CONTENTS

Sl.No. Topics Page No.

1. DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIX AND TESTING OF FRESH 1

AND HARDENED CONCRETE

1.1 Design of M20 Concrete Mix

1.2 Casting of cubes, cylinders and prism
1.3 Workability tests on fresh concrete
1.4 Compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of
rupture and modulus of elasticity of concrete

2. CASTING AND TESTING OF REINFORCED CEMENT 12

CONCRETE SPECIMENS

2.1 Casting and testing of RCC Beam

2.2 Casting and testing of RCC Column

3. TESTING OF STEEL BEAM 22

4. VIBRATION TESTING OF A STEEL BEAM 28

5. NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF CONCRETE 31

5.1 NDT using Rebound Hammer

5.2 NDT using Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method
5.3 Detection of embedded reinforcements

6. STUDY OF PHOTOELASTIC EXPERIMENTS 45

1. DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIX AND TESTING OF FRESH AND HARDENED
CONCRETE
Reference: SP 23 – 1982, IS 4031 (Part 2) – 1999, IS 4031 (part4): 1999, : IS 4031
(Part 5): 1988, IS 4031(part6): 1999, : IS: 2386 (Part I)-1963, IS: 383-1970, IS 2386 (Part
III)-1963, IS: 516 – 1959 and IS: 1199 – 1959, IS 5816 – 1970

1.1 DESIGN OF M20 CONCRETE MIX

1.1.1 Aim

To design a concrete mix of grade M20 using IS code method, workability testing of
fresh concrete and casting and testing of cubes, cylinders and beam specimens.
1.1.2 Materials

Cement (OPC), Fine aggregate (sand), Coarse aggregate ( 20mm broken stone) and
water.
1.1.3 Preliminary quality tests on materials

The following experiments may be carried out on given samples of materials to assess the
quality.
a. Fineness of Cement
b. Standard Consistency of Cement
c. Initial and final Setting Times of Cement
d. Compressive Strength of Cement
e. Particle Size Distribution and Grading of FA and CA
f. Bulk Density, Void Ratio, Porosity and Specific gravity of Aggregates
g. Bulking of Fine Aggregates
The detailed procedure of testing materials is explained in sections 1 and 2 of the
Concrete Laboratory Manual published by the Structural Engineering Division. If the
material satisfies the quality tests, which can be used in the proposed concrete Mix.

1.1.4 Design Procedure

a) Design Data

Characteristic compressive strength (fck) in the field at 28-days = 20MPa

Maximum size of aggregate = 20mm angular
Degree of workability = 0.90 compacting factor
Degree of quality control = Good
Type of exposure = Mild

b) Test Data for Materials

Cement : Ordinary Portland cement satisfying IS: 269-1976

Specific gravity of cement (Sc) =

2
 Table 1.1 Results of testing of materials
Sl.No Experiment Result Remarks
1 Fineness of Cement
2 Standard Consistency of Cement
3 Initial Setting Time of Cement
4 Final Setting Time of Cement
5 3 day Comp. Strength of Cement
6 7 day Comp. Strength of Cement
7 28 day Comp. Strength of Cement
8 % Bulking of Fine Aggregates
9 Bulk Density of Fine Aggregates
10 Void Ratio of Fine Aggregates
11 Porosity of Fine Aggregates
12 Specific gravity of Fine Aggregate (Sfa)
13 Bulk Density of Coarse Aggregates
14 Void Ratio of Coarse Aggregates
15 Porosity of Coarse Aggregates
16 Specific gravity of Coarse Aggregate (Sca)
17 Particle size distribution of FA
18 Particle size distribution of CA

Water absorption of Coarse aggregate (wac) = percent

Water absorption of Fine aggregate (waf) = percent
Free (surface) moisture in Coarse aggregate (fmc) = percent
Free (surface) moisture in Fine aggregate (fmf) = percent
Sieve analysis results of Fine Aggregate

Table 1.2 Sieve Analysis Results of Fine Aggregate

IS Sieve Size Fine Aggregate (Percent Remarks
Passing)
4.75 mm Conforming to grading
2.36 mm Zone ------ of
1.18mm IS:383-1970
600 micron
300 micron
150 micron

Table 1.3 Sieve analysis results of Coarse aggregate

IS Sieve Analysis of Coarse Percentage of Different Fractions Remarks
Size Aggregate fractions
(mm) (Percent Passing)
I II I (x%) II (y%) Combined(100%)

20 Conforming
10 to ---- IS:
4.75 383-1970
2.36

3
c) Target Mean Strength of Concrete (ft)

Target Mean Strength of Concrete (ft) at 28 days

ft=fck+KS (1.1)
Where S- standard deviation available in page 23, Table 8 of IS 456-2000 and K- a
statistical value available in Table 30 of SP 23.
fck = 20Mpa; K = 4Mpa and S=1.65.
ft = 20+4x1.65 = 26.6MPa

d) Selection of Water-Cement Ratio (wc)

From Fig. 46 of SP23, the water-cement ratio required for the target mean strength of
26.6Mpa is 0.50. This is lower than the maximum value of 0.65 prescribed for 'Mild’
exposure (see Table 23 of SP23).
Choosing water cement ratio (wc) = 0.5

e) Selection of Water and Sand Content

From Table 42 of SP23, for 20 mm nominal maximum size aggregate and sand
conforming to grading Zone II, water content per cubic meter of concrete is equal to 186
kg and sand content as percentage of total aggregate by absolute volume is equal to 35
percent.

Table 1.4 Approximate sand and water contents per m3 of concrete

(Ref. Table 42 of SP23)
(wc = 0.6; workability = 0.8 compacting factor and sand in Zone II)
Maximum size of aggregate Water content per m3 of Sand as a % of total
(mm) concrete (kg) aggregate by absolute
volume
10 208 62
20 186 45 ? 35
40 165 40

Adjustments in water content sand percentage for other conditions ( other than wc = 0.6;
workability = 0.8 compacting factor and sand in Zone II) must be done according to
Table 44 of SP 23.

Table 1.5 Adjustment of values in water content and sand percentage (Table 44, SP23)
Change in Condition of Table 42 Adjustment Required in
Water content % % sand in total Aggregate
For sand conforming to Zone I 0 +1.5%
For sand conforming to Zone III 0 -1.5%
For sand conforming to Zone IV 0 -3.0%
For increase or decrease in compacting +3% or –3% 0
factor by 0.1
For each 0.05 increase or decrease in 0 +1% to –1%
water-cement ratio
For rounded aggregate -15kg/m3 -7%
Total pw ps

4
Therefore required sand content as percentage of total aggregate by absolute volume =
35-ps percent.

Required water content = 186(1+pw/100) kg/m3.

f) Determination of Cement Content

water-cement ratio = 0.50
water = litres (or kg)

cement content = water content/wc ratio = kg/m3

This cement content may be adequate for 'mild' exposure condition (see Table 5 of IS
456-2000).

g) Determination of Coarse and Fine Aggregate Content

Table 1.6 Approximate entrapped air content (Table 41, SP23)

Nominal maximum size of aggregate Entrapped air as a percentage volume of
(mm) concrete
10 3.0
20 2.0
40 1.0

From Table 41 of SP23, for the specified maximum size of aggregate of 20 mm, the
amount of entrapped air in the wet concrete is 2 percent. Taking this into account and
applying equations 1.2 & 1.3.

