Digital Electronics PDF

ASIC Design Flow
Sivakumar P R
Founder and CEO
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Maven Silicon Confidential
Specification Floor Planning
Architecture Placement
Behavioral Model Clock Tree Synthesis Timing

Not OK
RTL Coding Routing
Bugs
Verification Static Timing Analysis
Synthesis Physical Layout
Gate Level Simulation Design Rule Check
DFT Insertion Layout Vs Schematic
GDSII
To foundry
Digital Electronics
Sivakumar P R
Founder and CEO
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Course Agenda
 Introduction  Combinational Logic Circuits

 Number Systems & Codes  Design Procedure
 Conversion Techniques
 Delays in combinational circuits
 Signed Numbers
 Adders & Subtractors
 Arithmetic Operations
 Encoders & Decoders
 Codes
 Logic Circuits & Boolean Algebra  Multiplexer & Demultiplexer.
 Logic Gates  Implementation of Boolean
 Boolean Algebra functions using Multiplexers.
 NAND & NOR Circuits  Tristate Buffers.

 Logic Minimization & K-Map
 Don’t care Conditions
Course Agenda
 Sequential Logic Circuits  Finite State Machines

 Latches  Mealy Machine
 Flipflops
 Moore Machine
 Delays in Sequential Circuits
 Glitches & Hazards
 Registers
 Definition
 Buffer & Shift Registers
 Counters  Elimination of Hazards
 Classification  Memories
 Modulus of a counter  Classification of memories.
 Counter Design Process  Basic Concepts of Memories
 Frequency division
 Composition of memories.
 Shift register Counters
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Number Systems
Agenda
Binary, Decimal, Octal and Hexa Decimal Number

Number system Conversions
Signed Numbers
Sign Magnitude Representation
Complement Representation
Arithmetic Operations using Complement number system.
Codes
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Number Systems
What is Number System?
It can be defined as the Language of Numbers
Each Language contains different set of symbols for representation
of numbers.
The most commonly used number systems are
Decimal Number System.
Binary Number System.
Octal Number System. Radix or Base
Hexa Decimal Number System.
Number Systems
Decimal Number System
Example : 12495 (10)
Binary Number System

Example :
Octal Number System

Example : 71245 (8)
Hexa Decimal Number System
9ABD5 (16)
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Number system conversions
Any radix to Decimal number system
No. of digits to the left of the radix point.
Value of the number
Radix of the number system
No. of digits to the right of the radix point.

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Binary to Decimal Conversion

d-1d-2
1010.01 (2)
d3d2d1d0
In this case,
p = No. of digits to the left of the radix point
n = No. of digits to the right of the radix point
d = Value of the number
r = Radix of the number system = 2
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Decimal to other number system
Integer part of Decimal number
Successive Division
by Required Radix number
Fractional part of Decimal number

Successive Multiplication
by Required Radix number
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125 (10) = ? (2)
Successive division
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Successive multiplication
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Binary to Octal
Appending ‘ 0’s ’ at
MSB position of integer
part, doesn’t change
the value of the
3 5 3 number.
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Binary to Hexa
Appending ‘ 0’s at MSB position

of integer part & Appending ‘ 0’s
at LSB position in the fraction
part of the number, doesn’t
1 D 6 change the value of the number.
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Octal to Binary
100 111 110 101 100 011
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Hexa to Binary
1010 1101 1110 0101 0100 1100
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Signed Numbers
Schemes to represent the signed numbers

Sign – Magnitude Representation
Complement Representation
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Sign – Magnitude Representation
MSB is used as sign bit & the other bits represents the magnitude.
Example:
Range of the n bit signed magnitude integer :
Shortcomings:
• Complex Circuits 00000 +0
• Two representations for 0 10000 -0
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Complement Representation
1’s complement - Complementing all bits
Example :
2’s complement - Add 1 to 1’s complement.

