end of the seventh century. The leaves
forming the fragment probably originated from a ‘volume measuring a little
in excess of 315 x 240 mm.’ (p. 137), though ‘it is impossible to determine
whether or not this fragment was originally part of a complete copy of the
Etymologiae’.48
Until the discovery of the Longleat fragments, the fragments of Book XI
in Sankt Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek 1399a.1 (CLA VII.995) were the only known
seventh-century manuscript evidence for the Etymologiae, as jumps out
immediately from the table drawn up by Baudoin Van den Abeele to show
the number for each century of both fragments and manuscripts containing
the entire text of the Etymologiae.49 The fragments were preserved as part
of the binding of Manuscripts 150 and 267 in the St Gall Stiftsbibliothek.
Dold, who first reported on these fragments in 1940, believed they were part
of a substantial codex and estimated that the folios would have measured
some 277 x 165 mm. Lowe estimated the written area to have measured
ca. 170 x ca. 145 mm. (CLA VII.995). If Book XI was indeed part of a full
text of the Etymologiae in the codex, the manuscript contained a text of
the twenty-book ‘long version’. The division into twenty books originated
from Braulio’s editing, but we have no way of knowing how he divided
the content within and between the books.50 Moreover, the codex might
have contained only half of this version of the Etymologiae, that is, Books
XI-XX, since the long text could be transmitted in two separate codices.
There is general agreement that the text in these fragments was written in
an Irish hand – called cursive minuscule by Lowe, and cursive half-uncial
48 Carley & Dooley, ‘An Early Irish Fragment’, pp. 137 & 145.
49 Dold, ‘Irische Isidorfragmente’; Van den Abeele, ‘La tradition manuscrite’, p. 199. Van den
Abeele derived his information from the manuscript list drawn up by Fernández Catón in 1966,
itself a published version of the Anspach Nachlass. Note: Catón lists some 1,000 manuscripts
(including fragments) and this high number recurs frequently thereafter in the secondary
literature, but Van den Abeele points out that this information needs to be carefully double-
checked. He sees only some 500 serious contenders from the eighth to the sixteenth century
for relaying the text of the Etymologiae (La tradition manuscrite, p. 198).
50 Reydellet, La diffusion des Origines, pp. 396-398.
120 Marina Smy th
by Brown51 – towards the middle of the seventh century, but the question
remains whether it originated in Ireland itself or in an Irish-influenced
centre on the continent. When commenting on the 1955 revised version of
Dold’s announcement,52 Hillgarth said that the fragments were ‘probably’
written in Ireland itself.53 Lowe, on the other hand, opted for a continental
Irish centre, probably Bobbio. Bischoff, in a 1960 private communication
to Hillgarth,54 noted that the script in the St Gall fragments is close to
that of codex Usserianus Primus (Dublin, Trinity College 55), which Lowe
and Bischoff dated to the beginning of the seventh century, as well as to
the script on the Springmount wax tablets (Dublin, National Museum, S.A.
1914:2; CLA Supplement 1684) first published in 1920 by Armstrong and
Macalister,55 and dated by Bischoff to the seventh century.56 In his study
of the Irish elements in Insular script, Brown assigns the St Gall fragments
to a scribe writing in Ireland in the middle of the seventh century.57 It is
worth noting here that both the Longleat fragmentary text and the text in
the seventh-century fragments in St Gall may be related to the version of
the Etymologiae in the manuscript Leiden, Bibliotheek der Rijksuniversiteit,
Voss. Lat. F.74.58
In my 1987 study on the lack of evidence until the late seventh century
for cosmological information drawn from Isidore’s works, I pointed out that
while the St Gall fragment was probably written in Ireland, ‘all this really
proves is that the beginning of Book XI: De Homine et Portentis (Of man and
unnatural births; edited by Gasti in 2010) was almost certainly read and
copied in Ireland by the middle of the seventh century’.59 It is well known
that sections of the Etymologiae, sometimes corresponding to one or more
of the libri in the long recension of that work, were transmitted separately.
Books I (grammar), I-III (liberal arts), IV (medicine), the Chronicon and
the legal matter in Book V, and the sections on heresy in Book VIII, are
usually mentioned in this connection. In addition, Books I-XX were often
copied in two separate codices, with the break after Book X, so that the
two main parts could circulate independently. It should be noted, however,
51 Brown, ‘The Irish Element’, p. 104.

52 Dold & Duft, ‘Die älteste irische Handschriften-Reliquie’.
53 Hillgarth, ‘The position of Isidorian studies’, p. 826.
55 Armstrong & Macalister, ‘Wooden Book’.
56 Bischoff, ‘Die europäische Verbreitung’, p. 327.
57 Brown, ‘The Irish Element’, p. 104, n. 4.
58 Carley & Dooley, ‘An Early Irish Fragment’, p. 14 ; Dold, ‘Irische Isidorfragmente’, p. 88.
that when Díaz y Díaz, in his 1982 introduction to the Latin/Spanish text
of the Etymologiae based on Lindsay’s edition, talks about sections of the
Etymologiae that commonly circulated separately, he does not mention
Book XI among them.60 The anatomical lists in the lorica/prayer Suffragare
Trinitatis Unitas61 composed by Lathcen of Clonfertmuloe (d. 661), and in the
exorcism Collectio super hominem qui habet Diabolum62 in the Antiphonary
of Bangor – a late-seventh-century collection of liturgical texts – argue
for the presence in Ireland of Book XI or of glossaries derived from that
text at the time the lists were composed. It is, however, also likely that
detailed terminology associated with parts of the body was drawn from
lists of words intended to increase familiarity with the Latin language.63 I
have shown elsewhere that such lists would explain the often bizarre use
of cosmological terms in the Hisperica Famina.64 After all, Isidore himself
used glossaries when writing: those of Placidus and Nonius Marcellus, for
instance.65 Referring to the ‘detailed anatomical enumerations’ in the two
Irish texts, Patrick Sims-Williams observed: ‘Many similarities in wording
and order result from the subject-matter; nevertheless they are sufficient
to show that the exorcism probably derives from the same glossary-steeped
milieu in seventh-century Ireland as Laidcenn’s lorica’.66
As Herren noted, Etymologiae XI.1 (or glossaries compiled from it) do not
account for some 35 of the 120+ of the terms in the extensive anatomical list
in the lorica, so there must have been other sources. He created a very useful
table of corresponding terms in the lorica and in the Etymologiae as found
in the Lindsay edition.67 Patrick Sims-Williams made a similar table show-
ing the anatomical terminology common to Etymologiae XI.1, the Bangor
exorcism and the Lathcen lorica.68 Only two ninth-century manuscripts of
Differentiae II (Paris, BN lat. 12236 and BN lat 12237) omit the lengthy section
on the parts of the human body (CCSL 111A: 125* and 127*)69 so that it is
almost certain that this section, which is heavily dependent on Lactantius’
De opificio Dei, was included in the early version(s) of the text that travelled
60 Díaz y Díaz, ‘Introduccion general’, pp. 211-212.

61 Herren, The Hisperica famina II, pp. 74-89.
62 AB96 in Warren, The Antiphonary, I, fols. 30v-31r & II, pp. 71-72; Curran, ‘The Antiphonary’,
pp. 124 & 237, notes 36 & 37.
64 Smyth, ‘Understanding’, pp. 118-123.
65 Wright, ‘Los glosarios’, p. 957.
66 Sims-Williams, ‘Thought, Word and Deed’, p. 92.
67 Herren, ‘The Authorship’, pp. 46-49.
68 Sims-Williams, ‘Thought, Word and Deed’, p. 92.
69 Andrés, ‘Adicion o supresion?’, pp. 81-82.
122 Marina Smy th
to Ireland. If the much more limited (less than 30 items) and superficial list
of the parts of the body in the Bangor exorcism is not simply drawn from
memory or from some elementary word-list, it could well have been derived
from section XVII of Isidore’s Differentiae II (CCSL 111A: 34-48; PL 83: 69-98)
since only two items cannot be accounted for in that way.
In manuscripts, Differentiae II with incipit Inter Deum70 is sometimes
called simply Differentiae, or Liber differentiarum or Differentiae spiritu-
ales, and the recent editor believes it was composed c. 600 and no later
than 610.71 It circulated at first independently from what is now known as
Differentiae I, and was consistently attributed to Isidore in the numerous
extant early manuscript witnesses.72 Maria Adelaida Andrés was aware of
26 manuscripts dated from the eighth to the tenth century73! In the Liber de
ordine creaturarum (DOC)74 composed in Ireland between 655 and c. 680,75 all
references to Isidore’s Differentiae are in fact to Book II of the Differentiae.76
In particular, DOC VIII: Concerning the devil and the nature of demons relies
heavily (though not exclusively) on Sections XIV-XV of Differentiae II (CCSL
111A: 28-32; PL 83:76-77). Comparing De ordine creaturarum VIII.16 and
Differentiae II.14.42 (CCSL 111A: 29) we note that there is no reference to the
rationality of demons in De ordine creaturarum.77 Since this detail is also
lacking in a number of manuscripts of Isidore’s text, it should be possible to
narrow down the type of manuscript available in Ireland when De ordine
creaturarum was composed.
Two fragments of a codex containing Differentiae II are now in Milan,
Bibliotheca Ambrosiana,*D. 23 sup, and were formerly used as fly-leaves to
the Bobbio Orosius (Milan, Bibliotheca Ambrosiana, D. 23 sup). They are
probably from the same quire and encompass sections XXXVII.146-XL.167;
PL 83:93-97 (that is, XXXV.146-XLI.167; CCSL 111A: 94-110).78 The script is
‘Irish majuscule, saec. VIII’ and the fragments originated ‘probably from
70 Andrés-Sanz, Liber differentiarum [II].

71 Andrés, ‘Adicion o supresion?’, p. 80; Liber differentiarum [II}, p. 26*.
72 Andrés-Sanz, ‘Vias de investigación’; ‘Relación y transmision’, pp. 243, 252 & 255.
73 Andrés, ‘Adicion o supresion’, p. 80.
74 Díaz y Díaz, Liber de ordine creaturarum.
75 Smyth, ‘The Date and Origin’.
76 Díaz y Díaz, ‘Isidoriana I’, pp. 157-159. Compare, for example, DOC VI.10 with Diff. II.12.32
(CCSL 111A: 23-24); DOC VIII with Diff. II.14-15; DOC XV.2 seems to refer to Diff. II.14.41 (CCSL 111A:
28), DOC XV. 8 seems to cite Diff. II.11.31 (CCSL 111A: 23) and Diff. II.30.101-2 ; DOC XV. 9 refers to
Diff. II.28.100-102 (CCSL 111A: 63-65), DOC XV.10 refers to Diff. II.28.105-108 (CCSL 111A: 66-69).
77 Smyth, ‘The Seventh-Century Hiberno-Latin Treatise’, p. 186, n. 103.
78 Page 313* of CCSL 111A contains a convenient table for converting chapter numbers in the
new edition to the PL 83 chapter numbers.
Ireland’ according to Lowe (CLA II, 329), and are even ‘charakteristisch echt
irisch’ according to Bischoff,79 not only on account of the script but because
of the thick vellum on which the text is written. These fragments would thus
confirm that Differentiae II was available in Ireland by the eighth century.
This tells us nothing, however, about the availability of Differentiae I in
Ireland at that time, since the manuscript evidence points to the late eighth
century for the first occurrences of both texts in the same manuscript (Paris,
BN lat. 2994A and Montpellier, ÉM 306) – and even then, they are not placed
next to one another as parts of the same treatise.80 We cannot therefore
infer from the influence of Differentiae II on DOC, a text written in Ireland
sometime between 655 and c. 680, that Differentiae I was available in Ireland
at that time – whether in its probably original Inter caelum form organized
by subject matter or in the alphabetized form with incipit Inter aptum.81 It
is possible that Differentiae I reached Ireland independently, but I am not
aware of any evidence for an early arrival.
Another Isidorian text was used by the anonymous author of De or-
dine creaturarum: the De ecclesiasticis officiis. Díaz y Díaz had noticed
that the four-fold division of souls described in the Moralia of Gregory
the Great (CCSL 143B: 1304-06) did not explain the full scheme of the fate
of individuals after death as presented in the Hiberno-Latin treatise. De
ordine creaturarum XIV.6 states: ‘The Lord himself does not deny that some
sins shall be forgiven in the world to come, when he says: “He that shall
blaspheme against the Holy Ghost shall never have forgiveness, neither in
this world nor in the world to come, but shall be guilty of everlasting sin”
[Mark 3:29 with ‘neither in this world nor in the world to come’ added from
Matt 12:32]. This implies that there are some sins which, though not forgiven
in this world, can nonetheless be wiped out by fire in the judgment to come.
Were this not the case, the Lord would never have made this distinction’.82
Díaz y Díaz suggested two possible sources: Gregory’s Dialogues IV.40-41
or Isidore’s De ecclesiasticis officiis I.xvi.12 – but was hesitant to accept
79 ‘Typically Irish’. Bischoff, ‘Die europäische Verbreitung’, p. 327.

80 Andrés-Sanz, ‘Adicion o supresion?’, pp. 80 & 84; ‘Relación y transmisión’, p. 256.
81 The two early stages in the organization of Differentiae I were clarified by Carmen Codoñer,
‘Historia del texto’.
82 Smyth, ‘The Seventh-Century Hiberno-Latin Treatise’, p. 203; Díaz y Díaz, Liber de ordine
creaturarum, pp. 188 & 190: ‘Quasdam culpas in futuro remitti dominus ipse non dinegat, cum
dicit: qui blasphemauerit in spiritum sanctum non habet remissionem neque in hoc saeculo neque
in futuro sed reus erit aeterni delicti; ex quo intellegitur quaedam esse peccata quae, etsi in hoc
saeculo non remittuntur, in futuro tamen iudicio per ignem deleri possunt: si enim ita non esset,
hanc districtionem dominus nequaquam posuisset’.
124 Marina Smy th
either one since this would be the only time the source was used by the
Irish author and there was no evidence that these texts were available in
Ireland at that time. However, since the anonymous Irish author endorsed
the idea that really bad people are eternally damned and really good people
enter eternal blessedness immediately at death, and the others must wait
till the last judgment to have their ultimate destiny determined, he does
not allow for any kind of intermediary stage of cleansing punishment,
that is, for what came to be called Purgatory.83 By the time Pope Gregory I
wrote Book IV of the Dialogues, he was advocating the notion of that very
type of cleansing process taking place before the last judgment, so that it is
most unlikely that the Irish author had read Dialogues IV.41.3, for instance.
As for De ecclesiasticis officiis I.12, it is much more vague as to the time
or location of the purgatorial fire and even includes a citation from Matt
12:32: ‘For when the Lord says: “whoever speaks against the Holy Spirit
will not be forgiven, either in this age or the age to come” [Matt 12:32], he
makes clear that for some their sins will be forgiven there and cleansed by
some purgatorial fire’ (my translation).84 Recent studies on the Canones
Hibernenses (for which the earliest extant manuscripts are from the middle
of the eighth century and from the continent) posit an Irish proto-version
from between AD 669 (arrival in England of Theodore of Canterbury – the
latest source) and AD 700. The 2011 edition by Roy Flechner85 and the tables
created by Davies86 of Isidorian borrowings in the two recensions Hib.A and
Hib.B of the Canones Hibernenses indicate that the proto-version of that
text – compiled in Ireland and from which the two recensions appear to
have derived independently87 – must have made numerous borrowings from
Isidore’s De ecclesiasticis officiis, especially in matters relating to church
hierarchy and liturgy. It therefore seems safe to assume that De ecclesiasticis
officiis was available in Ireland by the end of the third quarter of the seventh
century. There is strong evidence, however, that this was not the complete
text since a letter of uncertain date from one Colman to his colleague
Feredach (Brussels, Bibliothèque Royale Albert Ier, Ms. 5649-67) states that
‘our manuscripts’ – presumably manuscripts available in Ireland – contain
83 Smyth, ‘The Origins of Purgatory’, pp. 95-99.

84 ‘Nam et cum dominus dicit: Qui peccauerit in spiritum sanctum non remittetur ei neque
in hoc saeculo neque in futuro, demonstrat quibusdam illuc dimittenda peccata et quodam
purgatorio igne purganda’ (CCSL 113:22-23). My translation is closer to the Latin than that of
Knoebel, ‘Isidore of Seville’, p. 44.
85 I thank Roy Flechner for graciously sending me a copy of his very nice thesis.
86 Davies, ‘Isidorian Texts’, pp. 247-249.
87 Flechner, The Hibernensis, pp. 43*, 63-64* & 68*.
two serious gaps. Christopher Lawson has identified a group of manuscripts

of De ecclesiasticis officiis which ‘suffer two considerable lacunae which
were caused in the subarchetype by the loss of bifolia’.88 Were Colman and
Lawson noticing the same gaps?
It is well-known that already during the lifetime of Isidore, his friend
Braulio was complaining of the circulation of faulty, incomplete copies
of the Etymologiae. Braulio himself had no qualms reorganizing the text
Isidore finally sent him. It is likely that Isidore originally composed only the
content of the first ten books (possibly even without Book IV), and that this
spread rapidly, with or without his consent.89 After Braulio divided the longer
text Isidore sent him later into twenty books, that version also underwent
numerous types of alterations in different environments.90 It follows that
regarding the Etymologiae even more so than for other works by Isidore,
the following questions should be investigated as much as possible for any
medieval citation to that text: Which version was being used? How much
of the text was available to the author using it? Did Isidore write it?
The late seventh-century Commentary on Genesis in Clm 17739 refers
many times to Isidore, or to several of his works: Sententiae, De natura rerum,
Etymologiae, and perhaps Allegoriae.91 When Adomnán wrote his De locis
sanctis in AD 680-690, he had access to both a version of the Etymologiae
and the long version of De natura rerum.92 The two recensions of the Canones
Hibernenses contain citations from other works by Isidore: Etymologiae,
Sententiae, Quaestiones in uetus testamentum, and the Chronica. While a
number of these citations would have been added later and on the continent,
it now seems likely that at least the Sententiae and some version(s) of the
Etymologiae were used in the proto-version since they were available in
Ireland during the late seventh-century, as we have just seen. We have also
seen above that computistical material from that period presents Isidore
as one of the authorities on the subject, citing from the Etymologiae and
De natura rerum.
There is no doubt that several works of Isidore, including at least one
version of the Etymologiae, were available in Ireland in the later part of the
seventh century – whether transmitted directly from Spain, or part ‘of wider
patterns of insular cross-cultural connections during the late seventh and
88 Lawson, ‘Notes’, p. 303.

89 Reydellet, ‘La diffusion des Origines’, pp. 435-436.
90 See e.g., Reydellet,’ La diffusion des Origines’; Díaz y Díaz, ‘Introduccion general’; Codoñer
Merino, ‘Transmisión y recepción’.
91 Ó Cróinín, ‘A New Seventh-Century Irish Commentary’, p. 240.
92 O’Loughlin, ‘The Library of Iona’, pp. 47-49.
126 Marina Smy th
early eighth century’.93 While investigating which recension is involved – or

even which manuscript – remains a conjectural process even for this later
period, certainty about even the availability of an Isidorian text, let alone
a complete text as written by Isidore, is elusive for the earlier period. In
general, I hope this study shows that given the alterations to the original
text made already in the medieval period and of which later scholars may
not have been aware, we should not take anything for granted, so that
conclusions based on earlier editions need to be revisited.
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7 Isidore of Seville in Anglo-Saxon
England
The Synonyma as a Source of Felix’s Vita S. Guthlaci1
Claudia Di Sciacca
Recent scholarship has demonstrated that Isidore was, together with

Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory, one of the four major patristic authorities
for the Anglo-Saxons, and his Etymologiae, De natura rerum, Synonyma,
and De ecclesiasticis officiis belonged to the ‘small core of staple patristic
texts’ housed in a typical Anglo-Saxon library. 2 Isidore undoubtedly
proved an influential source for a variety of fields of Anglo-Saxon literary
culture, ranging from grammar to computus, from history to homiletics
and hagiography, from exegesis to charters.3
This chapter focuses on the Synonyma4 and investigates, in particular,
their role as a source for one of the founding and most popular Anglo-Saxon
hagiographies, the Vita Sancti Guthlaci (henceforth VSG), authored by the
elusive Felix in the first half of the eighth century.5 The Synonyma have not
been enlisted among the rich network of source texts underlying Felix’s
work until very recently.6 The case study in this chapter will hopefully
contribute valuable insights into the early dissemination of the Synonyma in
Anglo-Saxon England and enhance our understanding of the subtle ‘source-
layering’ which can be considered Felix’s most distinctive compositional
technique.7
1 My sincere thanks to Prof. P. Lendinara for her comments on an earlier draft of this paper
and to Ms. M. Cinninger for her bibliographical help. I also gratefully acknowledge the generous
support of the US-Italy Fulbright Commission and the Medieval Institute of the University of
Notre Dame, where most of the research for this essay has been conducted.
2 Lapidge, The Anglo-Saxon Library, pp. 127 and 309-313.
3 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 47-55.
4 Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi.
5 BHL, no. 3723; Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave. On the tenuous evidence
concerning Felix’s life, see below, pp. 140-141.
6 Bremmer, ‘The Reception of Defensor’s Liber Scintillarum’; Di Sciacca, Finding the Right
Words, pp. 99-103.
7 Downey, ‘Intertextuality’, pp. 25-66.
132 Claudia Di Sciacca
The Synonyma
Generally grouped with Isidore’s minor and juvenile works, the Synonyma
enjoyed an ‘immense’ popularity and were the third most copied work by
Isidore after the Etymologiae and the Sententiae.8 Alternatively classified
as a grammatical, ascetic, and dogmatic text, the Synonyma resist any clear-
cut categorisation.9 They consist of two books, one decidedly different
from the other as to theme, tone, and sources employed. The first contains
an effusive and pathetic lamentation (lamentum paenitentiae) expressed
by a sinful man overwhelmed by guilt and despairing of redemption, while
in the second book Reason draws a very detailed norma uiuendi for the
penitent, consisting of pragmatic prescriptions and precepts to pursue
a virtuous lifestyle and resist temptations. The penitential lament and
hortatory consolation are distinctively combined with a most idiosyncratic
style, the so-called stilus ysydorianus, a rhymed, rhythmical prose mak-
ing pervasive use of synonymical variation and paraphrase, which was
to become one of the four major kinds of Latin Kunstprosa in the Middle
Ages.10 It was this characteristic blend of eloquium and uotum, to put it in
Isidore’s own words,11 that secured the Synonyma an exceptionally vast
and enduring popularity throughout the Middle Ages in the Latin West,
firstly as a spiritual primer and, secondarily, as a grammatical handbook.12
The editor of the recent critical edition of the Synonyma has identified
two recensions, Λ and Φ, which apparently stemmed from the independent
revision of two parallel versions of a primitive text carried out by Isidore
himself. Contaminations of the two recensions started as early as the first
half of the eighth century and are so numerous and extensive that they
represent the most distinctive and recurrent feature of the manuscript
tradition of the Synonyma.13 As has been shown, both recensions circulated
8 Elfassi, ‘Les Synonyma d’Isidore de Séville: un manuel de grammaire ou de morale?’, p. 167;

Elfassi, ‘Trois aspects inattendus’, p. 109.
9 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 19-20; Elfassi, ‘Les Synonyma d’Isidore de Séville:
un manuel de grammaire ou de morale?’; Elfassi, ‘Les Synonyma d’Isidore de Séville (VIIe s.)’.
10 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 24-31; Elfassi, ‘Genèse et originalité’.
11 Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, p. 5. 21
12 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 34-36 and 176-180; Elfassi, ‘Les Synonyma d’Isidore
de Séville: un manuel de grammaire ou de morale?’; Elfassi, ‘Los centones de los Synonyma’;
Elfassi, ‘Trois aspects inattendus’; Elfassi, ‘Les Synonyma d’Isidore de Séville (VIIe s.)’.
13 Elfassi, ‘Una edición crítica de los Synonyma’, pp. 110-113; Elfassi, ‘Isidorus Hispalensis ep.’,
p. 222; Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, pp. lvi-lxx; Elfassi, ‘Une nouvelle hypothèse’.
Isidore of Seville in Anglo -Sa xon England 133
in Anglo-Saxon England, itself a symptom of the variety and complexity of

the Anglo-Saxon reception of this Isidorian text.14
Isidore and the Synonyma in Anglo-Saxon England
Knowledge of Isidore’s texts in Anglo-Saxon England was both early and

plentiful. The first testimonies can be dated to the renowned Canterbury
school of Archbishop Theodore (d. 690) and Abbot Hadrian (d. 709 or
710),15 and to the ‘f irst Englishman of letters’, Aldhelm (c. 640?-709 or
710), himself a student of Theodore and Hadrian and eventually abbot of
Malmesbury and bishop of Sherborne.16 From the evidence afforded by
the two major witnesses to the syllabus of the Canterbury school, namely
the Canterbury Biblical Commentaries and the Leiden family of glosses,
as well as by Aldhelm’s corpus, it can be inferred that by the beginning of
the eighth century at least the Etymologiae, De natura rerum, Synonyma,
De ecclesiasticis officiis, De ortu et obitu patrum, De differentiis uerborum,
and the dubious Liber numerorum were known to the Anglo-Saxons.17 In
particular, the literary and manuscript evidence shows that the De natura
rerum, the Etymologiae, and the Synonyma were the first Isidorian works
that reached Anglo-Saxon England and the most abundantly attested in
Anglo-Saxon centres, both insular and continental.18
Anglo-Saxon England was particularly receptive to the Synonyma. Anglo-
Saxon libraries, whether in England or on the continent, were well stocked
with copies of the Synonyma: no fewer than eight manuscript witnesses
were written or circulating in pre-Norman times and another six codices are
associated with Anglo-Saxon foundations on the continent.19 Also, another
copy of the Synonyma is recorded in the list of books sent by Æthelwold,
bishop of Winchester (d. 984), to the monastery of Medeshamstede c. 970.20
14 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 68-76; Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi,
pp. cx-cxiii.
15 Biblical Commentaries, ed. by Bischoff and Lapidge; Archbishop Theodore, ed. by Lapidge.
16 Aldhelm: The Prose Works, trans. by Lapidge and Herren, p. 1; Lapidge, ‘Aldhelm’; Orchard,
The Poetic Art of Aldhelm.
17 Di Sciacca, ‘Isidorian Scholarship’; Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 47-50.
18 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 55-76.
19 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 68-76; Hussey, ‘The Franco-Saxon Synonyma’; Hussey,
‘Ascetics and Aesthetics’, pp. 38-140; Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’.
20 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 164-165; Lapidge, The Anglo-Saxon Library, pp. 54-55
and 134-136.
As mentioned above, both recensions of the Synonyma are attested in

Anglo-Saxon England. Indeed, the earliest witnesses of both Λ and Φ are
either of definite Anglo-Saxon origin or have strong Anglo-Saxon connec-
tions. Two Southumbrian codices of the first half of the eighth century, St
Petersburg, Russian National Library, Q. v. I. 15,21 and Würzburg, Univer-
sitätsbibliothek, M. p. th. f. 79,22 first attest to the Λ recension, while one of
the earliest witnesses of the Φ recension is Fulda, Domschatz, Bonifatianus
2,23 an eighth-century continental manuscript with ‘insular symptoms’24 and
links to Boniface (c. 675-754),25 the renowned Anglo-Saxon missionary and,
together with Aldhelm and Felix, one of the earliest named readers of the
Synonyma in pre-Conquest England.26 Furthermore, source-studies of both
the Old English and the Anglo-Latin corpus have shown the variety of uses
the Anglo-Saxons made of the Synonyma, ranging from the homiletic to the
devotional and the didactic, and it can be concluded that the Synonyma
were ‘the Isidorian text most abundantly attested in pre-Conquest England
after the Etymologiae’.27
It has been argued that the Anglo-Saxon reception of the Synonyma
was idiosyncratic in that, while most of Isidore’s other works would have
reached both South- and Northumbrian England chiefly thanks to Irish
transmission, 28 the Synonyma would have arrived in Southumbria via
France and their influence would have been concentrated in south-west
21 Ms. L: Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, p. xxxvii; Gneuss, Handlist, no. 845;
CLA, xi, no. 1618; Hussey, ‘Ascetics and Aesthetics’, pp. 102-110; Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’,
pp. 158-161.
22 Ms. W: Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, pp. xliii-xliv; Gneuss, Handlist, no. 946;
CLA, ix, no. 1426; Ker, Catalogue, no. 400; Hussey, ‘Ascetics and Aesthetics’, pp. 87-102; Hussey,
‘Transmarinis litteris’, pp. 156-158.
23 Ms. F: Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, pp. xxviii-xxix; CLA, viii, no. 1197;
Hussey, ‘The Franco-Saxon Synonyma’; Hussey, ‘Ascetics and Aesthetics’, pp. 111-134; Hussey,
‘Transmarinis litteris’, pp. 161-163.
24 Haseloff, ‘Der Einband des Ragyndrudis Codex‘, pp. 42-46; McKitterick, ‘The Diffusion of
Insular Culture’, p. 415; Hussey, ‘The Franco-Saxon Synonyma’, pp. 235-236; Hussey, ‘Ascetics
and Aesthetics’, pp. 122-124.
25 Orchard, ‘Boniface’.
26 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 51-52, 72-74, and 151-155; Hussey, ‘The Franco-Saxon
Synonyma’; Hussey, ‘Ascetics and Aesthetics’, pp. 77-140; Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’, pp. 150-151
and 166-168.
27 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, p. 54.
28 The routes of transmission of Isidore’s texts from Visigothic Spain to the British Isles and
the role of the Irish in it are two vexed and still largely unresolved questions; for a summary of
the scholarly debate, see Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 37-47 and 55-68.
Mercia and Wessex.29 In fact, manuscript evidence indicates two major

routes of transmission of the Synonyma, an insular and a French one, the
former pertaining to recension Λ and the latter to recension Φ, respec-
tively.30 However, the insular and continental paths of dissemination can
hardly be kept discrete.31 If Λ has got an unquestionably insular trademark
– six out of the nine Λ-witnesses collated by Elfassi originated either in
Anglo-Saxon England or on an insular centre on the continent, and the
Λ-text of the Synonyma was likely the one first known in both England
and Ireland32 – the evidence concerning its actual route from Visigothic
Spain to Anglo-Saxon England is inconclusive. In particular, although the
manuscript evidence suggests that recension Λ reached England directly
from Spain, a dissemination across the English Channel via France cannot
be excluded.33
In sum, the transmission of the two recensions of the Synonyma as envis-
aged by their modern editor as well as the frequency of contaminations
and interpolations between Λ and Φ suggests that the dissemination of
the Isidorian text to the British Isles was probably the result of more than
one route or one group of mediators, as the scope of the cultural contacts
and exchanges that linked Spain, France, Anglo-Saxon England, Ireland,
Italy, and Germany was wider and more complex than it has often been
acknowledged.34
Although the Synonyma seem to have been less influential than other
Isidorian texts in Ireland,35 still it should be reminded that they feature
among the sources of the Collectio Canonum Hibernensis (c. 725). Also, the
most distinctive product of seventh-century Irish Latinity, the Hisperica
Famina, betrays the stylistic influence of the Synonyma, as well as of the
contemporary Spanish Reimprosa more generally.36
Furthermore, the diffusion of the Synonyma within Irish circles is in-
directly attested by two miscellaneous continental manuscripts, Munich,
29 Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’, pp. 146-155.