V = {W+C/Sc+(1/ρ)(fa/Sfa)}/1000 (1.2)

V = {W+C/Sc+(1/(1-ρ))(Ca/Sca)}/1000 (1.3)

Where V= absolute volume of fresh concrete (ie gross volume – volume of entrapped air)
Sc = specific gravity of cement
W = mass of water in kg per m3 of concrete
C = mass of cement in kg per m3 of concrete
ρ = ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume
fa, Ca = total masses of fine and coarse aggregate in kg per m3 of concrete
Sfa, Sca = specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine aggregate and coarse aggregate

Solving equations 1.2 and 1.3, calculate

fa = kg/m3, and Ca = kg/m3

Table 1.7 Mix proportion

Material Water Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate

Quantity lit kg kg kg
ratio wc = 1 x= y=

5
h) Quantities Required/or the Mix per Bag of Cement

The mix is, wc : 1 : x : y (by weight). For 50 kg of cement, the quantity of materials are
worked out as below:

1) Cement = 50 kg
2) Sand = kg
3) Coarse Aggregate = kg
(Fraction I = kg, Fraction II = kg).
4) Water:
i) For water-cement ratio of 0.50, water = 25.0 litres
ii) Extra water to be added for absorption in case of coarse aggregate, at (wac) percent by
mass = (+) litres
iii) Water to be deducted for free moisture present in sand, at ,(fmf) % by mass = (-) lit
iv) Actual quantity of water to be added = (i) + (ii) – (iii) = litres

5) Actual quantity of sand required after allowing for mass of free

moisture = kg

6) Actual quantity of coarse aggregate required:

i) Fraction 1 = kg
ii) Fraction 11 = kg
Therefore, the actual quantities of different constituents required for the mix are:

water = kg
cement = kg
sand = kg
Coarse aggregate:
Fraction I = kg
Fraction II = kg

1.2 CASTING OF CONCRETE SPECIMENS

1.2.1 Aim

Preparation of the concrete specimens (6 cubes, 2 cylinders and 1 beam) for testing the
properties of hardened concrete.

1.2.2 Calculation of the quantity of ingredients

The sizes of specimens are

Cube - 150 x 150 x 150 mm.
Cylinder - 150 mm. dia. and 300 mm. long
Beam - 100 x 100 x 500 mm

6
The quantity of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water required to prepare
concrete mix of proportion 1: x: y by weight with water- cement ratio ’wc’ for casting 6
cubes, 2 cylinders and a beam is calculated. Detailed procedure of calculating quantity of
ingredients is explained in section 3 of concrete lab manual.

1.2.3 Compacting

The test specimens are made as soon as practicable after mixing to produce a fully
compacted concrete. The concrete is filled in the moulds in layers approximately 50 mm
thickness. Each layer is hand compacted using the tamping bar with equally spaced
strokes distributed over the cross section of the mould. For cubical specimens concrete
should be subjected to not less than 35 strokes per layer and for cylindrical specimens not
less than 30 strokes per layer. The strokes shall penetrate into the underlying layer and
the bottom layer shall be compacted throughout its thicknes. The filled up surface is
finished smooth and level using a trowel.

1.2.4 Curing

The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24 hours and after this period the specimens
are marked and removed from the moulds and kept submerged in clear fresh water until
testing.

1.2.5 Result

1.3 WORKABILITY TEST ON FRESH CONCRETE

Reference IS: 1199 – 1959

1.3.1 Aim

To asses the workability of fresh concrete by conducting slump and compacting factor
tests.

1.3.2 Apparatus

Slump cone with base plate, Compacting factor apparatus with cylinder mould, Tamping
rod, scales and Trowel

1.3.3 Procedure

7
Detailed procedure of conducting workability test is explained in section 3 of concrete
lab manual.

1.3.4 Observations and Calculations

Slump:
Height of slump cone (H1) = mm
Final height of concrete (H2) = mm
Slump = H1-H2 = mm
Compacting factor:
Weight of Empty Cylinder (W1) = kg
Weight of cylinder filled with partially compacted concrete (W2) = kg
Weight of cylinder filled with fully compacted concrete (W3) = kg
Compacting factor = (W2 - W1)/(W3 - W1)=
1.3.5 Result

Slump = …………..mm
Compacting factor =

1.3.6 IS Specification

Refer IS: 456 – 2000, Clause 7. and

Refer IS: 456 – 2000, Clause 7.1.1

1.3.7 Inference

1.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH,

MODULUS OF RUPTURE AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE

1.4.1 Aim
To determine
a) The compressive strength of concrete prepared by conducting test on concrete cubes
and to verify the strength requirements as per IS 516 – 1959.
b) The splitting tensile strength of concrete by conducting split test on concrete cylinder.
c) The flexural strength of concrete by conducting a test on beam specimen.

8
d) The modulus of elasticity of concrete by conducting compression test on concrete
cylinder.
1.4.2 Apparatus
a) A compression-testing machine of capacity 3000 kN
b) Two packing strips of plywood 300mm long, 12mm wide and 3mm thick.
c) Universal testing machine of capacity 30,000kg
d) Compressometer.
1.4.3 Procedure
Detailed procedure of testing specimens is explained in section 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 of
Concrete lab manual.
1.4.4 Observation and Calculation

a) Compressive strength

Table 1.8 Compressive strength of concrete

Sl. Specimen Age of Size of cube mm Max Comp. Av. Comp.
No No specimen load, Strength, Strength
L B H P =P/LB N/mm2
kN N/mm2
1 7 days
2
3
4 28 days
5
6

b) Splitting tensile strength:

Diameter of cylinder (d) = mm
Length of cylinder (l) = mm
Max. Load applied (P) = kN

The splitting tensile strength,Tsp, is calculated using the formula

2P
Tsp =
πdl
c) Flexural strength :
Width of the beam (b) = mm
Depth of beam (d) = mm
Span of beam (l) = mm
Maximum load applied. (P) = N
Distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support, measured along the centre
line of the tensile side of the specimen (a) = mm
(If ‘a’ is less than 110mm the results are to be discarded)