Example :
Easy Method to get 2’s Complement Start from LSB and use the
same digits until, you come
across ‘1’ and complement
the remaining bits.
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2’s Complement for Binary Arithmetic
Addition Subtraction
Key Points
For Subtraction, Take 2’s
Complement of the negative
number and add it with the other
number.
Carry 1 indicates positive number
Carry 0 indicates negative number.
2’s complement of 1101 is 0011
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Complement Number system
System Base Possible complement systems

Binary 2 1’s comp & 2’s comp
Decimal 10 9’s comp & 10’s comp
Octal 8 7’s comp & 8’s comp
Hexa 16 15’s comp & 16’s comp

Unknown n (n-1)’s comp & n’s comp
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Arithmetic using Complement System
‘77’ is the maximum

2 digit octal number
Additional Carry (if any) has to be

discarded.
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Arithmetic using Complement System
If the additional carry is not ‘FF’ is the

generated, It indicates that maximum 2 digit
the result is a negative hexa number
number.
To get the magnitude of

result, 16’s complement has
to be calculated for the
sum obtained.
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Codes
Symbolic representation
Types of codes
Weighted binary codes.
Non-weighted codes.
Alphanumeric codes.
Error detecting codes.
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Weighted Binary Codes

Decimal 8421 5421 2421
0 0000 0000 0000
1 0001 0001 0001
BCD Code
2 0010 0010 0010
3 0011 0011 0011
4 0100 0100 0100
5 0101 1000 1011
6 0110 1001 1100
7 0111 1010 1101
8 1000 1011 1110
9 1001 1100 1111
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Non – Weighted Codes
Non –weighted codes are not positional weighted.
Example : Decimal Binary Gray
0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
Gray Code 4 0100 0110
• The no. of bit changes is only one
5 0101 0111
between two consecutive numbers
• Used in low power applications 6 0110 0101
7 0111 0100
8 1000 1100
9 1001 1101
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Binary and Gray code Conversion

Binary to Gray code Conversion
XOR XOR XOR XOR
Gray to Binary code Conversion
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ASCII
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
0 NUL SOH STX ETX EOT ENQ ACK BEL BS HT LF VT EF CR SO SI
1 DLE DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4 NAK SYN ETB CAN EM SUB ESC FS GS RS US
2 ! -- # $ % & . ( ) * + , - . /
3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : : < = > ?
4 @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
5 P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ / ] ^ _
6 . a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o
7 p q r s t u v w x y z { l } ~ DEL
The code uses 7 bits to encode 128 unique characters

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Other codes
Parity codes - Parity bits for detection of errors.

Hamming code is for correcting the errors.
Hollerith code.
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)
ASCII Redefined with 8 bits to represent 256 different characters.
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Logic Circuits
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Agenda
Logic gates
Boolean Algebra
NAND and NOR Circuits
Logic Minimisation
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Logic Gates
NOT gate (Inverter) Truth Table of NOT gate
A(I/P) Y(O/P)
A Y=A
0 1
1 0
AND gate Truth Table of AND gate

A A B Y(O/P)
Y = A.B
B 0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
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Logic Gates
OR gate Truth Table of OR gate
A A B Y(O/P)
Y=A+B
B 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
NAND gate Truth Table of NAND gate
A B Y(O/P)
A
A.B 0 0 1
B
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Logic Gates
NOR gate Truth Table of NOR gate
A B Y(O/P)
A
A + B 0 0 1
B
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
XOR gate Truth Table of XOR gate
A B Y(O/P)
A
A + B 0 0 0
B
=AB+AB 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Properties of XOR Gate
A B EXOR
Vcc
A A A B
B B
Inverter
Buffer
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Properties of XOR Gate
A B EXOR
Since, the total no. of 1’s in inputs and output is even. So, we can consider it as Even
Parity Generator.
Since, No. of 1’s in inputs, is odd. Output has become 1. So, we can consider it as odd
parity detector.
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Logic Gates
EXNOR gate Truth Table of EXNOR gate
A A B Y(O/P)
A + B
B 0 0 1
=AB+AB 0 1 0
Can be called
1 0 0
as Equality 1 1 1
Gate
Output is complement of EXOR gate.
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Boolean Algebra
(T1) X+0=X (T1') X . 1 = X
(T2) X+1=1 (T2') X . 0 = 0
(T3) X+X=X (T3') X . X = X
(T4) (X') ' = X
(T5) X + X' = 1 (T5') X . X' = 0
(T6) X + Y = Y +X (T6') X . Y = Y .X;

(T7) X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z (T7') X . (Y . Z) = (X . Y) . Z
(T8) X . Y + X . Z = X . (Y +Z) (T8') (X + Y) . (X + Z) = X + (Y . Z)
(T9) X + X . Y = X (T9') X . (X + Y) = X
(T10) X . Y + X . Y' = X (T10') (X + Y) . (X + Y') = X
(T11) X . Y + Y . Z + X'. Z = X . Y +X' . Z