30 Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, pp. cviii-cxiii.
31 Ibidem.
32 Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, pp. lxxi-lxxix and cix-cxi.
33 Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, pp. cxii-cxiii; Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’,
pp. 152-153.
34 Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, pp. cx-cxiii; Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words,
pp. 66-68. On the circulation of Isidore’s texts in early medieval Ireland, see Marina Smyth,
‘Isidorian Texts in Seventh-Century Ireland’, above, pp. 111-130.
35 Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’, pp. 146-148.
36 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 38-40 and 46-47; cf. Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’,
pp. 147-148.
Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 6433,37 and St Gall, Stiftsbibliothek 908.38

The former is a codex written at Freising in the second half of the eighth
century and is the only surviving witness of the Florilegium frisingense, a
veritable compendium of distinctively Irish exegetical, theological, and
homiletic literature which draws extensively on both authentic and pseu-
doepigraphical Isidorian texts, including the Synonyma.39 The Florilegium
frisingense is anonymous but was possibly compiled by the scribe of the
Munich manuscript, namely the Northumbrian-trained Anglo-Saxon
scribe Peregrinus, 40 a circumstance which, incidentally, would challenge
the argument that the early circulation of the Synonyma in Anglo-Saxon
England was confined to Southumbria. Also, the Frisingense is immediately
followed in the manuscript by the second book of the Synonyma and by the
Liber scintillarum,41 one of the most popular biblical and patristic florilegia
of the early Middle Ages, especially widespread in Anglo-Saxon England, 42
and also heavily indebted to the Isidorian text. 43 In sum, both the textual
and codicological evidence suggests that the Munich miscellany was put to-
gether in a milieu thoroughly au fait with and appreciative of the Synonyma.
The fact that the Frisingense was composed in an insular foundation on
the continent is a welcome reminder that ‘continental’ and ‘insular’ should
not necessarily be read as mutually exclusive terms, since insular agents
of transmission were active also on the continent, and insular foundations
on the continent, such as Bobbio, were undoubtedly centres where Isidore’s
texts were well known and zealously copied from very early on. The St Gall
codex 908 is another case in point: written ‘in a centre of insular cultural
influence’, probably in the Milan area or Bobbio, it contains three excerpts
from the Synonyma and one from Isidore’s Sententiae alongside the only
37 Ms. M: Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, p. xxxviii; Florilegium frisingense, ed.
by Lehner, pp. xiii-xiv and xxxvi.
38 Ms. h: Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, pp. xlix-l; Di Sciacca, Finding the Right
Words, pp. 35 and 64.
39 Florilegium frisingense, ed. by Lehner, pp. 1-39; see also pp. xv, xxxv, and 137-138; Isidori
Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, p. xxxviii.
40 O’Byrne, ‘Peregrinus of Freising’.
41 Defensor Liber scintillarum, ed. by Rochais. The traditional attribution of the Liber scintil-
larum to the monk Defensor of Ligugé about 700 has recently been challenged in favour of a
later dating (s. viii 1) and an origin in Germany, possibly in the Trier or Würzburg area: Elfassi,
‘Defensor de Ligugé’; Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, pp. cxii-cxiii; Elfassi, ‘Les
Synonyma d’Isidore de Séville dans l’oeuvre de Raban Maur’, p. 249, n. 9.
42 Bremmer, ‘The Reception of Defensor’s Liber Scintillarum’. An Old English interlinear version
of the Liber scintillarum is attested in ms. London, British Library, Royal 7.c.iv: The Old English
‘Liber scintillarum’, ed. by Rhodes.
43 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 34-35; Elfassi, ‘Defensor de Ligugé’.
copy of the Commentary on the Creation and Fall – the fourth item in
Bischoff’s (in)famous catalogue of Hiberno-Latin Biblical commentaries
and itself indebted to Isidorian sources – as well as a number of texts of
apocryphal content which were distinctively popular with the Irish. 44
The Synonyma as a Hagiographic Source
Both manuscript- and source-studies have shown that throughout the Mid-
dle Ages the Synonyma were increasingly perceived as a moral treatise. In
particular, it has been argued that they proved especially popular with
authors of moral florilegia, prayers, and devotional texts, homilies and
hagiographies, as well as canonical collections. 45 As regards hagiographic
literature in particular, the Synonyma have been identified as a source
(albeit often an indirect one) of at least eight continental saints’ lives up
to the beginning of the thirteenth century, 46 and they are associated with
hagiographic texts in no fewer than f ive manuscripts collated for the
modern critical edition of the Synonyma.47
Of these five codices, one, that is Munich, Staatsbibliothek, Clm 15817, 48
is particularly relevant, because here the Synonyma follow the earliest (if in-
complete) surviving copy of the Vita S. Cuthberti, written by an anonymous
monk (or perhaps, monks) of the Lindisfarne community c. 699-705. 49 This
manuscript has been dated to Archbishop Aldaram of Salzburg’s period of
office (821-836), but it probably derives from an early exemplar in insular
script, whose distinctively Northumbrian spellings were largely preserved
by the conservative, if often careless, scribe of the Munich manuscript.50
Another hint supporting the insular origin of this manuscript is the fact that
the copy of the Synonyma it contains belongs to the Λ recension, which, as
has been mentioned above, had a predominantly insular circulation. Also,
although the circumstances of the arrival of the anonymous Vita S. Cuthberti
44 Wright, ‘Apocryphal Lore and Insular Tradition’, pp. 124-127 and 144-145, quotation at 125
45 Elfassi, ‘Los centones de los Synonyma’; Elfassi, ‘Trois aspects inattendus’; Elfassi, ‘Defensor
de Ligugé’.
46 Elfassi, ‘Trois aspects inattendus’, pp. 124-132.
47 The five manuscripts in question are Elfassi’s S, U, V, X, and b: Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma,
ed. by Elfassi, pp. xli-xlvii.
48 Ms. S, Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, pp. xli-xlii; Bullough, ‘A Neglected Early-
Ninth-Century Manuscript’, pp. 107-108.
49 BHL, no. 2019; Two Lives of Saint Cuthbert, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 60-139.
50 Bullough, ‘A Neglected Early-Ninth-Century Manuscript’, pp. 108-110 and 130.
in Salzburg by the early ninth century are still obscure, a possible context
for it and perhaps also for the association of the Anglo-Saxon hermit-saint’s
life with the Synonyma might be provided by Virgilius, the erudite Irish
bishop of Salzburg in the second half of the eighth century (d. 784). During
Virgilius’s episcopate at least two popular Isidorian pseudo-epigrapha, the
Liber de numeris and De ortu et obitu patriarcharum, were compiled. Another
text that can be associated with Virgilius’s entourage is the question-and-
answer dialogue Prebiarum de multorium exemplaribus, which draws on at
least three of Isidore’s texts, the Etymologiae, De ecclesiasticis officiis, and
Sententiae, and on the pseudepigraphical Liber de numeris.51
To my knowledge the only Anglo-Saxon saint’s life where the Synonyma
have been drawn on is the VSG and, thereby, the two derivative Old English
prose texts, the so-called Vespasian Life and Vercelli Homily xxiii. The
following pages will analyse the borrowing from the Synonyma in the VSG,
identify the possible antecedent consulted by Felix, and map out the context
in which such a borrowing could have taken place.
Felix and the Vita S. Guthlaci
A generation younger than the Northumbrian Cuthbert, Guthlac is the

second earliest and most popular Anglo-Saxon hermit saint. The VSG
provides a comprehensive account of Guthlac’s life, from his youth as a
successful warlord of aristocratic descent, to his conversion and tonsure
at the monastery of Repton, Derbyshire,52 and, finally, to his withdrawal
to Crowland, a small island (in fact, a promontory linked to the mainland
by a gravel ridge), haunted by demons on the fenland marking the border
between the Mercian and East Anglian kingdoms, where he spent the
last fifteen years of his life as an anchorite.53 Guthlac soon attracted at-
tention from the most prominent ranks of society: his visitors included
Hædda, bishop of Lichfield (d. 716-727), who ordained Guthlac as priest,
and Æthelbald (716-757), future king of the Mercians. His rapidly growing
51 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 41 and 43.

52 Biddle & Kjølbye-Biddle, ‘Repton’.
53 Mayr-Harting, ‘Guthlac’; Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 2-7;
Meaney, ‘Felix’s Life of St Guthlac: Hagiography and/or Truth’; Meaney, ‘Felix’s Life of Guthlac:
History or Hagiography?’; The Guthlac Poems, ed. by Roberts, pp. 1-7; Roberts, ‘Hagiography and
Literature’, pp. 72-76; Roberts, Guthlac of Crowland, pp. 7-11; Roberts, ‘Guthlac, St’, p. 227.
popularity and saintly reputation was commemorated and reinforced by

the highly-literary Latin uita by Felix.54
Over time, a vernacular tradition developed and lasted throughout the
Anglo-Saxon period and beyond the Norman Conquest.55 Though Guthlac
– somewhat surprisingly – found no place in the two major Anglo-Saxon
sanctoralia, those of Bede and of Ælfric, respectively,56 he is one of the few
native saints to be added to the originally continental collection of the
so-called Corpus-Cotton Legendary, the major hagiographic collection
circulating in late Anglo-Saxon England and the chief source of Ælfric’s
sanctorale.57 But more importantly, Guthlac is the Anglo-Saxon saint most
celebrated in Old English and the only one commemorated in vernacular
poetry. There are five major pre-Conquest vernacular texts on St Guthlac:
1 Anonymous, Old English Martyrology (prose; s. ix 2; The Old English
Martyrology, ed. and trans. by Rauer, pp. 80-81 and 252)
2 Anonymous, Vespasian Life (prose; s. ixex -xin; Das angelsächsische Prosa-
Leben, ed. by Gonser, pp. 100-173)
3 Anonymous, Vercelli Homily xxiii (prose; before c. 975; The Vercelli
Homilies, ed. by Scragg, pp. 383-392; corresponds to Felix’s VSG, chpts.
xxviii-xxxiv)
4 Anonymous, Guthlac A (verse; uncertain dating; The Guthlac Poems, ed.
by Roberts, pp. 83-107; corresponds to Felix’s VSG, chpts. xxviii-xxxii)
5 Anonymous, Guthlac B (verse; uncertain dating; The Guthlac Poems,
ed. by Roberts, pp. 108-124; corresponds to Felix’s VSG, chpt. l)
While the relationship between the vernacular texts and the Latin life
is not always unequivocal (especially in the case of the entry in the Old
English Martyrology and the poem Guthlac A),58 the VSG represents the
54 The VSG is attested in thirteen manuscripts in total, of which nine were written or owned
in England up to c. 1100: see Gneuss, Handlist, nos. 88, 103, 215, 344, 434.5, 456, 484, 781, and 804.
55 Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. by Colgrave, pp. 7-15; Roberts, ‘An Inventory’; The Guthlac
Poems, ed. by Roberts; Roberts, ‘The Old English Prose Translation’; Roberts, ‘The Old English
Saints’, pp. 441-445; Roberts, ‘Hagiography and Literature’, pp. 77-84; Roberts, ‘Guthlac, St’.
56 Bede’s knowledge of Mercia has been defined as ‘patchy’: Roberts, Guthlac of Crowland, p. 7.
As to Ælfric, his reliance on Bede as a favoured source for Anglo-Saxon saints is probably the
reason behind his omission of Guthlac: see Di Sciacca, ‘“concupita, quaesita, ac petita solitudinis
secreta”’, pp. 174-175.
57 Lapidge, ‘Ælfric’s Sanctorale’; Jackson and Lapidge, ‘The Contents’; Three Eleventh-Century
Anglo-Latin Saints’ Lives, ed. by Love, pp. xviii-xxxiii; Zettel, ‘Ælfric’s Hagiographic Sources’;
Zettel, ‘Saints’ Lives in Old English’.
58 Roberts, ‘An Inventory’, pp. 201 and 203-204; The Guthlac Poems, ed. by Roberts, pp. 19-29;
Roberts, ‘Guthlac A’; Roberts, ‘Hagiography and Literature’, pp. 77-80 and 82-84; Roberts, ‘Guthlac,
cornerstone of this vast and enduring hagiographic tradition. Unfortunately,

we are in the dark as to the exact circumstances of its composition. Felix’s
dedication of the VSG to Ælfwald, king of the East Angles (c. 713-749),59
and his use of Bede’s prose Vita S. Cuthberti (c. 721)60 as a source provide
a fairly definite chronological range for the text. Otherwise, the details of
Felix’s life and schooling and of the place where he composed the VSG are
unknown. Even his nationality is uncertain and he may not even have been
Anglo-Saxon,61 although he must have spent at least a substantial portion of
his life in England, presumably in East Anglia, since in the prologue to the
VSG, Felix addresses the East Anglian King Ælfwald as dominus meus and
later on refers to King Aldwulf without mentioning that he was king of the
East Angles.62 Ælfwald is an equally elusive figure.63 According to the VSG
(chpts. xlviiii and l), Ælfwald’s sister, Ecgburh, an abbess, was in touch with
Guthlac, and this family connection with the saint may have been at the
origin of Ælfwald’s commission to Felix64. More relevant for the purposes
of this study, however, is that the king can be counted in among Boniface’s
correspondents, since Ælfwald addressed a letter to the missionary in the
late 740s promising prayers from the seven monasteries in his kingdom.65
It is possible that Felix was a monk at one of these seven East Anglian
foundations. Otherwise, the only evidence concerning Felix and his envi-
rons is that provided by the VSG itself. In spite of its heavy debt to previous
saints’ lives and the author’s frequent concessions to hagiographic topoi, the
VSG reveals a closeness to the events related and the characters portrayed.66
St’, p. 227; Wieland, ‘Aures Lectoris’, p. 177, n. 43; Whatley, ‘Guthlacus, vita’, pp. 246-247; Hall,
‘Constructing Anglo-Saxon Sanctity’, pp. 208-210; The Old English Martyrology, ed. and trans.
by Rauer, pp. 80-81 and 252. On the Latin literary sources of Felix’s Vita and their interaction
with native oral tradition, see Wieland, ‘Aures Lectoris’, pp. 170-177.
59 Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, p. 16; Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms,
pp. 59, 63, and 66-71.
60 BHL, no. 2021; Two Lives of St Cuthbert, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 140-307.
61 Lapidge, ‘Aldhelm’, p. 186; Higham, ‘Guthlac’s Vita’, p. 85; Roberts, Guthlac of Crowland, p. 5.
62 Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 16 and 60.
63 Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, p. 16; Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms,
pp. 59, 63, and 66-71.
64 VSG, chpt. xlviii: Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 146-149 and
191. According to the twelfth-century Liber Eliensis, Ecgburh was abbess of Repton, Guthlac’s
own motherhouse, but this is ‘probably pure guess-work’: Meaney, ‘Felix’s Life of St Guthlac:
Hagiography and/or Truth’, pp. 30-31; cf. The Guthlac Poems, ed. by Roberts, p. 5; Roberts, ‘Guthlac
A’, p. 70.
65 Epistola lxxxi: Die Briefe des heiligen Bonifatius, ed. Tangl, pp. 181-182; English translation
in The Letters of Saint Boniface, trans. by Emerton, pp. 149-150.
66 Meaney, ‘Felix’s Life of St Guthlac: Hagiography and/or Truth’, p. 30.
Hence the impulse to connect Felix with the very same foundations to which
Guthlac himself had been attached. In fact, the VSG mentions only one
monastery, namely Repton, the double house in Derbyshire where Guthlac
received his (Petrine) tonsure and from where he set off for the fens after
two years of monastic training. What is more, Repton was associated with
the Mercian royal house and Æthelbald (d. 757), king of Mercia in Felix’s
lifetime and a devotee of St Guthlac, was buried there.67 From the account
of Guthlac’s eremitic life in Crowland, however, it is clear that the saint must
have relied on the logistic support of a neighbouring foundation, which
is never named by Felix. According to Meaney, the most likely candidate
for the role of Guthlac’s base was Medeshamstede (Peterborough today), a
monastery only about seven miles south of Crowland and one of the most
influential and thriving foundations in the area at the time.68
Why Felix should have kept quiet about Medeshamstede’s putative role
as Guthlac’s logistic base is a matter of speculation,69 as is the question
of whether Felix himself could have been a member of either Repton or
Medeshamstede. What seems certain is that he cannot have been a monk of
Crowland, since it is unlikely that the local abbey predates the tenth-century
Benedictine reform movement.70 Thus, all that can be concluded at this stage
is that Felix must have been active in a Southumbrian, presumably East
Anglian, centre endowed with a library of remarkable size.71 Indeed, the
wide range of sources and their subtle integration and layering as well as the
ornate, flamboyant Latin displayed by Felix reveal that he was a well-read,
sophisticated author who must have benefited from a high standard of Latin
training and access to a well-stocked library.72 In particular, Felix seems to
have been thoroughly conversant with and heavily influenced by Aldhelm,73
who, notably, is also the earliest literary witness to the circulation of the
Synonyma in Anglo-Saxon England.
67 Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 6-7, 15-16, 19, 40, 131, 139, 176, and
188; Keynes, ‘Æthelbald’; Kelly, ‘Ceolred (d. 757)’; Roberts, ‘Hagiography and Literature’, p. 76.
Æthelbald’s interaction with Guthlac is the subject of much of the so-called Guthlac Roll: Felix’s
Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 12-14; Roberts, ‘An Inventory’, p. 208.
68 Meaney, ‘Felix’s Life of Guthlac: History or Hagiography?’, pp. 78-79.
69 Ibidem.
70 Roberts, ‘Hagiography and Literature’, pp. 70-71; Roberts, ‘Guthlac, St’, p. 227.
71 Meaney, ‘Felix’s Life of Guthlac: History or Hagiography?’, p. 75.
72 Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 16-18; Downey, ‘Intertextuality’,
pp. 25-66; Meaney, ‘Felix’s Life of Guthlac: History or Hagiography?’, p. 75; Lapidge, ‘Aldhelm’,
p. 186.
73 Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 17-18; Lapidge, ‘The Anglo-Latin
Background’, p. 13; Lapidge, ‘Aldhelm’, p. 186; Wieland, ‘Aures Lectoris’, pp. 171-172.
The Synonyma as a Source of the Vita S. Guthlaci
The borrowing from the Synonyma occurs in one of the central chapters
of the VSG, that is in a section of the life which recounts the early stages of
Guthlac’s anachoresis and his strenuous fights with the evil spirits infesting
the barrow he had chosen as his hermitage. In particular, the chapter in
question tells how two devils in human form suddenly materialise in front
of Guthlac while the saint is meditating and deceptively try to tempt him to
fast to excess by admonishing him about the examples set by the illustrious
hermits of the past – Christ himself, Moses, Elijah, and the Egyptian monks
– who had all excelled in their abstinence.74 The quote from the Synonyma
is embedded within the lengthy address by the two demons and reads:75
Quanto enim in hoc saeculo frangeris, tanto in perpetuum solidaris: et

quanto in praesenti adfligeris, tanto in futuro gaudebis.
(‘For insofar as you are broken down in this world, you shall be made
whole and firm in eternity; and to the degree that you are afflicted in
this present life, so much shall you rejoice in the future’.)
The principle that the more one suffers in this life the more one will rejoice
in eternity can be considered a commonplace tenet of Christian ethics.
However, a comparison with the Synonyma (i. 28) shows a verbatim debt
to Isidore, in that Felix’s phrasing and wording are basically identical with
the source-text:76
Quanto enim in hoc saeculo frangimur, tanto in perpetuum solidamur;

quanto in praesenti adfligimur, tanto in futuro gaudebimus.
(‘For insofar as we are broken down in this world, we shall be made whole
and firm in the eternal world; to the degree that we are afflicted in this
present life, so much shall we rejoice in the future’.)
74 On the psychological or physical nature of such demonic apparitions, see Meaney, ‘Felix’s
Life of St Guthlac: Hagiography and/or Truth’, pp. 36-40; Vos, ‘Demons Without and Within’;
Almond, The Devil, pp. 111-117 and 206-216.
75 VSG, chpt. xxx: Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, p. 99. 24-26, translation
at 100.
76 Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, p. 23; my translation.
The only notable discrepancy is that, while in the Synonyma the verbs are
in the first person plural, in the VSG they are in the second person singular,
which can be explained by the dialogical context of Felix’s text.77
The quote from the Synonyma is a brief extract from a longer passage
uttered by Reason and devoted to the principle of inverse proportion ruling
the destiny in the afterlife (Synonyma i. 27-30). In view of the concision
of the borrowing, on the one hand, and of the frequency with which the
Synonyma were abstracted and epitomised throughout the Middle Ages, on
the other, it could be expected that Felix had known the Isidorian sentence
second-hand and picked it from a florilegium or a devotional collection.
Indeed, the sentence in question occurs in the Liber scintillarum (chpt. i.
29):78
Quantum enim in hoc saeculo frangimur, tantum in perpetuo

solidamur. Quantum hic in presente adf ligimur, tantum in futuro
gaudebimus.
(‘For insofar as we are broken down in this world, we shall be made whole
and firm in the eternal world; to the degree that we are afflicted here in
the present, so much shall we rejoice in the future’.)
This passage from the Liber scintillarum has been classified as Felix’s direct
source in the Fontes Anglo-Saxonici database,79 while more recently Brem-
mer has argued that it is not possible to determine whether the VSG draws
directly on Isidore or on Defensor’s excerpt.80
What is certain, however, is that Felix and Defensor ultimately relied
on two different recensions of the Synonyma, at least as far as the quote in
question is concerned. This sentence features in both Λ and Φ, but while the
VSG shares four distinctive readings with the Λ recension, namely quanto
(x2) and tanto (x2), Defensor’s text as we know it from Rochais’ edition
features the corresponding Φ-readings, namely quantum and tantum; also,
77 The passage from the Synonyma was eventually translated into Old English in both the
Vespasian Life and Vercelli Homily xxiii, while it has no counterpart in Guthlac A and B: see Di
Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 99-103.
78 Defensor Liber scintillarum, ed. by Rochais, p. 173; my translation. On the Liber scintillarum,
see above n. 41.
79 Love, ‘The Sources of Felix’.
80 Bremmer, ‘The Reception of Defensor’s Liber Scintillarum’, pp. 83-84.
Defensor adds the adverb hic in the phrase hic in presente which is not
recorded in any of the witnesses collated by Elfassi.81
This circumstance is consistent with the general picture of the Anglo-
Saxon manuscript tradition of the Synonyma, according to which the Λ
recension was the first to reach Anglo-Saxon England and had the widest
circulation there. Felix predictably knew this text of the Synonyma, while
the compiler of a continental florilegium such as the Liber scintillarum,
whether from Ligugé or not, 82 presumably drew on the predominantly
continental Φ recension.
Now, at least two Southumbrian witnesses of the Λ recension are contem-
porary with the VSG, namely the St Petersburg and Würzburg manuscripts.
In particular, Felix’s text seems to be closer to the latter codex, in that
both read futuro while the corresponding reading in the St Petersburg
manuscript is futurum.83
The St Petersburg manuscript has been traced to a south-west English
scriptorium, but it was eventually moved to the insular foundation of Corbie
by the middle of the eighth century; indeed part of the contents, including
the final part of the Synonyma, were added at Corbie.84 In addition to its early
date and Southumbrian origin, the St Petersburg Synonyma are especially
relevant to us for their links with two Anglo-Saxon literati that, together
with Felix, are the earliest named readers of the Synonyma in England,
namely Aldhelm and Boniface, and whose writings, especially Aldhelm’s,
were current in the milieu where the VSG originated. Indeed, in the St
Petersburg codex the Synonyma are bracketed by an acrostic poem on
St John, Iohannis celsi rimans mysteria caeli,85 which has been attributed,
albeit not universally, to Boniface, and by Aldhelm’s Enigmata.86 What is
more, it has been argued – again not unanimously – that one of the hands
at work on the codex was that of Boniface himself, whose handwriting has
apparently been detected in the two texts preceding the Synonyma, namely
81 Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, p. 23. Indeed, according to Elfassi, the Liber
scintillarum relies on a contaminated Φ-text of the Synonyma similar to the text transmitted by
an early ninth-century south German manuscript, Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm
6330 (Elfassi’s ms. m): Elfassi, ‘Defensor de Ligugé’, pp. 246-248; Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma,
ed. by Elfassi, pp. li-lii.
82 See above, n. 41.
83 Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, p. 23.
84 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 69 and 72; Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’, pp. 158-161;
cf. Dobiaš-Roždestvenskaja and Bakhtine, Les anciens manuscrits latins, p. 66.
85 Schaller and Könsgen, Initia carminum latinorum, no. 8331; ptd. PLS, iv, col. 2192.
86 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 69 and 72.
a copy of the Athanasian creed (Quicumque uult) and the St John poem.87 If
the St Petersburg manuscript really is a Bonifatian autograph, then it must
be dated before 718, when Boniface set off for the continent. Boniface could
even have played a role in the arrival of the codex itself on the continent
because the St Petersburg manuscript could have been part of an exchange
of gifts between Boniface and Grimo, abbot of Corbie (741-751).88
There is also a Bonifatian dimension to the Würzburg Synonyma. The
bishopric of Würzburg was established by Boniface in 741 or 742 and the
Synonyma seems to have been ‘besonders [beliebt] in Würzburg’.89 At least
five manuscripts of the Isidorian text dating up to the first half of the
ninth century are associated with Würzburg and the codex M. p. th. f. 79
is the earliest of them.90 Dating to the first half, possibly the first quarter,
of the eighth century, this manuscript has been traced to a Mercian or
southwestern centre with Frankish cultural contacts, probably Worcester,
on the basis of both the palaeographical evidence and the dialectal features
of a number of Old English drypoint glosses roughly contemporary with the
production of the manuscript.91 The codex reached the Rhine-Main area by
the end of the eighth century or beginning of the ninth and finally arrived
at Würzburg, likely via Mainz, Boniface’s see, by the mid-ninth century.92
Once in Germany, a number of drypoint glosses in an east Frankish dialect
were entered in a hybrid minuscule which has been dated to the early ninth
century and classified as ‘nachbonifatianisch’ and ‘deutsch insular’.93
It would be tempting to speculate that Felix consulted one of these
two manuscripts, especially the Würzburg one with which it shares the
reading futuro. However, if the dating of the two codices is consistent with
this hypothesis, their putative places of origin (a southwestern English
scriptorium for the St Petersburg codex, and a Mercian or southwestern
centre, possibly Worcester, for the Würzburg one), do not correspond with
the proposed East Anglian place of composition for Felix’s VSG. Here Felix
87 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 72 and 244-245, nn. 429 and 431.
88 Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’, pp. 160-161; Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, p.
xxxvii.
89 Bischoff and Hofmann, Libri Sancti Kyliani, p. 96.
90 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 72-74; Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’, pp. 164-165;
Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, pp. xlii-xliii (ms. U), xliii-xliv (ms. W), xliv-xlv (ms.
X), lvii (ms. w), and lviii (ms. y).
91 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 68-69 and 71-72; Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’,
pp. 164-165; Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, p. xliv.
92 Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, p. xliv.
93 Thurn, Die Handschriften, III.1, p. 66; Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, p. 72; Hussey,
‘Transmarinis litteris’, p. 158; Isidori Hispalensis Synonyma, ed. by Elfassi, p. xliv.
must have had access to at least one copy of the Λ-text of the Synonyma
(whether in its entirety or in excerpts); in particular, this copy probably
contained a text closer to the one preserved in the Würzburg codex. As
mentioned above, Felix’s putative East Anglian mother-house must have
been provided with an extensive library, where hagiographic sources as
well as Aldhelm’s works must have featured prominently. The final part of
this chapter will attempt to sketch out the contents of such a library and
the original milieu of the VSG.
The Literary Milieu of the Vita S. Guthlaci
Quellenforschung on the VSG has shown that Felix relied on an ingrained