9
Flexural strength of the specimen is expressed as modulus of rupture (fb). If ‘a’ equals the
distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support, measured along the centre
line of the tensile side of the specimen, in mm, fb shall be calculated to the nearest
0.05N/mm2 as follows.
p ×1
fb = when ‘a’ is greater than 133mm and
b×d 2
3p×a
fb = when ‘a’ is less than 133mm but greater than 110mm.
b×d 2
Flexural strength of the Specimen = N/mm2
d) Modulus of Elasticity:
Diameter of cylinder (d) = mm
Area (A = πd2/4) = mm2
Gauge length (l) = mm
Least count of dial gage (LC) = mm
Magnification factor of compressometer (F) =

Table 1.9 Modulus of elasticity of concrete

Compressometer Stress, σ
Load, P Strain, ε
Sl reading , e =P/A
(kN) exLCxF/l
No: (divisions) (N/mm2)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

The strain at various loads in the last cycle shall be calculated and plotted graphically
against the stress. The slope of the straight-line graph drawn through the points gives the
modulus of elasticity of concrete.
From graph,
Modulus of elasticity, EC = N/mm2
1.4.5 Result

10
7 days Compressive strength of concrete = N/mm2
28 days Compressive strength of concrete = N/mm2
Split tensile strength of concrete (28days) = N/mm2
Modulus of rupture (28days) = N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity of concrete = N/mm2
1.4.6 IS specification

Refer IS 456-2000

1.4.7 Inference

11
2. CASTING AND TESTING OF REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE
SPECIMENS

2.1 CASTING AND TESTING OF RCC BEAM

2.1.1 Aim:
The experiment is to prepare a reinforced cement concrete beam and to study the
behaviour of the beam under a flexure test.

2.1.2 Apparatus:

Beam mould, Concrete mixer, Needle vibrator, curing tank etc for preparation of beam.
A 300t compression testing machine, Dial gauges, DEMEC strain gauge, scale, pellets etc
for testing beam.

Fig.2.1 Compression testing machine with bending test facility (300t capacity)

Compression testing machine : The compression testing machine (Fig. 2.1) has the
facility to test beams and short columns. The machine is hydraulically operated with three
ranges 50t, 150t and 300t. The load is measured using pendulum dynamometer

2.1.3 Procedure for the preparation of the beam:

1 The mould selected for the preparation of the beam is a mould available in the
lab. (l00x100x1000mm)

12
2 The inside dimensions of the mould is measured and the volume of concrete required is
calculated.

3 The required quantities of coarse and fine aggregates and cement are calculated
assuming M20 grade of concrete designed mix proportion by weight.

4 The required steel reinforcement so as to make an under reinforced beam is cut and
bent up to the required shape to suit the mould for the preparation of beam.

5 The inside of the mould is cleaned and well oiled to prevent concrete sticking to the
mould.

6 The reinforcement is placed in the mould and placed correctly in position carefully
providing the required cover.

7 The required quantity of water based on the water cement ratio is measured and kept
ready for use.

8 First the cement and sand is mixed together and then the mixture is mixed thoroughly
with coarse aggregate to make a uniform mix.

9 Then water is added in small quantities and the whole mixture is mixed thoroughly to
make a concrete of uniform consistency.

10 The concrete thus prepared is filled into the mould taking care to see that the position
of the reinforcement is not disturbed.

11 The concrete thus placed in layers is thoroughly compacted by vibration.

12 When the entire mould is filled with concrete the top surface is levelled and trowelled
smooth.

13 The finished beam is kept in the mould for 24 hours and then the mould is carefully
dismantled and the beam is put in the curing tank.

14 The curing under water is carried out for 28 days prior to testing.

2.1.4 Data
Size of the beam :
Details of reinforcement provided :
Quantity of coarse aggregate used :
Quality of fine aggregate used :
Quality of cement used :
Quality of water added :
Date of casting :
Specimen identity :
No. of days cured :

13
2.1.5 Procedure:
W

Fig. 2.2 Beam testing setup

1 The R. C. beam prepared earlier and cured is taken out of the curing tank and
the surface water and dirt is cleaned well.

2 The beam is white washed and pellets for stain measurement are fixed at mid span in
selected levels (minimum two levels)

3 The probable load at failure is calculated using the ultimate load equation for the cross
section.

4 The compression testing machine is adjusted to the required range.

5 The cross head of testing machine is adjusted and the end supports are adjusted to for
the required span (L)

6 The beam is placed over the supports, three point loading roller arrangements are done
as shown in Fig. 2.2. The dial gauge is set up below the beam at mid span.

7 The dial reading is adjusted to zero, the dummy load pointer is set to zero and initial
readings at stain gauge locations are noted after just touching the cross head on the beam.

9 The loading is commenced and the deflection and strains for every change of load
intervals are noted.

10 The loads and corresponding deflection dial gauge readings and Demec strain gauge
readings are noted until visible cracks appear on the beam.

11 The gauges are then removed and the loading continued. The crack propagation
pattern is marked in the specimen for different load levels and the corresponding load
values are marked in the specimen.

12 The loading is continued until the beam finally failed indicating no further increase in
the load.

14
13 The failure load is noted. The type of failure and nature of cracks etc are noted and
sketched.

2.1.6 Obsevations
Size of the beam :
Area of steel in percentage :
Span of the beam tested (L) :
Expected ultimate load (for range selection) :
Failure load of the beam (W) :

Table 2.1 Deflection and strain in RCC beam

Sl.No. Load Deflection Strain in level 1 Strain in level 2
(kN) Dial Deflection Strain Strain Strain Strain
gauge (mm) gauge gauge
(div) readng readng
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
The load deflection strain curves may be prepared
Sketch of beam showing cracks and failure pattern is prepared.
The probable ultimate load is calculated and compared.

2.1.7 Result

2.2. CASTING AND TESTING OF RCC COLUMN

2.2.1 Aim:
The experiment is to prepare a reinforced cement concrete column and to study the
behaviour of the column under compression.

2.2.2 Apparatus:

Column mould, Concrete mixer, Needle vibrator etc for the preparation of column.
A 200T Column testing machine, LVDT, data logger, scale etc for testing column

Column Testing Machine : The column testing machine (Fig. 2.3) has the facility to test
long and short columns. Large span beams can also be tested using the machine. The
machine is hydraulically operated.

LVDT : Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is used for displacement

measurement. The LVDT (Fig. 2.4) is based on electromagnetic induction principle.
LVDTs with four ranges (±0.5mm, ±1mm, ±5mm, ±100mm) are available in the
laboratory.