(T11') (X + Y) . (Y + Z) . (X'+ Z) = (X + Y) . (X' + Z)
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Boolean Algebra
Expression Dual of the Expression
Famous De Morgan Rules Dual of the Expression
Consensus Theorem Dual of the Expression
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Proof for Consensus Theorem
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Gate Equivalents
De Morgan’s rules.
A A A+B A.B
A.B
B B
A A A.B A+B
A + B
B B
A A A+B A.B
A.B
B B
A A A.B A+B
A+B
B B
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Complement
The complement of a function F is denoted by F' or F
DeMorgan's theorems to compute the complement of a function.
Another way of finding Complement function
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Logic Circuit from function

Implement the function using Logic Gates.
A
A AB
D CD
D
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Function from circuit
Determine the output function from the given circuit.
A
A A + B = A.B
B
AB .CD
C = AB+CD
D = A+B+C+D
CD
D
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SOP & POS

Any Boolean function can be expressed in two different standard
forms.
 Sum Of Products (SOP),
 Product Of Sums (POS).
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SOP
A B C Y(O/P)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
To get Complement, Write
1 1 0 1 only the leftout Terms
1 1 1 0
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POS
A B C Y(O/P)
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 To get Complement,
1 1 0 0 Write only the left out
Terms
1 1 1 1
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Positive Logic Vs Negative Logic
Positive Logic Negative Logic
Voltage Logical Voltage Logical

Level Value Level Value
LOW 0 LOW 1
HIGH 1 HIGH 0
A B Y A B Y
0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0
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SOP Vs POS
Truth Table
SOP
+ ve Logic NAND Circuit
Truth Table
POS
- ve Logic NOR Circuit
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Universal Logic Elements
NAND & NOR Gate - Universal Logic Elements

Any Boolean Expression can be realized using these gates alone .
NAND Gate NOR Gate

A A
A.B A + B
B B
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NAND Vs NOR
NAND NOR
NAND - Faster and Smaller

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SOP - NAND Gates
Step 1: Implement the Logic Step 2: Replace the intermediate

Circuit Normally. connecting wires with a pair of inverters
connected in cascade.
A`
B A`
B B
C B
A` C
C A`
C
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SOP - NAND Gates
Notice the fact that a pair of inverters in cascade doesn’t alter the functionality
Step 3: Replace bubbled OR gate

with NAND Gate.
A`
B
B
C
Now, the logic circuit
A` consists of NAND gates only
C
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SOP - NOR Gates
Step 1: Implement the Logic Step 2: Replace the Input & Output
Circuit Normally. wires with a pair of inverters connected
in cascaded.
Notice the fact that inputs are also

toggled to retain the functionality.
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SOP - NOR Gates
Step 3: replace the bubbled AND Gates at the inputs with NOR
Gate& replace the Inverter with 2 i/p NOR Gate with both the
i/p’s shorted.
A
B`
B`
C`
A consists of NOR gates only
C`
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POS - NOR Gates
Step 1: Implement the Logic Step 2: Replace the intermediate

Circuit Normally. connecting wires with a pair of inverters
connected in cascade.
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POS - NOR Gates
Notice the fact that a pair of inverters in cascade doesn’t alter the functionality
Step 3: Replace bubbled AND gate

with NOR Gate.
A`
B
B
C
A` Now, the logic circuit
consists of NOR gates only
C
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POS - NAND Gates
Step 1: Implement the Logic Step 2: Replace the Input & Output
Circuit Normally. wires with a pair of inverters connected
in cascaded.
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POS - NAND Gates
Step 3: replace the bubbled OR Gates at the inputs with NAND

Gate& replace the Inverter with 2 i/p NAND Gate with both the
i/p’s shorted.

consists of NAND gates only
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Implement the function
X + X’Y = X + Y
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Logic Minimization
Advantages of Logic Minimization
Less no. of gates for implementation.
Size of the circuit will be less.
Less amount of power consumption.
More speed of operation of the Logic Circuuit.
A major step in digital design
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Logic Minimization
Minimize the following expression
C
Y=C
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Logic Minimization
Minimize the following expression
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Karnaugh Map
CD
AB 00 01 11 10 These cells marked with a
specific numbers to
00 0000 0001 0011 0010 represent the corresponding
minterm or maxterm
0 1 3 2
01 0100 0101 0111 0110

4 5 7 6 Two adjacent cells are differed
by only one digit
11 1100 1101 1111 1110
12 13 15 14
because of the usage of gray
code
10 1000 1001 1011 1010