knowledge of scripture as well as on an extensive hagiographic library
ranging from the lives of the two archetypal Desert Fathers, Antony and
Paul the Hermit, to the two most influential hagiographies of the western
Middle Ages, Sulpicius’s Vita Martini and Gregory the Great’s Vita Benedicti,
to the lives of two of the earliest insular saints, Fursey and, especially,
Cuthbert.94 Indeed Bede’s prose Vita S. Cuthberti is the saint’s life to which
Felix is most indebted, so much so that ‘it is difficult to imagine that Felix
was not in some way attempting to create an East Anglian counterpart to
Cuthbert’.95 Finally, Felix was familiar with Virgil and the VSG is frequently
scattered with Virgilian echoes,96 as is the case with the chapter in which
the borrowing from the Synonyma occurs.
Guthlac’s vision of the two devils and their long address to the saint on
the spiritual benefits of extreme fasting where the quote from the Synonyma
is embedded do not have an exact antecedent. In general, the whole passage
could be described as Antonian, in that, although Antony himself does not
experience an equivalent vision, in a long speech recorded in Evagrius’s
Latin version of the Vita Antonii (chpt. xvi),97 the saint warns his disciples
against the devil’s mischievous attempt to lure monks to ascetic excesses
94 Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 16-18; Downey, ‘Intertextuality’,
pp. 25-66.
95 Downey, ‘Intertextuality’, p. 59; see also Wieland, ‘Aures Lectoris’, p. 171.
96 Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, p. 17.
97 BHL, no. 609; ptd. PL, lxxiii, cols. 125-170. On the Vita Antonii in Anglo-Saxon England, see
Whatley, ‘Antonius, vita’; Lapidge, The Anglo-Saxon Library, pp. 119, 175, 179, 196, 229, 234, 238,
and 281. On the Vita Antonii as a source of the VSG, see Downey, ‘Intertextuality’, pp. 33-39.
only to throw them into despair.98 The Antonian resonances are corrobo-
rated at the end of the relevant chapter of the VSG, when Guthlac dispels his
demonic antagonists who ultimately vanish like smoke from his presence
into thin air.99 As Downey has demonstrated, this sentence represents ‘a
particularly complex moment of source-layering’,100 because it conflates a
phrase possibly from Virgil’s Aeneid (XII, 591-592),101 but more likely from
Bede’s prose Vita S. Cuthberti where it describes the saint’s dispelling of a
false devilish fire,102 with a biblical echo of Psalm lxvii. 2-3.103 Notably, the
same psalm is chanted by Antony in a similar context of demonic harass-
ment and it is probably through the Vita Antonii that the scriptural quote
filtered into Felix’s text, where it is in turn echoed three more times, always
to describe Guthlac’s chasing away of devilish tormenters.104
The sophisticated integration of sources and multiple criss-crossing of
intertextual and intratextual borrowings has been shown to be the most
characteristic of Felix’s compositional techniques.105 Indeed, in view of this
practice, I would suggest that the above-quoted fumus-simile might provide
a further link, albeit an indirect one, between the VSG and the Synonyma,
particularly with the most popular and elaborated-on passage from the
Isidorian text, namely the ubi sunt.106 The ubi sunt passage of the Synonyma
98 Similar admonitions are also found in classics of medieval monastic literature: Felix’s Life
of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, p. 184.
99 ‘velut fumus a facie eius vacuas in auras evanuit’: Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans.
by Colgrave, p. 100. 10-11, translation at p. 101.
100 Downey, ‘Intertextuality’, pp. 63-65, quotation at p. 63.
101 The sentence in question likens panicking townspeople to bees smoked out of their hive:
‘Voluitur ater odor tectis, tum murmure caeco / Intus saxa sonant, vacuas ut fumus ad auras’
(a terrible reek rolls through their house, and then the rocks resound within with their blind
buzzing, and smoke goes into the empty air): translation by Downey, ‘Intertextuality’, p. 63, n.
230.
102 ‘fugator auctor fallaciarum ficta secum incendia uacuas reportaret in auras’ (‘the author of
lies, having been put to flight, took his feigned fire back into the empty air’): Two Lives of Saint
Cuthbert, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, p. 198. 22-23, translation at p. 199. Bede’s text offers a more
pertinent antecedent than Virgil context-wise: cf. Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by
Colgrave, p. 100; Love, ‘The Sources of Felix’; Downey, ‘Intertextuality’, pp. 63-64.
103 ‘Exurgat Deus et dissipentur inimici eius et fugiant qui oderunt eum a facie eius; sicut deficit
fumus deficiant’ (‘let God rise up, and let his enemies be scattered, and let those who hate him
flee from his face; let them fade away just as smoke fades away’): Downey, ‘Intertextuality’,
pp. 38-39, translation at p. 38, n. 123.
104 VSG, chpts. xxxiii, xxxiv, and xlix: Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave,
pp. 108. 17-18, 110. 15-17, and 150. 2; Downey, ‘Intertextuality’, pp. 30 and 38-39.
105 Downey, ‘Intertextuality’, pp. 25-66.
106 Isidore’s Synonyma represent the major source for the ubi sunt topos in the western Middle
Ages: Gilson, Les idées et les lettres, pp. 14-15 and 33. As concerns Anglo-Saxon England in
itself does not mention any smoke – the two concluding similes read ‘quasi
umbra transierunt, uelut somnium euanuerunt’ (‘they passed away as if
they were a shadow, they vanished like a dream’)107 –, but no fewer than six
Anglo-Saxon ubi sunt passages, four in Latin, namely Aldhelm’s Epistola ad
Acircium, Boniface’s Epistles ix and lxxiii, and the anonymous sermon In
nomine Domini in ms. Cambridge, Corpus Christi College 190, and two in Old
English, namely the anonymous homilies Napier xlix and Irvine vii, feature
a smoke-simile and they are all demonstrably derivative of the Synonyma.108
As has been shown, the ultimate source for the fumus-simile itself in
these Anglo-Saxon ubi sunt passages is biblical, that is Wisdom V. 13-15. In
particular, in Aldhelm’s and Boniface’s ubi sunt passages, this scriptural
echo was spontaneously triggered by and conflated with the Synonyma, a
text which itself often echoes the Old Testament.109 Given Felix’s scriptural
know-how and familiarity with Aldhelm’s corpus, on the one hand, and
his distinctive multi-layering of sources, on the other, it is possible that
his image of the devil vanishing like smoke might betray, besides Virgilian
or Bedan antecedents, also an echo of the Aldhelmian elaboration of the
fumus-simile in the Epistola ad Acircium.
As to Boniface, although no f irm evidence exists concerning Felix’s
knowledge and use of his writings, Boniface exchanged letters with at least
two royal personages mentioned in the VSG who were contemporaries
of Felix himself, namely the very dedicatee of the uita, the East Anglian
king Ælfwald, and the Mercian king Æthelbald. The former was probably
a subject king to the latter, and indeed Æthelbald features prominently in
the VSG as a pious devotee of the saint, who frequently visited Guthlac for
counsel and encouragement during his youth as an exile and who gener-
ously enriched Guthlac’s shrine after he had finally ascended to the throne.110
Notably, Æthelbald is the addressee of one of the two above-mentioned
epistles by Boniface featuring the ubi sunt motif and the concluding
particular, Cross demonstrated that the Isidorian text is ‘quite the favourite individual source’
for the ubi sunt passages in Old English prose and poetry: Cross, ‘“Ubi sunt” Passages in Old
English’, p. 25; Di Sciacca, ‘Il topos dell’ubi sunt’; Di Sciacca, ‘The ubi sunt Motif’; Di Sciacca,
Finding the Right Words, pp. 105-159.
107 My translation.
108 Di Sciacca, ‘An Unpublished Ubi Sunt Piece’, pp. 226-238; Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words,
pp. 116-124, 128-129, 134, and 149-156.
109 Di Sciacca, ’An Unpublished Ubi Sunt Piece’, pp. 237-238; Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words,
pp. 20-22 and 152-155.
110 Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 6-7, 15-16, 19, 40, 131, 139, 176,
and 188; Keynes, ‘The Kingdom of the Mercians’, pp. 7-8; Keynes, ‘Æthelbald’; Kelly, ‘Ceolred (d.
757)’; Roberts, Guthlac of Crowland, pp. 5-7; cf. Higham, ‘Guthlac’s Vita’.
fumus-simile, namely Epistle lxxiii.111 Here the Mercian king is depicted in

far less flattering terms than in the VSG, as Boniface sternly reprimands
Æthelbald for his depraved mores and violations of church privileges and
property. With its emphasis on the transience of any worldly grandeur,
the ubi sunt paragraph perfectly fits Boniface’s admonition to the king to
amend his wicked ways. Indeed, this letter can be considered as a veritable
manifesto of church reform. It was authored by Boniface but nominally
signed by seven other Anglo-Saxon bishops. Given the public dimension of
the epistle, it is reasonable to suppose that such a well-read contemporary as
Felix, possibly even in personal contact with the king targeted by Boniface,
was aware of it and its flamboyant ubi sunt passage featuring the fumus-
simile. Also, stylistic parallels seem to link the Bonifatian ubi sunt paragraph
and the VSG, in that like the latter, the former is of ‘derivative, repetitious
and innately formulaic nature’.112 Like Boniface’s, Felix’s own style and
compositional techniques also employ a complex network of intertextual
and intratextual resonances, and such a network could well have included
Boniface’s Epistle lxxiii and its fumus-simile.
Finally, a further connection between Boniface’s Epistle lxxiii and Felix’s
VSG can be identified in the negative portrayal both authors give of Ceolred,
king of the Mercians (709-716), predecessor and distant cousin of Æthelbald.113
According to Felix, Ceolred had cast Æthelbald into exile and persecuted
him further. Indeed, shortly before Guthlac’s death, Felix has the saint
prophesise to Æthelbald the death of wicked Ceolred and Æthelbald’s long-
awaited accession to the Mercian throne.114 Boniface does not touch upon the
dynastic controversy implied in Felix’s account, but fully agrees with the
latter’s depiction of Ceolred as a dissolute king who ultimately died raving
mad at a banquet (only, unlike Felix, Boniface uses Ceolred as a cautionary
example for the equally depraved Æthelbald).
Notably, Boniface had already chastised Ceolred decades earlier, when,
recounting the otherworldly vision of the monk of Much Wenlock within his
epistle to Eadburg (717-719), he had depicted the soul of the evil king falling
prey to a host of demons.115 This very vision too could provide a further con-
nection between Boniface and the VSG, especially the episode of Guthlac’s
111 Die Briefe des heiligen Bonifatius, ed. by Tangl, pp. 146-155; English translation in English
Historical Documents, trans. by Whitelock, pp. 751-756.
112 Orchard, ‘Old Sources, New Resources’, p. 36.
113 Kelly, ‘Ceolred (d. 716)’.
114 VSG, chpt. xlix: Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 150 and 192.
115 Epistle x: Die Briefe des heiligen Bonifatius, ed. by Tangl, pp. 8-15 at p. 14; English translation
in The Letters of Saint Boniface, trans. by Emerton, pp. 25-31. See also Sims-Williams, Religion
descensus ad inferos, when at the height of a demonic assault, the saint is

carried by a host of devils to the gates of hell and there he is made to witness
the torments inflicted on the damned souls and threatened to be cast down
into the hellish abyss, but is eventually rescued due to his faithfulness
and the intercession of St Bartholomew.116 Although to my knowledge no
specific debt of the VSG to Boniface’s account of the Wenlock vision has
been pinpointed, it is nevertheless significant that Guthlac’s descensus ad
inferos has been associated with other early Anglo-Saxon visions, including
those of Dryhthelm117 and Fursey,118 as making up ‘a visionary tradition in
early Anglo-Saxon ascetic circles in which the Latin and literary and the
vernacular and oral intermingled’.119
In sum, although the evidence concerning Felix’s knowledge of Boniface’s
texts remains largely circumstantial, I think there is a strong possibility
that they too circulated in Felix’s circle, where – it must be remembered
– the works of Boniface’s great model, Aldhelm, proved so influential. Not
unlike Aldhelm, Boniface, one of the earliest Anglo-Saxon admirers of
the Synonyma and an enthusiastic propagator of the Isidorian text in the
Anglo-Saxon missions on the continent, could have endorsed a broader
appreciation of the Synonyma.
Conclusion
Analysis of the Synonyma excerpt in the VSG contributes interesting data

as to the circulation of this Isidorian text in Anglo-Saxon England, in that it
confirms that by the mid-eighth century the Synonyma were already widely
disseminated in Southumbrian England. In particular, the text circulating
at this stage seems to have been that of the Λ-recension. The St Petersburg
and the Würzburg manuscripts of the Synonyma are the earliest witnesses
and Literature, pp. 243-272; Sims-Williams, ‘A Recension of Boniface’s Letter to Eadburg’;

Bolintineanu, ‘Towards A Poetics of Marvellous Spaces’, pp. 32-35.
116 VSG, chpts. xxxi-xxxiii: Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Colgrave, pp. 100-109.
On Guthlac’s descensus ad inferos, see the recent study by Giliberto, ‘The Descensus ad inferos’.
117 Bede, Historia ecclesiastica gentis anglorum, V. 12: Bede’s Ecclesiastical History, ed. and trans.
by Colgrave and Mynors, pp. 488-499. See also Giliberto, ‘The Descensus ad inferos’, pp. 245-254.
On the influence of a seventh-century Spanish text, the Prognosticon by Julian of Toledo, on the
depiction of the otherworld in the visions of the monk of Much Wenlock and Dryhthelm, see
Kabir, Paradise, Death and Doomsday, pp. 77-140; Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 177-179.
118 Whatley, ‘Furseus, vita’; Giliberto, ‘The Descensus ad inferos’, pp. 241-245; Roberts, Guthlac
of Crowland, pp. 18-24.
119 Clemoes, Interactions of Thought and Language, pp. 25-26.
of this recension and Felix also seems to have consulted a Λ-text, indeed a
version of the text which was apparently close to the Würzburg Synonyma.
The locales to which Felix and the Würzburg manuscript have been traced,
an East Anglian foundation and a southwestern centre, possibly Worcester,
respectively, do not seem to be compatible and the circumstances of both
Felix’s life and the itinerary followed by the Würzburg Synonyma from its
original scriptorium to the continent are just too hazy to posit a definite
association between them. It is therefore safer to suggest that Felix must
have had access to another Λ-copy of the Synonyma, possibly related to
the Würzburg codex, thereby virtually expanding our estimates of the
Anglo-Saxon manuscript tradition of the Synonyma. Alternatively, it could
be speculated that what Felix consulted was an excerpt or a florilegium,
based on a Λ-text or even on the Würzburg Synonyma.
Previous scholarship has pointed out that the Synonyma proved especially
popular with Anglo-Saxon anonymous homilists, and that in pre-Conquest
England the Isidorian work contributed to the definition of a specifically
Anglo-Saxon stock of eschatological, penitential, and devotional motifs.
As an eschatological and devotional source, the Synonyma were often
associated with that corpus of texts, mostly of eastern origin and Irish-
transmitted, which shaped Anglo-Saxon cosmology and vision literature
as well as spirituality and devotion.120
Within the wide pre-Conquest readership of the Synonyma, there are
at least two distinctive intellectual environments from the early Anglo-
Saxon period where the Synonyma were particularly appreciated, namely
Aldhelm’s entourage and, in turn, that of Aldhelm’s great epigone, Boniface.
Not only did Aldhelm and Boniface demonstrably draw on the Isidorian text
in their own writings, but Boniface and his fellow missionaries also actively
promoted the diffusion of the Synonyma in the area of the Anglo-Saxon
missions on the continent.121
The evidence from the VSG both confirms and augments this picture.
Through Felix’s work we can glimpse a milieu that, besides holding Aldhelm
in high esteem and demonstrating an extensive scriptural and hagiographic
proficiency, nurtured an interest in eremitic values and had a detailed
knowledge of some of the key hagiographies concerning the founders
of eastern monasticism, namely Antony and Paul the Hermit, as well as
120 Di Sciacca, ‘The ubi sunt Motif’; Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 159-164.
121 Di Sciacca, Finding the Right Words, pp. 51-52, 72-74, and 151-55; Hussey, ‘The Franco-Saxon
Synonyma’; Hussey, ‘Ascetics and Aesthetics’, pp. 77-140; Hussey, ‘Transmarinis litteris’, pp. 150-151
and 166-168.
Guthlac’s own ‘predecessor’ as native Anglo-Saxon hermit-saint, namely

Cuthbert.122 Thus, the VSG affords precious evidence as to the association
of the Synonyma with hagiographies specifically devoted to hermit-saints,
which confirms the ascetic component of the Isidorian text and helps to
illustrate and explain its fortune as a classic of monastic spirituality in the
western Middle Ages.123 More specifically, analysis of the VSG brings into
sharper focus the literary corpus to which the Synonyma probably belonged
in pre-Norman England and to sketch out a more detailed picture of the
Anglo-Saxon library to which they virtually belonged.
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8 Hispania et Italia
Paul the Deacon, Isidore, and the Lombards
Christopher Heath
The jurist and philologist Friedrich Lindenbrog’s (1573-1648) edition of Di-

versarum gentium historiae antiquae tres – published in 1640 and dedicated
to Johann Friedrich (1579-1634), the Archbishop (administrator) of Bremen
and Bishop of Lübeck – associated three authors who provided histories
of the origins and migrations of peoples. 1 Lindenbrog collated three
authors in this work: first, the De Regnorum ac temporum successionibus
of Jordanes (better known as the Historia Romana);2 three items of Isidore
of Seville;3 and a De Gestis Longobardorum, better known as the Historia
Langobardorum of Paul the Deacon. 4
It is not entirely surprising that Lindenbrog should collect these writers
and their works in one volume. His note to the readers emphasises the
connections between the origins of the ‘Germans’ and the relevance of
the works of Jordanes, Isidore and Paul as materials for the early histories
of their peoples.5 At the same time, Isidore of Seville and Paul the Dea-
con embody authors who not only delineate the origins of the gens upon
which they write but also, through their works, assist in shaping the ethnic
constructions that we term Visigoth and Lombard. As they composed their
histories, we see the processes that have been termed ethnogenesis begin to
crystallise so that both social (peoples, power) and spatial zones (geography)
coalesce. Where previously in the late sixth-century both Visigothic and
Lombard kings had endeavoured to perpetuate political, socio-economic
and cultural hegemony over populations of Hispano- and Italo-Romans
by the enforcement of legal separation, both kingdoms began to mould
1 Lindenbrog, Diversarum gentium, p. 8.

2 Mommsen (ed.), MGH AA: Iordanis Romana et Getica & Mierow, The Origin and Deeds of the
Goths. For the Historia Romana see Christensen, Cassiodorus, pp. 103-109.
3 Isidore’s De Gothis, Wandalis et Suevis (i.e. Historia Gothorum), De Origine Gothorum and
the Chronicon Regnum Wisigothorum.
4 Waitz (ed.), MGH SrL; Foulke (trans.), History of the Lombards; and, Capo, Paolo Diacono.
5 Lindenbrog, Diversarum gentium, p. 10 In tanta vetorum scriptorum, qui res gestas maiorum
nostrorum litteris tradiderunt, raritate omnino necessum est, eos pro bonis ut habeamus… (‘In
many of the oldest writings which set down the deeds of our ancestors in books, it is rarely
always necessary, that we have them for the good things…’).
160 Christopher Heath
a territorial identity which encompassed, commanded and acquired the

loyalties, or at least aimed to do so, of all the inhabitants under their rule.6
How the situation on the ground affected the context and content of
the narratives of both Isidore and Paul the Deacon has been the subject of
considerable recent interest and debate. Whilst the influence of Gregory
of Tours, for instance, on Paul’s Historia Langobardorum (hereafter HL) has
been acknowledged, and the inspiration provided by both the examples
of Jordanes and Bede in prompting Paul to compose a general work of
history on the Lombards has been identified, the influence of Isidore at
significant junctures in Paul’s work and thought have not been sufficiently
addressed. Isidore generally and his Etymologiae sive Origines specifically
had a profound impact on the cultural and intellectual developments of
the late eighth- and early ninth-centuries that we know as the Carolingian
‘Renaissance’. As Laistner pointed out in 1957:
The Etymologiae far surpassed (in demand) any other of his [i.e. Isidore’s]
books in popularity; for this encyclopaedia was a sine-qua-non in every
monastic library of any pretensions. Its use by a long list of writers from
the seventh to the tenth century is easily demonstrable, it appears
constantly in medieval library catalogues, and the number of extant
manuscripts is exceedingly great.7
Isidore’s influence is evident in three of Paul’s important works. First,

in his earliest historical compilation-composition, the Historia Romana,
composed at some point in the 760s at the bequest, we are told, of Adelperga
of Benevento, daughter of Desiderius (757-74) the last Lombard king; 8
secondly, the Homiliarium completed in the 780s upon the direction of
6 These processes are complex and multi-faceted. So far as law and the application of process
is concerned the concept of individuality rather than territoriality of law persists. See King, ‘The
alleged territoriality’; and, King, ‘King Chindasvind’. For the Lombards, see Everett, Literacy in
Lombard Italy, pp. 163-197.
7 Laistner, Thought and Letters, p. 124. For details of the transmission of Isidore’s works, see
Lindsay, Isidori Hispalensis Episcopi, pp. vii-ix; Beeson, Isidor-studien; Reydellet, La diffusion
des Origines, pp. 383-437; and McKitterick, The Carolingians, p. 196. For the De Natura Rerum,
Fontaine, ‘La diffusion carolingienne’, pp. 108-127. See Melissa Markauskas, Rylands MS Latin
12: A Carolingian example of Isidore’s reception into the Patristic Canon in this volume.
8 Crivellucci (ed.), Pauli Diaconi, pp. 3-4. For the dating see p. xxxv; Corbato, ‘Paolo Diacono’,
p. 12; and, Goffart, Narrators, pp. 337 and 339.
Hispania e t Italia 161
Charlemagne;9 and thirdly, his best known and last work, the Historia
Langobardorum, written in the 790s – the last decade of Paul’s life.10
The use of Isidore in the first two works is not extensive. Often overlooked
and under-rated in the canon of Paul’s writings, the Historia Romana is a
work of three distinct sections. The opening ten books are an amended
version of the Breviarium ab Urbe Condita composed by Eutropius (c. 320-c.
390).11 The next six books attached to this Eutropian core are Paul’s own
work with extensive use of Orosius, Jerome and the Epitome de Caesaribus
to name but three.12 As one would expect from a work of political history
of Rome and the Roman empire up to the time of Justinian (527-65), the
Goths are dealt with as an important but incidental element within the
orbit of the general narrative. Crivellucci identified six occasions within
the extension that appeared to have some Isidorian influence.13 Whilst Paul
was not averse, in common with most early medieval writers, to reproduce
lengthy passages verbatim from sources, only one short passage on the death
of Transamund, the treatment of the catholic bishops of North Africa, and
the career of Fulgentius are close enough to suggest direct use of Isidore.
Thus the Chronica maiora has:
[390] Transamundum Wandalorum rex catholicas ecclesias claudit et cxx

episcopos exilio Sardiniam mittit
[391] Fulgentius quoque in confessione fidei et scientia floruit
Transamund king of the Vandals shut the catholic churches and sent 120
bishops into exile in Sardinia.
Fulgentius also flourished in the confession of faith and knowledge.14
9 Grégoire, Les Homéliaires du Moyen-Âge. For Charlemagne’s commendation of the Homil-

iarium see King, Charlemagne, p. 208.
10 Opinion varies as to the year of Paul’s death. The best options would place it at some point
between 796 and 799.
11 Bird, Eutropius.
12 Crivellucci (ed.), Pauli Diaconi, pp. xxxvi-xliii, and pp. xxxviii-xxxix where Crivellucci lists
a total of 46 sources.
13 These are: HR XIV 19,4-6; XV 1, 4-5; XV 6, 7-15; XVI 3 & 4, 8-18, 1-2; & XVI 7, 6-16. In order
these deal with: the return of Genseric to Africa; events in Constantinople; the division of the
Goths under Alaric and Fritigern; the exile of the North African bishops to Sardinia; and, the
career of Fulgentius and Transamund’s death.
14 Mommsen (ed.), MGH Auctorum Antiquissimorum II, p. 474. See Crivellucci, Pauli Diaconi,
p. 226. Whilst Bede’s Chronica Maiora mentions the activities of Transamund – Bede’s notice
refers to ‘ccxx episcopos’ and makes no connected reference to Fulgentius. See Mommsen (ed.),
Auctorum Antiquissimorum III, p. 306.
And Paul’s Historia Romana has:
[XVI 3] Eo tempore Transamundus qui fratri Honorico apud Africam

in Wandalorum regno successerat, fratris vel patris Genserici secutus
perfidiam clausis catholicorum ecclesiis cxx episcopos in Sardinia exilio
religavit.
[XVI 4] Inter hac tempestas beatus Fulgentius in confessione fidei et scientia
floruit.15
At that time, Transamund who was the brother of Huneric succeeded to
the Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa, following the perfidy of his brother
and father, Genseric, closing the catholic churches, he sent 120 bishops
into exile in Sardinia.
During this time blessed Fulgentius flourished in the confession of faith
and knowledge.
Within the orbit of the Historia Romana, Isidore is not a source that Paul
draws upon frequently. Whilst the section above suggests a close use of that
particular passage for details of events in Vandal Africa, the remaining five
passages do not lead us to conclude that there is any particular pattern in
Paul’s use of Isidore. A similar scenario is presented by Paul’s compilation,
the Homiliarium. A compilation in four parts, the Homiliarium uses sermons
and homilies from primarily western Patristic fathers. Out of a possible 244
items, Isidore’s presence is restricted to two sermons in the Pars Hiemalis.16
This in itself is a little more surprising, given the influence of Isidore upon
the court intellectuals at the heart of the Carolingian renaissance.17 The
relative modest footprint of Isidore in these two works need not, however,
lead us to the conclusion that Isidore remained a minor influence on Paul
globally.18 For it is in the third work, the HL, that there is a closer convergence
of aims and interests between the two – in particular, the creation of a
15 Crivellucci (ed.), Pauli Diaconi, p. 226.

16 The sermons are items xvi: ‘Isidori natalis domini dies ea de causa a patribus votivae’ from the
De Ecclesiasticis Officiis and item xxxi ‘Isidori – in natale sancti Iohannis evangelistae’ from the
De ortu et obitu patrum. For the sermons and context see: Grégoire, Les Homéliaires Liturgique
Médiévaux, pp. 425-486; Wiegand, Das Homiliarium, pp. 23 & 26; and, Smetana, ‘Ælfric’, pp. 166-7
which has the most accessible list of items.
17 See Laura Carlson, Adoption, Adaptation, & Authority: The Use of Isidore in the Opus Caroli
in this volume.
18 This is demonstrated in this volume by: Melissa Markauskas, Rylands MS Latin 12: A
Carolingian example of Isidore’s reception into the Patristic Canon.
narrative that depicts the maintenance of strong and effective orthodox

kingship of their respective peoples.
The creation of a unified and orthodox Visigothic Iberian kingdom was
both difficult and uncertain. In similar circumstances but with differ-
ent results, the intersection between the social, political, and religious
identities of the Lombards also raised questions for Lombard rulers and
those they ruled. This was neither straightforward nor un-problematic
for Paul or his people. Despite the themes of the Historia Langobardorum,
where Iberia and the Visigoths remain peripheral to the main thrust of
the narrative, Isidore of Seville has an impact upon two important sec-
tions in the work. In the first place, as we shall see, Isidore has significant
influence upon the ethnographic and historico-geographic material with
which Paul commenced book I of the HL; and, secondly, his excursus on
the Italian provinces in book II of the HL provides particular evidence
for Paul’s knowledge and use of Isidorian materials. This chapter seeks to
analyse the etymological and ethnographic responses of Paul’s works and
how these were formulated and crafted with an eye on the Laus Spaniae
which introduces Isidore’s Historia Gothorum. Isidore’s image of a Gothic
past based on the providential migrations of peoples provided a template
for Paul’s comments on the origins of the Lombards. Once settled in Italy,
Paul could use an Isidorian approach to deal with the difficult (for him)
pagan origins and history of his own, now catholic, gens. In both respects
Isidore’s works provided Paul with both answers and solutions. But before
we can analyse these elements, we must consider Isidore’s responses to the
origins of the Visigoths and how these dovetail with modern perceptions
of the situation on the ground.
Origines Gentium: Identities, Texts and Ethnicities
Identity and ethnicity and what might be termed the construction of identi-
ties through texts are as Pohl has demonstrated an uncertain business.19
The trajectory in ethno-political terms of the successor ‘states’ of the
western Roman empire and the often opaque processes that produced the
Visigothic and Lombard kingdoms have generated considerable scholarly
debate.20 Identity is at the core of these processes, which of course matters
19 Pohl, ‘Paulus Diaconus’, pp. 375-405. See also Wood, ‘Religiones’, pp. 126-7.

