CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 HISTORY OF ACCIDENTS

The Main aim of this project is reduce vehicle accidents. So we are

minimizing the vehicle accidents by using the Pneumatic bumper. Motor
vehicle accident, car accident, automobile accident, road traffic collision, car
crash, or car smash occurs when a vehicle collides with another vehicle,
pedestrian, A number of factors contribute to the risk of collision,
including vehicle design, speed of operation, road design, road environment,
and driver skill, impairment due to alcohol or drugs, and behavior, notably
speeding and racing.
Worldwide, motor vehicle collisions lead to death and disability as well
as financial costs to both society and the individuals involved. Road injuries
resulted in 1.4 million deaths in 2013, up from 1.1 million deaths in
1990. About 68,000 of these occurred in children less than five years old.
Almost all high-income countries have decreasing death rates, while the
majority of low-income countries having increasing death rates due to traffic
collisions. Middle-income countries have the highest rate with 20 deaths per
100,000 inhabitants, 80% of all road fatalities by only 52% of all vehicles.
While the death rate in Africa is the highest (24.1 per 100,000 inhabitants), the
lowest rate is to be found in Europe (10.3 per).
1.2 INTRODUCTIONS TO SAFETY SYSTEM
Safety is a necessary of while driving vehicles. The aim is to develop
control vehicle accidents by using thepneumatic bumper system and intelligent
electronically controlled automotive vehicle accidents control system. For
comparison of iterative technologies / techniques.
The final phase of the new modern vehicle shall include:
 Development of improved ABS control systems

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  Development and assessment of an electro-hydraulic-
 Individual wheel braking combined with traction control
 Assessing sensor failure and fault tolerant control systemdesign.
India is the developing country. India is a densely populated country with
the vehicle usage being really diverse. While the available resources which are
used to run the vehicles like road quality & new technologies in vehicles are
being developed to avoid accidents. The number of people expired during
vehicle accidents is very large as compared to the other causes of death. Though
there are different causes for accidents but proper technology of braking system
and technology to reduce the damage during accident should be developed.
As similar to above technology, this system must be designed to
minimize the effects of these accidents. The aim of the present study is to
design a device which can successfully scan the surroundings during driving
and apply brake to avoid front end collision of the vehicle, along with extension
of bumper. This bumper actuation system has operates automatically.
Automation can be achieved through computers, hydraulics, pneumatics,
robotics, etc., of these sources, pneumatics for man attractive medium for low
cost automation. The main advantages of all pneumatic systems are economy
and simplicity.

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 Fig 1.1 Technologies in Automobiles
1.3NEED FOR AUTOMATION
Robotization can be accomplished through PCs, water power,
pneumatics, apply autonomy, and so on. Of these sources, pneumatics frames an
alluring medium for minimal effort mechanization. The principle points of
interest of every single pneumatic system are economy and effortlessness.
Mechanization assumes a critical part in large scale manufacturing. For large
scale manufacturing of the item, the machining operations choose the
succession of machining. The machines intended for creating a specific item are
called exchange machines. The parts must be moved naturally from the
receptacles to various machines consecutively and the last segment can be put
independently to package. Materials can likewise be over and again exchanged
from the moving transports to the work place and the other way around. These
days all the assembling procedure is being atomized with a specific end goal to
convey the items at a quicker rate.
The assembling operation is being atomized for the accompanying
reasons.
 To achieve mass production

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  To reduce man power
 To increase the efficiency of the plant
 To reduce the work load
 To reduce the production cost

 To reduce the production time

 To reduce the material handling

 To reduce the fatigue of workers

 To achieve good product quality, etc.,

1.3.1 PNEUMATIC CONTROL FOR INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION
Pneumatic systems form the most primitive and distinct class of
mechanical control engineering. Theyare classified under the term 'Fluid Power
Control', which describes any process or device that converts, transmits,
distributes or controls power through the use of pressurized gas or liquid. When
high-pressureliquids (like oil) are used to transmit power, the system is termed
as ‘hydraulics’.
In a pneumatic systemthe working fluid is a gas (mostly air) which is
compressed above atmospheric pressure to impartpressure energy to the
molecules. This stored pressure potential is converted to a suitable
mechanicalwork in an appropriate controlled sequence using control valves and
actuators.Pneumatic systems are well suited for the automation of a simple
repetitive task. The working fluid isabundant in nature and hence the running
and maintenance cost of these systems are exceptionally low.
All fluids have the ability to translate and transfigure and hence
pneumatic systems permit variety ofpower conversion with minimal mechanical
hardware. Conversion of various combinations of motionslike rotary-rotary,
linear-rotary and linear-linear is possible. The simplicity in design, durability
andcompact size of pneumatic systems makes them well suited for mobile
applications. These features makethem versatile and find universal applications

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including robotics, aerospace technology, production andassembly of
automotive components (power steering, chassis and engine assembly), CNC
machines, food products and packaging industry, bomb deployment units and
fabrication process of plastic products.
1.3.2 PROCESS OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
The generalized pneumatic system consists of an air compressor, which
delivers air to a pressurereservoir (accumulator). High-pressure line is tapped
from the reservoir and fed to the Filer-Regulator-Lubricator (FRL) unit where
the air is filtered, lubricated and the pressure is regulated. The air from theoutlet
of the FRL unit enters the relief valve, which protects the system and bleeds air
to atmosphere ifthe working pressure exceeds the safe pre-set value.
The pressure gauge mounted on the relief valve isused to monitor the
working pressure of the system. Flexible hoses connect the outlet port of the
reliefvalve and the inlet port of a pneumatic Direction Control Valve (DCV).
This valve can be actuatedmechanically, manually, or by electrical solenoids.
A pneumatic PLC controls the valve using thesolenoid. When the left
solenoid of the DCV is energized by the PLC, the piston in the
pneumaticcylinder (actuator) moves outward and energizing the right solenoid
valve cause the piston to move inward.The piston stops when both the solenoids
are de-energized. This process is a timer based control in the PLC.
1.4 INTRODUCTION TO BRAKING SYSTEM
1.4.1 BRAKE SYSTEM
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. The rest of this
article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes. A vehiclebrake is a
brake used to slow down a vehicle by converting its kinetic energy into heat.
The basic hydraulic system, most commonly used, usually has six main stages.
The brake pedal, the brake boost (vacuum servo), the master cylinder, the
apportioning valves and finally the roadwheel brakes themselves.
1.4.2 TYPES OF BRAKING SYSTEM