15
Fig.2.3 Column testing machine (200t capacity)

Fig.2.4 Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Data logger : A ten channel data logger is available in the laboratory for acquiring LVDT
data. The data logger (Fig.2.5) can store 2000 data samples and can communicate to a
PC through RS232 interface.
Working of LVDT :
• Connect the LVDT to the data logger in any channel 0-9 in the rear side and
power on the unit
• The status is displayed in LCD window and the unit can be controlled using soft
touch function keyboard in the front panel (Fig. 2.6).
• To program a channel, Press [Ch Prog] key, message “ Edit Channel NO” will
be displayed. Enter channel no and press [enter] key. If channel is not to be
edited press [Esc] key.

16
 • Then the message “ CALIBRATION------” will be displayed. If the calibration
value is accepted press [Enter] key otherwise press [Esc] key. New calibration
value can now be entered and press [Enter]. Programming is completed.
• The scan speed can be changed if required. Press [Scan speed] key the message
“ Scan Interval –01--s/Ch” will be displayed. If the scan value is accepted press
[Enter] key otherwise press [Esc] key. Now the new desired value can be entered
and press [Enter].
• Unused channel can be deactivated if required. Press [Skip channel] key the
message “ Skip channel” will be displayed. For no change press [Esc] key
otherwise press [Enter] key. Now the desired channel to be skipped can be entered
and press [Enter].
• Real time clock and Calendar can be set using [RTC] key. Detailed procedure is
explained in the instruction manual.
• For manual scanning mode press [Monitor] key. The channel no and present
value will be displayed. To set value in the memory to zero press [TARE] key.
For next channel values press [enter] key. To exit from the mode press [ Esc] key.

Fig.2.5 Data Logger with LVDT

Tare/ Ch.
Esc Prog 7 8 9
Zero

Skip
Scan Monitor 4 5 6
CH

Print Next Scan 1 2 3

CH speed

Memory RTC * 0 Enter

*

Fig.2.6 Keyboard of Data Logger

17
 • For automatic scanning mode press [Scan] key. The message “ERASE MEM”
will be displayed. To erase old memory press [Enter] key otherwise [Esc]. Now
the channel values will be stored in the scan interval, until press [ Esc] key.

Calibration of LVDT : The calibration constant is given in the LVDT. For verification,
the following procedure can be used.
• Press [Ch Prog] key, message “ Edit Channel NO” will be displayed. Enter
channel no and press [enter] key. If channel is not to be edited press [Esc] key.
• Then the message “ CALIBRATION------” will be displayed. Press [Esc] key
and a dummy calibration value 1.0 can now be entered and press [Enter].
• Select manual scanning mode by pressing [Monitor] key. The channel no and
present value will be displayed. Set memory to zero by pressing [TARE] key.
• Press the LVDT spindle to a accurately known displacement or set to its
maximum travel (d) and note the voltage value (e) displayed. The new calibration
constant for the channel is d/e.
• Press [Ch Prog] key again, message “ Edit Channel NO” will be displayed and
then the message “ CALIBRATION------” will be displayed. Press [Esc] key and
the calculated calibration value can be entered and press [Enter].

2.2.3 Procedure for the preparation of the column:

1 The mould selected for the preparation of the column is a mould available in the lab.
(l80mm dia and 1200mm long)

2 The inside dimension of the mould is measured and the volume of concrete required is
calculated.

3 The required quantities of coarse and fine aggregates and cement are calculated
assuming M20 grade of concrete designed mix proportion by weight.

4 The required minimum steel reinforcement is cut and bent up to the required shape to
suit the mould for the preparation of column.

5 The inside of the mould is cleaned and well oiled to prevent concrete sticking to the
mould.

6 The reinforcement is placed in the mould and placed correctly in position carefully
providing the required cover.

7 The required quantity of water based on the water cement ratio is measured and kept
ready for use.

8 First the cement and sand is mixed together and then the mixture is mixed thoroughly
with coarse aggregate to make a uniform mix.

9 Then water is added in small quantities and the whole mixture is mixed thoroughly to
make a concrete of uniform consistency.

18
10 The concrete thus prepared is filled into the mould taking care to see that the position
of the reinforcement is not disturbed.

11 The concrete thus placed in layers is thoroughly compacted by vibration.

12 When the entire mould is filled with concrete the top surface is levelled and trowelled
smooth.

13 The finished specimen is kept in the mould for 24 hours and then the mould is
carefully dismantled and the beam is put in the curing tank.

14 The curing under water is carried out for 28 days prior to testing.

2.2.4 Data
Size of the column :
Details of reinforcement provided :
Quantity of coarse aggregate used :
Quality of fine aggregate used :
Quality of cement used :
Quality of water added :
Date of casting :
Specimen identity :
No. of days cured :

2.2.5 Procedure for testing :

Adjustable
cross head

Column
LVDT

LVDT Holding Loading

stand cross head

Fig. 2.7 Column Testing setup

19
1 The R. C. column prepared earlier and cured is taken out of the curing tank and the
surface water and dirt is cleaned well.

2 The column is white washed.

3 The probable load at failure is calculated using the ultimate load equation for the cross
section.

4 The compression testing machine/ column testing machine is adjusted to the required
range.

5 The cross head of testing machine is adjusted and the end supports are adjusted to for
the required height.

6 The LVDT is setup near the bottom cross head (Fig.2.7). Any one channel of the data
logger is connected to the LVDT. Checked the calibration constant.

7 The LVDT reading is initially adjusted to zero, the load pointer is set to zero after just
touching the cross head on the column.

8 The loading is commenced and the LVDT reading for every change of load intervals
are noted until visible cracks appear.

9 The gauges are then removed and the loading continued. The crack propagation pattern
is marked in the specimen for load intervals and the corresponding loads are marked in
the specimen.

10 The loading is continued until the column finally failed indicating no further increase
in the load.

11 The failure load is noted. The type of failure and nature of cracks etc are noted and
sketched.

20
2.2.6 Obsevations
Size of the column :
Area of steel in percentage :
Length of the column tested :
Expected ultimate load :
Failure load of the column :

Table 2.2 Strain in RCC column

Sl.No. Load Stress Deflection Strain
(kN) N/mm2 LVDT reading
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Prepare the stress strain or load deflection curve

Sketch of column showing cracks and failure pattern is prepared.
The probable ultimate load may be calculated and compared.

2.2.7 Result

21
3. TESTING OF A STEEL BEAM

3.1 Aim:
The experiment is to study the behaviour of a steel beam under static flexure test.

3.2 Apparatus:
A Loading frame with bending test facility, Jacks, Electrical strain gauge based single
component load cell, LVDT, Electrical resistance strain gauges, Data acquisition system,
computer etc.