20 Some of this debate has been uncharitable at best. The literature is extensive, but for a good
introduction to the issues see Gillett (ed.), On Barbarian Identity which includes papers from
as ‘the interface between the individual and a given society where social
codes, cultural languages and political integration are in flux or are being
negotiated’.21 book IX of Isidore’s Etymologiae sive Origines provides defini-
tions of languages and nations. Isidore tells us:
Gens est multitudo ab uno principio orta, sive ab alia natione secundum
propriam collectionem distincta ut Graeciae, Asiae.
A nation is a number of people sharing a single origin or distinguished
from another nation in accordance with its own grouping, as the nations
of Greece or of Asia Minor.22
The writer of history is not exempt from these processes or influences and
will influence and be influenced by the contextual situation on the ground.
In broad terms, the historian marks the point of contact as narrator/com-
poser/compiler with his motive(s), audience(s) and inspirations. Isidore’s
Historia Gothorum embodies these difficulties. One might characterise
Isidore’s temporal and spatial experience as being at the sharp end of
both the creation and consolidation of a unified and orthodox Visigothic
kingdom. As Lung has pointed out Isidore’s works of history are written from
a Toledan point of view, which flows from ‘le centre de l’espace politique’.23
Yet Isidore himself embodies a somewhat paradoxical position. In terms
of ethnicity, in the first place, it is more than likely that both Isidore and
his family were Hispano-Romans.24 Secondly, as a writer, Isidore looks
back to Classical Antiquity but at the same time develops an independent
response to his world which does not depend upon nostalgia for the Roman
Empire. Finally, he acts as an intermediary between clerical and secular
culture. How he negotiates these conflicting paradigms is exemplified by
critics of the ‘ethnogenesis model’ and a reasoned response from Walter Pohl who is termed a
‘prominent spokesman for the Traditionskern model’.
21 de Jong, McKitterick, Pohl & Wood, Introduction, pp. 12-13.
22 Reta, Casquero & Diaz-y-Diaz (eds.), San Isidoro de Sevilla, p. 742; Barney, Lewis, Beach &
Berghof (eds. & trans.), Etymologies, p. 192; and Henderson, The Medieval World, pp. 121-140.
23 Lung, ‘L’image de l’espace’, p. 6.
24 Wood, The Politics of Identity, pp. 46-48. See also, Collins, Visigothic Spain, pp. 154-155 which
posits a North African origin of the family. Merrills, ‘Comparative histories’, pp. 35-46, at p. 37
‘the unity of gens and history under the aegis of the Catholic Church certainly represented a
central part of Isidore’s historical argument and did much to shape the inclusion or omission
of material within his account’.
the approach that he adopts in the structural composition of the Historia

Gothorum.25
The Historia Gothorum details the history of the Goths from their bel-
licose interventions into the ancient Mediterranean basin up until the rule
of Swinthila (621-31). Here the Visigoths form the principal narrational spine
of the work but, whilst Isidore must have been aware of the heterogene-
ous landscape of ethnicities in Hispania, his work concentrates on the
Visigoths as the principal leitmotif, using the Vandals and the Sueves as
useful and illustrative contrasts to emphasise Visigothic success.26 A key
feature of his approach is to provide an introductory section, now known as
the Laus Spaniae and to conclude with a complementary Laus Gothorum.
In this way the reader is aware from the commencement that the Historia
Gothorum is designed to prove the appropriate and providential rule of the
Visigoths in Hispania.27 Isidore is selective in how he presents the origins
of the Visigoths and their subsequent adventures. In his discussion of their
origins he observes:
Gothorum antiquissimorum esse gentem certem est: quorum Originum

quidam de Magog Iafeth filio suspicantur a simulitudine ultimae syllabae;
et magis de Ezechiela propheta id colligentes. Retro autem eruditi eos magis
Getas quam Gog et Magog appellare consueverunt.
It is certain that the Gothic people are very ancient. Some suspect that
they originated from Magog, son of Japheth on the basis of the similarity
of the last syllable, or they conclude the same from the prophet Ezekiel.
But in the past learned men were in the habit of calling them ‘Getae’
rather than Gog or Magog.28
25 Fontaine, Isidore de Séville, p. 6 where Isidore is described as ‘le dernier philologue de
l’Antiquité.’
26 Merrills, History and Geography, pp. 195-196. Merrills notes that Isidore did not subscribe
to the belief in a homogenous Hispano-Roman entity identifying Gallaeci, Asturi and Cantabri
separately within the Origines.
27 Merrills suggests that this approach is in distinct contrast to Jordanes and Paul the Deacon.
Whilst not as explicit Paul the Deacon does provide one small pointer to his own similar agenda
i.e. Pari etiam modo et Winnilorum, hoc est Langobardorum gens, quae postea in Italia feliciter
regnavit.(HL I,1) (‘In similar fashion, also, the people of the Winnili, that is, of Langobards,
which afterwards ruled happily in Italy…’) Capo, Paolo Diacono, p. 4; and, Merrills, History and
Geography, p. 36. See also, Linehan, History and Historians, p. 14.
28 Mommsen (ed.), MGH Auctorum Antiquissimorum, p. 268; and, Wolf, Conquerors, pp. 80-81
(amended). This from Jerome. Ezekiel reference: 38-9.
Later within the recapitulatio that concludes the Gothic part of the history,
Isidore returns to the same issue but whilst, once again, we are told that
the Goths originated from Magog, a new element is introduced. On this
occasion, he remarks that ‘they have a common origin with the Scythians.
That is why they are not much different in name with one letter changed
and one removed. Getae becomes Scythae’.29 So far as origins are concerned
Isidore depends upon a combination of biblical exegesis and etymological
sleight of hand.30 The fusion of Isidore’s political and religious concerns
prompts, as Wood has suggested, a ‘re-write of significant proportions of
the history of the Goths’, which seeks to reinforce the ‘Catholic identity
of the Visigothic gens’.31 His treatment of the emperor Valens (364-78) is a
case in point. Isidore attributes the blame for Visigothic Arianism to the
emperor who had ‘sent heretical priests’ (haeriticis sacerdotibus) in the first
place.32 It was he tells us:
Ut in tamen preaclarum gentem virus pestiferum semine pernicioso trans-

fudit sicque errorem, quem recens credulitas ebibit, tenuit dieque servavit.
‘With this pernicious seed [that] he infused a deadly poison into this
excellent people, who held and maintained for a long time the error which
they had trustingly accepted’.33
Subsequently, Isidore attempts to minimise the impact of the Visigothic

sack of Rome in 410. In describing this, he details the despoiling of St Peter’s
Sanctuary and recounts how Alaric directed that the items taken should
be returned dicens cum Romanis gessisse bellum, non cum apostolis (saying
that he was waging war against the Romans, not against the Apostles).34
Detailed analyses elsewhere have identified Isidore’s cumulative message
that the Goths have been re-fashioned by their contact with the Roman
29 ‘Gothi de Magog Iafeth filio ori cum Scythia una probantur origine sati, unde nec longe a
vocabulo discrepant. Demotata enim ac detracta littera Getae quasi Scythae sunt nuncupati’
Mommsen (ed.), MGH Auctorum Antiquissimorum, p. 293; and, Wolf, Conquerors, p. 107.
30 See Torreiro, ‘El Concepto’, p. 57, ‘Acogiéndose a la leyenda de Gog y Magog utilizada ya en
su día por San Ambrosio come símbolo de las invasiones, el obispo de Sevilla la transformará en
un instrumento apologético de los godos’ (‘Already in the days of St Ambrosius the legend of Gog
and Magog had been used as a symbol of the invasions, the bishop of Seville transformed it into
an apologetical instrument of the (Visi-)Goths’)
31 Wood, ‘Heretical catholics’, pp. 18-20 and pp. 23-4.
32 Mommsen (ed.), MGH Auctorum Antiquissimorum, p. 270; and, Wolf, Conquerors, p. 83.
and Christian world.35 Isidore has created an interpretation of Visigothic

origins and identity based on an impulse to deal with the new realities on
the ground in seventh-century Hispania.36 Isidore’s agenda shaped history
into a ‘picture of the operation of God’s will’ and his example affected Paul’s
responses to the origins of his own people, which, as we shall see in what
follows, were selective and moulded by Isidore’s interpretations.37
‘These things are worthy of laughter’
Unlike the Historia Gothorum, which survives in both short and long redac-
tions that most commentators associate with respectively earlier and later
recensions, one cannot identify with ease the process of gestation of the
Historia Langobardorum. So far as the earliest period of Lombard history
is concerned Paul’s problems were somewhat similar to Isidore. So far as
books I and II were concerned, in particular, Paul was distant in both spatial
and temporal terms from his subject matter. One has the impression that
paradoxically, due to this distance and the extensive citation of classi-
cal authors in the first two books, Paul’s sources were rather ‘thin’ and
to compensate, he employs digression and oral witness in the narrative.
Thus we find, for instance, notices on whirlpools and Amazons.38 Isidore’s
influence in book I, which will be discussed here, however, affects the core
origin story provided by Paul and his understanding of its significance.
The story of how the Langobards acquired their name is a well-known
narrative that has attracted the attention of scholars such as Stefano
Gasparri, Stefano Cingolani, and Walter Pohl, who have considered the
importance and presentation of the Lombard origin myth.39 It was clearly
important to Paul to recount the story notwithstanding the pagan ambience
of the subject, but the composition of the origin story was one of the most
acute examples of his difficulties when composing the HL. Classical authors
35 See Teillet, Des Goths, pp. 463-503 & Wood, ‘Religiones and Gentes’, pp. 125-8.
36 Linehan, History and Historians, pp. 14 & 17. XIXth-century Spanish historians ‘traced
back the origins of constitutional progress … to German forests. Liberty was nourished in the
shady woods and Visigothic kings were restrained from lapsing into tyranny by the spirit of
indipendencía y libertad displayed by their sylvan subjects.’
37 Wood, ‘Heretical catholics’, p. 20.
38 For Whirlpools and Amazons see respectively Waitz (ed.), MGH SrL, pp. 51 & 55; and, Foulke,
History of the Lombards, pp. 10 &28.
39 Gasparri, La Cultura Tradizionale; Cingolani, Le Storie dei Longobardi; and, Pohl, ‘Paolo
Diacono’, pp. 413-426.
were silent as to Lombard origins and confined their brief and infrequent
remarks to observations relating to the Lombards’ fierceness in battle and
their limitation in number. 40 These textual remarks place the Winnili (who
subsequently become the Langobardi) in the region of the upper Elbe around
the first-century C.E. rather than the island of ‘Scadinavia’ from which Paul
suggested his people first originated. 41 Paul relied upon later material.
The story of the origins of the Lombard name survives in three sources:
first, the earliest extant source is the Chronicle of Fredegar – composed at
some point before c. 660 probably in Burgundy;42 secondly, the Origo gentis
Langobardorum, also composed in the mid seventh-century provides a short
summary of Lombard history from its origins up to the rule of Perctarit
(672-88);43 and, finally, Paul’s HL. None of these three narratives are entirely
the same – and whilst Paul knew and referred to the OGL his version remains
distinctive. In his narrative, Paul’s Winnili leave Scadinavia and arrive in
Scoringa where the Wandali demand tribute. Battle is prepared when the
Winnili decline to pay. The Winnili and Wandali seek divine assistance of
Godan and Frea respectively. Frea advises Gambara to ensure that the
Winnili women fashion their hair into beards and stand with their men in
the east. 44 Upon seeing them at sun-rise Godan says:
Qui sunt isti longibarbi?

Who are these long-beards?45
Frea then invites Godan to give the now-named Longobardi victory over
the Wandali.
Apart from the clearly pagan atmosphere of the story, two features stand
out. In the first place, it is remarkable that Paul should mention the story at
all given the presence and importance of Godan and Frea in the text. Why,
one wonders, did he bother to include the story at all? Everett suggested that
Paul felt ‘compelled’ to include it ‘for fear of disappointing his readers’. 46 It
40 Petersen (ed. & trans.), Tacitus: Germania, p. 319; Shipley (ed. & trans.), Velleius Paterculus,
pp. 270-271; and, Cary (ed. & trans.), Cassius Dio, p. 11.
41 See Foulke’s note on this: Foulke, History of the Langobards, p. 3.
42 On date and composition see Krusch (ed.), MGH Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum, pp. 1-5;
and, Wallace-Hadrill, The Fourth Book, pp. xxii-xxxiii.
43 Bracciotti, Origo gentis Langobardorum.
44 Gambara was the mother of the Winnili leaders Ibor and Aio. See Gasparri, La cultura
tradizionale.
45 Waitz (ed.), MGH SrL, pp. 52-3; and, Foulke, History of the Langobards, pp. 16-17.
46 Everett, Literacy, p. 94.
is, of course, impossible to demonstrate that this was true – although any
cursory analysis of the HL would certainly suggest that Paul enjoyed any
opportunity to tell a good story and could exhibit a rather ‘gossipy’ tone.
Secondly, Paul’s presentation of the passage is illuminating. At the start of
the chapter he indicated:
Refert hoc loco antiquitas ridiculam fabulam: quod accedentes Wandali

ad Godan…
At this point the men of old tell a silly story about the Vandals coming to
Godan…47 Subsequently he concludes the chapter with this observation:
Haec risui digna sunt et pro nihilo habenda. Victoria enim non potestati
est attributa hominum, sed de caelo potius ministratur.
These things are worthy of laughter and are to be held of no account. For
victory is due not to the power of men, but it is furnished from heaven. 48
The passage is thus framed between two markers that distance Paul as
author from the material presented but also prepare the reader for his own
opinion based upon Isidorian material. This continues in the next chapter
where Paul informs us:
Certum tamen est, Langobardos ab intractae ferro barbae longitudine, cum

primis Winnili dicti fuerint Ita postmodum appellatos. Nam iuxta illorum
linguam lang longam, bart barbam significat
It is certain, however, that the Langobards were afterwards so-called on
account of the length of their beards untouched by the knife, whereas at
first they had been called Winnili; for according to their language lang
means long and bart beard. 49
This is clearly an echo of the entry in Isidore’s Etymologiae where he says

Langobardes vulgo fertur nominatos prolixa barba et numquam tonsa (‘It is
commonly said that the Lombards are named Langobardi from their widely
spreading never cut beard’).50
47 Waitz (ed.), MGH SrL, p. 52; and, Foulke, History of the Lombards, p. 16.
49 Waitz (ed.), MGH SrL, pp. 52-53 and, Foulke, History of the Lombards, pp. 17-18.
50 Reta et al., San Isidoro de Sevilla: Etymologiae, p. 756; and, Barney et al., The Etymologies,
p. 197. See Green, ‘Linguistic and Literary Traces’, pp. 174-175.
Here then we see that Paul has used Isidore’s etymological definition to
emphasise his own point that the origin story of the Lombards should be
discounted. There are at the same time less obvious impulses at work which
have been affected by Isidore’s work. Due to its circulation and importance,
he was not able to disregard the tale entirely. Instead, following Isidore’s lead
where Isidore has managed and manipulated the origins of the Goths, Paul
attempted to re-formulate the presentation to mitigate the pagan details
of his material. One generation later, the anonymously written HL Codex
Gothani excluded the origin story of the Lombards entirely and draw a
veil of silence over the whole mythic episode, preferring to simply ascribe
the name to the length of beards of the Winnili.51 With his second book,
the narrative follows the Lombards from the north to Italy and it is here,
subsequently, that we can also discern Isidorian influence on the structure
and composition of the material.
‘Touching briefly upon other provinces of Italy’
Whilst the first book moves the story of the Lombards forward from the
north to the Elbe and on to Pannonia and finally Italy, book II deals with
the period from the use of the Lombards as unruly allies by Narses in the
Gothic wars in 552 up to the murder of the Lombard king, Cleph (572-4)
in 574. The structure of the book can be divided as the following slightly
simplified schedule shows in the table below:
Table 1 Simplified Structure of Book II of the Historia Langobardorum
Section Subject Chapters of book II
A¹ The Victory of Narses and the Advent of the Lombards 1-9

Interlude: Gaul in 561, Pope Benedict I & Paul of Aquileia 10
B¹ The death of Narses & Alboin and the Bishop 11-12
Interlude: Venantius Fortunatus 13
C Alboin, Venetia and the Italian Provinces 14-24
A² The Undoing of Alboin 25-30
B² Cleph and the Lombard Dukes 31-2
Book II has a complex set of interlocking narrative threads that associate,

on the one hand, Narses and the misfortunes of Byzantine Italy with, on the
51 Waitz (ed.), MGH SrL, pp. 7-12; Berto, Testi Storici, p. 5 (of the text) for further references.
other hand, Alboin and the good fortune of the Lombards. If one sets aside
the narrative interludes in the structural arrangement, one may discern
that the geographical section knits the separate parts of the book together
and acts as a chiastic pivot. Standing at this point in the book, the reader is
encouraged to associate the Lombard arrival in Italy with providential rule
over the entire peninsula and associated islands.52 Paul’s descriptions are
not as hyperbolic as the highly accomplished Laus Spaniae but nonetheless
we are told of the ‘very rich cities of Capua, Neapolis and Salernus’ (opulentis-
simae urbes);53 of the very fertile plain of Capua’ (uberrima);54 that Emilia is
‘adorned with wealthy cities’ (Haec locupletibus urbibus decoratur);55 and
Ravenna is the ‘most noble of cities’ (nobilissima urbium).56 Where one might
expect rhetorical flourish or even a riposte to Isidore’s classical allusions on
Italy in the Laus Spaniae, these are not deployed. Instead, Paul’s depiction
of each of the provinces and his emplacement of it between an account of
Alboin’s capture of most of Venetia and his entry into Mediolanum mir-
rors for the Lombards – the marriage of Iberia and the Visigoths- thus, we
understand that it is the Lombards who are the ruler-heirs of the Romans
in Italy, as Paul points out at the very start of the book.57
In terms of content book II of the HL has the greatest accumulation of
Isidorian material. A significant cluster of references is contained within a
section of the book which introduces the provinces of Italy. Debate amongst
scholars in the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-centuries concentrated
on the sources of Paul’s excursus, the origins of errors in the text, and the
correlations between and across extant manuscript copies.58 Isidore’s
influence upon both the formulation and creation of the excursus has at-
tracted rather less attention.59 There are two features here that merit closer
scrutiny: first, the use and knowledge of the Etymologiae; and, secondly, the
impact of Isidore upon Paul’s structural arrangement of the book.
52 The closest the Lombard kingdom came to making this a reality was with the capture of
the Exarchate of Ravenna in 751.
53 Foulke, History of the Lombards, p. 73; and, Waitz (ed.), MGH SrL, p. 82.
57 Merrills, History and Geography, pp. 35-46.
58 See Jacobi, Die Quellen; Waitz (ed.), MGH SrL, pp. 25-26; Schmidt, Zur Geschichte; and
Mommsen, ‘Die Quellen’.
59 Waitz insisted that the additions in what he termed the Catalogus Provinciarum Italiae
were drawn mostly from Isidore – see Waitz (ed.), MGH SrL, pp. 188-189. For context, see Foulke,
History of the Lombards, p. 383.
Paul’s excursus on the Italian provinces occupies the central third of

book II. In eleven chapters he describes eighteen provinces commencing
with Venetia and Histria in chapter 14 and concluding with the islands of
Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica in chapter 22. There is much of interest in these
chapters, not least Paul’s extensive use and re-use of classical authorities.60
It is particularly noteworthy that we see Paul both updating and adapting
material from the Etymologiae in his text. His notices in this section follow a
pattern. He commences with the etymological foundations of the provincial
name, discusses particular features of that area (e.g. lakes, mountains), and
lists the important cities. In chapter 16, for instance, Paul describes Tuscia
and Umbria. We are told:
Sexta provincia Tuscia est, quae a ture, quod populus illius superstitiose in
sacrificiis deorum suorum incendere solebant, sic appellate est.
The sixth province is Tuscia which is thus called from tus which its people
were wont to burn superstitiously in the sacrifices to their Gods.61
And
Umbria autem dicta est, quod imbribus superfuerit, cum aquosa clades
olim populos devastaret
… and it is called Umbria because it remained above the furious rains
when long ago a watery scourge devastated the nations.62
Both these passages reveal a connection to Isidore for their etymological

foundations. Their example could be replicated with further instances in
the geographical section.63 Whilst this use of Isidore is significant, Paul’s
adaptation of this structural segment into his historical narrative is of
fundamental importance in appreciating Paul’s agenda in this part of the
HL. Although Paul does not explicitly follow the Isidorian arrangement of
the Laus Spaniae and Laus Gothorum to open and close the narrative, his
60 For geography in Carolingian Europe see Lozovsky, ‘Roman Geography’, pp. 325-364. Clas-
sical authorities used include Pliny, Pomponius Mela and the Geographia Ravennatis.
63 For Isidore’s comments see Barney et al., Etymologies, p. 196 (Tuscia IX.2.86) and p. 251
(Umbria XIV.4.20); and, Reta & Casquero, San Isidoro de Sevilla, p. 184. Further influence may be
detected in HL II.14, II.17, II.18, II.20 and II.22. II.23 and II.24, which describe how the Galatians
and the etymology of Italy are also influenced by Isidore’s Etymologies.
delineation of the Italian provinces allows him to promote Lombard kings

as the heirs of the Byzantine Empire in the Italian peninsula.
The construction of textual identities and the adaptation, adoption,
and manipulation of texts is neither straightforward nor simple. Although
the focus of Isidore and Paul the Deacon varied, their aims were similar
in respect of the creation and progress of their chosen gentes. Paul as
an‘assiduous user of sources’ was able to bring Isidore to the foreground
in the HL on two crucial occasions.64 As we have noted, Paul provides
two readings of the origin story of the Lombards. In the first, he presents a
detailed tradition redolent of a northern pagan ambience; but, in the second,
familiar to his clerical and intellectual audiences, he not only discounts
the story but uses the authority of Isidore to provide a straightforward
etymological response. This turn to Isidore, as authority, is illustrative of his
use of materials from the Etymologiae in book II of the HL where Isidore is
the basis for his comments – but also, at this point, as a rhetorical template
for the description of the Italian provinces. Having associated the Lombards
with all of Italy, Paul was subsequently free to develop his themes in the
remaining four books of the HL.
Although, as we have seen, it is possible to identify the imprint of Isidore’s
influence in a number of respects in his HR and HL, Paul does not make
explicit reference to the authority of Isidore. Similarly, even though one
might be tempted to see Paul’s excursus on the Italian provinces as a riposte
to Isidore’s Laus Spaniae, one cannot be certain that Paul knew or consulted
Isidore’s Historia Gothorum and consequently formulated this digression.
Instead, it is possible to indicate that Isidore was one of many authorities
that Paul used to enhance his work. In this respect, Isidore’s authority
allowed Paul to approach and resolve the difficult and uncertain history
of the Lombards and to provide his own providential account of his own
history and gens.
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64 Goffart, Narrators, p. xxxiii.

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9 Rylands MS Latin 12
A Carolingian Example of Isidore’s Reception into the
Patristic Canon
Melissa Markauskas
Introduction
Rylands MS Latin 12 is a homiliary – a collection of readings set for specific

occasions during the liturgical calendar – of medium size (295 x 210 mm).1
It includes some minimally decorated initials, but otherwise is a quite
workman-like, practical copy. It was very likely written at the scriptorium
at Luxeuil Abbey, which was originally founded in the late sixth century
by the Irish monk Columbanus but refounded in the Carolingian period
under the Benedictine rule.2 This is the period in which the core of the
manuscript was written.3 It remained at Luxeuil until at least the eight-
eenth century, after which it moved from the continent to London, and
ultimately to Manchester. 4
Setting aside the later addition of the first quire, Rylands MS Latin 12
is arranged liturgically and encompasses the entire year, albeit limited to
particular saints’ festivals within the calendar.5 The texts excerpted are
for the most part what we would term “Patristic”, with Bede appearing as
the latest identifiable author. Many, but not all, of the manuscript’s choices
of readings correspond to the so-called Paul the Deacon’s Homiliary. One
1 Abbreviations:
PD (I & II) = Homilary of Paul the Deacon, in Grégoire, Homéliaires Liturgiques Médiévaux.
PDT = Homiliary of Paul the Deacon, Homiliae de Tempore, PL 95, 1159A-1457B.
PDS = Homiliary of Paul the Deacon, Homiliae de Sanctis, PL 95, 1457C-1565C.
Rylands = Rylands MS Lat 12. See Appendix 1 for full manuscript description.
2 Victor Perrin (d.1740), sub-prior of Luxeuil, wrote a description of the manuscript on paper
that has since been bound into the manuscript. He discusses as evidence of the MS’s Luxeuil
origins an inscription copied onto f. 10r: “Luxouio et BRIXIAE . G. IVL . / FIRMAR . IVS . V. S .
L . M”. See also Salmon, Le Lectionnaire du Luxeuil, xliv, who lists this Rylands MS among four
definitely copied at Luxeuil.
3 Dated on paleographical grounds in: Jones, ‘Dom Victor Perrin’, who concluded that the
second to eighteenth quires dated from the early ninth century, produced as a single piece of
work.
4 James and Taylor, A Descriptive Catalogue, 11*-12*.
5 See Appendix 1 for full details of the manuscript’s contents.
178 Melissa Mark ausk as
particularly noteworthy variation for the purposes of this volume is the

curious inclusion of a high number of excerpts of Isidore of Seville’s De
Ortu et obitu patrum (hereafter DOOP), a text that was written between
598 and 615 and gives brief accounts of the lives and deaths of a number of
figures from the Bible.6 Isidore combined scriptural material with biblical
commentaries and a small number of histories and chronicles to create a
sacred chronology focused on the Old Testament.7 Although by no means
one of Isidore’s major works, the DOOP did circulate relatively widely, often
in combination with other Isidorian works, and was excerpted as a source by
compilers of biographical catalogues elsewhere in the early medieval West.8
This chapter sheds light on Isidore’s reception in the Carolingian period,
using this manuscript to consider how and why Isidore would have been re-
deployed in this liturgical context. It examines the relationship between the
Isidorian material and the other texts with which it was copied in Rylands
MS Latin 12 and contextualises the manuscript and the use made of Isidore
by reference to Carolingian homiliary production more generally. Discus-
sions of the Carolingian use of Isidore typically focus on his influence on
Carolingian historiography.9 This chapter is instead concerned with Isidore
far from the exploits of kings, where he was re-used in a solidly liturgical,
monastic context.
Carolingian Homiliaries
Homiliaries as a book-type predate the Carolingian period, but gained wider

prominence and production as a highlighted element of Carolingian ec-
clesiastical reform.10 In his 802 De Examinandis Ecclesiasticis, Charlemagne
listed homilies for all feast days among the minimum required knowledge
for all priests.11 The 813 reform councils of Rheims and Tours make specific
reference to the duty to preach ‘the sermons and homilies of the Holy
Fathers’.12 The statutes of Riculf, of Hincmar of Rheims, and of another
6 For introduction to the text and further discussion of its key characteristics see: Inglebert,
‘Renommée et sainteté’, esp. 985-988; the best modern edition is: Chaparro Gómez, Isidoro de
Sevilla. De ortu et obitu patrum.
7 Inglebert, ‘Renommée et sainteté’, 977-988.
8 Dolbeau, ‘Nouvelles recherches’.
9 E.g. McKitterick, History and Memory, 49, 54-55, 238-239, 246-247; see also Christopher
Heath’s chapter in this volume on Isidore’s influence on Paul the Deacon’s historical works.
10 Grégoire, Homéliaires, 1-422.
11 De Examinandis Ecclesiasticis, MGH Cap. I, c. 4, 10, p. 358.
Rylands MS L atin 12 179
anonymous author recommend that individual copies of Gregory the Great’s

Homiliae in evangelia be available for every priest,12 while the statutes of
Haito of Basle demand an unspecified homiliary that encompassed each
Sunday and feast day throughout the year.13 Carolingian imperial and
conciliar legislation clearly promoted homiliaries as a necessary part of
the Carolingian sacerdotal library. However, this promotion has tended to
be narrowly interpreted in light of its potential effect on popular preaching,
leading scholars to privilege both the pastoral uses of homiliaries and the
contemporary composition of homily texts.14 This focus ignores the fact
that Carolingian copies of Patristic homiliaries far outnumber the so-called
‘Carolingian’ composed homiliaries.15 Furthermore, it also overlooks that
Charlemagne’s one commission for a ‘state’ homiliary,16 that given to Paul
the Deacon, emphasised a correction and revision of the Night Office drawn
from the fathers of the Church, an obviously monastic rather than pastoral
use.17
As noted in the brief overview of its travels offered above, Rylands MS
Latin 12 belongs squarely to a monastic context as it spent the first nine
centuries of its existence at Luxeuil Abbey. Its correspondences to the
content/arrangement of the so-called Paul the Deacon’s Homiliary also
link the manuscript to a monastic context.18
Rylands MS Latin 12
Rylands MS Latin 12 has itself been seldom studied, with James’s catalogue
entry from the 1920s providing only an incomplete identification of the
12 Deleeuw, ‘Gregory the Great’s “Homilies on the Gospels”‘, 859-865, 859. On Gregory’s homilies
appearing in known homiliaries, see Étaix, ‘Répertoire des Manuscrits’, 129-130.
13 Haito of Basle, MGH Cap. I, c.6, p. 366.
14 Gatch, Preaching and Theology in Anglo-Saxon England, 34, considers Paul the Deacon’s
Homiliary to be too exegetical in content for popular preaching, and therefore unlikely to be
implied the legislation discussed above.
15 Deleeuw, ‘Gregory the Great’s “Homilies on the Gospels”‘, 865-866.
16 Charlemagne is claimed to have read the work himself before giving his approval and
arranging distribution. His prefatory letter is printed at PL 95, col. 1159.
17 McKitterick, Charlemagne, 316, links Paul’s homiliary with the Carolingian production of
a “corrected” Old and New Testament.
18 For the most recent work on Paul the Deacon’s homiliary, including up-to-date bibliography
see: McKitterick, ‘Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 334’, including reference to Paul’s use
of Isidore at pp. 188-190.
manuscript’s contents.19 My own investigation began by providing firm

identification for all Patristic extracts in the manuscript. 20 Thus, I will
begin with a brief analysis of the manuscript’s construction, decoration,
and arrangement to offer a more comprehensive contextualisation of the
Isidorian material within the manuscript. I will then outline the overall
parallels between the Rylands MS and Paul the Deacon’s Homiliary before
turning to the Isidorian material, which appears to be unusual among the
family of ‘Paul the Deacon’- type homiliaries so far identified.
Rylands MS Latin 12 binds together three main sections that show clear
signs of separate production. Its core is the final seventeen quires, which
are preceded by an additional six leaves of paper and a medieval first
quire. The paper leaves contain an eighteenth-century description of the
second and third sections by Dom Victor Perrin (d. 1740), the sub prior of
Luxeuil Abbey.21 He indicates that the homiliary began with Fulgentius
of Ruspe (f.ir) in his day, so it is certain that the first quire was part of the
manuscript at least by this time. A hand very similar to his has written
‘homiliae sanctorum patrum’ at the top of f.1r, suggesting that Perrin viewed
the second and third sections as a whole. However, as the second section
contains no Isidorian material, my discussion will focus mainly on the
third and largest section.
Quires two through eighteen contain what is described on f.10v, as a ‘Liber
de Nataliciis Sanctorum’. Though it does not contain the entire liturgical
cycle, the material for the saints’ feasts found there is arranged according
to the liturgical calendar. The main cycle (ff.10v-96r) progresses from St Ste-
phen on the seventh Kalends of January (Dec 26) to St Thomas the Apostle
on the twelfth Kalends of January (Dec 21),22 followed by three readings
that are given for the martyrs (ff.96r4-106v3).23 Next comes a further cycle
of recapitulatia, alternative readings, which are also arranged liturgically
from St Agnes to St Thomas the Apostle (ff. 106v4-132r4).24 The collection
concludes with an incomplete copy of Serapion’s De Octo Principalibus Vitiis
taken from John Cassian (ff.132r5-143v).25
19 James and Taylor, A Descriptive Catalogue, 11*-12*.

20 See Appendix 1.
21 See Appendix 1, Rylands i.1. James and Taylor, Catalogue, 33-36, gives a partial transcription
of Perrin’s account.
22 Rylands III.1-39. I will discuss the significance of the particular saints venerated below.
23 Rylands III.40-42.
24 Rylands III.43-60.
25 Rylands III.61. It is difficult to assess the relation to the rest of the collection. The Serapion
text is written by the manuscript’s main scribe. Jones, ‘Victor Perrin’, 179. It completes the second
The third section of the homiliary is a working copy with minimal decora-
tion. The text in the third section of the homiliary appears in consistent
one-column blocks with an average of twenty-nine lines per page. Fifty-
three of the sixty-one items begin with rubricated titles, while the other
changes of text are indicated with a dot of rubrication in the first letter of
the next text26 or a marginal note.27 Sometimes there is no indication at all.
The textual format for titled items over the first calendrical cycle is usually
consistent, with rubric headings listing in order the calendar date,28 the
festal occasion,29 the gospel from which the homily pericope comes (not
always rubricated),30 the pericope itself (never rubricated),31 and finally
the attributed author.32 The homily text itself begins with a minimally
decorated initial in red and brown-black, the colours of the main text and
the rubrication. These initials vary in detail, with few as fine as the initial
on f.10v, beginning the first homily. In the remaining items, those described
as ‘for martyrs’ and the recapitularia, the titles omit the calendar date,
and more frequently omit the gospel, the pericope, and the author.33 As
a hint towards the manuscript’s overall tendencies towards the Isidorian
material, which will be discussed later, it is worth noting here that most of
the excerpts that omit such details are those taken from the DOOP.
The table of homilies of f.10r lists thirty capitula, listing the saint’s or
saints’ names only and eight numerals for De plurimorum recapitulationibus
sanctorum. This table matches the first thirty ‘titled’ items in the following
folios, though it subsumes several paired items under one capitulum. The
main hand of f.10v has not filled in attributions for the eight recapitulatia.
A further hand has indicated the presence of relevant recapitulatia in the
margin beside the foot of related readings in the first cycle.34 The table of
homilies and the recapitularia marginal notes suggest two methods by
half of quire XVII and continues over the whole of quire XVIII, but the text remains incomplete.
As a further curiosity, the final four lines of the recapitulatio for St Thomas at the head of f. 132r
have been crossed out.
26 Rylands III.3-4, ff. 16v10, 17v9.
27 Rylands III.27, f. 69r15.
28 Not Rylands III.10, 18, 24, 25, 28, 32.
29 Rylands III.26 gives the occasion before the date.
30 Not Rylands III.10, 18, 32.
31 Not Rylands III.10, 18.
32 Not Rylands III.19.
33 Rylands III. 43, 44, 46, 47, 49, 50, 53-55, 57, 59-61.
34 For example, beside f. 64v11, there are two marginal notes (one certainly a “re-copy” of the
other) indicating an alternative reading for James, the brother of John the Evangelist.
which the following texts were used, emphasising that quires II-XVIII alone
enjoyed use as a complete work in its early life.
Rylands MS Latin 12 and the So-called Paul the Deacon’s

Homiliary
Despite their use and production being advocated by Carolingian ecclesi-

astical reforms, Carolingian homiliaries have been relatively little studied
and their serious examination has only begun in recent years. It is still true,
as McKitterick noted in the 1970s, in reference to Grégoire’s Les Homéliaires
du Moyen Âge and the homiliaries printed in Migne’s Patrologia Latina,
that studies of the homiliaries themselves remain at the level of catalogue
entries, sacrificing much of the richness of manuscript variance.35 Barré’s
Les Homéliaires Carolingiens de l’École d’Auxerre and Grégoire’s more recent
Homéliaires Liturgiques Médiévaux are invaluable comparisons of most
known homiliary collections, but they are by necessity selective rather
than exhaustive in their use of manuscripts.36
Barre and Grégoire offer indices for the extracts chosen in many Merov-
ingian and Carolingian homiliary collections which pre-date Rylands MS
Latin 12.37 The Rylands MS contains none of the Auxerrois ‘Carolingian’-
composed homilies, and parallels between the patristic sources reproduced
in the Auxerrois homiliaries are few. Among the earlier homiliaries inves-
tigated by Grégoire, only Paul the Deacon’s Homiliary offers significant
parallels with Rylands MS Latin 12 sharing almost thirty of its sixty-eight
homiletic items.38 The homiliary of Agimond has the next most concord-
ances: a mere four. The Roman homiliary known as that of Alan of Farfa
offers only two.39 There are no parallels between Rylands MS Latin 12 and
the two seventh-century Luxeuil lectionnaires considered by Grégoire. 40
Grégoire also noted that while homiliary collections before the Carolingian
reforms show substantial overlap amongst themselves in terms of their
text selections, the collection he termed that of Paul the Deacon showed
35 McKitterick, Frankish Church, 103.