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1.4.2.1 FRICTION BRAKE
A friction brake is a type of automotive brake that slows or stops a
vehicle by converting kinetic energy into heat energy, via friction. The heat
energy is then dissipated into the atmosphere. In most systems, the brake acts on
the vehicle's road wheel hubs, but some vehicles use brakes which act on the
axles or transmission. Friction brakes may be of either drum or disc type.
A drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of
brake shoes that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is
connected to the rotating road wheel hub. The disc brake is a device for slowing
or stopping the rotation of a road wheel. A brake disc, usually made of cast iron
or ceramic, is connected to the wheel or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction
material in the form of brake pads (mounted in a device called a brake caliper)
is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically
against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to
slow or stop.
Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat,
though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example
regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which
may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential
energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current
brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the
brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other braking methods
even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring
the energy to a rotating flywheel. Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles
or wheels, but may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid
(flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a combination of braking
mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute,
or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during
landing.

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 mv 2
Since kinetic energy increases quadratic allywith velocity K= , an
2
object moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass
moving at 1 m/s, and consequently the theoretical braking distance, when
braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles
usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly with
speed.
Almost all wheeledvehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage
carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-
wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft
also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight.
Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or
disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling
downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake. When the brake pedal of
a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a piston pushes the
brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake
drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which
also slows the wheel down. Brakes may be broadly described as using friction,
pumping, or electromagnetic. One brake may use several principles: for
example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to create friction. Frictional
brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into “shoe” or “pad”
brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as
parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear.
Typically the term “friction brake” is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and
excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction.
Friction brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a
rotating wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub
on the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with
shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a “drum brake”,

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although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating
disc, commonly called a “disc brake”. Other brake configurations are used, but
less often.
1.4.2.2 PUMPING BRAKES
Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the
machinery. For example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel
supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some
braking. Some engines use a valve override called a Jake brake to greatly
increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can be
regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a hydraulic
accumulator.
1.4.2.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKES
Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is
already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric
vehicles use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and
also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the
electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and
dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have
an electric motor but use a secondary “retarder” brake that is effectively a
generator with an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy
current brakes, and electro-mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically
driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often just called “electromagnetic
brakes” as well).
A disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by the
friction caused by pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set of calipers.
The brake disc (or rotor in American English) is usually made of cast iron, but
may in some cases be made of composites such as reinforced carbon–carbon or
ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To
stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads, mounted on a device

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called a brake caliper, is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or
electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and
attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes convert motion to heat, and if the brakes
get too hot, they become less effective, a phenomenon known as brake fade. On
automobiles, disc brakes are often located within the wheel.

Fig 1.2 Disc brake

Disc-style brakes development and use began in England in the 1890s.
The first caliper-type automobile disc brake was patented by Frederick William
Lanchester in his Birmingham, UK factory in 1902 and used successfully on
Lanchester cars.
Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping performance,
because the disc is more readily cooled. As a consequence discs are less prone
to break fade; and disc brakes recover more quickly from immersion (wet
brakes are less effective). Most drum brake designs have at least one leading
shoe, which gives a servo-effect. By contrast, a disc brake has no self-servo
effect and its braking force is always proportional to the pressure placed on the
brake pad by the braking system via any brake servo, braking pedal or lever.
This tends to give the driver better “feel” to avoid impending lockup. Drums are
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also prone to “bell mouthing”, and trap worn lining material within the
assembly, both causes of various braking problems.

Fig 1.3 Drum brake

A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or

pads that press against a rotating drum-shaped part called a brake drum. The
term drum brake usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner
surface of the drum. When shoes press on the outside of the drum, it is usually
called a clasp brake. Where the drum is pinched between two shoes, similar to a
conventional disc brake, it is sometimes called a pinch drum brake, though such
brakes are relatively rare. A related type called a band brake uses a flexible belt
or “band” wrapping around the outside of a drum.

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Guo Lie et al., (Jul 2014), According to the requirement of the collision
avoidance control system, the safety status was judged by comparing the
current distance between the host vehicle and the obstacle with the critical
braking distance.Then the vehicle dynamics model and the vehicle inverse
longitudinal dynamics model were established in CarSim. The collision
avoidance controllerwas designed based on slidingmode and single neuron
PID method, realizing automatic braking control of the host vehicle for
vehicle or pedestrian collision avoidance and guaranteeing the active safety
of the vehicle.The parameters of the experimental vehicle were applied to the
vehiclemodel utilizing CarSim, which could better reflect nonlinear
timevarying characteristics and control effect of the longitudinal dynamics,
possessing a certain practical significance and research value. Finally,
cosimulations were carried out on a CarSim vehicle model utilizing
Matlab/Simulink to explore the effectiveness of the proposed controller.
Results indicate that the controller can realize the deceleration or emergency
brake when there is a pedestrian or vehicle ahead of the host vehicle.
However, more possible collision avoidance scenarios should be taken into
account. Additionally, the proposed controller should be applied to the real
intelligent vehicle prototype which also can deal with the emergency
situation of more collision avoiding scenarios and consider other measures
like braking and lane changing at the same time in the future work.
Sandeep Thorat et al., (Mar 2016), If we can reduced the Driving
Interference of Braking and Give the Responsibility To Intelligence Sensor
which will Take decision and initiate the Response To give Warning alarm