3.2.1 Data acquisition system:

The 24 channel Computer based data acquisition system SCXI-1000 (Fig. 3.1) signal
conditioner consists of three modules.
a) Eight channel strain module SCXI-1520 for connecting resistance strain gauges and
resistance strain gauge based equipments such as load cells. The module is equipped with
• Programmable excitation 0-10V and gain 1-1000 per channel
• Programmable 4 pole butter worth filter 10,100,1000,10000Hz
• Wheatstone quarter, half and full bridge completion
• Shunt calibration circuits in each channel
b) Eight channel piezoelectric module SCXI-1531 for connecting piezoelectric
accelerometers for capturing mechanical vibration. The module is equipped with
• Programmable gain 1,10,100 per channel
• Programmable 4 pole Bessel filter 2.5,5,10 and 20 kHz per channel
• 4mA current source
• BNC direct connectivity
c) Eight channel induction module SCXI-1540 for connecting displacement transducers
such as LVDT working under the electro magnetic induction principle. The module has
• Programmable 1 or 3 V RMS excitation at 2.5, 3.3, 5 or 10kHz per channel
• 4 or 5 wire connection
• Low pass filter 250Hz

Fig.3.1 Data acquisition system SCXI-1000 (Signal conditioner) and computer

The data acquisition system is controlled using a Pentium (P4) computer operating in
windows environment. The communication of the computer with the signal conditioner is

22
done through a PCI card DAQ 6221installed in the computer. The data acquisition card
can acquire 16 single ended or 8 differential signals with 250K samples per second rate in
16 bit resolution. The block diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2 Block diagram of the data acquisition system

3.2.2 Data acquisition software:

A custom make data acquisition software called ‘Concrete Testing of Structures” is used
in the computer. This is a interactive software with two major testing options
a) Static test
b) Dynamic test
Under static test, the strain gauge and LVDT sensors can be activated. The static test can
be performed in manually triggered logging mode or automatic logging mode. Under
dynamic test, strain gauge, LVDT and accelerometer sensors can be activated. In all the
test modes, the acquired data is stored in a file for post processing. The software
architecture is illustrated in Fig. 3.3

23
Fig. 3.3 Software Architecture of ‘Concrete Testing of Structures”

3.2.3 Software operation:

• Enter user login name and password to open the program.
• The main panel is displayed. In the main panel consists of menu bar and tool bar
• In the menu bar, options are file, configuration, test, offline, calibration and help
• Choose configure options for configuring channels. Inside this option create new, open
old, copy, save and duplicate configuration file facilities are there.
• The parameters for configuring strain channels are name of channel, strain units, max-
min values, bridge type, lead wire resistance, gage factor, gage resistance, initial voltage
and type of excitation (internal or external)
• The parameters for configuring LVDT channels are name of channel, displacement
units, max-min values of displacement range, type of excitation, excitation voltage,
excitation frequency (5kHz) and max-min output voltage
• The parameters for configuring accelerometer channels are name of channel,
acceleration units (g or m/s2), max-min values, terminal configuration, sensitivity,
sensitivity units, type of excitation and excitation current (4mA).
• Configuration file should be saved.
• Choose type of test option either static or dynamic.
• Under static test enter configuration filename, test file name, auto zero option, logging
mode and logging rate. Then test panel with graphical display of data popup. The

24
parameters of the graphical window can be controlled. To start and stop test, open option
start/close from menu.
• Under dynamic test enter configuration filename, test file name and auto zero option.
Then test panel with graphical display of data popup. The parameters of the graphical
window can be controlled. To start and stop test, open option start/close from menu.
• Offline analysis option is available for processing logged data
• User can generate report of test in excel format
• Shunt and offset null calibration option for strain gages is available

3.2.4 Transducer connection details:

The Strain gauge and LVDT connection details are explained below
Strain gauges: The strain gauges are connected through SCXI 1314 terminal block as
shown in Fig.3.4.

SCB

SCB

SCA

SCA
Wheatstone bridge
P-

P+

QTR

S+

S-

RS+

RS-

SCXI 1314 terminal

Fig. 3.4a Strain gauge connection details – full bridge

25
 SCA

SCA

P-

P+ Strain gauge

QTR

S+

S-

RS+

RS-

SCXI 1314 terminal

Fig. 3.4b Strain gauge connection details – Quarter bridge

LVDT : The LVDT is connected through SCXI 1315 terminal block as shown in Fig.3.5

EX+ EX- CH+ CH- sync

Green
Red

LVDT
Yellow wire

Black wire

SCXI 1315 terminal

Fig. 3.5 LVDT connection details

26
3.3 Procedure:
W

Fig. 3.6 Beam testing setup

1 The beam specimen is cleaned well, measured geometric details and marked support
and loading points.

2 Pasted electrical resistance strain gauges one each at top and bottom flanges of the
beam at mid span carefully.

3 The strain gauge installation is cured under pressure as per the specifications of using
adhesive. The experiment is performed only after proper curing testing and installation.

4 The probable working load is calculated, selected suitable jack and load cell.

5 A special purpose electrical resistance based load cell is calibrated for load
measurement. LVDT is also calibrated as illustrated in section 2.2

6 The loading frame is adjusted as required to accommodate jack and load cell. The end
supports are adjusted to for the required span (L) .

7 The beam is placed over the supports, three point loading roller arrangements are done.
Load cell is attached. The LVDT is set up below the beam at mid span (Fig. 3.6).

8 In the case of computer based data acquisition, the loading is done with the help of the
jack in the loading frame.

13 The load cell is connected to the DA strain module (SCXI 1520-1314 terminal) for
full Wheatstone bridge. Top and bottom stain gauges are connected to DA strain module
for quarter bridges. LVDT is connected to DA inductive module (SCXI 1540-1315
terminal).

14 The DA module SCXI 1000 is connected to a pentium-4 computer through PCI 6221
DA card.

27
15 The computer is operated in Windows environment and the data acquired using
software “ Concrete Testing of Structures “ provided by the manufacturer of DA systems.

16 The software is menu driven. The static test option is chosen for the experiment. All
channels are set as per the guideline given by manufacturer.

17 The test data is stored automatically until the working load is reached.

3.4 Obsevations

Size of the beam :

Moment of inertia of section :
Span of the beam tested (L) :
Expected working load (for range selection) :

Table 3.1 Load-Deflection and strain data of beam

Sl.No. Load Deflection Strain in Strain in

(kN) (mm) level 1 level 2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

3.4 Results

Graphs are drawn to demonstrate the load-deflection-strain relations

The probable theoretical stain and deflection are compared with experimental results.

3.5 Inference

28
4. VIBRATION TESTING OF A STEEL BEAM

4.1 Aim:
The experiment is to study the free vibration behaviour of a steel cantilever beam.

4.2 Apparatus:

Accelerometer (piezoelectric type), Electrical resistance strain gauge, Data acquisition

system, computer etc.