8 9 11 10
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Karnaugh Map
2 Variable 3 Variable 4 Variable

K- Map K- Map K- Map
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0
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Karnaugh Map
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
Depending on the grouping,

multiple solutions are possible.
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
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Karnaugh Map
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
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Karnaugh Map - POS
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
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Karnaugh Map
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
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Don’t Care Conditions
An input-output conditions that never occurs during normal

operation.
It is indicated by ' X ' in the truth table.
It can be either 0 or 1 , whichever produces simpler logic circuit.
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Don’t Care Conditions
0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 X 0 X
0 0 1 X
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K Map Example
Design a circuit for the following output waveforms.
Inputs Outputs
A Time
A B C Fa Fb
B t0 0 0 0 0 0
t1 0 0 1 1 1
C
t2 0 1 0 1 0
t3 0 1 1 0 1
fa (A, B, C)
t4 1 0 0 0 0
t5 1 0 1 0 1
fb (A, B, C)
t6 1 1 0 1 1
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7
t7 1 1 1 1 0
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K Map Example
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
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Combinational Circuits - I
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Agenda
Design of combinational circuits

Delays in Combinational Circuits
Adders & Subtractors
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Digital Logic Circuits
Classification of Logic Circuits
Logic Circuits whose output is completely dependent on the combination

of inputs.
Logic Circuits whose output is dependent on the combination of inputs

and past state of the circuit.
discussed in the later chapters.
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Combinational Logic Circuits

Block Diagram of Combinational Circuits
Steps to Design
Understand Problem description and Draw the Block Diagram with
I/P & O/P lines.
Define the truth table based on the functionality.
Get the simplified expression.
Implement the Logic circuit.
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Combinational Logic Design
Design a combinational circuit with the
specifications given below.
A switching circuit has two control inputs (C1,C2),two data inputs
(X1,X2) and one output (Z). The circuit performs one of the logic
operations on the two data inputs. The function performed depends on
the control inputs as shown below
C1
C1 C2 Operation
C2 0 0 OR
Combinational Z
0 1 EXOR
Logic Circuit
X1 1 0 AND
X2 1 1 EQU
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Truth Table
C1 C2 X1 X2 Output (Z)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0
OR
C1 C2 Operation 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 0 OR
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 EXOR
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 AND
0 1 1 0 1
EXOR
1 1 EQU
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
AND
With 4 input lines, 16 1 0 1 1 1
combinations of i/p’s are 1 1 0 0 1
possible. 1 1 0 1 0
EXNOR
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
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Minimization
0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
Possible groupings:
Z = C1'X1'X2 + C1'X1X2' + C1X1X2 + C1'C2' X2 + C1C2X1'X2'
0 0 1 0
Z = C1'X1'X2 + C1'X1X2' + C1C2X1'X2' + C1X1X2 + C1'C2'X1
Z = C1'X1'X2 + C1'X1X2' + C1C2X1'X2' + C1X1X2 + C2'X1X2
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Implementation
Implementation with
NAND Gates only.
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RTL Design
Clock Period T = Thold + Tpd + T setup
Frequency = 1 / T
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Contamination Delay ( Tcd ) Propagation Delay ( Tpd )
The amount of time needed for The amount of time needed for
a change in a logic input to a change in a logic input to
result in an initial change at an result in a permanent change
output. at an output.
I/P O/P
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Using the following table of timing specifications for each component, what
is the TPD value for the circuit shown below?
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Gate Tcd Tpd
30
30 INV 3ps 15ps
15
50 ND2 5ps 30ps
AN2 12ps 50ps
50 NR2 5ps 30ps
OR2 12ps 50ps
Tpd 90 105 110 80

NR2, INV, AN2, OR2, 110ps is the maximum delay. So,
NR2, NR2, NR2, ND2 the Tpd of this circuit is 110ps.
ND2 NR2, ND2
ND2 www.maven-silicon.com 87
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RTL Design
Com Com
Inte
IP 1 IP 2
Comb
IP 3
Clock Period T = Thold + Tpd + T setup
Frequency = 1 / T
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Adders & Subtractors
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Adders – Half Adders

Specifications of Half Adder
Adds 2 bits - A,B & produces Sum & Carry as Outputs
Block Diagram, Truth Table, Boolean Expressions

A B Carry Sum
A Sum 0 0 0 0
Half Adder 0 1 0 1
B Carry 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
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Adders – Half Adders
Specifications of Half Adder
Adds 2 bits - A,B & produces Sum & Carry as Outputs
Circuit Digram
A
B Sum
Carry
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Adders – Full Adders