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First and if Distance of impact is Closing it will Apply brake Automatically
and Stop the Vehicle in advanced. Such that Distraction Driving is a Major
Contributor to Accident death, thus by implementing this System we can
reduced the Close impact Potential Accident. By dragging the front seat at
opposite direction to Impact and increase the Distance And Time Of Direct
Impact the death can be minimized and safety of vehicle also can improved,
and also it can add the new feature to the car which will attract the customer
who prefer safety while traveling. The results of the simulations showed that
by using an energy absorbing seating system, crash deceleration can be
effectively attenuated and occupant injuries significantly reduced in
comparison to conventional seating systems. In future, physical crash tests
will still be required as the final certification method for approval of a
particular crashworthy mechanical system. However during the development
process the application of computer simulation methods as presented in this
paper show that it is possible to reduce development costs.
Dineshkumar C, Subramanian M (2017), Automated safety systems
besides enhancing active safety devices due to increased rate of accidents in
India. Accidents systems had been incorporated only in high class vehicles
and modern vehicles. The propose system should be useful for the middle
class peoples and low end vehicles. The proposed system would be cost
effective and the stepper motor is used to operate the brake cable to control
the impact. The system is designed to reduce the speeds of the vehicle and to
slow down the vehicle before collision. The impact of the vehicle is reduced
and the braking efficiency is increased during critical situation. The life of
driver and co-passenger is saved and injury is reduced by using this system.
Shubham Pawar et al., (Dec 2017), Automatic brake with pneumatic
bumper system is an additional safety to heavy vehicles with passenger car .
It is easy to make such a system in heavy air brake vehicles. An emergency
switch is provided for emergency uses . This switch avoids the driver to stand

12
from his seat. The system carried out by us made an impressing task in the
field of automobile manufacturing industries. It is very useful for the workers
work in the lath and small scale industries. This system will reduce the cost
involved in the concern. system can be design to perform the entire
requirement task at the shortest time available.
Ashwini A. Kamble et al., (2017), In the present work, it is investigated
that the tremendous growth has continuously risen in demand for automobile
and automotive sector. In the view of this, we need to advance our
technology regarding light and heavy duty vehicles. The necessity of
automatic breaking system is designed and implemented by pneumatic
principle. Automatic brake with the pneumatic bumper system is an
additional safety to heavy vehicles with a passenger car. It is easy to make
such a system in heavy air brake vehicles. An emergency switch is provided
for emergency uses.This switch avoids the driver to stand from his seat. The
project carried out by us made an impressing task in the field of automobile
manufacturing industries. It is very useful for the workers work in the lath
and small scale industries. This project will reduce the cost involved in the
concern. The project has been designed to perform the entire requirement
task at the shortest time available.
Umar Zakir Abdul Hamid et al., (Mar 2018), In this work, as an
improvement to the available Autonomous Emergency Braking system, the
authors proposed an integrated AEB system with the Potential Field Risk
Assessment strategy to prevent the near-miss incidents. A real-time
validation experiment of the aforementioned system is done on a research
vehicle platform. PF successfully measure the risk of the frontal static
obstacle. Based on the risk measurement, the host vehicle subsequently
yielded the desired braking actuations percentage to allow it for a full vehicle
stopping. The inclusion of PF into the AEB allow iDrive to maintain the safe
distance of 2 m to the frontal obstacle. However, due to safety issues and

13
limited size of the testing area, the system is only validated with medium
speed. For future works, more complex scenarios and higher speed host
vehicle will be used for the validation of the system. Varied driving behavior
patterns in the emergency braking scenario by different drivers should also be
studied to enhance the AEB performance. Concluding the work, this research
is beneficial as it will allow more development of a fully autonomous vehicle
for future works.
A M Ivanov et al., (2018), The results of experimental studies of the
"AEBS" of "Infiniti QX 60 Hi-tech" automobile model give us a possibility
to make such conclusions: Means of technical vision of the "AEBS" object
recognize the type of the "target" the "soft wall" as an obstacle. This "target"
can be applied during future tests. Means of technical vision of "AEBS"
object recognize badly object type "target" a "stationary bicycle". This aspect
restricts the range of functional safety of the "AEBS". The deceleration
achieved by the object during the operation of the "AEBS" is not enough for
the complete stop of the object in front of a static obstacle, which also
reduces the effective range value of the system. The collision warning signal
algorithm does not depend on grip properties of the road surface. This fact
reduces the functional safety of the "AEBS" on slippery surfaces. A large
number of the "AEBS" failures at a speed of 80 km/h indirectly indicate an
insufficient distance value to detect the obstacle. This matter also reduces the
range of application of the "AEBS". There was not recorded an "AEBS"
"false target" action.
Dineshkumar C et al., (Aug 2019), The proposed system senses the
object detection which is present in front of the vehicle. Whenever the
sudden object detection is detected the speed of the vehicle is reduced by
applying the brake gradually after the warning signal. The velocity of the
vehicle is reduced by using hydraulic actuator which is connected to brake
pedal to compress during emergency. The stopping distance is calculated for

14
the proposed system and the automatic braking is activated before vehicle
impacts. The proposed system reduces the collision and damage to the
vehicle.
Nikhil Umakant Rane et al., (Oct 2019), Autonomous Emergency
Braking system with laser is an additional safety to light duty vehicle as well
as heavy vehicles with passenger car. It is easy to make such a system in
brake assist system vehicles. An emergency switch is provided for
emergency uses. The system carried out by us made an impressing task in the
field of automobile manufacturing industries. This system will reduce the
accidents happens on the roadways. Is also reduces the braking distance of
the vehicle.
Chen Chao and Xia Qin, The introduction of analytic hierarchy process
(AHP), analytic hierarchy structure model is established, a target vehicle
static condition, target vehicle at low speed conditions, working condition of
a target vehicle deceleration condition and target vehicle bias conditions,
change lanes rule of five layers. According to the hierarchical structure
model, respectively, set up the total target layer relative to the criterion of
judgement matrix and guidelines for each scheme layer of judgment matrix.
Calculates the maximum characteristic value of each judgment matrix and
weight. Calculated according to the theory of analytic hierarchy process
(AHP) consistency judging the consistency of judgment matrix is good. The
last increase AEBS HMI, false alarm and bonus evaluation method.