Piezoelectric transducers: Piezoelectric transducers are used to capture the vibration of

structures. The output of accelerometers is acceleration, which can be integrated for
getting velocity and displacement information. T typical piezoelectric transducer (weight
5 g) is presented in Fig. 4.1.

Fig. 4.1 Piezoelectric accelerometer

The accelerometer can be mounted on test surface using wax, stud or adhesive. The
accelerometer will operate directly from the internal constant current power source of
SCXI 1531 signal conditioner module of DAQ. The transducer can be connected to the
front panel of the signal conditioner using coaxial BNC cables. Other technical details of
transducer are, Acceleration range : ±50g, Sensitivity 100mv/g and resonant frequency
22kHz.

Detail of data acquisition system is presented in section 3.2.

29
4.3 Procedure:

Excitation
L
SG-1 AC-1

SG-2

Fig. 4.2 Cantilever Beam vibration testing setup

1 The beam specimen is cleaned well, measured geometric details and marked support
and loading points.

2 Pasted electrical resistance strain gauges one each at top and bottom sides of the beam
close to support carefully to form a half bridge.

3 The strain gauge installation is cured under pressure as per the specifications of using
adhesive. The experiment is performed after curing and testing installation.

4 The accelerometer is pasted close to the free end of the beam as shown in Fig. 4.2.

5 The beam is clamped over the supports.

6 The accelerometer is connected to the DA piezoelectric module (SCXI 1531). Top and
bottom stain gauges are connected to DA stain module (SCXI 1520) to form a half
bridge.

7 The DA module SCXI 1000 is connected to a pentium-4 computer through PCI 6221
DA card.

8 The computer is operated in Windows environment and the data acquired using
software “ Concrete Testing of Structures “ provided by the manufacturer of DA systems.

9 The software is menu driven. The dynamic test option is chosen for the experiment. All
channels are set as per the guideline given by manufacturer.

10 Vibration is induced by slightly displacing the free end of the beam. The data
acquisition is triggered and the test data is stored automatically until the vibration ceased.

4.4 Obsevations
Size of the beam :
Moment of inertia of section :
Span of the beam tested (L) :

30
Sampling interval :

Table 4.1 Load-Deflection data of beam (not using DA system)

Time Strain Deflection data
(t) data Acceleration Deflection

A decay curve (Fig. 4.3) is plotted using the data

Fig. 4.3 Typical decay curve

From the curve damping constant (ε), damped natural frequency (ωd) and natural
frequency (ωn) are calculated. In the decay curve, cut few cycles at beginning then at time
instant t1 measure amplitude x1. After n full cycles at time instant tn+1 measure amplitude
xn+1. The damping constant and damped natural period are

ε = (1/2πn) ln (x1/xn+1)
Td= (tn+1- t1)/n
Damped natural frequency ωd= 2π/ Td
Natural period ωn = ωd/√(1-ε2)

4.4 Results
1. Damping constant
2. Damped natural frequency
3. Natural frequency

31
5. NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF CONCRETE
5.1 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF CONCRETE USING REBOUND
HAMMER

5.1.1 Aim
To quality test hardened concrete non-destructively

5.1.2 Apparatus
Schmidt rebound hammer

Fig. 5.1. Cross section of rebound hammer

5.1.3 Principle

The device measures a rebound value R. There is a specific relationship between the
rebound value (R) and the hardness and strength of the concrete.

32
The following factors must be taken into account when ascertaining rebound values R:
1. Impact direction: horizontal, vertically upwards or downwards
2. Age of the concrete
3. Size and shape of the comparison sample (cube, cylinder)

This model of Schmidt rebound hammer can be used for testing:

- Concrete items 100 mm or more in thickness
- Concrete with a maximum particle size < 32 mm
If necessary, clamp the items to be tested prior to measurement in order to prevent the
material deflecting. Items made from artificial stone, which are sensitive to impacts.

5.1.4 Measuring Procedure

1. Use the grindstone to smoothen the test surface.

2. Always hold the concrete test hammer in both hands, perpendicular to the test
surface, before you trigger the impact.

3. Deploy the impact plunger (1) by pushing the concrete test hammer towards the test
surface until the pushbutton springs out.

4. Press the pushbutton (6) to lock the impact plunger (1) after every impact.
Then read off and note down the rebound value R indicated by the pointer (4) on the
scale (19).

5. Perform a few test impacts with the concrete test hammer on a smooth, hard surface
before taking any measurements, which you are going to evaluate.

6. Each test surface should be tested with at least 8 to 10 impacts.

7. The individual impact points must be spaced at least 20 mm apart.

8. Take the average of the 8 measured rebound values R. Do not include values which are
too high or too low in the calculation of average value. Then, using the average rebound
value R, and the selected conversion curve (Fig.5.2), read off the average compressive
strength. For the equipment available, the average compressive strength is subject to a
dispersion (±4.5 N/mm2 to ±8 N/mm2).

5.1.5 Observations
Table 5.1 Compressive strength of concrete
Sl.No Rebound Value (R) Average Comp. Remarks
Measured Average Strength (N/mm2)
1
2

33
 Fig. 5.2. Conversion graph (R>fck)

5.1.5 Result

Average compressive strength of concrete = N/mm2

5.1.6 Inference

5. 2 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING USING ULTRASONIC PULSE

5.2.1 Aim
To determine the quality of hardened concrete nondestructively using ultrasonic pulse
method. The following details of hardened concrete can be determined:
• Concrete strength and uniformity of the concrete
• Cavities, cracks, defects

5.2.2 Apparatus
The components of Ultrasonic instrument (Fig.5.3) are

34
a) Display unit with memory for 250 measured values, RS 232 interface, Integrated
software for transmission of the measured values to PC, range 15 to 6550µs, Resolution:
O.1µs, Battery operation for 30 hours.
b) Transducers 54 kHz
c) Cables BNC, Length 1.5 m
d) Calibration rod
e) Coupling paste

Display unit

Transducers

Fig 5.3 Ultrasonic instrument

5.2.3 Setting up and Working

1. Connect BNC cable to transducers and display unit in switch off condition.
2. Press the ON key. The following is displayed briefly:
- the number of the display unit
- the installed software version
- the remaining life of the batteries

3. The following measurement image of main menu (Fig.5.4) then appears:

35
Fig.5.4 Main menu

4) Settings in the MENU

Please follow the instructions in the respective display field.
The MENU key displays as shown in Fig. 5.5:

a) Distance : For automatic display of the pulse velocity in the measurement screen, the
distance between the transducers must be input with an accuracy of 1% using the arrow
keys. Input in m.