36 Barré, Homéliaires; Grégoire, Homéliaires.
37 Barré, Homéliaires; Grégoire, Homéliaires.
38 Excluding antiphons.
39 Grégoire, Homéliaires, Agimond II.85, p. 363 (Rylands III.20), II.113, p. 370 (Rylands III.21);
III.20, p.376 (Rylands III.25); III.34, p.380 (Rylands III.38); Alan of Farfa, 88a, p. 184 (Rylands III.8);
80, p. 181 (Rylands III.38).
40 Salmon, Lectionnaire; Grégoire, Homéliaires, 50ff.
almost total divergence, suggesting a significant difference in liturgical

practice following the Carolingian reforms. 41 Rylands MS Latin 12 confirms
this trend.
There has not yet been a critical study investigating the manuscript
tradition of Paul the Deacon’s Homiliary.42 Thus, it is impossible to comment
on whether the copyist of Rylands MS Latin 12 had access to any particular
copy. 43 The homiliary appears in Migne’s Patralogia Latina, reprinting a
1539 Cologne version that includes a homily cycle ‘de tempore’ of 202 items
followed by another ‘de sanctis’ of 96 items. 44 Migne’s version is obviously
interpolated as it includes the later ninth-century homiliaries of Haimo and
Heiric of Auxerre. The un-interpolated version proposed by Wiegand in the
late nineteenth century remains authoritative, with a trimmer 244 items, 110
items in the winter section, and ninety-nine in the summer section, which
also included a further thirty-five ‘generic’ items to be used commonly
for saints’ feasts. 45 The most recent account of the homiliary, by Grégoire,
does not substantially alter Wiegand’s list aside from more recent textual
identifications and some altered capitula. 46
Despite the substantial differences between the versions edited by Migne
and Wiegand, twenty-four of the Rylands extracts correspond to the same-
titled extracts in both versions,47 with a slightly greater number of odd items
41 Wiegand, Homiliarum, 69-78, 83-96. For more recent if briefer comments, see also: McKit-
terick, Frankish Church, 33-36; Fassler, ‘Sermons, Sacrementaries, and Early Sources for the
Office in the Latin West’.
42 Szarmach, ‘Vercelli’, 77. Cf. The English manuscript tradition only is considered in Smetana,
‘Paul the Deacon’s Patristic Anthology’. Zachary Guiliano is currently involved in a project to
index known examples of ‘Paul the Deacon’ type homiliaries at the University of Cambridge.
This will allow for a better understanding of the relative uniqueness of particular extract
selections amongst this corpus. At an early stage of research, Guiliano indicated in personal
correspondence that Isidorian material is rare among such homiliaries.
43 15 MSs are listed by Wiegand, Homiliarum, 5-10. Cf. Oldfather and Lough, ‘The Urbana Ms’,
293-294, who updates this total to around 20.
44 PL 95, cols. 1159-1565. On Migne’s 1539 source, see: Smetana, ‘Paul the Deacon’s Patristic
Anthology’, 87-88.
45 Wiegand, Homiliarum, 14-65.
46 Grégoire, Homéliaires, 423-477. It is unclear from where these differences arise. Though his
edition considers two additional manuscripts, Grégoire states that he has taken his capitula from
Munich Clm 4533 (winter) and Clm 4534 (summer), which are manuscripts his study shares with
Wiegand’s edition. Grégoire, Homéliaires, 427. Further explanation of this difference is another
line of enquiry frustrated by the lack of a concordance between Paul the Deacon manuscripts.
On their choice of manuscripts, see Wiegand, Homiliarum, 5-12; Grégoire, Homéliaires, 425-426.
47 Rylands II.1, 5, 6, III.1, 5, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 55, 56.
See also Appendix 2.
matching in the Wiegand48 edition compared to Migne’s. 49 As Rylands MS

Latin 12 focuses on saints’ feasts, it is not surprising that most (though
not all) of the concordances are found in Migne’s ‘de sanctis’ cycle or the
saints commonly found in Wiegand.50 In Victor Perrin’s eighteenth-century
description of the manuscript, he suggested that Luxeuil had presumably
once had another codex covering the festivals related to Jesus Christ and
the mysteries, as these are entirely omitted by Rylands MS Latin 12.
As noted earlier, the homilies of quires II-XVII follow two cycles of a
calendar of saints. This calendar is more expansive than the one employed
by any of the reconstructed editions of Paul the Deacon’s Homiliary, but
it shares substantial parallels with that calendar. In comparison with
Wiegand’s edition, the Rylands MS celebrates almost all the saints’ feasts
that appear in Paul’s homiliary,51 with only three feasts absent, that of St
Cyprian and two additional Marian feasts, her purification and birth.52 As
noted above, Grégoire’s edition expands some of Wiegand’s capitula. His
edition includes St Martin ‘or another confessor’, where Wiegand has only
‘saint’ or ‘confessor’53 and St Felicitas ‘or another female saint’. 56 Migne also
omits Cyprian and shares with Rylands Latin 12 five additional feasts not
included in Wiegand’s edition,54 with feasts for St Felicitas, Mary Magdalene
and Luke the Evangelist appearing in Migne alone. In addition to these
common feasts, the Rylands MS also includes feasts for the apostle Simon
Zelotes and Judas, St Agatha of Sicily, the exaltatio of the holy Cross, St
Germanus of Paris, St Medardus of Noyons, St Martin of Tours, St Denis and
the martyr saints Crispin and Crispinan. Item III.7 in the Rylands MS, for
St Agatha, is a text that appears in Migne and Wiegand’s editions, where
it is set simply for a virgin.55 It would be impossible to say whether the
template for Paul the Deacon’s original homiliary, which was a state project
and sponsored by the Carolingians, was intended to be as freely adapted as
it has been in Rylands MS Latin 12. However, the homilies incorporated a
48 Rylands III.4, 6, 13, 37, 50, 52.

49 Rylands II.12, III. 2, 8, 48.
50 Wiegand, Homiliarum.
51 These are: St Stephan, John the Evangelist, Holy Innocents, St Agnes, the apostles Philip
and James, son of Alphaeus, John the Baptist (the birth and the beheading), the apostles Peter
and Paul (together and separately), St Lawrence, the archangel Michael, the apostle Matthew,
the apostle Andrew and the assumption of the Virgin.
52 Wiegand, Homiliarum, 73.
53 Grégoire, Homéliaires, PD II.108, p. 474.
54 Feasts for the apostle James, son of Zebedee, the apostle Thomas, St Bartholomew, the
annunciation of Mary, and the inventio of the holy cross.
55 Rylands III.7.
range of material on saints, martyrs, virgins and confessors and therefore

do offer scope for selective and creative adaptatation.
The copyist also included material that cannot be matched to any of
the published Paul the Deacon templates, and several of the new inclu-
sions substitute different material for feasts explicitly named in Paul the
Deacon’s Homiliary. Between Wiegand and Migne’s frameworks, there are
a possible eight items listed as suitable for the veneration of the Holy In-
nocents. However, Rylands MS Latin 12 has a ninth reading at item III.5, a
portion of Jerome’s Commentarii in euangelium Matthaei. Disparities such
as this may explain why the present first quire was added to the original
homiliary manuscript as many of the additions in the first quire correspond
to ‘missing’ Paul the Deacon’s Homiliary entries (see appendices for details).
Items in the Rylands MS that cannot be matched to either edition of
Paul the Deacon’s Homiliary include extracts from Augustine’s In Iohannis
evangelium tractatus and his sermons, Jerome’s Commentarii in euangelium
Matthaei and his De Viris Illustribus, Gregory of Tours’ Liber in gloria mar-
tyrum, Rufinus’ Latin translations of Eusebius’ Historia Ecclesiastica. The
most frequent new addition, however, is Isidore’s DOOP.
Before moving on to a discussion of how often and in what ways Isidore’s
text was used in this manuscript, it is worth noting that almost all of the
above texts have also all been excerpted in one or other of the editions of
Paul the Deacon’s Homiliary, and this includes Isidore’s DOOP. This may
suggest that when the copyist inserted different readings, he or she chose
to turn to the texts that Paul the Deacon had already vetted as suitable for
extraction when compiling his homiliary. However, more importantly, it
implies that whomever compiled the texts copied in Rylands MS Latin 12
had access not only to some sort of exemplar of Paul the Deacon’s Homiliary,
but also access to some of the full texts from which he took his ‘homilies’.56
Isidore in Rylands Latin MS 12
Rylands MS Latin 12 includes ten excerpts from Isidore’s DOOP. The manu-
script only makes use of his account of a number of New Testament figures.
56 On the contents of Carolingian libraries, see McKitterick, Carolingians and the Written
Word, 166-196. For homiliaries in particular, see Deleeuw, ‘Gregory the Great’s “Homilies on
the Gospels”‘, 860-865. Cf. McKitterick, ‘Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 334’, 201: ‘The
Homiliary [of Paul the Deacon] itself witnesses to the transmission and circulation of knowledge
of particular patristic authors and their works within the Carolingian world.’
There are three excerpts in the main cycle of the readings: those for John
the Evangelist, James the Lesser and Philip. They are all included following
a longer text from an earlier patristic author: coincidentally the same in
each case, Augustine’s In Iohannis evangelium tractatus.
The main cycle includes the only extract for which I have located a paral-
lel in any of the homiliary types listed by Barré or Grégoire. This is item
four in the Rylands’ manuscript’s third section (DOOP, 72) which is item 31
in the Wiegand framework (as printed by Gregoire) and does not appear
at all in Migne’s version. This short paragraph of bibliographical material
about John the Evangelist is the only extract from Isidore’s DOOP listed by
Barré or Grégoire. It is one of only two correspondences between Rylands
MS Latin 12 and the so-called homiliary of Alan of Farfa (Gregoire, 145-148).
It is also repeated in the homiliary of Eginon (Gregoire, 198), considered to
be quite closely related to the previous homiliary type.
In general, Isidore is poorly represented among Merovingian and Caro-
lingian homiliaries. The Alan of Farfa homiliary contains extracts from
Isidore’s De ecclesiasticis officiis (Gregoire, 155-56), De fide catholica contra
Iudaeos (Gregoire, 157-8, 171) and the Sententiae (Gregoire, 180). These are
six extracts in a work that totals over one hundred and fifty items. These
six exactly are repeated in the quite closely related homiliary of Eginon.
(Gregoire, 198, 204, 206, 210, 216). The homiliary of St Peter of the Vatican
repeats four from this group (Gregoire, 233-34, 241, 244), and those of Ot-
tobeuren and of Agimond repeat just one of these same readings, albeit
different ones (Gregoire, 338, 379). Gregoire’s account of Paul the Deacon’s
Homiliary also includes one further Isidorian excerpt, although this is a
different extract from De ecclesiasticis officiis than that which is found in
the other homiliary types, which are far more closely related to one another
(Gregoire, 433). This makes for only two Isidorian extracts among several
hundred entries. The ten extracts from Isidore in Rylands MS Latin 12, just
under one-sixth of the total number of entries in the manuscript’s original
homiliary core, mean that it is unusually rich in its use of Isidore.
In the recapitulationes, a secondary cycle of readings in the Rylands
manuscript, Isidore is better represented, with seven excerpts: under John
the Baptist, St Paul, James the Greater, Jude, Simon the Zealot, Andrew and
Thomas. Five of these appear as texts in their own right rather than simply
following on from another author. This second cycle covers roughly nineteen
percent of the original homilary core, some forty-nine sides of parchment.
The Isidorian material in the recapitulationes, seven out of eighteen texts,
makes up only around seven percent of this already comparatively smaller
section. In part, this is surely because Isidore’s text comprises short, pithy
chapters on each biblical figure, but it is also part of a broader trend where
the Isidorian material seems to be judged worthy of inclusion in this col-
lection, but is treated as of secondary importance to other authors.
A comparison with Gregory the Great, another author with substantial
numbers of extracts in this manuscript, illustrates this point. As noted above,
Gregory the Great’s homilies themselves were sometimes considered to be
the only homiliary collection that a Carolingian cleric needed. Gregory’s
homilies are substantial texts in their own right in contrast with the brief
biographical entries that made up Isidore’s DOOP. Covering over thirty
percent of the original homiliary core, there are more lines from Gregory
in Rylands MS Latin 12 than any other author. However, this manuscript
has exactly the same number of extracts from Gregory as from Isidore, ten
each, with only Jerome having a greater number with ten extracts from his
commentary on Matthew and a single extract from his De Viris Illustribus.
The use made of Isidorian material in this manuscript is comparable
to a few other authors in this collection. For example, short extracts from
Gregory of Tours’ Liber in gloria martyrum and Rufinus’ Latin translation
of Eusebius of Caesarea’s Historia Ecclesiastica are included in the main
cycle only after a longer text. However, although their use is similar, the
compiler of this manuscript reached for Isidore’s text far more frequently
than Gregory of Tours or Rufinus, who are only represented by three items
each. Thus, while Isidore may be second-string, his text is definitely pre-
ferred to others on that lower level.
The extracts from Isidore are also visually relegated to a second level,
below the more typical Patristic authors such as Gregory the Great, Augus-
tine, or Jerome. Entries in the main cycle typically begin with a rubricated
line listing the date, the saint and the particular gospel from which that
day’s reading is taken. This is followed by a gospel pericope and a further
rubric listing the patristic author’s name. Despite the frequent recourse
to the DOOP, Isidore’s name does not appear within Rylands MS Latin 12.
The Isidorian extracts, along with those of Gregory of Tours and of Ru-
finus, are often barely distinguishable from the text that precedes them.
A squiggle mid-line is sometimes present to mark the break in texts, but at
other times, no indication is given at all. Isidore’s entries among the recapitu-
lationes are clearly distinguished from the preceding text by a rubricated
title, but these titles only indicate the saint that the extract concerns. Even
among the recapitulationes, ‘Patristic’ authors like Augustine or Bede are
named in a rubric. One exception to this is the extract from Jerome’s De Viris
Illustribus. While Jerome is otherwise usually named in the rubric, here his
text seems to be treated similarly to Isidore and the other ‘second-string’
texts. Perhaps this can be explained by the encyclopedic nature of this

particular text, in contrast with the more obviously exegetical content of
the commentary on Matthew from which all other Jerome extracts in this
manuscript derive.
The fact that Isidore’s name is not associated with the extracts from the
DOOP is striking. Carolingian texts do not always explicitly signal their
Patristic contents, but this manuscript does indicate a Patristic author in
most cases. The DOOP therefore does not seem to be classified as the work
of a church father. This suggests that Isidore was not considered to lie within
the top bracket of past authorities for Carolingian copyists, although the
material that he had included in the DOOP was judged to be useful by the
manuscript’s compiler.57
Isidore’s De ortu et obitu patrum in the Carolingian Period
This chapter concludes with some brief comments about how this
manuscript fits into the broader Carolingian reception of Isidore, and in
particular, the DOOP. A homiliary is a text with a liturgical context, so the
focus in this manuscript on readings that expound on the gospel verse for
a particular saint’s day – the longer texts like those of Gregory the Great,
Augustine, and Jerome – makes obvious sense. However, we can also see
value placed on more explanatory material about the saint’s life and death,
which is exactly the sort of material Isidore’s DOOP provides. This might
help to explain the attractiveness of his text in this Carolingian milieu.
Another text roughly contemporary with this manuscript makes sig-
nificant use of Isidore’s DOOP: the universal chronicle of the ninth century
historian Bishop Freculf of Lisieux.58 Written in the second quarter of the
ninth century and dedicated to Charles the Bald, Charlemagne’s grandson,
its twelve books cover all history from creation to the author’s own day.
Yet, while Freculf sometimes takes Isidore’s details as the starting point
for further elaboration on the lives of Biblical figures, Rylands MS Latin 12
adheres strictly to Isidore’s text. Freculf also does not reference Isidore’s
name explicitly when he makes use of DOOP even when he quotes from it
57 Here we might draw a comparison with Laura Carlson’s chapter elsewhere in this volume,
which demonstrates the frequent use the Opus Carolii made of Isidore’s writings, although
with more frequent attribution. In contrast, Christopher Heath’s chapter on Paul the Deacon’s
historical writings suggests unacknowledged borrowing from Isidore.
58 Allen, ‘Fréculfe de Lisieux’, 59-79.
rather than paraphrasing, although he does name other authorities such

as Jerome. An examination of Freculf’s chronicle shows us that, as with the
Rylands manuscript, Freculf used Isidore as a source of data rather than
as an authority.
Finally, coming back to the manuscript itself, Rylands Latin MS 12 shows
significant medieval wear, including the re-writing of several passages in
fresh ink where the original script had worn away. Occasionally, the rubrica-
tion has been copied over in blue, perhaps to remedy fading.59 Far more
frequently, the main text itself appears to have been re-copied by tracing
over the original lettering in a darker ink. This is particularly visible over
ff. 86v-88v, with another interesting example at f. 11r2 where the descender
of quin can be just barely discerned from beneath a later scribe’s cum. The
leaf 11r-12v also shows one of several stitching repairs in the manuscript.60
On f. 103r, the same portion of original text is copied once over the original
text space and again, in a different hand, in a marginal note. Re-copyings
like this complicate the identification of the manuscript’s hands. In the only
palaeographic study of the manuscript, Jones suggested that quires II-XVIII
are the work of a single ninth-century scribe, except for f. 10r and f. 21v,
which are a table of homily capitula and the conclusion of the homily for St
Agnes and beginning of the homily for St Agatha, respectively.61 The different
hand on f. 21v might be explained by a later scribe engaged in re-copying,
particularly as this is the only folio on which a homily begins that involves
absolutely no rubrication. The main hand on f. 10r may also be a later addition,
a table of capitula composed on what had initially been a blank fly-leaf.
These indications suggest that the MS enjoyed use by readers concerned
with the preservation of the text over a substantial period of time. This
shows that this manuscript experienced significant use in the monastery.
It was not a copy set aside for special occasions or display; it was clearly
being used, and, given the broader context and purpose of homiliaries
in this period, it seems a safe assumption that this use involved reading
aloud to a monastic community. Thus, curiously, Isidore’s encyclopedic text
seems to have found a place in the Carolingian liturgy. His name might not
have been considered worthy of rememberance, but Isidore’s words were
apparently exactly what the unknown Carolingian compiler at Luxeuil and
subsequent users were looking for.
59 For example, Rylands III.45, f. 109v; Rylands III.58, f. 131v11.

60 Another example can be found at f.56. The Rylands MS shares these stitching repairs with
the other Luxeuil manuscripts discussed by Jones, ‘Victor Perrin’, 178.
61 Jones, ‘Dom Victor Perrin’, 179.
Appendix 1 Full Manuscript Description of Rylands MS Latin 12
Listed for each item is the encompassing folio(s), the quire number,62 the
hand, and a suggestion for the hand’s date.63
For items in the two medieval sections (II & III), incipits and excipts are
also provided as well as the item’s identified original source and parallels
between the MS and the various editions of Paul the Deacon’s Homiliary
where these exist.
Bold text in the following indicates rubrication in the manuscript.
Homiliary
Vellum, 295 x 210mm, ff. vi + 143.
Collation. I4 (+5), II8-V8, VI6, VII8-XVIII8.
Luxeuil. s.viiiex-ix.
Section I
1. fols. ir-vir; i; Victor Perrin.

Victor Perrin, description of Rylands ms. Latin 12 headed Quatrieme
Manuscrit.
Section II
1. fols. 1r-5v15; I; A, s.ix. Title in red uncials gone, except... Secundum

Lucam. In illo tempore dixit Ihesus discipulis suis. Sint lumbi uestri
precincti ... Dominicus sermo quem debemus ... atque utiliter habeamus.
EXPLICIT OMELIA B. FULGENTII EP. DE CONFESSORIBUS.
Fulgentius of Ruspe, Sermones, s. 1, CCSL 91A (ed. C. Lambot,
Turnhout, Brepols, 1968), pp. 889-896.
PD II.108, p. 474. (Legendus in S. Martini vel Alterius Confessoribus)
PDS.84, col. 1551C. (De Confessoribus)
2. fol. 5v16-23; I; B, s.xi?. Ecce karissimi dies illa uidicit ... possideatis regna
calorum. (Antiphons with neumes)
3. fol. 5v24-25; I; B. Ecce mater nostra iherusalem cum magro affectu

clamat ad nos et dicit prius quam hostium. (Antiphons with neumes)
62 Following James and Taylor, A Descriptive Catalogue, 33.

63 Following Jones, ‘Dom Victor Perrin’, 179.
4. fol. 5v26-28; I; C, s. xii? Ecce mater nostra ierusalem cum magro affectu
clamat ad nos et dicit uenit filii mei dilictissimi uenite ad me ut uideatis.
(Antiphons with neumes)
5. fols. 6r-6v31; I; D, s.x? SERMO S. SEUERIANI IN NATALI INNOCENTUM.

Zelus quo tendit ... sed muneris est diuini.
Petrus Chrysologus, Sermones, s. 152, lines 3-89, PL 52,
cols.604C-607A.
PD I.34, p. 436. (In Natale Innocentem)
PDT.38, cols. 1174-1175. (In Festo Sanctorum Innocentium)
6. fols. 6v32-7v30; I; D (6v), E, s.xi? DEDICATUR NOUUS ab infantibus

sermo ... uictoria per interitum comparatur.
John Chrysostom, hom .39, In Natali Innocentium, PDT, cols.
1176A-1177D.
PD I.35, p. 436. (De Eisdem Innocentum)
PDT, as above.
7. fol. 7v31-32; I; E. Secundum Ioh. In illo tempore dixit Ihesus discipulis

suis ... Sic deus dilexit mundum ... sed habeat uitam et nam [sic]. et rt.
John 3:16
8. fol. 8r1-6; I; F, s.xi? YMNUS DE SANCTIS INNOCENTIBUS. Saluete flores

martyrum ... inpune christus tollitur. (Antiphons with neumes)
Prudentius, Liber Cathemorinon, hymn 12, verse 125-135, CCSL 126
(ed. M.P. Cunningham, Turnhout, Brepols, 1966), p. 69.
9. fol. 8r7-10; I; G, s.xi. Exultent omnes sincera mente fideles ... simeonem
duxit ad dulam uenite. (Antiphons with neumes)
10. fol. 8r11-18; I; H (no date given). Te lucis auctor ... ab ... seris. (Antiphons
with neumes, ink rubbed off)
11. fols. 8r19-8v15; I; I (no date given). Sec. Ioh. Sic deus dilexit mundum...
Ergo quantum in medico est sanare ... homines magis tenebras quam
lucem.
Augustine, In Iohannis evangelium tractus, tract 12, par. 12, line
3- par. 13, line 10, CCSL 36 (ed. R. Willems, Turnhout, Brepols, 1954),
pp. 126-128.
12. fols. 8v16-9r10; I; I. FERIA. III. SEC. IOH. ... Amen amen dico uobis qui
non intrat. De inluminato [sic] illo qui natus est caecus ... uel inflama-
tione contemnunt.
Augustine, In Iohannis evangelium tractus, tract 45, par. 1, line 1 - par.
2, line 25, CCSL 36, pp. 388-389.
PDT.151, In Feria Tertia Pentecostes, col. 1341B.
13. fols. 9r11-9v5; I; I; Sec. Ioh. Nemo potest uenire ad me nisi pater qui misit
me, traxerit eum. Magna gratiae commendatio... noli credere hoc est
noli me tangere.
Augustine, In Iohannis evangelium tractus, tract 26, par. 2, line
4 - par. 3, line 13, CCSL 36, pp. 260-261.
14. fols. 9v6-38; I; I. Sec. Luc. Convocatis Ihesus xiieim aposolis... Concessa
primum potestate signorum ... sed potestatem dedisse in qua scirent
sibi ista deberi.
Bede, In Lucae euangelium expositio, lib. 3, cap. 9, line 1104-1133,
CCSL 120 (ed. D. Hurst, Turnhout, Brepols, 1960), pp. 179-180.
Section III
i. fol. 10r; II; J, s.ix. Table of Contents, listing the first 30 homilies and
numerals for a further 8 recapitulationibus sanctorum
1. fols. 10v-12v2; II; K, s.ix. Incipit liber de Natali/ciis sanctorum. VII. Kal.
Ian. Natale Sancti Ste/phani diaconi et martyris Euang. Sec. Matth. ...
Dicebat Ihesus turbis Iudaeorum. Ecce ego mitto ... Dicta S. Hieronimi
presbiteri. Hoc quod ante dixeramus ... christi ora conspicient.
Jerome, Commentarii in euangelium Matthaei, lib. 4, lines 267-369,
CCSL 77 (eds. D. Hurst & M. Adriaen, Turnhout, Brepols, 1969),
pp. 218-222.
PD I.30, p. 435. (Beati Martyri Stephani)
PDT.29, col. 1169B. (De Sancto Stephano)
2. fols. 12v3-16v10; II; K. VI. Kl. Ian. Nat. Sancti Iohannis Euangelistae.
Euang. Sec. Ioh. Dixit ihesus petro sequere me... Dicta Sancti Agustini
Episcopi. Non parua quaestio est, cur apostolo petro ... meum terminare
sermonem.
Augustine, In Iohannis evangelium tractatus, tract. 124, CCSL 36,
pp. 680-688.
PDT.35, col. 1174A. (De Sancto Joanne Apostolo Et Evangelista)
3. fols. 16v10-17r8; II; K. Iohannes vero apostolus et evangelista domini post

peractum ... in hac et idolum dianae fuit ab apostolo paulo destructum
Gregory of Tours, Liber in gloria martyrum, cap. 29. MGH SS rer.
Merov. 1, 2, (Krusch, 1885), p. 505.
4. fols. 17r9-17v13; II; K. Iohannes apostolus et evangelista filius zebedie

frater iacobi virgo ... puluis ebulliat quieuit autem apud epesum.
Isidore of Seville, De Ortu et Obitu Patrum, cap. 72, PL 83, cols.
151A-152A.
PD I.31, p. 436. (In Natale Sancti Iohannis Euangelistae)
5. fols. 17v14-18v22; II-III; K. V. Kal. Ian. Natale Innocentum Euang. Ecce

angelus domini apparuit... Sec. Matt. Dicta Hieronimi presb. Quando
tollit puerum et matrem eius ... de radice conscendet.
CCSL 77, pp. 14-16
6. fols. 18v23-21v6; III; K, L (21v only). XII. KL. Feb. Nat. S. Agnetis Virg.
Euang. Sec. Matt. Simile est regnum caelorum thesauro ... Dicta Gregorii
papae. Caelorum regnorum, fratres karissimi ... gaudia sine labore capiatis
Gregory the Great, Homiliae in evangelia, lib. 1, hom. 11, CCSL 141
(ed. R. Etaix, Turnhout, Brepols, 1999), pp. 73-79.
PD II.123, p. 476. (In Natale Virginum)
7. fols. 21v6-25v27; III; L (21v only), K. Non. Feb. Nat. Agathe Virg. Euang.
Sec. Matt. Simile est regnum caelorum decem ... Dicta Gregorii papae.
(not red) Saepe uos fratres karissimi ammoneo praua opera ... diem
neque horam
Gregory the Great, Homiliae in evangelia, lib. 1 hom. 12, CCSL 141,
pp. 80-88.
PD II.122, p. 476. (In Natale Virginum)
PDS.95, col. 1566C. (De Virginibus)
8. fols. 25v27-31r17; III-IV; K. VIII. KAL. Apr. Conceptio S. Mariae de

spiritu sancto. Euang. Sec. Luc. Missus est gabrihel ... Dicta S. Ambrosii
Ep. Latent quidem diuina mysteria ... in euangelio primum.
Ambrose, Expositio euangelii secundum Lucam, lib. 2, line 4-279,

CCSL 14 (eds. M. Adriaen & P. A. Ballerini, Turnhout, Brepols, 1957),
pp. 30-39.
PDS.14, col. 1475B. (In Annuntiatione Beatae Mariae)
9. fols. 31r17-35v5; IV-V; K. Kl. Mai. Nat. Apostolorum Philippi et Iacobi.