15
 CHAPTER 3
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
3.1 CURRENT TRENDS
In conventional vehicles there are different mechanism operated for
braking system like hydraulic, pneumatic, or mechanical system. But in all these
braking mechanisms the input signal is to be given directly from the driver by
applying the brake pedal. Thus, braking of vehicles is totally manual operated.
So, if the driver fails to see the obstacle in front of his driving vehicle or fails to
apply proper braking force on the brake pedal, he may lose the control of his
vehicle, leading to accident. Also the driver may not able to pay complete
attention when driving at night. So there are many chances of accidents. Urgent
application of brakes may also result in imbalance by skidding of the tyres of
the vehicle. So, there are no arrangements to prevent or minimize the damage
on the vehicle or the passengers.

3.2 PROPOSED METHOD

By using OBSTACLE AVOIDER ROBOTIC SYSTEM, the vehicle

collision gets controlled during unexpected accidents. Sometimes sudden
braking also leads to reduce the collision effect.
We know that the automatic braking system has implemented on
automobiles to avoid accidents. We are planned to develop this concept to
avoid damages during accidents. In our project we proposed the automatic brake
actuation to reduce vehicle collision while driving. This automatic brake
actuation system is achieved with the mechanism of pneumatic system. The
pneumatic system is one of best method to done automation. The IR sensor
plays major role in this concept that it gives signal for braking movement.

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 CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY

Existing method

Proposed method

Design

Component Selection

Fabrication

Working & Output

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4.1 COMPONENTS USED
The followings are the components to be used to fulfill the requirements
of our project,
 Pneumatic Cylinder
 Solenoid Valve
 Control Unit
 Ir Sensor
 Motor
 Toggle Switch
 Battery
 Wheel
 Frame
 Connectors And Pu Tubes
4.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
The main objectives of Impact Reduction System with Pneumatic Bumpers:- 
 To ensure the braking of vehicle in time.
 To increase the crashing distance during accident.
 To increase the safety during pre-crash.
 To increase external safety to vehicle body.
 To decrease the level of passenger injury by use of external vehicle safety
device.
 To reduce the requirement of internal safety devices like air bags.

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 CHAPTER 5
COMPONENTS DESCRIBTION
5.1 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Pneumatic cylinder (known as air cylinders) is mechanical devices which

use the power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear
motion.

Once actuated, compressed air enters into the tube at one end of the
piston and imparts force on the piston. Consequently, the piston becomes
displaced.

Although pneumatic cylinders will vary in appearance, size and function,

they generally fall into one of the specific categories shown below. However,
there are also numerous other types of pneumatic cylinder available, many of
which are designed to fulfil specific and specialized functions.

 Single acting cylinder

 Double acting cylinder
 Multi stage, telescoping cylinder.

In our system, we may use both single acting cylinder and double acting
pneumatic cylinder. The single acting cylinder is used for braking purpose and
double acting cylinder for bumper movement.

5.1.1 SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER

The single-acting piston-type cylinder is similar in design and operation

to the single-acting ram-type cylinder. The single-acting piston-type cylinder
uses fluid pressure to provide the force in one direction, and spring tension,
gravity, compressed air, or nitrogen is used to provide the force in the opposite
direction. In this cylinder the spring is located on the rod side of the piston. In

19
some spring-loaded cylinders the spring is located on the blank side, and
the fluid port is on the rod side of the cylinder.

Fig 5.1 Single Acting Cylinder

A   three-way   directional   control   valve   is normally used to control

the operation of thesingle-acting piston-type cylinder. To extend thepiston rod,
fluid under pressure is directedthrough the port into the cylinder. Thispressure
acts on the surface area of the blank sideof the piston and forces the piston to
the right.This  action  moves  the  rod  to  the  right,  through the end of the
cylinder, thus moving the actuated unit  in  one  direction.  During this action,
thespring is compressed between the rod side of thepiston and the end of the
cylinder. The length ofthe stroke depends upon the physical limits withinthe
cylinder and the required movement of theactuated unit.

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 Fig 5.2 Working of Single Acting Cylinder

To retract the piston rod,   the   directionalcontrol valve is moved to the

opposite workingposition, which releases the pressure in thecylinder. The spring
tension forces the piston to the left, retracting the piston rod and moving the
actuated unit in the opposite direction. The fluid is free to flow from the
cylinder through the port, back through the control valve to the return line in
hydraulic systems or to the atmosphere in pneumatic systems. The end of the
cylinder opposite the fluid portis vented to the atmosphere.  This prevents
airfrom being trapped in this area. Any trapped air would   compress   during
the extension   stroke, creating excess pressure on the rod side of thepiston.  

This wouldcause sluggish movement of the piston and could eventually

cause a complete lock, preventing the fluid pressure from moving the piston.
The spring-loaded cylinder is used in arresting gear systems on some models of
carrier aircraft.To raise (retract) the arresting hook, fluid pressureis  directed
through  the  arresting  hook  controlvalve  to  the  rod side of  the  cylinder.
This force moves the piston which through the rod and mechanical linkage
retracts the arresting hook.The arresting hook extends when fluid pressure is
released  from  the  rod  side  of  the  cylinder, allowing  the spring  to  expand.
Leakage between the cylinder wall and piston is prevented by adequate seals.  