Fig. 5.5 Setup menu

b) Rebound value R : The concrete strength can be calculated using a combination of the
rebound value of a SCHM IDT hammer type N and the pulse velocity. After the mean
rebound value R has been input at the appropriate test point, the cement type Portland
must be chosen. A calculation of the concrete strength is displayed in the measurement
image when the measured pulse velocity is in the range of the curve shown (e.g. in
Diagram A, v must be between 3900 m/s and 4450m/s at R 30). In this case, the
minimum strength can be determined with the measured speed of the sound waves and
diagram A, respectively diagram B (e.g. for R = 30 and v = 3800 m/s. fck = 12N/mm2).

36
Fig. 5.6 Concrete strength curves used by manufacturer

c) Correction factor : The pulse velocity depends not only on the concrete quality but also
further factors, such as temperature, humidity, arrangement of the rebars, etc. These
influences can be included here as a correction factor input. The factor set multiplies the
measured lime. This corrected time is displayed and is used for further calculations.

d) Measurement No : The number is automatically incremented after each measurement.

e) Basic settings
Choice of unit for length and strength: Using arrow keys select the length unit m and the
strength unit N/mm2, MPa or kg/cm2,
Calibration: The standard 54 kHz transducers are calibrated for the display unit. The
calibration value is marked on the calibration rod and must have the value entered here.

f) Automatic storing : Selecting Automatic storing on or off determines the type of

measuring process.

g) Measuring limits : Depending on the type and quality of the concrete, the measuring
range (distance between the transducers) is limited. The minimum measuring distance
depends on the minimum measuring time remaining of 15 micro seconds. The required
minimum lateral distances must also be taken into consideration (e.g. with a measuring
frequency of 54 kHz and a wave speed of 4500m/s, 83 mm are required).

37
5.2.4 Calibration:

The standard 54 kHz transducers are calibrated for the display unit as shown in the
calibration bar. The calibration can be done as follows
- Correction factor 1.0 set.
- Select Basic Setups
- Switch to calibration with down arrow key and then press the START.
- Input calibration value from the calibration rod or check that the stored value
corresponds to the value on the rod.
- To store calibration value automatically, Press the START key.
- Press transducers against calibration rod (Fig 5.7) after applying coupling paste
thinly.
- After 5 seconds, a beep is heard and the calibration value is automatically stored.
- Continue to press the transducers against the calibration rod:
-The unit now switches to the measurement image and forms a check
measurement.
The calibration is thus complete.

Fig. 5.7 Calibration

5.2.4. Procedure of measurement

a) Direct and semi-direct measurement

1. Determine the measuring points.

2. Measure the distance between the measurement points accurately to 1% of the length,
max. cable length at direct measurement 15 m, distance at indirect measurement 0.1 To
0.5 m, hut for semi-direct measurement 0.2 to 0.6 m.
3. Input settings in the MENU and then press the END key.
4. Apply coupling paste to contact surfaces of the transducers and to the points on the
object to be measured (thin coat for fine concrete surface, thicker coat for rough surface).
5. Press START key.
6. Position transducers exactly on the measurement points and press down.

38
Fig.5.8 Methods for measuring the transmission time

7. Measurement with "Automatic storing" on :

• During the measuring time. only t is displayed. As soon as the measured value is stable
for 3 second, a beep is heard and the pulse velocity is displayed under v. If the R-value
was input under rebound value in the MENU, the strength is displayed under ok.
• The values displayed can be stored by pressing the STORE key. If there is uncertainty
about the measurement, press the START key instead of STORE and repeat the
measurement.

8. Measurement with "Automatic storing" off :

During the measuring time, v and, if R was input, also ok are also displayed in addition to
t. The values can be stored at any time, it being necessary to continue pressing down the
transducers. The STORE key would therefore have to be pressed by a third hand.

b) Indirect method using surface velocity

Fig. 5.9 Surface velocity

39
1. In the SETUPMENU, select "surface velocity" with the START key. The
measurement image Fig.5.9 appears:
2. Measure distances b and 2b on the test object and identify them (b may not be greater
than 250 mm).
3. Input distance b in the unit with the arrow keys.
4. Press the START key, the distance is displayed under b in the measurement image and
at the same time the sound pulses are emitted.
5. Press transducers against the object and measure b. As soon as the measured value is
stable for 3 seconds, a beep is heard and the transmission time is displayed.
6. By pressing the STORE key, the value is stored and the unit is switched to t2 for
measurement.
7. Press transducers over distance 2b. After a stable display for 3 seconds, a beep is
heard, after which the STORE key can be pressed.
8. The surface velocity is now displayed at v.
9. In the event of uncertainties, press the START key instead of STORE and repeat the
measurement.

c) Crack depths (indirect method)

The crack depth can be measured for cracks at right angles to the surface.

Fig.5.10 Determination of crack depth

Measurement process
1. In the SETUP MENU, select "crack depths" with the START key. The measurement
image Fig.5.10 appears:
2. Measure distances b and 2b on the test object and identify (The distance b may not be
chosen greater than 125 mm.).
3. Input distance b on the unit with arrow keys.
4. Press the START key: the distance is displayed under b in the measurement image, at
the same time the sound pulses are emitted.
5. Press transducers on the object and carry out measurement b to b: as soon as the
measurement value is stable for 3 seconds, a beep is heard and the transmission time is
displayed as t1.
6. By pressing the STORE key, the value is stored and the unit is switched to t2 for the
measurement. The transmission time t2 must be less than twice t1, otherwise no crack
depth calculation is performed

40
7. Press transducers to distance 2b. After a stable display for 3 seconds, a beep is heard
after which the STORE key is pressed.
8. The crack depth is now displayed at c.
9. If there is uncertainty as to whether the measurement has been correctly performed, the
START key should be pressed again instead of the STORE key and the measurement
repeated.

5.2.5. Observations / Data output

a) Direct readout
The measured values can be called up from the memory by means of the cursor up-down
keys and can be shown on the display. When the memory is full, the oldest values are
overwritten.

Table 5.2 Compressive strength through direct and semi-direct method

Sl.No / Length, l Time, t Velocity, v Strength, fck
sp. identity (m) (µs) m/s (N/mm2)
1
2
3
4

Table 5.3 Surface velocity observation

Sl.No / Length, b Time, t1 Time, t2 Velocity, v
identity (m) (µs) (µs) m/s
1
2
3
4

Table 5.4 Crack depth detection

Sl.No / Length, b Time, t1 Time, t2 Crack depth, c
identity (m) (µs) (µs) mm
1
2
3
4

b) Using RS232 interface to PC

Under WINDOWS, the data are transferred in EXCEL format Fig.5.11 to a PC with the
aid of the terminal program.