Euang. Sec. Ioh. Non turbertur cor uestrum... Omelia eiusdem. Dicta
b. Agustini Ep. Hic praedicat apostolůs de passione sua. Ne mortem
tamquam homines timerent ... nostro largiente reddamus ... in nomine
meo hoc faciam.
Augustine, In Iohannis evangelium tractatus, tract. 67, par. 1, line
5-par. 4, line 7 (end), CCSL 36, pp. 495-497.
No matches, but PDS.15, col. 1475C. (Augustine, In Iohannis …, tract.
67-68; In Festo Philippi Et Jacobi.)
10. fols. 35v5-36v25; V; K. Relatio Egesippi in hystoria ecclesiastica de

Iacobi Iusti passione. ‘Suscepit’, inquit, ‘ecclesiam cum apostolis frater
[sic] ... rursus sceleratas iniecerint manus.
Eusebius of Caesarea, Historia ecclesiastica, trans. Rufinus, lib.
2, cap. 23, par. 3-19, Corpus Berolinensis, vol. 9,1 + 9,2 (ed. Th.
Mommsen, 1903-1908, Berlin: J.C. Hinrichs), pp 167-171.
11. fols. 36v25-37r5; V; K. Iacobus alfei episcopus hierosolymorum primus

cognomento iustus... hierosolyma credatur esse diruta.
153A-153B.
12. fols. 37r5-10, V; K. Philippus a bethsaida ciuitate ... suis ibidem requiescit.
Isidore of Seville, De Ortu et Obitu Patrum, cap. 73, PL 83, cols. 152B.
13. fols. 37r11-38v12; V; K. V. NON. Mai. Inuentio S. Crucis. Euang. Sec.

Matt. Nolite arbitrari quia venerim… Dicta b. Hieromini presb. Supra
dixerat. Quod dico uobis in tenebris ... tantum et messurus sis.
CCSL 77, pp. 73-76.
PD II.110, p. 474 (In Vigilia in Unius Martyris)
14. fols. 38v13-39r26; V; K. V. Kal. Jun. Nat. S. Germani Ep. Euang. Sec. Matt.
Vigilat quia nescitis... Sermo b. Hieronimi presb. Perspicue ostendit
quare supra dixerat ... uoluntatis apparuit

CCSL 77, pp. 233-235.
15. fols. 39r27-42v11; V-VI; K. VI. Id. Jun. Nat B. Medardi Ep. Euang. Sec.
Matt. Homo quidam peregre… Dicta S. Gregorii. Lectio sancti euangelii,
fratres karissimi, sollicite considerare ... nos quod fecimus excuset ...
saecula saeculorum amen.
Gregory the Great, Homiliae in evangelia, lib. 1, hom. 9, CCSL 141,
pp. 58-64.
PD II, 104, p. 473. (In Natale Unius Sacerdotis)
16. fols. 42v11-48v26; VI-VII; K. VIIII. Kal. Jul. Uigilia S. Ioh. Bapt. Euang.
Sec. Luc. ... in diebus herodis regis iudae… Omelia Lectionis eiusdem
uenerabilis Bedae presb. Uenturus in carne dominus ... nos in uitam
coronat aeternam ... saecula saeculorum. Amen.
Bede, Homeliarum euangelii libri ii, lib. 2, hom. 19, CCSL 122 (eds. D.
Hurst & J. Fraipont, 1955), pp 318-327.
PD II.40, p. 460. (In Vigilia Sancti Joannis Baptistae)
PDS.19, col. 1476B. (In Vigilia Beati Joannis Baptistae)
17. fols. 48v27-52v; VII; K. VIII. Kal. Jul. Natiuitas S. Iohannis. Euang.
Sec. Luc. Elizabeth impletum est tempus… Sermo Uen. Bedae presb.
Praecursoris domini natiuitas ... iesum christum deum et dominum
nostrum ... saecula saeculorum. Amen.
Bede, Homeliarum euangelii libri ii, lib. 2, hom. 20, CCSL 122,
pp. 328-334.
PD II.44, p. 461. (In Natale Sancti Ioannis Baptistae)
PDS.22, col. 1476C. (In Nativitate Sancti Joannis Baptistae)
18. fols. 53r-53v18; VII; K. De eadem festiuitate (sermo) b. Maximi Ep.

Festiuitatem praesentis diei ... testis fidelissimus reuelauit.
Maximus of Turin, In nativitate sancti Joannis Baptistae III, PL 57,
cols. 389B-390C.
PD II.43, p. 461. (As above.)
PDS.21, col. 1467C. (As above.)
19. fols. 53v19-54v30; VII; K. IIII. Kal. Jul. Uigil S. Petri et Pauli apostolorum.
Euang. Sec. Ioh. Dixit ihesus petro simon iohannis diligis me… Cum ergo
prandissent hoc est quando [sic] tertio dominus post resurrectionem

manifestauit... ut pro omnibus pateretur eius [sic] est factus.
Augustine, In Iohannis evangelium tractatus, tract. 123, CCSL 36,
pp. 675-680.
20. fols. 54v30-56v11; VII-VIII; K. III. Kal. Jul. Natale S. Petri. Ap. Euang.
Sec. Matt. Uenit iesus in partes caesareae philippi. Dicta b. Hieronimi
presb. Uenit autem iesus in partes caesareae philippi philippus iste est
frater herodis... qui ligandus sit qui soluendus.
Jerome, Commentarii in euangelium Matthaei, lib. 3, lines 1-99, CCSL
77, pp 139-142.
21. fols. 56v11-57r26; VIII; K. Prid. Kal. Iul. Nat. S. Pauli Ap. Euang. Sec. Matt.
Ecce nos reliquimus… Dicta Hieronimi presb. Grandis fiducia. petrus
piscator ... et omnia possidentes.
CCSL 77, pp 172-173.
PD II.54, p. 462. (In Natale S. Pauli)
PDS.7, col. 1461C. (In Conversione Sancti Pauli)
22. fols. 57r26-59r12; VIII; K. III. Id. Iul. Translatio corporis S. Martini Ep.
Euang. Sec. Luc. Sint lumbi vestri precinti... Omelia eiusdem lectionis
b. Gregorii papae. Sancti euangelii fratres karissimi aperta uobis est
lectio ... semper timeatur.
pp. 89-95.
PD II.109, p. 474. (De Confessoribus)
23. fols. 59r13-64v11; VIII-IX; K. VIII. Kal. Agust. Nat. S. Iacobi ap. fratris
S. Ioh. Euang. Euang. Sec. Ioh. Hoc est preceptum meum… Gregorii.
Cum cuncta sacra eloquia ... iuuat Iesus Christus Dominus noster [sic].
(Additional title added at top. 61v-62r. Lectio S. euang. Secundum Matth.
Accessit ad eum mater filios zebedei cum filius suis... Gregorius.)
pp. 229-237.
PD II.101, p. 472. (In Natale Unius Apostolis)
PDS.72, cols. 1537B-C. (De Apostolis)
24. fols. 64v12-66v12; IX; K. In Nat S. Laurentii Archdiaconi. Euang. Sec.

Ioh. Amen dico uobis nisi granum frumenti… Agustinus. Se autem
dicebat ipsum esse granum ... gloriosissimas coronas receperunt. Amen.
5-par.13, l.18 (end), CCSL 36, pp. 442-445.
PD II.68, p. 465. (In Natale Sancti Laurentii)
PDS.42, col. 1490B. (De Sancto Laurentio Martyre)
25. fols. 66v13-68v19; IX; K. In adsumptione S. Mariae. Euang. Sec. Luc.

Dum ambulat ihesus periter intrauit… Dicta S. Ambrosii Ep. Sanctum
euangelium cum legeretur audiuimus ... rigat sed qui incrementum dat
deus.
Augustine, Sermones, sermo. 104, SPM 1 (ed. C. Lambot, Utrecht,
Spectrum, 1950), pp. 54-57.
No matches, but cf. PDS.43, col. 1490C. (Ambrose, Expositio euangelii
secundum Lucam, lib. 11, 19; In Vigilia Assumptionis Beatae Mariae)
and PDS.47, col. 1505A. (Augustine, s. 103; In Assumptione Sanctae
Mariae).
26. fols. 68v20-69r15; IX; K. In Nat. S. Bartholomei Ap. VIII(I) Kal. Sept.
Euang. Sec. Matt. Ecce ego mitto uos sicut oues in medio luporum …
Dicta b.
Hieronimi presb. Lupos scribas et pharisaeos uocat ... enim coepisse
sed perfecisse virtutis est. (In margin at f.69r15) Finit.
CCSL 77, p. 69.
27. fol. 69r15-29; IX; K. Bartholomaeum apostolum apud Indiam ... virtuti-
bus ac benefitiis manifestat.
Gregory of Tours, Liber in gloria martyrum, cap. 33, MGH SS rer.
Merov. 1, 2, pp. 509-510.
28. fols. 69v- 71v5; IX; K. In Decollatione S. Iohannis Bapt. Euang. Sec. Matt.
Audiuit herodes tethrarcha famam ihesu... Hieronimus. Quidam eccle-
siasticorum interpretum causas ... plena statim premium consiquatur.
CCSL 77, pp. 116-121.
29. fols. 71v6-16; IX; K. In urbe autem toronica est ecclesia sanctae mariae
uirginis et s. ioh. baptistae nomine consecrata ... curricolo finirentur.
Gregory of Tours, Liber in gloria martyrum, cap. 19, lines 8-13. MGH
SS rer. Merov. 1, 2, p. 500.
30. fols. 71v16-72v8; IX-X; K. XVIII Kal. Oct. Exaltatio S. Crucis. Euang.
Sec. Ioh. Erat homo ex pharisaeis… Dicta S. Agustini. Nisi quis renatus
fuerit denuo non potest introire in regnum dei cum denuo non dicitur
nisi ad ea... mori peccato et consepeliri christo.
Origen, In Epistulam Pauli ad Romanos explanationum libri, trans-
lated by Rufinus, lib. 5, cap. 8, l. 29-84, pp. 423-426 (fragments), ed.
C. P. Hammond Bammel, Vetus Latina 16, 33-34, Aus der Geschichte
der lateinischen Bibel, 1990-1998; Freiburg : Herder).
31. fols. 72v8-73r13; X, K. Item quomodo potest nasci cum sit senex... nisi
quia eius membra erunt ut unus ascendit audi discipulum eius inquit
nostra conuersatio in caelis est.
Augustine, In Iohannis evangelium tractatus, tract. 11-13 (fragments),
CCSL 36, pp. 109-141.
No matches, but cf. PDS II.16, cols. 1475C-1475D. (Augustine, In Ioh.
&c, tract 11, cap. 3ff.; In Festo Inventionis Sanctae Crucis)
32. fols. 73r14-74v5; X; K. De serpentis exaltatione Hieronimus. Sicut exal-

tatus est serpens in heremo ita exaltari oportet filius hominis iohannes
apostolus dixit qui prae omnibus ... caelestia habe(bi)mus et mirabilia
quae oculus non vidit nec auris auidivit nec in cor hominis ascendit
quae praeparauit deus his qui diligunt eum.
Unidentified
33. fols. 74v5-75v21; X; K. XI. Kal. Oct. Nat. S. Mathei Ap. Euang. Sec. Ioh.
Ego sum inquit uitis uera … Dicta S. Agustini. Numquid unum sunt
agricola ... ait iam uos mundi estis propter uerbum quod locutus sum
uobis.
4-par. 3, line 30 (end), CCSL 36, pp. 528-529.
cf. PD II, 100 , p. 472. (tract. 80-82).
PDS.69, In Vigilia Apostolorum, 1536D. (All of 80).
34. fols. 75v22-77v15; X; K. III. Kal. Oct. Dedicatio Basilicae Archangeli

Michahelis. Euang. Sec. Matt. Accesserunt discipuli ad ihesum dicentes
quis putas maior… Hieronimi presb. Quod saepe monui etiam nunc ...
feminarum propter angelos.
CCSL 77, pp. 156-160.
35. fols. 77v16-83v11; X-XI; K. VII. Id. Oct. Nat. S. Dionisii. Euang. Sec. Luc. Si quis
venit ad me et non odit patrem… Dicta Gregorii Papae. Si consideremus,
frat. kar, quae et quanta ... remedia contulit ... saecula saeculorum amen.
pp. 348-358.
PD II.112, In Natale Unius Martyris, p. 474.
PDS.75, De Uno Martyre, col. 1543B.
36. fols. 83v12-88v10; XI-XII; K. VIII. Kal. Non. Nat. Crispine(i) et

Crispiniane(i). Euang. Sec. Luc. Cum audiertus proelia… Dicta b.
Gregorii. Quia longius ab urbe digressi sumus ... concite opitulatur
intentione [sic] ... saecula saeculorum amen.
pp. 320-330.
PD II.116, In Natale Plurimorum Martyrum, p. 475.
PDS.80, De Martyribus, col. 1550D.
37. fols. 88v11-92v3; XII; K. V. Kal. Non. Nat. SS. App. Symonis et Iudae.
Euang. Sec. Ioh. Haec mando uobis ut diligatis in uicem... Dicta S.
Agustini. Haec mando uobis ut diligatis in uicem maneat ergo ... ipse
non mullis [sic] facientibus fecit
Augustine, In Iohannis evangelium tractatus, tract. 87-91 (frag-
ments), CCSL 36, pp. 541-555.
PD II.103, col. 473. (In Natale Unius Apostolis)
cf. PDS.71, col. 1537B. (De Apostolis; tract. 87-88)
38. fols. 92v4-94r; XII; K. Prid. Kal. Dec. Nat. Andreae Ap. Euang. Sec. Matt.
Ambulans ihesus iuxtra mare galilea… Dicta Gregorii Papae. Audistis fr.
kar. quia ad unius iussionis uocem ... ad propria contemnenda perducatur.
pp. 33-37.
PD II.98, p. 472. (In Natale Sancti Andreae)
PDS.2, col. 1457D. (In Die Sancti Andreae)
39. fols. 94v- 96r4; XII-XIII; K. XII. Kal. Ian. Nat. S. Thomae Ap. Euang. Sec.
Ioh. Ego sum uitis uos palmites… Dicta S. Agustini Ep. Secundum hoc
dicit quod est caput ... debitur in premio resergentium.
2 - tract. 83, par. 1, l. 30 (fragments), CCSL 36, pp. 527-535.
No matches, but cf. PD II.100, p. 472. (Tract 80, 81, 82)
PDS.69, col. 1536D. (In Vigilia Apostolorum, Tract. 80).
40. fols. 96r4-102r9; XIII; K. De Plurimis martyribus. Euang. Sec. Matt. Si

quis uult est… Dicta Gregorii. Quia dominus ac redemptor ... aeternum
regnum citius adepturi sumus per eum qui ... saecula saeculorum amen.
pp. 277-286.
PD II.118, p. 475. (Festivitate Martyrum)
PDS.77, col. 1543C. (De Uno Martyre)
41. fols. 102r9-104r9; XIII-XIV; K. De plurimis martyribus. Euang. Sec. Matt.

Uidens autem ihesus turbas ascendit in mortem… Dicta Hieronimi
presb. Dominus ad montana conscendit ... opere complere.
CCSL 77, pp. 23-27.
42. fols. 104r10-106v3; XIV; K. De plurimis martyribus. Euang. Sec. Matt.

Dicta S. Gregorii. Sancti evangelii fr. kar. brevis est lectio ... carnalia
desideria in menta trucidamus, ipso adiuuante ... sancta sanctorum
amen.
pp. 20-25.
PD II.124, p. 476. (In Natale Sanctae Felicitatis Seu Et Aliarum
Sanctarum)
PDS.34, col. 1174A. (In Natali Sanctae Felicitatis)
43. fols. 106v4-109r23; XIV; K. Recapitulatio in Nat. S. Agnae. Sermo b.

Maximi Ep. Dum [sic] in toto mundo ... gaudia non neganda omnium
laborum tradidit palam qui regnat ... in saecula saeculorum. amen.
Ps.-Ambrose, PL 17, s. 48, cols. 701-705; Maximus of Turin, PL 57, s.
56, cols. 643-648.
PD I.62, p. 441. (In Natali Sanctae Agnetis Virginis)
PDS.5, cols. 1461A-1461B. (In Natali Sanctae Agnetis)
44. fols. 109r24-109v13; XIV; K. Recapitulatio Iohannes Bapista. Iohannes

Baptista filius zacharie ex tribu leui ... greco sermone augustan uocauit.
147B-148B.
45. fols. 109v14-111v10; XIV-XV; K. In uigilia S. Petri. Euang. Sec. Ioh. Simon
iohannes diligis me plus his... Lectionis eiusdem Bedae Presbiteri.
Uirtutem nobis perfectae dilectionis ... remunerare pollicetur.
Bede, Homeliarum euangelii libri ii, lib. 2, hom. 22, line 1-218, CCSL
122, pp. 158-159.
PD II.45, p. 461. (In Vigilia Sancti Petri)
PDS.23, col. 1476D. (In Vigilia Apostolorum Petri Et Pauli)
46. fols. 111v11-114v8; XV; K. Item de eadem festiuitate sermo Maximi.

Gloriosissimos christiane f idei principes ... ibi regni sui principes
collocaret.
Maximus of Turin, Homilies, hom. 68, In natali beatissimorum Petri
et Pauli apostolorum I, PL 57, cols. 391-396B.
PD II.47, p. 461. (De Natali Beatissimorum Apostlorum Petri et Pauli)
PDS.32, col. 1484C. (In Commemoratione Sancti Pauli)
47. fols. 114v9-115v6; XV; K. Cuius supra de eadem festiuitate. Apostolici

natalis gaudio ... effusione devoti sanguinis consecrarunt.
Maximus of Turin, Homilies, hom. 69, De eodem natali sanctorum
apostolorum Petri et Pauli II, PL 57, cols. 397A-398B.
PD II.48, p. 461. (De Natali Beatissimorum Apostlorum Petri et Pauli)
PDS.25, col. 1477A. (In Die Apostolorum Petri Et Pauli)
48. fols. 115v6-119r7; XV; K. Item de eadem die. Euang. Sec. Matt. Venit
ihesus in partes cesariae phillipi... Omelia Bedae presb. respondens
simon petrus dixit: tu es christus filius dei uiui... Notet autem dilectio
vestra... accipiemus coronam uitae ... saecula saeculorum amen.
Bede, Homeliarum euangelii libri ii, lib. 1, hom. 20, l. 47-226, CCSL
122, pp. 145-146.
PDS.11, cols. 1465D-1470B. (In Cathedra Sancti Petri)
49. fols. 119r8-119v12; XV; K. Simon petrus filius iohannis frater andreae
ortus bethsaida... urbis veneratione celebratur.
Jerome, De uiris inlustribus, cap. 1, Texte und Untersuchungen zur
Geschichte der Altchristlichen Literatur, 14, 1a, (ed. E. Richardson,
1896, Leipzig, J. C. Hinrichs), pp. 6-7.
50. fols. 119v13-120r17; XV-XVI; K. Item sermo b. Agustini de Nat. S. Pauli.

Amen inquit dico uobis quod uos qui secuti estis me ... hic dicimus cum
suis discipulis iudicaturum Iesum ... regenerata per fidem.
Augustine, De Ciuitate Dei, lib. 20, cap. 5, n. 3, CCSL 48, (eds. B.
Dombart & A. Kalb, 1955; Turnhout, Brepols), pp. 704-705.
PD II.55, p. 463. (In Natale S. Pauli)
51. fols. 120r17-120v24; XVI; K. Paulus qui ante saulus. Apostolus gentium
aduocatus iudaeorum a christo de caelo uocatus in terram prostratus
... septimo tertio ab urbe roma miliario contra orientalem plagam
Isidore of Seville, De Ortu et Obitu Patrum, cap. 69, PL 83, cols. 150A-150B.
52. fols. 120v24-125r9; XV-XVI; K. Recapitulatio Natale Sancto Iacobi. Ome-

lia Agustini ep. Hoc est praeceptum meum. Siue dicatur preceptum
sive mandatum ex uno verbo graco utrumque ... ad ratione salutis.
Augustine, In Iohannis evangelium tractatus, tract. 83, par. 2 - tract.
86, par. 3 (end), CCSL 36, pp. 535-543.
PD II.102, p. 472. (Natale Unius Apostoli)
53. fol. 125v10-16; XVI; K. Iacobus filius zebedei frater iohannis quartus ...
sepultusque est in achaia marmarica.
Isidore of Seville, De Ortu et Obitu Patrum, cap. 71, PL 83, col. 151A.
54. fols. 125v16-126r8; XVI; K. In illo autem tempore sine dubio tempus
quod sub claudio ... in apostolorum actibus conscripta nosse docet.
Eusebius of Caesarea, Historia ecclesiastica, trans. Rufinus, lib. 2,
cap. 9-10, par. 1, l.6, Corpus Berolinensis, vol. 9,1 + 9,2, pp. 125-127.
55. fols. 126r9-126v12; XVI; K. Recapitulatio S. Iohannis. Sermo Iohannis

Ep. Heu me quid agam ... salationis accepit.
John Chrysostom (?), In Decollatione Beati Joannis Baptistae, PL 95,
cols. 1508D-1509C (excerpt).
PD II.72, p. 466. (In Decollatione S. Joannis Baptistae)
PDS.50. (As above.)
56. fols. 126v13-131v5; XVI-XVII; K. Recapitulatio S. Matthei. Euang. Sec.

Matt. Uidit ihesus hominem sedentem ... Omelia Bedae Presbiteri.
Legimus apostolum dicentem quia omnes peccauerunt ... in throno
Patris una cum Spiritu sancto... saecula saeculorum. Amen.
Bede, Homeliarum euangelii libri ii, lib. 1, hom. 21, CCSL 122,
pp. 148-157.
PD II.99, p. 472. (In S. Matthaei Apostoli)
PDS.55, col. 1522B. (In Die Sancti Matthaei)
57. fols. 131v6-10; XVII; K. Recapitulatio S. Iudae Ap. Iudas iacobi frater ...
in nerito arminiae urbe.
Isidore of Seville, De Ortu et Obitu Patrum, cap. 78, PL 83, col. 153B.
58. fols. 131v11-20; XVII; K. Recapitulatio S. Symonis Ap. Simon zelotes qui
prius dictus est chananeus ... sortes proprias acceperunt.
Isidore of Seville, De Ortu et Obitu Patrum, cap. 80-81, PL 83, cols.
153C-154A.
59. fols. 131v21-25; XVII; K. Recapitulatio S. Andreae Ap. Andreas qui

interpretatus decorus ... cruci suspensus occubuit.
Isidore of Seville, De Ortu et Obitu Patrum, cap. 70, PL 83, col. 151A.
60. fols. 131v26-132r4; XVII; K. Recapitulatio S. Thomas Ap. Thomas Christi

discipulus didimus … sepultus est in honore.
Isidore of Seville, De Ortu et Obitu Patrum, cap. 74, PL 83, col. 152B.
61. fols. 132r5-143v; XVII-XVIII; K. Inc. Sermo B. Sarapionis de octo uitiis

principalibus. In illo coetu antiquissimorum senum fuit vir nomine
sarapion ...qui cum universas cordis.
Serapion, De Octo Principalibus Vitiis, cap. 1-23 (incomplete), in John
Cassian, Conferences, pt. 1.5, PL 49, cols. 609D-640A.
Appendix 2 Parallels Between Rylands MS Latin 12 and

Gregoire’s and Migne’s Editions of Paul the
Deacon’s Homiliary
Gregoire’s edition Migne’s edition
Ryl. Lat 12 PD I PD II PDS PDT Author

II Fulgentius
1 hom. 108 hom. 84 Severiani/P. Chr
5 hom. 34 hom. 38 Chrysostom
6 hom. 35 hom. 39 Augustine
11 Augustine
12 hom. 151 Augustine
13 Augustine
14 Bede
III
1 hom. 30 hom. 29 Jerome
2 hom. 35 Augustine
3 Gregory of Tours
4 hom. 31 Isidore
5 Jerome
6 hom. 123 Gregory I
7 hom. 122 hom. 95 Gregory I
8 hom. 14 Ambrose
9 ~hom. 15 Augustine
10 Eusebius
11 Isidore
12 Isidore
13 hom. 110 Jerome
14 Jerome
16 hom. 40 hom. 19 Bede
18 hom. 43 hom. 21 Maximus
19 Augustine
20 Jerome
21 hom. 54 hom. 7 Jerome
24 hom. 68 hom.42 Augustine
25 ~hom. 43 / 47 Augustine
26 Jerome
Gregoire’s edition Migne’s edition
Ryl. Lat 12 PD I PD II PDS PDT Author

27 Gregory of Tours
28 Jerome
29 Gregory of Tours
30 Origen
31 ~hom. 16 Augustine
32 ?
33 ~hom. 100 ~hom. 69 Augustine
34 Jerome
37 hom. 103 ~hom. 71 Augustine
39 ~hom. 100 ~hom. 69 Augustine
41 Jerome
44 Isidore
48 hom. 11 Bede
49 Jerome
51 Isidore
53 Isidore
54 Eusebius
55 hom. 72 hom. 50 Chrysostom
57 Isidore
58 Isidore
59 Isidore
60 Isidore
61 Serapion
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10 Adoption, Adaptation, & Authority
The Use of Isidore in the Opus Caroli
Laura Carlson
The art historian Ernst Kitzinger once framed the period between the fourth
and the ninth centuries as one overwhelmed with talk about images.1 The
eighth century certainly would seem to illustrate his case. The adoption
and subsequent abandonment of Iconoclasm by the Byzantine Empire
rekindled a long-standing debate about the appropriateness of imagery
in Christian worship throughout the Mediterranean world, engaging not
only the Byzantines, but also the papacy and the emergent Carolingian
Empire. The formal repeal of Iconoclasm at the 787 Second Council of Nicaea
produced not one but two Carolingian treatises that explicitly discussed
and rejected Byzantine image theory. Both treatises, the earlier, and now
lost, Capitulare adversus Synodum and the later Opus Caroli regis Contra
Synodum (often referred to as the Libri Carolini), often are contextualized
as ‘response’ texts, written specifically to combat the conclusions reached
at Nicaea, where the Byzantines revealed a new image-inclusive spiritual
policy.2 That Nicaea was the instigation behind these two texts cannot be
denied; however, the presumed centrality of image theory in the Opus Caroli
can obscure the broader insight it (and presumably the lost Capitulare)
provides on the emergent linguistic philosophy within the Carolingian intel-
lectual world. Yes, the Opus Caroli was written to combat a new Byzantine
perspective of the spiritual worth of images, but in doing so it advocated a
specifically Carolingian understanding of language, reflective of a growing
incorporation of the etymological and linguistic philosophy of classical, late
antique, and early medieval writers, specifically Isidore of Seville. The core
of the Opus Caroli is not images, but language.
What has often been called the working copy of the Opus Caroli (Vati-
canus Latinus 7207) clearly once commanded considerable attention at the
Carolingian court. At least four distinct hands worked on the text, resulting
in over 3,400 distinct corrections as well as marginal notes in Tironian
1 Kitzinger, ‘The Cult of Images’ Dumbarton Oaks Papers, p. 85; Noble, Images, Iconoclasm
and the Carolingians, p. 28.
2 Unfortunately the Capitulare itself does not survive, available now only partially via the
Responsum prepared to it by Pope Hadrian, c. 793. Hadrian, Epistola 2, pp. 6-57.
210 L aura Carlson
shorthand.3 Although this early manuscript lacks a title, preface, or the

majority of Book One, a later, more complete, and polished manuscript
(Paris, Bibliothéque de l’Arsenal, MS 663) attributes the work to Charle-
magne (‘The Work of Charles against the Synod’), a textual example of
the Frankish king’s spiritual as well as political sphere of influence. The
significance of this attribution is rarely commented upon but it should
serve to indicate the text’s one-time prominence within the Carolingian
intellectual world. 4 The attachment of Charlemagne’s name to the text
provided a broader cultural and geopolitical context for the image debate,
in which the Carolingians (as a whole) dismissed the cultural, political, and
theological legitimacy of Byzantium.5 Analysing the text is daunting due to
its size (four books of 120 chapters); however, its heft provides unparalleled
access to a singular attempt at representing Carolingian linguistic and
semiotic theory. The text’s predominant author, Theodulf of Orléans, worked
largely as a ghost-writer (his name does not appear in any of the extant
manuscripts), accorded the responsibility of demonstrating the superior-
ity of Carolingian spiritual ideology to that of the Byzantines.6 Such an
ideology was not an inclusive one. Similarly seen in attitudes towards the
pagan Saxons or the Spanish Adoptionists, blanket condemnation and even
violence were frequent tools of enforcing Carolingian interpretations of
Christianity.7 Accordingly, this chapter will not examine Theodulf’s (and,
by proxy, the Carolingians’) mastery of Byzantine theology, but instead
will analyse his explanation of Carolingian image theory in terms of its
milieu of the late eighth century Carolingian intellectual world. Theodulf’s
denigration of the Greek Patriarchate, the Byzantine imperial court, and
overall Greek intellectual society might be usefully understood as a ‘straw
man’ argument, in which the Byzantines acted as a foil for the author to
present and promote a Carolingian linguistic philosophy nascent within
the international community of scholars at Charlemagne’s court. This task
3 Noble, Images, Iconoclasm, and the Carolingians, p. 166.