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5.2 SOLENOID VALVE

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is

controlled by an electric current through a solenoid.The solenoid valve is a
device aiming to stop or to allow the flow of pressurized media. It permits to
convert an electrical current into a fluid flow. Solenoid valves are the most
frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks are to shut off, release,
dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas.
Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good
medium compatibility of the materials used, low control power and compact
design.

Fig 5.3 Solenoid Valve

The magnetic plunger acts directly on the valve seal to open or close the
valve orificedepending upon whether the solenoid is energized or de-energized.
The pressure andflow capability of this type of solenoid valve depend directly
on the orifice size and thecoil power. Direct acting solenoid valves are rarely
used on their own to controlpneumatic actuators as although they can usually

22
handle the pressure, the orifice sizerestricts the flow rate to the actuator and
limits its speed of operation.Solenoid valves can be used for a wide array of
industrialapplications, including general on-off control, calibrationand test
stands, pilot plant control loops, processcontrol systems, and various original
equipment manufacturerapplications.

5.3 CONTROL UNIT

A microcontroller is a small, low-cost computer-on-a-chip. An integrated

circuit thatcontains many of the sameitems that a desktopcomputer has, such as
CPU,memory, etc., but does notinclude any “humaninterface
“deviceslikeamonitor, keyboard, ormouse. Microcontrollers aredesigned for
machinecontrol applications, ratherthan human interaction.

Fig 5.4 Circuit Diagram of Power Supply

5.3.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE

The AC voltage, typically 220 rms, is connected to a transformer,

which steps that ac voltage down to the level of the desired DC output. A
diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially
filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This resulting dc
voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation. A regulator circuit

23
 removes the ripples and also remains the same dc value even if the input dc
voltage varies, or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes.

TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER FILTER REGULATOR LOAD

REGULATOR

Fig 5.5 Block diagram of power supply

5.3.1.1 TRANSFORMER

The potential transformer will step down the power supply voltage (0-
230V) to (0-6V) level. Then the secondary of the potential transformer will be
connected to the precision rectifier, which is constructed with the help of op-
amp. The advantages of using precision rectifier are it will give peak voltage
output as DC; rest of the circuits will give only RMS output.

5.3.1.2 RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current to direct

current or at least to current with only positive value, a process known as
rectification. Rectifiers are used as components of power supplies and as
detectors of radio signals.

5.3.1.3 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

When four diodes are connected as shown in the power supply circuit
diagram, is called Bridge rectifier. The input to the circuit is applied to the
diagonally opposite corners of the network, and the output is taken from the
remaining two corners.

5.3.1.4 VOLTAGE REGULATORS

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 Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC
units contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, and
overload protection all in a single IC. IC units provide regulation of either a
fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an adjustable set voltage. The
regulators can be selected for operation with load currents from hundreds of m
amp to tens of amperes, corresponding to power ratings form milli watts to ten
watt. A fixed three-terminal voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input
voltage, Vi, applied to one input terminal, a regulated dc output voltage, Vo ,
from a second terminal, with the third terminal connected to ground.

5.3.2 PIC MICROCONTROLLER

The PIC16F887 is one of the latest products from Microchip. It features

all the components which modern microcontrollers normally have. For its low
price, wide range of application, high quality and easy availability, it is an ideal
solution in applications such as: the control of different processes in industry,
machine control devices, measurement of different values etc. Some of its main
features are listed below.

5.3.3 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are the most widely used semiconductor

diodes among all the different types of semiconductor diodes available today.
Light emitting diodes emit either visible light or invisible infrared light when
forward biased. The LEDs which emit invisible infrared light are used for
remote controls. A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor
device that emits light when voltage is applied. In other words, LED is an
optical semiconductor device that converts electrical energy into light energy.
When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, free electrons in the
conduction band recombines with the holes in the valence band and releases
energy in the form of light. The process of emitting light in response to the

25
strong electric field or flow of electric current is called electroluminescence. A
normal p-n junction diode allows electric current only in one direction. It allows
electric current when forward biased and does not allow electric current when
reverse biased. Thus, normal p-n junction diode operates only in forward bias
condition. Like the normal p-n junction diodes, LEDs also operates only in
forward bias condition. To create an LED, the n-type material should be
connected to the negative terminal of the battery and p-type material should be
connected to the positive terminal of the battery. In other words, the n-type
material should be negatively charged and the p-type material should be
positively charged.

The construction of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode

except that gallium, phosphorus and arsenic materials are used for construction
instead of silicon or germanium materials. In normal p-n junction diodes, silicon
is most widely used because it is less sensitive to the temperature. Also, it
allows electric current efficiently without any damage. In some cases,
germanium is used for constructing diodes.

However, silicon or germanium diodes do not emit energy in the form of

light. Instead, they emit energy in the form of heat. Thus, silicon or germanium
is not used for constructing LEDs.

5.4 PIR SENSOR

PIR sensor detects a human being moving around within approximately

10m from the sensor. This is an average value, as the actual detection range is
between 5m and 12m.PIR are fundamentally made of a pyro electric sensor,
which can detect levels of infrared radiation. For numerous essential projects or
items that need to discover when an individual has left or entered the area. PIR
sensors are incredible, they are flat control and minimal effort, have a wide lens
range, and are simple to interface with it.