41
Fig.5.11 Data presentation

5.2.6. Result
Compressive strength of concrete = N/mm2
Average surface velocity using surface tests = m/s
Crack depth = mm

5.2.7. Inference

5.3. DETECTION OF REINFORCEMENTS INSIDE HARDENED CONCRETE

5.3.1 Aim
a. Locating rebars inside hardened concrete
b. Measuring concrete covers
c. Determining the bar diameters

5.3.2 Apparatus
Rebar locator PROFOMETER 5, standard test panel

The rebar locator is used for the locating of rebars non-destructively and for the
measurement of concrete cover and bar diameters. The measuring method is based on the
eddy-current principle with pulse-induction. The rebar locator shown in figure 5.12
consists of two parts viz. display unit and Universal probe

Universal Probe: The universal probe is most sensitive to the rebars parallel to its
longitudinal axis, and least sensitive to bars at right angles to its longitudinal axis. For
this reason the probe should be positioned parallel to the bars to be tested and moved over
them sideways for scanning.

The probe has both a small and a large measuring range. Use the horizontal arrow keys to
switch over between the two measuring ranges. The active measuring range is displayed
in the measuring display (Fig. 5.5).

42
 Display
unit

Standard
test panel

Universal
probe

Fig. 5.12 Rebar locator PROFOMETER 5

5.3.3 Setting up and working

1. Connecting the Components: Connect the universal probe to input A of display unit.
2. Putting the Display Unit into Operation :
• Press the ON/OFF key.
The following data is briefly displayed:
- Instrument model
- Instrument serial no.
- Installed software version
- Whether automatic self-test is O.K.
- Remaining battery life
3. Press the MENU key to display the main menu (Fig. 5.13):
• Enter the bar diameter (If the bar diameter is unknown, enter 16 mm.)
• Enter the object number (for storing data).
• Enter Limit value (set the limit value to "0” ).
• Enter the bar spacing under the menu option "Neigh.Bar Corr." if the correction
is required.
• Select the language of the display texts.
• Enter basic Setups:
In the basic settings, the following settings are possible:
- Unit (mm or inch)
- Probe
- Audible locating aid: (Short) beep tone or variotone

43
Figure 5.13 Main menu

4 Select the "Measure w. Statistic" function. Press the START/RESET key.

The measuring display (Fig 5.14) appears:

Figure 5.14 Measuring display "Statistic"

5. RESET process : Hold the probe in the air and press the START/RESET key. The
RESET process is completed when the symbol for the small or large measuring range
appears and "0" is displayed as current value and signal value. Repeat this check
procedure from time to time.

5.3.4 Measuring Process

1. Locating the rebars and measuring the concrete cover and bar diameter

• Move the probe from a starting position in one direction. Observe the locating aids:
current concrete cover, flow bar, (short) beep, variotone, signal value. As long as the flow
bar moves to the right, the probe is approaching a rebar. If the flow bar stops moving, the

44
probe is directly over the rebar axis. If the centerline of the probe has overshot the rebar
axis somewhat, acoustic and visual indication is given in the "beep" setting by a short
beep and by "—" in the "Current cover" display field. At the same time, the flow bar
moves to the left and the cover is temporarily stored in the field "Memo".

• When having activated the audible locating aid "Variotone" ("MENU" -*• "Basic
Setups" -*• "Audible locating aid"), the audio frequency increases as the probe
approaches a rebar. In this operation mode the cover of the scanned rebar is also
temporarily stored in the field "Memo".

• The bar direction can be detected by moving the probe in the direction of its
longitudinal axis along the rebar. Make sure that the signal value and the current cover
remain as constant as possible,

• To store the measured values, select an object number in the menu.

• Press the PRINT/STORE key to store the measured value shown in the field "Memo".

2. Detecting Insufficient Concrete Cover

With a preselected limit value, the probe can be moved at a maximum search speed of 0.2
m/s without having to watch the display. If the current cover displayed is less than the
limit value, an acoustic alarm sounds. When the probe is over the bar,"—" is indicated in
the "Current concrete cover" display field.

5.3.5. Observations / Data output

Sl.No Bar diameter Clear cover Direction of Remarks

(mm) (mm) bar
1
2
3
4
5

5.3.6. Result

45
6. PHOTOELASIC EXPERIMENT

6.1 Aim:
To study the working of a plane polariscope and to conduct simple experiments on
photoelastic models to study isoclinic and isochromatic fringes.

6.2 Apparatus:
Plane polariscope, Tension model and beam model.

Plane polariscope: The plane polariscope is a simple optical system used in

photoelasticity; it consists of two polarizers and a light source arranged as shown in
Fig.6.1

Loading frame

Light source

Polarizer

Analyser

Gear system

Figure 6.1 Plane Polariscope

The light source can generate both monochromatic light and white light. In front of the
light source a linear polarizer called polarizer is placed while the second linear polarizer
is called analyzer. The optic axis of polarizer and analyzer are kept crossed in a dark field
setup. The polarizer-analizer combination can be turned to any desired angle using a gear
system. The photoelastic model is fixed in a loading frame in between the polarizer and
analyzer. Using lever system desired load values can be applied in the model, which is
viewed through the analyzer during experiment.

Tensile specimen: A standard test specimen for photoelastic experiment is shown in Fig
6.2. The model can be used for calibrating the photo elastic model material.

Beam specimen : A standard beam specimen used for photoelastic experiment is shown
in Fig. 6.2. This model can also be used for calibration

46
 Tension specimen

Beam specimen

Fig. 6.2 Photoelastic models

6.3 Principle
In the photoelastic experiments principle stress directions and stress values are
determined by observing two types of fringes developed in the model during experiment.
The fringes giving the direction of principal stress is called isoclinic and the fringes
giving the principal stress difference values in various load level is called isochromatic
fringes. For both models used in this experiment, minor principal stress σ2 is zero and
hence the isochromatic fringe order gives the major principal stress σ1. The stress-optic
relation and the light transmitted by plane polariscope is explained in ‘Experimental
stress analysis” by Dally and Riley.

6.3 Procedure
• Place the tension specimen in the loading frame
• Apply a known tensile load in the specimen through lever system using dead weights
• The white light source is switched on
• Observe the specimen through the analyzer; a dark field can be observed
• As the principal stress direction is lying in the optical axis direction of polarizer;
isoclinic passing through all points in the model and which remains dark
• To observe isochromatic fringes, the isoclinic fringes are to be removed
• Isoclinic can be removed by turning the polarizer-analyzer assembly through 450.
• Isochromatics are visible in the field of view as coloured escaping fringes with varying
load levels
• Experiment can be repeated for beam model

6.4 Observations

Prepare diagrams of Isoclinic and isochromatic fringes at one load level.

47