5 The style of argument within the Opus Caroli is largely an ‘us vs. them’ construction, referring
collectively in the first person plural in order to indicate Carolingian policy and referring to the
errors of the second Council of Nicaea as those of ‘the Greeks’, such as seen in Book IV, Chapter
11, ‘That uselessly and without care the Greeks attempted to anathematize the catholic church
in their synod...’, (‘Quod inutiliter et incaute Gręci ecclesiam catholicam anathematizare conati
sint in eorum synodo...’), Theodulf of Orléans, Opus Caroli, p. 332, l. 17.
6 Although the debate regarding the authorship of the Opus Caroli has mostly been put to
rest, thanks largely to the work of Ann Freeman, a number of scholars (Freeman included) have
considered the potential influence of Alcuin of York.
7 On the Adoptionist Controversy see Cavadini, The Last Christology of the West.
Adoption, Adaptation, & Authorit y 211
was underpinned by geopolitical resonance as the Carolingians worked

to establish themselves politically, militarily, and spiritually as the true
successors of Rome.
Prior to an examination of the Opus Caroli’s linguistic arguments, it is
worth discussing the means by which the text rejects the authority and
conclusions of the 787 Council of Nicaea. Early medieval conciliar authority
traditionally rested on two intersecting arguments: horizontal and verti-
cal. The vertical approach invoked the historic authority of the Christian
church, referencing both the received transmission of scripture and the
inspired authority of patristic authors. In contrast, the horizontal appeal
rested in current ecclesiastical authority, traditionally the pentarchy of
ancient patriarchates (Jerusalem, Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople,
and Rome) and decisions made within ecumenical councils.8 The Opus
Caroli relies heavily on the vertical argument, condemning the council
of 787 for wilfully departing from received patristic and Bible authority.9
Numerous chapters of the work allude to the prohibition of image worship
based on these precedents (e.g. Book I, chapters 12, 14, and 26). Interestingly,
however, the Opus Caroli lacks any invocation to horizontal arguments, that
is, appeals to current ecclesiastical authority, such as the Pope or recent
church councils. Thomas Noble has surmised the prominent absence of
this form of argument might be rooted in Pope Hadrian’s refusal to side
with the Carolingians against the 787 Council, rendering them unable to
invoke current ecclesiastical authority. The Carolingians may also have
taken an even more extreme approach: rejecting the 787 Council’s status as
a valid ecumenical council outright, claiming that it was neither catholic nor
universal (as they pointedly noted they had not been invited).10 By stripping
the 787 Council of its status as ecumenical, the Carolingians simultaneously
removed its ‘horizontal’ authority, that is, any ability to dictate or define
appropriate Christian practice.
Theodulf’s vertical arguments also may be linked to the broader cir-
cumstances of the dissemination of the Acts of the 787 Council to the
Carolingian court. Ironically, the Carolingians’ condemnation rested on
a poorly translated copy of the Byzantine Council. Papal representatives
who attended Nicaea in 787 provided the papal archives with a copy of the
conciliar acts in Greek, to be later translated into Latin. Although the name
8 von Shubert, Geschichte der christlichen Kirche, p. 384; Hauck, Kirchengeschichte
Deutschlands, Vol. 2, p. 343.
212 L aura Carlson
of the scribe given this task has been lost to history, the effects of his poor
translation attempt endure. The Greek Acts reveal the Byzantines’ careful
demarcation in vocabulary between worship (latreia, a term applicable
exclusively to the worship of God) and reverence (prokynesis, a widely used
term related to the action of “bowing down”) when referring to images,
advocating the latter as an appropriate Christian attitude toward religious
imagery. The distinction between ‘worship’ and ‘reverence’, so carefully
demarcated in the Greek, was removed from the Latin translation. Both
prokynesis and latreia were translated indiscriminately as either adorare or
osculauri, denuding the Acts’ original and purposeful vocabulary choices.
The reasons behind the poor translation can never be known or why the
Carolingians, when receiving this Latin version, accepted the text as a
genuine reflection of Byzantine image policy. Regardless, it was this Latin
text on which the Carolingians (i.e. Theodulf) based the predominant argu-
ments of the Opus Caroli.11 But, as mentioned above, Theodulf’s arguments
should not be judged on the basis of their adequacy in representing the
Byzantine position, as the Carolingians were rarely interested in expressing
their enemies’ views correctly.12 Instead, we should focus on how Theodulf
constructs these linguistic arguments in light of the wider context of the
Carolingian intellectual world. Within this context, Theodulf’s heavy incor-
poration of Isidore of Seville comments not only upon Isidore’s increasing
influence within the Carolingian literate world, but also speaks to a nascent
consideration of linguistic philosophy among the intellectual elite, one that
indicated a developing formal relationship between the study of language
and Christian doctrine throughout the early medieval Mediterranean.
Isidore of Seville and the ‘Spanish’ Presence at the Carolingian

Court
Study of the Latin language, both from a grammatical and philosophical

perspective, reached new heights in the Carolingian court during the late
eighth century. As Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York turned to writing new
technical grammars, they embraced an emergent sense of the higher pur-
pose of linguistic study, in which the traditional disciplines of the trivium
(grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) could be applied to biblical study.13 These
11 Freeman, “An Introduction”, p. 1.

12 Freeman, “An Introduction”, p. 33.
13 Alcuin De Dialectica; Peter of Pisa, Ars.
writers, in addition to later ninth century intellectuals such as Hrabanus

Maurus and John Scottus Eriugena have often been cited as the turning
point for the development of early medieval grammatical discourse: the
years after them are marked with vocational grammars increasingly absorb-
ing other disciplines, especially dialectic, mythology, theology, and biblical
exegesis.14 Yet these developments stemmed from a markedly increased
recognition of the spiritual ramifications of etymological and linguistic
theory, rooted largely in the works of Isidore of Seville.
Isidore’s most influential text, the Etymologiae, not only provided an
‘encyclopaedic’ approach to knowledge (discussing everything from geogra-
phy to military tactics), but was also a means of understanding knowledge
itself via a Christianization of the secular liberal arts. This work is one
of the largest distinguishable influences on Theodulf’s arguments in the
Opus Caroli. Although neither Isidore nor the Etymologiae is mentioned by
name in the text, Ann Freeman’s work revealed over seventy direct refer-
ences to phrasing and vocabulary from the Etymologiae within the Opus
Caroli, a number almost commensurate to biblical or exegetical references
in the text.15 What these references reveal is that Isidore was a model for
both Theodulf’s content and methodology on language in the Opus Caroli.
Theodulf appropriated a range of topics from the Etymologiae, more than
half of his references to Isidore relate specifically to the topics of language,
largely from the first two books of the Etymologiae, those related to the
trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic).16 The similarities between the
dialectical and syllogistic reasoning in the Opus Caroli and these sections of
the Etymologiae are striking, suggesting Theodulf’s familiarity with the text.
Simultaneously, these books provided Theodulf with extensive authorita-
tive reasoning advocating the importance of language over images, using
inherited linguistic philosophy adopted from classical and late antique
writers such as Aristotle, Augustine, and Boethius. An epistemological
explanation of language, as def ined by the Etymologiae, underpinned
Theodulf’s arguments against the Greeks.
Theodulf’s awareness and subscription to Isidore of Seville extends
beyond the Opus Caroli, going so far as to append Isidore’s Chronicon to
14 Amsler, Etymology and Grammatical Discourse, p. 207.

15 This number is somewhat arbitrary as it is unable to properly assess Theodulf’s awareness
of other writers/texts via Isidore’s Etymologiae; however, it does provide a useful comparison
of Isidore’s explicit presence in comparison to other works. Theodulf, Opus Caroli, p. 604.
16 At least half of the references to the Etymologiae within the Opus Caroli stem from Books
I and II. Opus Caroli, pp. 604-5.
214 L aura Carlson
his biblical manuscripts.17 Theodulf’s preference for Isidore as a Christian

authority has also been suggested to stem from Theodulf’s perception of
their shared Iberian origins. Theodulf’s sympathies for his fellow country-
men is marked in other examples of his work: a reference to Prudentius
as ‘noster et ipse parens’ suggests a Spanish origin as well as a reference in
a poem to Charlemagne, ‘Annuit is mihi qui sum inmensis casibus exul’.18
Although Theodulf believed (albeit erroneously) he shared a Visigothic
heritage with Isidore as well as a well-developed antipathy for the Greek
world, no specific allusion to Isidore’s distrust for the Byzantines can be
found in the Opus Caroli.19 Interestingly, despite his prominence Isidore is
never cited explicitly by name; that honour is reserved for a precious few
patristic and classical authorities (i.e. Aristotle, Apuleius, Ambrose, Jerome,
Augustine, Boethius, and Gregory the Great). Freeman postulated these
writers held such authority within both the eastern and western medieval
worlds that invocation of their works commanded unqualified assent.20
Theodulf’s decision not to include Isidore in these ranks may indicate
an assumption that his works were relatively unknown in the Byzantine
world. Although access to and appreciation of Isidore’s texts had increased
markedly in the Carolingian literate world in recent decades, his work did
not convey the same authority as those of Aristotle or Augustine. Though
explicit reference to Isidore may be lacking, the pervasiveness of his works
in the Opus Caroli indicates their availability in the Carolingian world.21
17 This text is included in two extant copies of Theodulf’s biblical manuscripts in addition to De
Nominibus Hebraicis by Eucherius, the Clavis Melitonis, and the pseudo-Augustinian Speculum
or the Divinis Scripturis. Freeman, ‘Theodulf of Orleans and the Libri Carolini’, p. 695; Koon &
Wood, ‘The Chronica Maiora of Isidore of Seville’.
18 ‘Our very parent’, Theodulf of Orléans, Carmen 45, p. 543, l. 16; ‘He gives me, an exile far
from home, his approval’, Carmen 23, p. 481, l. 28.
19 Although one might suggest that this belief was in error, Theodulf refers to himself as a
Visigoth, while it is believed that Isidore was a Hispano-Roman, writing under Visigothic rule.
See Fontaine, ‘Isidore de Sevilla frente a la España Bizantina’.
20 Freeman, ‘An Introduction’, p. 75.
21 Within the Opus Caroli, Theodulf references Isidore’s Etymologiae, De Natura Rerum,
Allegoriae Scripturae Sacrae, Chronica, De Ecclesiasticis Officiis, De Fide catholica, De Ortu et
Obitu Patrum, Differentiarum, Liber Numerorum, Quaestiones in Vetus Testamentum, and the
Sententiae.
Byzantine Error and Isidore’s Theory of Language
The Greek misunderstanding of language, both in its technical form (e.g.

grammar) and in its role in Christian theology (e.g. the understanding of
the Bible and patristic writing) underpins Theodulf’s wide-sweeping attacks
on the Byzantines; a profound error at the root of Greek society.22 Theodulf
embarks on an extended discussion of language: its origin, its ability to
communicate God’s law, and its role in human development. Theodulf and
Isidore share a common approach to language as a predominantly human,
as opposed to a divine, institution. Within the Etymologiae, Isidore refers to
words ‘[having been] established by the ancients’ either according to nature
or by whim (secundum placitum).23 This adhered to an emergent form of
naturalism in terms of the Christian understanding of language as a human
invention. Although other classical philosophical views of naturalism had
led to the dismissal of language as a ‘conventional’ institution, in which
words and their meanings were subject to change and variation according
to culture or time, Isidore’s (and by proxy Theodulf’s) linguistic naturalism
gave language a permanence rooted in Christianity. Despite its human
origins, God had allowed language to accurately reflect elements of His
creation. Such a philosophy was derived from Genesis 2:19, in which God
accorded Adam the responsibility of naming all creatures on Earth, and
man provided the first linguistic link between word (the signifier) and
object (the signified): ‘Now the Lord God had formed out of the ground all
the wild animals and all the birds in the sky. He brought them to the man
to see what he would name them; and whatever the man called each living
creature, that was its name.’ God’s approval of Adam’s names for creation
instilled a semi-divine nature to language: its human origins had been
transformed and elevated to having a fundamental and inseparable tie to
reality. Language was thus established as an eternal institution: words and
their meanings were fused irrevocably. To change or misappropriate the
meaning of a word was to disrespect God’s blessing of human language.
Theodulf invokes this link when condemning the Greeks for their idolatrous
22 Arguments against the Greeks based on language can be found as early as Book I, Chapter 1,
in which Theodulf attacks Constantine and Irene for claiming to ‘co-reign’ with God. This argu-
ment develops into an exposition on language according to the pseudo-Augustinian Categoriae
about the three modes of speech. Theodulf of Orleans, Opus Caroli, pp. 106-108.
23 “Non autem omnia nomina a veteribus secundum naturam imposita sunt, sed quaedam, et
secundum placitum.” Isidore augments this understanding with the origin of written words in
the Hebrew language, which he derives ultimately from the Law transmitted by Moses. Isidore,
ed. Lindsay, Etymologiae I.29.2-4; trans. Barney, Lewis, et al. The Etymologies, p. 39.
216 L aura Carlson
mistake in confusing and conflating two different words in reference to the

worship of images (adorare and osculari):
And it is clear that “osculum” and “adorationem” are the names of two
[different] things. For how can there be unity in the names as much as in
sense, when there is such a difference in their meaning? Or why can’t the
words be different in sense, when the origins of the words are different
when said aloud? For things are not created according to their names,
but names are created according to things, nor should it be believed that
things are fitted to names, but more often that names are fitted to things,
since all living things were brought to the first man by God, so that he
might see what he would call these things [as he saw them], the names
were chosen; for the same father of the human race (Adam) gave names
to the material world created by God. He did not look at material objects
[res] that were brought before him in order to apply names themselves
which he had created [previously].24
God’s permission for man to provide names for all of creation solidified
the relationship between a representation of the world (i.e. language) and
the world itself. Isidore’s search for etymological origins stemmed from a
common patristic belief that Latin contained the fundamental linguistic
elements of this original ‘Edenic’ language, Hebrew.25 This link between
language and Edenic purity allowed any sacred language (Hebrew, Greek,
or Latin) to link to something beyond itself: to God’s plan for humanity. In
Christian epistemology, this allowed for language to remain a vehicle for
accurate communication between man and God, expressed most fully in
scripture.26 Idolatry, the worship of images, violated this sacred relationship.
Only words, a human invention blessed by God, could adequately express
God’s message to humanity. Images, as purely man-made creations, could
never hope to rival this connection. To worship images was to worship only
24 Manifestum namque est osculum et adorationem duarum rerum nomina esse. Quomodo
ergo erit nominum tanta in sensu unitas, cum rerum in intellectu sit tanta diversitas? Aut cur non
possint vocabula differri in sensu, cum possint vocabulorum origines differri in actu? Non enim
res sunt conditae propter nomina, sed nomina propter res, nec credendum est, ut res aptentur
nominibus, sed nomina potius aptentur rebus, quoniam et protoplasto animantia adducta a
Domino fuisse, ut videret, quid vocaret ea, leguntur; rebus enim a Deo conditis idem humani
generis pater nomina dedit, non nominibus a se conditis res, quibus ipsa nomina inderet, ad se
adductas perspexit. Theodulf of Orléans, Opus Caroli, pp. 544 l. 30-545, l. 5.
26 See Mary Beagon’s chapter in this volume for additional information on the Christian
understanding of Adam’s conferral of names to mankind.
the world: man-made images could not possibly rival the allegorical and
multi-layered nature of Scripture. Having been sanctioned by God, the Bible
represented the deepest and most perfect expression of God’s law, accessible
on an infinite number of symbolic and allegorical layers. In confusing the
words of worship (osculari and adorare), the Greeks were forgetting the
fundamental link between linguistic ‘symbols’ and an external divinely-
ordered reality. To confuse two words particularly in reference to worship
was to deny the proper relationship that joined man and God via language.
In the Opus Caroli, Theodulf, successor to Isidore’s etymological approach,
bases language in an extra-verbal authority (i.e. God), which guarantees the
connection between word and reality.27 Exemplified by the biblical account
of Moses receiving God’s law on Mt. Sinai, the proper relationship between
man and God is via words, not images. Not via painting, Theodulf argues,
but in writing, did humanity receive God’s law. On those tablets were not
images but apices or letters, which are the ‘signs for things’, a phrase at the
heart of Isidore’s Etymologiae:
And thus forty days after the immolation of the lamb and the crossing of
the Red Sea “the Lord descending on Mount Sinai” gave the law to Moses
not in pictures but writing, and delivered “in written stone” not in images
but in the form of letters, which are signs for things or the [physical marks]
for the words which have been assigned [to them].28
The ‘Isidorian’ definition of language Theodulf provides echoes throughout

the Opus Caroli and roots Theodulf’s justification of Carolingian opposition
to the Greeks. Although seemingly minor, Theodulf’s invocation of Isidore’s
etymological approach to language marks a significant development in
the intellectual Christian world, as Davide del Bello states: ‘[Isidore’s work
provided] an etymological account of both the world and language, of the
world as language’.29 Although the theory of etymological inquiry as a
means of understanding reality was certainly not unique to Isidore, the

28 “Quinquagesimo denique die post agni immolationem et maris rubri transitum Dominus in
montem Sinai descendens legem non pictam sed scriptam Moysi dedit, et in tabulis lapideis non
imagine sed apices, qui indices rerum sive signa verborum esse perhibentur, tradidit” Theodulf
of Orléans, Opus Caroli, pp. 304 l.27-305, l. It is noteworthy that Theodulf (and Isidore) use three
different words to indicate “signs” or “words”: apices, indices, and signa. The semantic variation
in their meaning has yet to be fully explored. This is taken directly from Isidore’s ‘Litterae autem
sunt indices rerum, signa verborum.’ Ed. Lindsay, Etymologiae I, 3:1.
29 Del Bello, Forgotten Paths, p. 97.
218 L aura Carlson
popularity of his Etymologiae, which combined a Christian encyclopaedic

knowledge with this theory of etymological inquiry, marked a new Christian
linguistic philosophy emergent within early medieval intellectual circles.
Theodulf’s incorporation of this philosophy within the Opus Caroli, a
purposeful representation of Carolingian Christian philosophy, should be
understood as a significant turning point in the acceptance and promotion
of this approach to language within the early medieval world.
The Christian Encyclopaedia and the Spiritual Implications of

Language
Isidore’s adherence to a form of linguistic naturalism, that language has

some permanent connection to reality, is evident in the philosophy that
drives his most popular work, the Etymologiae. Isidore’s etymological ac-
counts imply a belief in the worthwhile knowledge that can be gleaned from
a word’s meaning or roots. Yet this philosophy was by no means widespread
as an integral component of Christian learning. Rather, this text should be
contextualized by the developing treatment of classical linguistic philoso-
phy within Christian intellectual circles. A linguistic philosophy advocating
naturalism or the benefits of etymological inquiry can be found in numer-
ous classical and late antique writers, such as Plato’s Cratylus (fifth century
BCE), Aristotle’s De Interpretatione (fourth century BCE), Varro’s De Lingua
Latina (second-first century BCE), and Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria (late
first century CE).30 Yet an inherent relationship between language and exist-
ence was not one universally accepted by the early Christian intellectual
community. In his Principia Dialecticae, Augustine largely dismissed the
use of etymological inquiry for the purposes of spiritual study. He refused
to acknowledge the validity of the search for the true ‘etymon’, arguing,
‘Discerning the origin of words is like the interpretation of dreams; it is a
matter of each man’s ingenuity’.31 Augustine rejected the use of grammatical
science for the purposes of discovering the origins and uses of words and,
by association, any fundamental link between language and existence.32
Although not widely popular in the patristic world, the seventh and eighth
centuries reveal a much wider acceptance of etymological inquiry, perhaps
30 Varro’s lost work Disciplinarum libri IX would also presumably be in this category.
31 ‘Huc accedit, quod ut somniorum interpretatio, ita verborum origo pro cujusque ingenio
praedicatur.’ Augustine of Hippo, Principia Dialecticae, PL 32:1411.
most prominently demonstrated by the Etymologiae’s popularity, but more

broadly in the transmission and transcription of other works advocating its
use within Christian study. The Principia Dialecticae, in which Augustine
rejected etymological study, was largely unknown or rarely copied during
this period. Although Theodulf may have known of it, only one phrase from
the Opus Caroli has been linked to the text.33 Instead, a popular pseudo-
Augustinian text, the Categoriae Decem (often known by its alternate title,
the Paraphrasis Themistiana), was far more influential in determining early
medieval understanding of Augustinian etymological theory, a text which
ironically supported the philosophical relevance of etymological study,
based largely on the linguistic philosophy of Aristotle, who was enormously
influential in his posited relationship between language and reality.34
If the seventh and eighth centuries mark a new approach to linguistic phi-
losophy, particularly the ‘naturalism’ suggested by Isidore, this philosophy
should be broadly compared with the overall role of linguistic study within
Christian education. In addition to the first purpose-written etymologi-
cal text of the early medieval period, Isidore’s Etymologiae also has been
considered a benchmark in the development of the medieval Christian
encyclopaedia. As Jacques Fontaine has indicated, the formation of a text
such as the Etymologiae represented more than a random synthesis of divine
and worldly knowledge.35 Both Isidore and other early encyclopaedists,
such as Cassiodorus with his Institutiones (mid-sixth century), derived the
structure and philosophy of their work from the classical episteme: ‘a way
of knowing, conditions of knowing and how these conditions determine
the object of knowledge’.36 Isidore’s approach to his subject(s), arranging
his material according to the trivium and quadrivium, evoked the aims of
the classical enkyklios paideia: to discuss the full range of subjects appropri-
ate for comprehensive knowledge, stimulus for the eventual development
of the traditional medieval curriculum.37 In Book I of the Etymologiae,
this approach to language and knowledge is made purposefully clear: ‘A
discipline (disciplina) takes its name from “learning” (discere), when it can
also be called “knowledge” (scientia)’.38 Especially resonant in this area
33 Although the MGH edition includes a reference to the Principia in Book I, Chapter II (p. 117)
of the Opus Caroli, I have found no similarities to the known Augustinian text, based on the
edition available in Migne.
34 Freeman ‘An Introduction’, pp. 88-9; Pseudo-Augustine Categoriae Decem.
35 Fontaine, ‘Isidore de Séville et la mutation de l’encyclopédisme antique’
36 Copeland, ‘Language frontiers, literary form, and the encyclopedia’, p. 508.
37 Fowler, ‘Encyclopaedias: Definitions and Theoretical Problems’, p. 14.
38 Copeland, ‘Language frontiers, literary form, and the encyclopedia’, p. 39.
220 L aura Carlson
were the disciplines of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic), in

which the study of language itself could yield knowledge and understanding
about the world.39 The theory of the use of secular disciplines such as
the trivium within a Christian setting should be distinguished from the
etymological inquiry and linguistic naturalism also at the heart of Isidore’s
work. The acceptance and perceived benefit of the secular disciplines was
one suggested in patristic writings, notably by Augustine.
Augustine’s rejection of etymological inquiry in the Principia Dialecticae
may appear incongruent with his apparent support for the use of the liberal
arts in Christian contexts, as argued in his De Doctrina Christiana. But al-
though the ideas are related, they should be considered distinct, particularly
in terms of changing perspectives on the two within the early medieval
Christian intellectual world. Although Augustine rejected etymological
inquiry as a philosophical basis for knowledge of existence, he did support
the application of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectic) as a means
of better understanding scripture. Augustine’s De Doctrina Christiana
advocated a new perspective on the Bible as the epitome of eloquence,
in which all modes and methods of speech were most fully realized, ‘The
literary-minded should be aware that our Christian authors used all the
figures of speech which teachers of grammar call by their Greek names of
tropes [...] Those who know about these tropes recognize them in sacred
literature and to some extent helps them in understanding it...’. 40
In the centuries following Augustine, the acceptance of pagan disciplines
such as the trivium did not always indicate a similar appropriation of the
philosophical implications of etymological inquiry. The growth of early
medieval Christian linguistic treatises often evoked Augustine’s approach
to the liberal arts within the De Doctrina Christiana, as opposed to the
Categoriae Decem. Study of technical aspects of language (e.g. grammar,
tropes, etc.) increased as a focus of monastic pedagogy and intellectual
activity, resulting in proto-encyclopaedic texts such as the seventh century
Irish text, Anonymus ad Cuimnanum (St Paul in Carinthia, Stiftsbibliothek,
2/1, ff. 21-42rb), and grammatical collections such as the seventh century
Italian Ars Ambrosiana and the ninth century Ars Laureshamensis.41
39 Fowler, ‘Encyclopaedias: Definitions and Theoretical Problems’, p. 5.

40 ‘Sciant autem litterati, modis omnibus locutionis, quos grammatici graeco nomine tropos
vocant... Quos tamen tropos qui noverunt agnoscunt in Litteris sanctis eorumque scientia ad
eas intellegendas aliquantum adiuvantur.’ Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana, trans. Green, On
Christian Doctrine, p. 87, ll. 87-90.
The emergence of texts incorporating Christian and pagan disciplines,

such as Cassiodorus’ Institutiones as well as his Expositio Psalmorum, sup-
ported and supplemented a Christian appropriation of classical disciplines
for religious purposes. The increased production of Christian texts advocat-
ing the use of the liberal arts may have spurred a renewed interest in the
other component to linguistic study: language’s relationship to reality. The
increased transmission and translation of classical philosophical texts,
such as Boethius’ commentaries on Aristotle in the sixth century, may
have fomented a wider examination of linguistic study within the seventh
and eighth centuries. 42 The promotion of the liberal arts within the De
Doctrina Christiana as well as the ‘rediscovery’ of the pro-etymological
Decem Categoriae (which advocated a largely Aristotelian view of language)
may have contributed to the continued transmission of many classical and
late antique linguistic philosophical treatises on etymology, such as those
by Varro and Quintilian. This perspective led perhaps understandably to
the supposition that the technical arts associated with language (e.g. gram-
mar, rhetoric, and dialectic) as well as the investigation into the origins of
language itself (e.g. etymology) could be viewed as support systems through
which one could better understand language (and in correlation, existence
and/or God). The prominence of the pseudo-Augustinian Decem Categoriae,
in addition to the growing acceptance of classical disciplines such as the
trivium within Christian intellectual thought indicates a blended approach
to the role of language by the time Theodulf was composing the Opus Caroli
in the late eighth century. His acceptance of the etymological naturalism
advocated by Isidore (and more distantly by Aristotle and Boethius) echoes
throughout the Opus Caroli, as all feature prominently in his arguments
against the Greeks. 43 Theodulf also relies heavily upon Cassiodorus’ Ex-
positio Psalmorum (c. 540-548), a text allied closely to the etymological
program of Isidore.44 Within the Opus Caroli, the Expositio is second only to
Isidore’s Etymologiae in terms of numbers of appearance. 45 As heir to these
two traditions, Theodulf’s subscription to the belief that an understanding
of the origins or meanings of words could lead to a fuller understanding
of the concepts they represented permeates the Opus Caroli, providing the
groundwork for his attack on the Greeks.
42 See Boethius, Liber Aristotelis de decem praedicamentis and De Interpreetatione vel Perier-
menias, ed. Laurentius Minio-Paluello.
43 Theodulf of Orleans, Opus Caroli, pp. 600-603.
44 Astell, ‘Cassiodorus’, p. 39.
45 Freeman ‘An Introduction’, p. 76.
222 L aura Carlson
Isidore, and subsequently Theodulf, demonstrate both an acceptance of

and application of secular disciplines, but they also subscribe to the more
complex philosophy that language itself denoted something fundamental
about reality. The popularity of this perspective, to the degree that Theodulf
felt confident in expressing it as a part of Carolingian spirituality, must
to some extent rest on Isidore’s shoulders. Isidore’s Etymologiae might be
considered among the first widely influential Christian texts to advocate a
joint perspective: a culmination of the appropriation of the secular liberal
arts in addition to a heavy emphasis on the fixed relationship between
language and reality.
The Etymologiae, as a successful bridge to the Christian appropriation
of secular disciplines, prompted a new approach to biblical study. During
the Carolingian period, we find the increased copying, compilation and
transmission of linguistic treatises incorporating secular education as a
necessary path for deeper spiritual understanding. In Alcuin’s preface to
his De Grammatica (late eighth century), the Disputatio de vera philosophia,
the teacher explains that grammatical study sets the student on the search
for true knowledge, God, pure thought, and eternal life. 46 Knowledge of
language (via grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) was considered essential
in understanding scripture; the culmination of not only God’s words but
human wisdom. 47 Those without this education were to be considered
spiritually suspect. Isidore explicitly stated the new repurposing of Chris-
tian grammar in his De Natura Rerum, assuming the authority to speak
for the proper divine doctrine (sana sobriaque doctrina).48 This newfound
responsibility (and the spiritual dangers associated with its lack) encapsu-
lates Theodulf’s argument against the Greeks. In the preface to the work,
Theodulf invokes Isidore’s words as the stimulus behind the Opus Caroli:
‘Therefore ambition, puffed up by arrogant winds and the most arrogant
desire for empty glory, inflamed not only the rulers but also the priests of the
eastern regions to such an extent that they disregarded proper and divine
doctrine...’.49 Having established their inability to recognize the importance
of words as the appropriate bond between God and man, Theodulf further
demonstrates the Bible as the compendium of human wisdom. Theodulf
46 ‘Est equidem facile viam vobis demonstrare sapientiae, si eam tantummodo propter Deum,
[propter rerum scientiam], propter puritatem animae, propter veritatem cognoscendam, etiam
et propter seipsam diligatis...’ Alcuin, De Grammatica, PL 101: 850B.
47 This is exemplified in the Anonymus ad Cuimnanum.
48 See also Andrew Fear’s chapter on Isidore of Seville’s De Natura Rerum in this volume.
Amsler, Etymology and Grammatical Discourse, p. 134; Isidore, De Natura Rerum, PL 83: 963.
49 Theodulf of Orléans, Opus Caroli, p. 98 l. 5.
lists how the Greeks have failed to train themselves in language and thus
have misunderstood God’s law:
[In the Bible] one also will find the brilliance and fluency of eloquence
(Isidore Etym. 1.2.1), the states and types of arguments (2.4.1 & 2.5.1);
there exordiums, by which listeners are rendered benevolent, docile,
and attentive (2.7.1); there brief and candid narratives and also long and
obscure (2.7.1), which are not related except by the revealed Holy Spirit;
there conclusions by which the property of things is shown, arguments
in which the souls of the listeners are stirred to carry out what is said
(2.7.2); there laws (2.10.1) or maxims (2.11.), there are related [the three
registers of speaking]: speaking grandly, speaking humbly, and speaking
moderately (2.17.1); there prosopopoeia (2.13.1), ethopoeia (2.14.1), and all
types of speech, which were bequeathed by the rhetoricians. One will
also find many other types more glorious than these which when he
finds them, he will take pleasure in them, which neither the school of
grammarians nor that of the rhetoricians was able to grasp.50
This laundry list of linguistic terminology drew largely on the vocabulary

and phrasing of the Etymologiae (as shown above in the parentheses).51
Whether Theodulf had a copy of the text in front of him as he worked on the
Opus Caroli may never be known; however, the ease with which Theodulf
incorporates Isidore’s discussion of linguistic tropes and figures into his
own work demonstrates a high degree of familiarity with the Etymologiae.52
But Theodulf’s use of these linguistic terms extends beyond simply list-
ing prosopopoeia and other forms of rhetorical speech. He conspicuously
50 ‘Illic etiam inveniet nitorem et copiam eloquentiae (Isidore, Etym. 1.2.1), genera causarum
(2.4.1) et status (2.5.1); illic exordia, quibus benivoli, dociles vel adtenti auditores fiunt; illic nar-
rationes apertas et breves (2.7.1), clausas etiam et longas, quae non nisi Spiritu sancto reserante
panduntur; illic conclusiones quibus proprietas rerum monstratur, argumentationes, quibus
animi audientium concitantur ad implenda ea, quae dicuntur (2.7.2); illic leges (2.10.1) sive sen-
tentiae (2.11.1), illic magna granditer, parva summisse, mediocria temperate (2.17.1) promuntur;
illic prosopopeian (2.13.1), ethopopeian (2.14.1) vel omnes figuras loquutionum, quae a rethoribus
traduntur, inveniet et plures illis augustiores quae percepisse se gaudebit, ad quas nec gram-
maticorum nec rethorum scola pertingere potuit.’ Theodulf of Orléans, Opus Caroli, p. 314 ll.
3-30.
51 The MGH edition classifies this entire section as a reference to Isidore; however, given the
numerous linguistic or grammatical treatises available during this time, I am not convinced
Theodulf is intentionally citing the Etymologiae. This could either be a list from memory or a
list of terms gleaned from any grammatical treatise.
52 Freeman ‘An Introduction’, p. 78.
224 L aura Carlson
demonstrates his ability to use these linguistic forms and dialectical

reasoning (in the form of syllogisms) as a means to further contrast
Carolingian linguistic mastery to Byzantine ignorance. As Freeman
has shown, the Opus Caroli is littered with syllogistic phrasing; a clas-
sical method re-appropriated to demonstrate a specifically Carolingian
Christian truth.53 As the idea of the multiple layers of Scripture gained
traction in the late antique and early medieval world, Christian scholars
such as Theodulf increasingly had recourse to the classical disciplines
– as a means to ‘pull back the curtain’ and reveal the various deeper
meanings of the Bible. The Byzantines, by failing to demonstrate an ap-
preciation for semiotic importance, thus had shown themselves to be poor,
uneducated Christians. As the earlier Anonymus ad Cuimnanum argued
(a sentiment Isidore and Theodulf clearly shared), ‘the grammarian was
an expert Latinist who had mastered the ratio of a foreign language in a
formal way and corrects grammatical errors... Without the grammarian,
Latin literary and Christian wisdom cannot be attained’.54 As the author
implies, the proper Christian is the correct speaker.55 Theodulf argues
that the Byzantines prove the truth to this philosophy: their inability to
understand the forms and styles of biblical and patristic language has led
them into idolatry. Their ignorance of language has produced an ignorance
of Christian doctrine.
Syllogistic phrasing illustrates the extent to which the classical trivium
had been adopted into a Christian framework. Theodulf did not only employ
biblical quotations to show how the Greeks’ idolatry violated God’s law, but
also methods of deliberative rhetoric and dialectical syllogisms to illustrate
how the Greeks had failed to construct a logical argument to defend their
idolatrous ways.56 Theodulf flaunts his (and by proxy the Carolingians’)
superiority in these disciplines, consciously invoking ‘the authority of
Roman eloquence’ to warn the Greeks of his impending rhetorical attack
in subsequent books: ‘and thus it ought to be argued as such, that first we
establish our position, and then demolish [our] adversary’s [position],’ a
direct quotation from Cicero’s De Oratore via Isidore.57 Logic, or better stated,
53 Freeman, ‘An Introduction’, p. 56.