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 Fig 5.6 IR Sensor

Most PIR sensors have a 3-pin connection at the side or bottom. One pin
will be ground, another will be signal and the last pin will be power. Power is
usually up to 5V. Sometimes bigger modules don’t have direct output and
instead just operate a relay which case there is ground, power and the two
switch associations. Interfacing PIR with microcontroller is very easy and
simple. The PIR acts as a digital output so all you need to do is listening for the
pin to flip high or low. The motion can be detected by checking for a high
signal on a single I/O pin. Once the sensor warms up the output will remain low
until there is motion, at which time the output will swing high for a couple of
seconds, then return low. If motion continues the output will cycle in this
manner until the sensors line of sight of still again. The PIR sensor needs a
warm-up time with a specific end goal to capacity fittingly. This is because of
the settling time included in studying nature’s domain. This could be anyplace
from 10-60 seconds.

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 Fig 5.7 schematic diagram for IR sensor

Throughout this time there ought to be as little movement as could

reasonably be expected in the sensors field of perspective.

5.4.1 APPLICATIONS

 All outdoor Lights

 Lift Lobby
 Multi Apartment Complexes
 Common staircases
 For Basement or Covered Parking Area
 Shopping Malls
 For garden lights

5.4.2 FEATURES

 Complete with PIR, Motion Detection.

 Dual Element Sensor with Low Noise and High Sensitivity.
 Supply Voltage – 5V.
 Delay Time Adjustable.
 Standard TTL Output.

5.5 DC MOTOR

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 The electric wiper motor is a permanent magnet, rotary electric motor. A
worm gear machined on the armature shaft drives the output shaft and gear
through an idler gear and shaft. The output shaft operates the output arm, which
is connected to the wiper linkage. As the electric motor revolves the output arm,
the linkage is forced to move in a back and forth motion.

The speed of the electric motor is controlled by resistors, located on or in

the control switch, and connected to the wiper motor electrical windings. The
control switch directs the current through the certain circuits of the wiper motor,
as the driver desires.

Fig 5.8 model for worm gear motor

The wipers combine two mechanical technologies to perform their task:

 A combination electric motor and worm gear reduction provides power to

the wipers.
 A neat linkage converts the rotational output of the motor into the back
and forth motion of the wipers.

In case of two speed motor, the high speed is obtained when the current is
supplied to the brush g and brush 1 as in Fig . By Fleming's right hand rule the
current, force and the magnetic fields are mutually perpendicular to each other.

29
In this motor as the current is supplied to the brush 1 and brush g, the magnetic
field is generated perpendicular to the armature shaft. This induces a force in the
armature which makes the armature to rotate. Since, the magnetic fields
generated are opposite to each other the shaft rotates at a high speed. In the
second speed the brush 2 and brush g gets magnetized. Since the magnetic fields
produced by them are at perpendicular to the force generated on the copper
winding, will be less than the force generated by the brush 1 and brush g. This
makes the armature shaft to rotate at a lower speed.

The maximum efficiency of a motor is 35%. At this efficiency the torque

generated by the motor is 10 to 15Nm. Further, increase in the torque, will
reduces the efficiency of the motor. The voltage applied across the brushes will
be constant of 27 volts. While the speed of the motor reduces as the torque
increases.

5.5.1 POWER SOURCE

In order for the wiper motor to move it needs a power source. The
different power sources are the car batteries, voltages (12volts DC), current
(minimum of 1.6 amps at 70 rpm; 1 amps at 41 rpm), computer batteries
(12volts output) and other battery supplies that doe does not exceed the limit of
12 volts otherwise the motor is bound to overheat.

5.5.2 WIRING AND ELECTRICAL TERMINALS

Another thing to consider in the configuration of a wiper motor is the

wiring and electrical terminals. These wirings electrical terminal have the
purpose of organizing the configurations for wiper motor speed or mode. The
number of electrical terminals can range from five to 12 slots for low speeds,
moderate speeds, high speed, very high speed, manual function, off mode,
common terminal and the park switch.

5.5.3 WIPER MOTOR SPECIFICATIONS

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  12 Volts / 24 Volts
 60 Wipes per minute on load (High speed)
 RF suppression optional
 Single speed / two speed with thermal cut out
 40 Wipes per minute on load (Normal speed)

5.6 TOGGLE SWITCH

The switch is an electrical device that is used to break or make an

electrical circuit manually or automatically. The working principle of switch
depends on ON/ OFF mechanism. Various electrical or electronic circuits use
switches to control or trigger the owl circuit. The types of switches depend on
the connections of the circuit they make. Two essential components such as
pole and through can confirm what types of connections a switch can make.
These two components are also used to define variations of switch contact.

Here, the poles and throws can be defined as; when the number of circuits
is controlled by a switch is called poles, whereas throws can be defined as the
number of positions that the switch can adopt. A single throw switch consists
one pair of contacts like open or close. A double throw switch includes a
contact, which can be connected to two other contacts. When the switch is
activated, then the current flows through between the two terminals of the
switch. When the switch is OFF, then the current doesn’t flow between the two
terminals of the switch.

5.6.1 TYPES OF SWITCHES

The types of switches are classified into four types namely:

 SPST (Single Pole Single throw)

 SPDT (single pole double throw)

 DPST (double pole, single throw)

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  DPDT (double pole double throw)

5.6.2 SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw)

The SPDT switch is a three terminal switch, one terminal is used as input
and remaining two terminals are used as outputs. It joins a mutual terminal to
one or the other of two terminals. In the SPDT switch, instead of other
terminals, just use COM terminal. For example, we can use COM & A or COM
& B.

Fig 5.9 SPDT

The application of SPDT switch is mainly involved in a three-way circuit

to turn ON/OFF a light from two locations like from the top & bottom of a
stairway. In the circuit below, when the switch A is closed, then the current
flows through the terminals, but only light A will glow and light B will OFF.
When the switch B is closed, then the current flows through the terminals and
only light B will glow and light ‘A’ will OFF. Her two circuits will be
controlled through one source or one way.

5.7 BATTERY

Battery is a device containing an electric cell or a series of electric cells

storing energy that can be converted into electrical power. Battery produces
electricity from a chemical reaction. Generally, battery consists of two or more
cells connected in series or parallel. A cell consists of a negative electrode; an
electrolyte, which conducts ions; a separator, also an ion conductor; and a

32
positive electrode. The electrolyte may be aqueous (composed of water) or non-
aqueous (not composed of water), in liquid, paste, or solid form. When the cell
is connected to an external load, or device to be powered, the negative electrode
supplies a current of electrons that flow through the load and are accepted by
the positive electrode. There are two types of battery that commonly use which
are primary batteries (disposable battery) and secondary batteries (rechargeable
battery).

5.7.1 LEAD ACID BATTERY

Lead acid battery is the oldest type of rechargeable battery. It is an

electrical storage device that uses a reversible chemical reaction to store energy.
It uses a combination of lead plates or grids and an electrolyte consisting of a
diluted sulphuric acid to convert electrical energy into potential chemical energy
and back again. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low
energy to volume ratio, their ability to supply high surge currents means that the
cells maintain a relatively large power to weight ratio. In a lead acid cell the
active materials are lead dioxide (PbO2) in the 7 positive plate, sponge lead (Pb)
in the negative plate, and a solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in water as the
electrolyte. The chemical reaction during discharge and recharge is normally
written,

5.7.1.1 LEAD ACID BATTERY CONSTRUCTION

The lead-acid battery is the most commonly used type of storage battery and is
well-known for its application in automobiles. The battery is made up of several
cells, each of which consists of lead plates immersed in an electrolyte of dilute
sulfuric acid. The voltage per cell is typically 2 V to 2.2 V. For a 6 V battery,

33
three cells are connected in series, and for a 12 V battery, six cells are series
connected.

5.7.1.2 LEAD-ACID BATTERY WORKING

When the lead-acid cell is charged, the lead oxide on the positive plate
changes to lead peroxide, and that on the negative plates becomes a spongy or
porous lead. In this condition, the positive plates are brown in colour, and the
negative plates are grey.

5.7.1.3 FEATURES

1. The battery adopts high-tin alloy grid which enhance corrosion

resistance of plates and lengthen the service life.
2. High-tight assembly technics and supporting equipmentgreatly
improve charge acceptance and high current discharge performance.
3. Precision vacuum acid filling method, advanced and environmentally
friendly container formation technics ensures battery consistency
effectively, over 50% of the cyclic performance of the lead-acid
battery.
4. Post seal structures adopt patented technology of seal structure and
high temperature curing epoxy adhesive, which ensure battery safety
and reliability.

5.8 WHEEL

A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle

bearing. The wheel is one of the key components of the wheel and axle which is
one of the six simple machines. Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy
objects to be moved easily facilitating movement or transportation while
supporting a load, or performing labour in machines. Wheels are also used for
other purposes, such as a ship's wheel, steering wheel, potter's wheel and
flywheel.

34
 Common examples are found in transport applications. A wheel greatly
reduces friction by facilitating motion by rolling together with the use of axles.
In order for wheels to rotate, a moment needs to be applied to the wheel about
its axis, either by way of gravity or by the application of another external force
or torque.

Fig 5.10 Wheel

5.9 FRAME STRUCTURE

Frame structures are the structures having the combination of beam,

column and slab to resist the lateral and gravity loads. These structures are
usually used to overcome the large moments developing due to the applied
loading.

Framing, in construction, is the fitting together of pieces to give a

structure support and shape. Framing materials are usually wood, engineered
wood, or structural steel. 

35
 This frame structure is a base of our prototype model and it give shape
our desire machines. We use material for this frame structure is mild steel
because its material properties are suitable for our construction.

The frame structure has been fabricating with some manufacturing

process which we discussed next chapter.

Fig 5.11 Frame Structure

5.10 CONNECTING TUBES AND WIRES

The pneumatic circuit is connected using tubes which will transfer the
compressed air from compressor and the solenoid valve. The solenoid valve is
connected with the single acting pneumatic cylinder using these tubes only.

36
 Fig 5.12 pu tube for air flow

The electric wires are used to transfer input signal from control unit to
solenoid valve and to provide power supply to the pneumatic circuit. 1s core
wire has been used for transforming electrical power from the battery to the dc
motor.

37
 CHAPTER 6
WORKING PRINCIPLE

6.1 CONSTRUCTION DIAGRAM

Fig 6.1 Automatic pneumatic braking System

38
6.2 WORKING PRINCIPLES
 This prototype model consists of vehicle frame setup, wheel with brake
lever, pneumatic cylinders, solenoid valve, control circuit and IR (Infra
Red) sensor.
 The vehicle speed is sensed by the infrared sensor. The vehicle speed is
above the 40-50 Km per hour, the control unit will activate the IR sensor
Unit. The circuit is to transmit the Infra-Red rays.
 If any obstacle is there in a path, the Infra-Red rays reflected. This
reflected Infra-Red rays are received by the receiver circuit is called “IR
Receiver”. The IR receiver circuit receives the reflected IR rays and
giving the control signal to the control circuit or relay.
 The relay is used to activate the solenoid valve. If the solenoid valve is
activated, the compressed air passes to the Pneumatic Cylinder. The
compressed air activates the pneumatic cylinder and moves the piston
rod. If the piston moves forward, then it pulls the brake wire arrangement
on the wheel hub.
 The piston speed is varied by adjusting the valve is called flow control
valve. In our project, we have to apply this arrangement in one wheel as a
model. The compressed air is drawn from the compressor in our project.
 The compressed air is flow through the Polyurethane tube to the flow
control valve. The flow control valve is connected to the solenoid valve.
Single acting cylinder will be used for applying brake while vehicle
absorbs the obstacles.