54 ‘Ita etiam grammatici est non nescire regulas exterorum sectas vocum emendare latine
loquelas linguae’ (f. 42r) trans. Amsler, Etymology and Grammatical Discourse, p. 210.
55 ff. 23v, trans. Amsler, Etymology and Grammatical Discourse, p. 210.
56 Theodulf of Orléans, Opus Caroli, p. 323, l. 10.
57 ‘... argumentandum est ita, ut primum nostra firmemus, dehinc adversa confringamus.’
Isidore, Etymologiae, ed. Lindsay, II.vii.5-6; trans. Barney, Lewis et al., p. 71; Theodulf of Orléans,
Opus Caroli, p. 330; Reynolds Texts and Transmissions, p. 104.
reason (rationalis) is at the heart of both Isidore and Theodulf’s examination

of language, one which incorporates the disciplines of grammar, rhetoric,
and dialectic. In his Differentiae (De differentiis verborum), Isidore attributes
an introspective and ontological definition to dialectic, ‘A rational method
of discussion which sharpens intelligence and distinguishes truth from
error’.58 The essence of rationalis was to discover, via language, the true
causes of things.59 For Theodulf, the Greeks failed to do this at Nicaea.
Theodulf repeatedly upheld the rationality of Christian truth: ‘[For] the
Lord God is spirit, and He ought to be adored in spirit and in truth. One
should not cling carnally but spiritually to Him. It is right to cleave to him
neither carnally nor via the senses, but rather by the rationality of the soul’s
intuition’.60 For Isidore, and subsequently Theodulf, truth was now defined
by a rationalis Christianity; what had been traditionally agnostic or at least
predominantly secular disciplines became crucial to biblical exegesis and
revelation.61
Conclusion
Theodulf’s obvious access to and application of classical deliberative rheto-

ric counters our understanding of the prevalence and continued copying
of rhetorical, grammatical handbooks during the early medieval period.
Jacques Fontaine, in his study of Isidore’s language and use of rhetoric, saw
in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries a weakening appreciation of the
practicality of the linguistic disciplines. Ascribing a profound unoriginal-
ity in grammarians from Pseudo-Apuleius to Isidore, Fontaine saw these
centuries as representative of the ‘weakening of the agility of the mind’
(‘une sorte d’affaiblissement de l’agilité d’esprit’).62 Fontaine argued that the
58 ‘Dialectica est ratio sive regula disputandi, intellectum mentis acuens, veraque a falsis
distinguens.’ Isidore, Differentiarum, ed. A. Andrés Sanz, II: 39. See also Vorontsov, ‘Approach
to the Eloquence’, p. 16.
60 Theodulf of Orléans, Opus Caroli, p. 275, l. 15.
61 The theme of ratio or the role of reason in spiritual thinking is one found throughout the
writings of both Jerome and Augustine (from the Latin perspective) and also within the works
of the Cappadocian Fathers. On the ‘rational’ in Augustine’s work, see Conybeare, The Irrational
Augustine, particularly chapter 5, ‘The Interrogation of Reason’. Gregory of Nyssa’s concept of
the individual also plays largely into the role of logic or reason as a fundamental element of
humanity. See Turcescu, Gregory of Nyssa and the Concept of Divine Persons, particularly chapter
2, ‘Philosophical Concepts that Shaped Gregory of Nyssa’s View of the Individual’.
62 Fontaine, “Isidore de Seville et la culture classique”, p. 634.
226 L aura Carlson
increased prominence on jargon rather than practical applications in these

rhetorical handbooks signalled an increasingly elementary understanding
of these subjects. Indeed, other linguistic handbooks from the period of
Theodulf and Alcuin have been described as ‘dry, technical manuals’, with
little to no relevance outside the schoolroom63. Yet this does not take into
account Theodulf and the Opus Caroli. This is not the dry jargon-based
academic texts that Fontaine warned us about, but instead a practical
synthesis of both Isidore’s encyclopaedic offerings on language, combined
with more extensive sources on specific forms of dialectic and logic; each
applied to prove the error of the Greeks.64
Unfortunately, Theodulf’s Opus Caroli was destined never to reach
its intended audience. The working manuscript, never fully completed,
was shelved by the time of the 794 Synod of Frankfurt, at which Greek
idolatry was barely referenced.65 The text was effectively wiped out of
existence, although Hincmar of Rheims attempted to produce a complete,
corrected copy of it in the early ninth century.66 But its significance should
not be forgotten. Theodulf’s treatise demonstrates a slow turning point
in Christian intellectual circles, augmented by Alcuin in the late eighth
century, and reaching full stride by the ninth. Although few would relegate
Isidore to simply a ‘transmitter of earlier sources’, an increasingly rare
generalization, his specific spiritual and intellectual influence on the later
medieval world still demands more investigation, as is demonstrated by a
number of other papers in this volume. This examination of the Opus Caroli
has shown that Isidore was a source for medieval writers on a variety of
levels. His Etymologiae provided quick access to a number of subjects and
earlier writers; however, this cannot have been its sole function. Tying
together Aristotelian ideas of the signifier-signified relationship in addi-
tion to early patristic formulations on the multiple meanings of Scripture
(and language more generally), Isidore fused these concepts to create a
more comprehensive philosophy, defined by what Davide Del Bello calls,
‘Christian language as a verbal construction motivated by an extra-verbal
reality’.67 So fundamental was this formulation that, by the Carolingian
period, Theodulf was able to use it to justify the entire Carolingian spiritual
policy of opposition to the Greeks. Found in other Carolingian writers, such
63 Fontaine, “Isidore de Seville et la culture classique”, p. 634.

64 See also Marina Smith’s chapter in this volume on the selective editing of Isidore’s work for
specific purposes.
65 Capitulare Francofurtense, p. 165.
66 Meyvaert, ‘Medieval Notions of Publication’, p. 80.
67 Del Bello, Forgotten Paths, p. 97.
as in Hrabanus Maurus’ De Universo and John Scottus Eriugena’s universals

in his commentary on the Categoriae Decem as well as his Periphyseon in
the ninth century, and of course amplified and expounded in the twelfth
century, Isidore was much more than simply a vehicle of transmission for
late antique and early medieval intellectual thought.68 Isidore’s Etymologiae
(and his entire corpus generally) provided the groundwork for Christian
rational inquiry, but in emphasizing the ‘science’ of linguistic (specifically
biblical) semiotics capable of analysis and understanding by the human
mind, he also simultaneously cleared a path for a more well-developed
sense of biblical allegoria in the later medieval period.69 By localizing the
origin and meaning of language in the ratio of the human mind, Isidore,
and the etymological tradition he represented, allowed for a dual ‘scientific’
(analysis via a word’s origins) and ‘non-scientific’ (allegory based on human
interpretation) examination of the Bible for the rest of the middle Middle
Ages.
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Abbreviations
AA Auctorum Antiquissimorum
CD Augustine, De Civitate Dei
CCSL Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina (Turnhout: Brepols)
Etymologies Isidore of Seville, Etymologies
HL Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum
HN Pliny, Historia Naturalis
HR Paul the Deacon, Historia Romana
MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica (Hannover: Monumenta
‘Germaniae Historica’)
Cap. Capitularia
Conc. Concilia
SS rer. Merov. Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum
SS rer. Lang. Scriptores rerum Langobardicarum et Italicarum
OGL Origo gentis Langobardorum
PL J.-P. Migne, Patrologia latina, 221 vols. (Paris: Migne, 1844-1864)
TTH Translated Texts for Historians (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press)
Index
Ældwulf, East Anglian king 140 Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum 150
Ælfric of Eynsham 139, 153, 155, 157, 175, 206 Homeliarum euangelii libri ii 195, 201, 203
Ælfwald, East Anglian king 23, 140, 148-149 In Lucae euangelium expositio 192 
Æthelbald, Mercian king 138, 141, 155-156 Vita S. Cuthberti 146-147
Æthelwold, bishop of Winchester 133 Bible 14, 48, 79-80, 87, 89, 178, 211, 215, 217, 220,
Adelperga, daughter of Desiderius 160 222-224, 227
Adomnán of Iona 125 Blemmyae 61
De locis sanctis 125 Bobbio 115, 120, 122, 136
Aesop 16 Bodley 309 115-116
Alaric, Visigothic king 161, 166 Boethius 11, 83, 213-214, 221
Alboin, Lombard king 170-171 Boniface 140, 144-145, 148-151
Aldaram, bishop of Salzburg 137 Braulio, Bishop of Saragossa 13, 15-19, 45, 48-50,
Aldhelm of Malmesbury 112, 133-134, 140-141, 77-79, 81, 94-98, 101, 103-104, 106, 119, 125
144, 146, 148, 150-151, 155-156 Renotatio librorum domini Isidori 13, 17, 27,
Enigmata 144 36, 45, 55, 81, 94-96, 98, 101
Epistola ad Acircium 148 Breviarium apostolorum 113
Amazons 167
Ambrose, bishop of Milan 45, 49, 51, 81, 84, 87, Canones Hibernenses 111, 124-125
91, 100, 194, 197, 204, 214 Canterbury Biblical Commentaries 133
Anglo-Saxon England 8, 22-23, 27, 31, 112-113, Capitulare Adversus Synodum 209
131-157, 179, 206 Carolingian, Carolingian Empire, Carolingians
anima 58, 61, 68-69, 222 8, 23-25, 114-116, 160, 162, 172, 177-179, 182-183,
animus 68-69 185, 187-189, 209-227
Anonymus ad Cuimnanum 115, 127, 220, 222, Cassiodorus 17, 45, 219, 221
224, 227 Institutiones 219, 221
Antiphonary of Bangor 121-122, 127, 129 Expositio Psalmorum 221
Antony, saint 146-147, 151 Ceolred, Mercian king 149
Apuleius 16, 214 Charlemagne 8, 160-161, 178-179, 188, 210, 214
Arianism 13, 15, 41, 44, 53, 166 Chronica Regum Visigothorum 103, 105
Aristotle 16, 67, 69, 213-214, 218-219, 221 Chronicle of 754 103, 106-107, 109
Aristotelian Problemata 64, 69 Church reform 141, 149
Athanasian creed (Quicumque uult) 145 Carolingian 178, 182-183
Augustine, bishop of Hippo 17, 31, 37, 39, 42, Cicero 13, 16-17, 83, 96, 224
44-46, 47, 49, 51, 59-61, 63, 67-68, 80, 83-84, classical episteme 219
87, 96, 100, 131, 185-188, 191-192, 194, 196-200, Cleph, Lombard king 170
202, 204-205, 213-214, 218-220, 225 Collectio Canonum Hibernensis 135
Confessiones 39, 84 Collectio super hominem qui habet diabolum
Contra Iulianum 63, 68 121-122
De Civitate Dei 44, 49, 59-60, 67, 83, 96, 202 Commentarius in Epistolas Catholicas Scotti
De Doctrina Christiana 220 Anonymi 111
Epistolae 84 Commentary on Genesis 125
De Genesi ad Litteram 80, 87 computus, computistical 11, 21-22, 111, 115-119, 125
In Iohannis evangelium tractatus 185-186, Computus Einsidlensis 117
191-192, 194, 196-200, 202 Continuatio Hispana 103
Principiae Dialecticae 218-220 conventionalism (linguistic) 215
Aventius, bishop of Écija 40, 56, 98 Corbie 144-145
Cotton-Corpus Legendary 139
Baetica 37, 40, 98 Crowland 8, 23, 138, 141
baptism 43-44, 49, 99 Cummian 117
Bartholomew, St. 150, 184, 197 Paschal Letter 117
Bede 22-23, 75, 77, 91, 116-117, 139-140, 146-150, Cuthbert, St. 138, 146, 152
160-161, 177, 187, 192, 195, 201, 203-205 (prose) Vita S. Cuthberti, anonymous 137-138
Chronica Maiora 161 (prose) Vita S. Cuthberti, Bede’s 140, 146-147
De Natura Rerum 75 Cynokephali 61, 67
234 Isidore of Seville and his Reception in the Early Middle Ages
De mirabilibus sacrae scripturae 116 Gregory, bishop of Tours 160, 185, 187, 193,
De ratione conputandi 117-118 197-198, 204-205
Defensor of Ligugé 136, 143-144 Liber in gloria martyrum 185, 187, 193,
descensus ad inferos 149-150 197-198
Desiderius, Lombard king 160 Gregory I (‘the Great’), Pope 8, 15, 20, 31-56, 97,
dialectic, dialectical 24, 107, 212-213, 218-222, 100, 102-103, 105-106, 113, 123-124, 131, 146, 179,
224-226 185, 187-188, 204-205, 214
Dionysius of Halicarnassus 63 Dialogi 34-36, 41, 49, 51, 123-124
Homiliae in evangelia 179, 193, 195-196,
Eadburg, abbess 149-150 199-200
East Anglia 23, 138, 140-141, 145-146, 148, 151 Moralia in Job 15, 20, 33-35, 41, 43-50, 53,
Ecgburh, abbess 140 113, 123
Empedocles 62-63 Regula Pastoralis 33-35, 47, 52
enkyklios paideia 219 Vita Benedicti 146
Epicurus 21, 83-86, 89 Grimo, abbot of Corbie 145
Epitaphion beati Leandri, Isidori et Florentinae Gundemar, Visigothic king 96-97, 102
103-104 Guthlac, St. 8, 22-23, 131-157
ethnogenesis 159, 164 Guthlac A 139-140, 143
etymology 20-21, 71-72, 221 Guthlac B 139, 143
Eufemius, bishop of Toledo 102-103
Eugenius II, bishop of Toledo 32, 48-49, 97, 100 Hadrian, abbot 133
Eutropius, Breviarium ab Urba Condita 161 Hadrian, Pope 211
Hædda, bishop of Lichfield 138
face, human, as signifier of soul 58, 61, 67 head, human, as signifier of soul 61, 71
Felix, Vita S. Guthlaci 8, 22-23, 131-157 Helladius, bishop of Toledo 106-107
Florilegium frisingense 136 hermaphrodites 59
Florentina, sister of Isidore 15, 38-41, 103-104 Hicmar, bishop of Rhiems 9, 178-179, 226
Fontaine, Jacques 9, 13, 21, 41, 75-77, 79, 81, 86, Hispana 94, 98, 103
91, 96, 219, 225-226 Hisperica famina 121, 135
fragment(s) 118-120, 122-123, 198, 200 historiography 93, 103, 107, 178
France 7, 134-135 homily/ homiliaries 13, 24, 35, 49, 51-52, 131, 134,
Frankfurt, Synod of 226 136-139, 143, 148, 151, 160-162, 177-207
Franks, Frankish 7, 9, 107, 145, 210 Hrabanus Maurus 75, 213, 227
Frea (Freyr) 168 De Universo 75, 227
Freculf of Liseux, Historiae 188-189 hybrids 65-66, 69-70
Fredegar 79, 168
Freising 136 Ildefonsus, bishop of Toledo 13, 48-49, 51-52,
Friedrich, Johann 159 94-95, 101-104, 113
Fronimian 95 De viris illustribus 13, 51-52, 94-95, 101-103
Fructuosus, Bishop of Braga 78, 95, 103 Ireland, Irish 7-9, 14, 16, 22, 111-130, 134-138, 151,
Fulgentius, bishop of Écija 14, 38-40, 101, 104 177, 220
Fulgentius, bishop or Ruspe 161-162, 180, 190, 204 Isidore, bishop of Seville
Sermones 190 Allegoriae 15, 89, 125
Fursey 146, 150 Chronica / Chronicon 15, 80, 96, 125, 161
De differentiis uerborum / Differentiae 225
Galen 63 De ecclesiasticis officiis / De origine
Gambara 168 officiorum 14, 38, 45, 96, 101, 115, 118,
Genseric, Vandal king 161-162 123-125, 131, 133, 138, 162, 186, 214
Germany 135-136, 145 De fide Catholica contra Iudaeos 38-39, 118,
glossaries 121 186
glosses 133, 145 De haeresibus 15, 101, 118
God, as creator 21, 57-58, 60, 62, 66, 71-72, 76, De natura rerum 14, 21-22, 62, 75-92, 111-112,
80-81, 83-85, 91, 167, 215-216 115, 117, 125, 131, 133, 214, 222
Godan (Woden) 168-169 De ortu et obitu patrum 14, 24, 96, 113-114,
grammar 16, 24, 82-83, 120, 131, 212-213, 215, 220, 133, 162, 178, 181, 185-189, 193-194, 201-203,
222-225 214
Gregory, bishop of Nyssa 225 De uiris illustribus 13, 15, 17, 35-44, 51, 94-97,
101, 118, 185
Index 235
Etymologiae / Origines 7, 9, 14-16, 19-22, 24, Cambridge, Corpus Christi College 190 148
44-45, 47, 57-58, 64-65, 67-68, 70-72, Fulda, Domschatz, Bonifatianus 2 134
75-77, 80-82, 84, 89, 96, 111-112, 114-121, Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm
125, 131-134, 138, 160, 164-165, 169, 171-173, 6330 144
213-215, 217-219, 221, 222-224, 226-227 Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm
Historia Gothorum / De origine Gothorum 15, 6433 135-136
96-97, 101, 118, 159, 163-165, 167, 173 Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm
Laus Gothorum 165, 172-173 15817 137, 152
Laus Spaniae 8, 23, 163, 165, 171-173 Oxford, Bodleian Library Bodley 309 115-116
Quaestiones in uetus testamentum 16, 125, 214 Rylands MS Latin 12 23-24, 177-207
Regula monachorum / Monastica Regula St Gall, Stiftsbibliothek 908 135-136
15, 101, 118 St Gall, Stiftsbibliothek 1399a.1 119
Sententiae 11, 15, 18, 44-47, 51, 82-83, 85-86, St Petersburg, Russian National Library, Q. v.
96, 98-100, 118, 125, 132, 136-138, 186, 214 I. 15 134, 144-145, 150
Synonyma 8, 14, 22-23, 51, 83, 98, 100, 131-157 Würzburg, Universitätsbibliothek, M. p. th. F.
stilus ysydorianus 132 79 134, 144-146, 150-151
Italy 7-8, 33, 39, 135, 163, 165, 170-173 Martianus, bishop of Écija 40, 56, 98
Martianus Capella 26, 83
Jacob’s sheep 64-68 maternal impressions, theory of 62-70
Jacques Lacan 99 Maximus, bishop of Saragossa 97
Jerome 15, 33, 39, 45, 49, 64-69, 83, 101, 131, 161, Maximus, bishop of Turin 195, 200-201, 204-205
185, 187-189, 192-200, 202, 204-205, 214, 225 Medeshamstede 133, 141
Commentarii in euangelium Matthaei 185, mens 58, 64, 68
192-200, 202 Mercia 23, 134-135, 138-139, 141, 145, 148-149
Contra Jovinianum 83 Mérida 32, 99
De viris illustribus 39, 185, 187 metamorphosis 70
Quaestiones Hebraicae Ad Genesim 67-68 Milan 122, 136, 171
John of Biclarum 53, 106 monkeys 60-61, 67
John Scottus Eriugena 213, 227 monstrosity 58-62, 70-71
Jordanes 159-160, 165 monstrous races 59-62, 70-71
Julian, bishop of Toledo 48-49, 150 monstrosities, individual 59, 70-71
Prognosticon futuri saeculi 49, 150 mules 65-66
Justinian, Roman emperor 161 Munich 135-137, 144, 152, 183
Munich Computus 117-118
Lathcen MacBaith of Clonfertmuloe 113-114, 121
Egloga de Moralibus in Iob 113-114 Narses 170
Suffragare Trinitatis Unitas 121 natura creatrix 70
Leander, bishop of Seville 8, 12-13, 18, 20, 31-56, naturae ludibria 60, 70-71
97, 102-104 naturalism (linguistic) 215, 218-221
Leiden 120 nature 14, 18, 57-60, 64-67, 70-72, 78, 80-81,
family of glosses 133 84-86, 89, 91, 122, 142, 215
Liber de ordine creaturarum 16, 116, 122-123 Nicaea, Second Council of 209-211, 225
Liber Eliensis 140
Liber scintillarum 136, 143-144 Obitus Beati Isidori 94-95, 104
Leovigild, Visigothic king 34, 41, 55, 84, 99, 105 Old English Homilies 134, 136, 138-139, 143, 145,
Licinianus, bishop of Cartagena 35, 52 148
Lindenbrog, Friedrich 159, 175 Irvine vii 148
Liuvigild, Visigothic king see Leovigild Napier xlix 148
Lombards 159-176 Vercelli xxiii 138-139, 143
lorica 121, 128 Old English Martyrology 139-140
Lucretius 16-17, 21, 62, 81, 83-89 Oppian 64-65, 67
De Rerum Natura 21, 62, 81, 83-85, 87-88 Opus Caroli regis Contra Synodum (Libri
Luxeuil 155, 177, 179-180, 182, 184, 189-190, 206-207 Carolini) 24, 209-230
Origo Gentis Langobardorum 168
Magnus Maximus, Roman usurper 78 Orosius 122, 161
Mainz 145 Ovid 16-17, 58
Manuscripts Metamorphoses 58
Bremen, Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek,
MSC 0046 116
236 Isidore of Seville and his Reception in the Early Middle Ages
pantheism 57 spontaneous generation 69-70

Paul the Hermit, St. 146, 151-152 St. Gall, monastery 116, 119-120, 136
Paul the Deacon 23, 159-176, 179, 188 Stoicism 57, 62, 64
Homiliarium 177, 179-180, 182-186, 190, 204 Suetonius 16
Historia Langobardorum 159-163, 167-168, Sueves 15, 165
170, 173 Sulpicius Severus 146
Historia Romana 160-162, 173 Vita Martini 146
Perctarit, Lombard king 168 Swinthila, Visigothic king 101, 165
Peregrinus, Northumbrian scribe 136 syllogism 224
Peterborough 141
Plato 16, 218 Taio, bishop of Saragossa 32, 49-50, 53, 100
Pliny the Elder 8, 16, 20, 24, 57-74, 172 Sententiarum Libri V 49-50
portents 59, 81, 112, 120 Theodore, bishop of Canterbury 124, 133
Prebiarum de multorium exemplaribus 138 Theodulf, bishop of Orléans 8-9, 209-230
Priscillian 78-79 Opus Caroli 209-230
prodigies 59, 80-81 Thrasamund 161-162
Prologue of AD 699 to a Victorian Easter Table 116 Toledo 11-12, 18-19, 21-22, 33, 50-52, 79, 81, 94,
Pseudo-Apuleius 225 96-103, 106-107
Pseudo- Aristotle, Problemata 64 Church councils of 11-12, 18, 50-51, 81, 94,
Pseudo-Augustine 97-100, 102
Categoriae Decem (Paraphrasis Themisti- trade routes 112, 135
ana) 215, 219, 221 Transamund, Vandal king see Thrasamund
Speculum (Divinis Scripturis) 214 Trivium 212-213, 219-221, 224
Pseudo-Cyprian 9 See also grammar, rhetoric, dialectic
Pseudo-Isidore Trogodytae 61
De haeresibus 15 Tuscia 172
De ortu et obitu patriarcharum 138
Liber de numeris 138 Ubi sunt topos 147-149
Liber numerorum 133 Umbria 172
Purgatory 123-124
Valens, Roman Emperor 166
Ramon Llull 75, 91 Valerius of El Bierzo 48-49
ratio 64-65, 70, 224-225, 227 Vandals 15, 161-162, 165, 168-169
Ravenna 171 Vercelli Homily xxiii 138-139, 143, 183, 207
Reccared I, Visigothic king 32-34, 38, 41, 99 Versus cuiusdam Scotti de alphabeto 114
Repton 138, 140-141 Vespasian Life 138-139, 143
rhetoric 24, 212-213, 220-226 Victorian AD 689 Irish computus (lost) 117-118
Virgil 16-17, 87, 146-148
Sallust 16-17 Aeneid 147
Sardinia 161-162, 172 Virgilius, bishop of Salzburg 138
Scadinavia, island 168 Visigothic Spain 12, 16, 18-22, 31-56, 79, 85,
Scythians 166 94-110, 112, 134-135, 164
Seville 17, 19, 22, 40-41, 52, 93-95, 97-99, 102-104, Visions, Anglo-Saxon (of Dryhthelm; of Fursey;
106 of the monk of Much Wenlock) 150
Second Council of 40, 97-98 Vita Antonii 23, 146-147, 157
Third Council of 40, 96 Vitas Sanctorum Patrum Emeritensium 32,
sensus 68 35-36, 84
Servius 16
Sirmond 116 Wessex 135
Sisebut, Visigothic king 14, 21, 77, 79-81, 105 whirlpools 167
Soranus 63, 67, 69 Winnili 165, 168-170
soul 58, 60-61, 68-71, 83, 87, 123, 149-150, 223, 225 Worcester 145, 151
spiritus 68-69 Würzburg 134, 136, 144-146, 150-152, 157

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L AT E A N T I Q U E A N D E A R LY M E D I E VA L I B E R I A

Edited by Andrew Fear and Jamie Wood

Isidore of Seville and his Reception

Transmitting and Transforming Knowledge

Editorial Board Members

Amsterdam University Press

Cover design: Coördesign, Leiden

isbn 978 90 8964 828 0

4 Putting the Pieces Back Together 75

5 The Politics of History-Writing 93

6 Isidorian Texts in Seventh-Century Ireland 111

7 Isidore of Seville in Anglo-Saxon England 131

8 Hispania et Italia 159

10 Adoption, Adaptation, & Authority 209

7 Leander, De Institutione virginum et contempt mundi 31.

The Prooemia: a summary of the contents of each of the books of the

De ortu et obitu Patrum: a series of short biographies of key Biblical

De ecclesiasticis officiis (two books): dedicated to his brother Fulgentius,

The Synonyma (two books): sometimes known as the Liber lamentatio-

De natura rerum: dedicated to the Gothic King Sisebut, this is an exposi-

De numeris: an examination of the mystical significance of the numbers

De nominibus legis et evangelorum [often referred to as the Allegoriae]: a

Sententiae (three books): a systematic treatise on church doctrine and

Chronicon: Isidore’s Chronicle draws heavily of that of Eusebius as trans-

De fide Catholica contra Judaeos (two books): allegedly written at the

De viris illustribus: a series of brief biographies of Church Fathers and

Monastica regula: a discussion in praise of monastic life with practical

De origine Gothorum et regno Suevorum et etiam Wandalorum: a history

22 Edition by Arévalo, PL 83.97-130.

Quaestiones (two books): an examination of various Biblical cruces

directly acquainted; he would probably have known the majority only at

36 Fontaine, Isidore de Séville.

and posthumous editor of the Etymologies, Braulio of Saragossa, was a key

Isidorian project of rational categorisation. Isidore’s theory of etymology

52 Wood, ‘Playing the Fame Game’.

figures of Anglo-Saxon libraries. Di Sciacca investigates the Synonyma as

of Isidorian material in the Carolingian period. Markauskas demonstrates

58 See, for example, Magnou-Nortier, ‘L’Admonitio Generalis’; Eastwood, ‘The astronomies of

many.59 Furthermore, these legacies were by no means fixed – they were

4 King, Law and Society, p. 123.

Gregory’s Contacts with Hispania

The relative number of Gregory’s letters to Spain is low, at least in compari-

uphold religious discipline and resolve ecclesiastical disputes within Spain,

record of Gregory’s involvement in Spain is highly dependent on the vagaries

Early Citations of Gregory in Spain

A significant factor in the early and rapid rise in Gregory’s popularity in

Patrum Emeritensium, a text that was redacted in two stages in 633 or

Family Values: Leander, Isidore and Family

Despite the quite low number of communications with Spain during

23 Wood, The Politics of Identity, pp. 4, 75.

the conversion of King Reccared to Nicene Christianity, and his work in

26 Wood, ‘Playing the Fame Game’, 625-8.

population, corresponds to the date of the De fide Catholica contra Iudaeos.30

30 Knoebel, De Ecclesiasticis Officiis, pp. 13-15 for an overview of the text.

Gregory and Leander

36 Dietz, Wandering Monks, pp. 167-168.

institutione virginum to Florentina in terms of the overall literary profile

viris illustribus suggests that their correspondence after meeting in Con-

Gregory and Isidore

4 Putting the Pieces Back Together 75

5 The Politics of History-Writing 93

6 Isidorian Texts in Seventh-Century Ireland 111

7 Isidore of Seville in Anglo-Saxon England 131

8 Hispania et Italia 159

10 Adoption, Adaptation, & Authority 209