39
 CHAPTER 7
MACHINING PROCESS
The prototype model is fabricating with some manufacturing process and
those few operations are described below:
 Cutting
 Welding
 Drilling
 Assembly
 Painting
7.1 CUTTING PROCESS
Cutting is a collection of processes wherein material is brought to a
specified geometry by removing excess material using various kinds of tooling
to leave a finished part that meets specifications. We have make materials to
require shape from raw materials by using cutting process. A few cutting
methods of materials are described below as an images. L-angle and sheet metal
has been cutted by this machine for our requirements.

40
 Fig 7.1 Cutting Machine

7.2DRILLING OPERATION
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of
circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting
tool, often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at
rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the
cutting edge against the work-piece, cutting off chips from the hole as it is
drilled. Wooden plates drilled by tis drilling machine for fixing circuits with
structural frame.

41
 Fig 7.2 Drilling Machine
7.3WELDING PROCESS
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually
metals or thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower
temperature metal-joining techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do
not melt the base metal.
Here we use welding process mostly for fabrication of steel structures. So
we select arc welding method of welding process in manufacturing.
Arc welding is a process that is used to join metal to metal by using
electricity to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals when cool
result in a binding of the metals. It is a type of welding that uses a welding
power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and the base
material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC)
or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The
welding region is usually protected by some type of shielding gas, vapour, or
42
slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully
automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th century, arc welding
became commercially important in shipbuilding during the Second World War.
Today it remains an important process for the fabrication of steel structures and
vehicles.

Fig 7.3 Arc Welding Working Process

7.4ASSEMBLY PROCESS

An assembly line is a manufacturing process (often called a

progressive assembly) in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added
as the semi-finished assembly moves from workstation to workstation where the
parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced.
After fabricating the frame structures we will assemble the components
like wheel, solenoid valve, pneumatic cylinder, motor, battery by using of PU
tube, connectors and wires. I have enclosed the few images of components
assembling process.

43
 Fig 7.4 Assembly Work

7.5 PAINTING
Paint is one major segment of the surface coatings, which also includes
varnishes, enamels, printing inks and polishes. The paint industry produces a
huge variety of products that protect, preserve, and also beautify the objects to
which they are applied. Typical products include architectural coatings (e.g.
house paints), industrial coatings (e.g. automotive finishes, wood furniture and
fixture finishes), and special purpose coatings (e.g. traffic paints, roof coatings).
The objective of painting is to form a coating film on the surface of an
object in order to protect the object and give a fine appearance. Painting may
also have other special functions. There are various types of painting methods,
and spray painting is currently used in many types of industrial painting.
“Spray painting” consists of the painting operation itself followed by
coated film drying. The paint used in the painting process is diluted with
thinner, and solid portions in the paint form the coating film after the spraying
operation.
CHAPTER 8
MERITS AND APPLICATION

8.1 MERITS

 Simple construction of the prototype vehicle.

44
  It reduces the vehicle accidents.
 Braking system able to give fast response.
 System able to increase the pre-crash safety.
 This system increases the response time of vehicle braking by keeping
safe distance between two vehicles.
8.2APPLICATIONS
 This system may be applicable in all types of light vehicles like cars,
Rickshaws.
 This system also successfully installed in theheavy vehicles like buses,
trucks, trailers, etc.

CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION
This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and
experience, to use our limited knowledge. We are feeling that we have
completed the work within time successfully. The"FABRICATION OF

45
EMERGENCY BRAKING SYSTEM" is working with satisfactory
conditions. The main concluded of this project is reduces the sudden vehicle
accidents by using the pneumatic brake. Sensors are used to detect the speed
and distance of between vehicles.

CHAPTER 10
FUTURE SCOPE

Our future work deals with incorporating this system with various
different features to provide enhanced protection by the advanced intelligent

46
braking system in real time application. For that, some of the possible changes
are:

 Infrared sensors can be replaced by ultrasonic sensors.

 Regular bumpers can be replaced by hydraulic bumpers.
 Infrared sensors can sense eye blinking and give signal to solenoid valve
when driver sleeps.
 Limit switch can be used to limit the minimum speed above which the
system gets triggered.
 PIC can be implemented in system for further modifications like gradual
slowdown of vehicle.
 Bumper design can further be enhanced to act as external air bags.
 With some modifications, the project can be used with timer circuits so as
to apply brakes and extend the bumper after a delay of few milliseconds
so that the bumper does not extend unless the vehicle just reaches the
crashing distance.

REFERENCES

1. Guo Lie et al., (Jul 2014), “Advanced Emergency Braking Controller

Design for Pedestrian Protection Oriented Automotive Collision

47
 Avoidance System”, Hindawi Publishing Corporation, TheScientific
World Journal, Volume 2014, Page no: 1-11.
2. Sandeep Thorat et al., (Mar 2016), “Design and Implementation of
Automatic Emergency Braking System”, International Journal of Current
Engineering and Technology, Special Issue-4, Page no: 337-342.
3. Dineshkumar C, Subramanian M (2017), “Automotive Braking System
For Passenger Vehicle To Enhance Safety”, International Journal of Pure
and Applied Mathematics, Volume 117 No. 20, Page no: 1011-1020.
4. Shubham Pawar et al., (Dec 2017), “Review Paper on Automatic Braking
System with Pneumatic Bumper”, International Journal of Advance
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5. Ashwini A. Kamble et al., (2017), “Automatic Braking System”,
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6. Umar Zakir Abdul Hamid et al., (Mar 2018), “Autonomous Emergency
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Collision Mitigation”, Research gate.
7. A M Ivanov et al., (2018), “New testing methods of automatic emergency
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10.Chen Chao and Xia Qin, “Research Of Vehicle Automatic Emergency
Braking System Evaluation Methods”.

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