Specifications of Full Adder
Adds 3 bits - A,B & Carry-in and produces Sum & Carry-out as
Outputs
A B Cin Cout Sum
0 0 0 0 0
A Sum
0 0 1 0 1
B Full Adder 0 1 0 0 1
Cout 0 1 1 1 0
Cin
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
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Implementation of Full Adder
Boolean Expressions
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Sum = AB’C’ + A’B’C + ABC + A’BC’ Cout = AB + BC + AC
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Implementation of Full Adder

Logic Circuit
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Another Version
Cout = A.B + B.C + A.C

= AB + A’BC + ABC + AB’C + ABC
= AB (1+ C + C) + C (A’B + AB’)
= AB + C(A ^ B)
A
B
HA Sum
HA
C
Implementation of full adder using Carry
Two half adders & OR Gate. www.maven-silicon.com 95
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4-bit Adder
1 1 0 C2 C1 C0
10 1 0 1 0 A A3 A2 A1 A0
+7 + 0 1 1 1 +B + B3 B2 B1 B0
17 1 0 0 0 1 Cout S3 S2 S1 S0
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Delays in a 4-bit Adder
• Carry is propagated as a ripple from one stage to other stage. So,

this adder is called as “ripple carry adder”
• In this adder, the addition process in each stage is waiting for the
carry to be arrived from the previous stage of addition.
• So, the propagation delay of this adder is 4 times the Tpd of each
adder. Hence, this adder is slow.
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Delays in a 4-bit Adder
• To make the addition process much faster, we need to make the

process of addition independent on the previous stage addition.
• Carry Look Ahead Adder is an adder in which, addition process
in each stage is carried out without having a dependency on the
previous stage.
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4-bit Carry Look Ahead Adder
Truth Table of Full Adder
A B Cin C-out Sum
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
A + B generates carry, if and only if
0 1 0 0 1
both A and B are 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 A + B propagates carry, if either
1 1 0 1 0 one of A or B is 1
1 1 1 1 1
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100
All sum & carry expressions are So, these expressions can be used to
independent of any carry from the realize the hardware of the adder to
previous stage. improve the speed.
101
Carry Look Ahead Logic

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102
Subtractors – Half Subtractor
Specifications of Half Subtractor
Subtracts B from A & produces Difference & Borrow as Outputs

A B Borrow Diff
A Diff 0 0 0 0
Half 0 1 1 1
Subtractor
B Borrow 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
103
Subtractors – Half Subtractor

Specifications of Half Subtractor
Subtracts B from A & produces Difference & Borrow as Outputs
Circuit Diagram
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Adders – Full Subtractor
Specifications of Full Subtractor
Subtracts B and Borrow-in from A

B-in
A B Borrow Diff
(C)
A Diff
0 0 0 0 0
Full 0 0 1 1 1
B
Subtractor Borrow 0 1 0 1 1
Bin 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
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Another Version
Borrow = A’.B + A’.C + B.C

= A’B + A’BC + A’B’C +A’BC + ABC
= A’B (1+ C + C) + C (A’B’ + AB)
= A’B + C(A ^ B)’
A
B
HS Diff
HS
C
Implementation of full Subtractor
using Borrow
Two half subtractors & OR Gate. www.maven-silicon.com 106
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106
Adder Subtractor Circuit
A+B A+B A+ B +0
A- B A + 2’s Comp(B) A + 1’s Comp(B) + 1
107
Adder Subtractor Circuit

A+B A+B A+ B +0
A- B A + 2’s Comp(B) A + 1’s Comp(B) + 1
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108
Combinational Circuits - II
109
Agenda
Encoder & Decoder

Mux & DeMux
Tristate Buffer
55
110
Encoders
Encoders
Converts Human understandable into machine understandable
codes
Assigns a binary code to an active input line.
One hot to binary converter,
Produces n no. of outputs when there is 2^n no. of inputs,
At most only one of the inputs will ever be high, the binary code
of this 'hot' line is produced
111
4:2 Encoder
D0 Y0 D3 D2 D1 D0 Y1 Y0
D1 0 0 0 1 0 0
4: 2 Encoder 0 0 1 0 0 1
D2
0 1 0 0 1 0
D3 Y1 1 0 0 0 1 1
Outputs the binary value

of the active input
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112
Decimal to Binary Encoder
Specifications
Take 10 keys as Decimal inputs & produce 4 bit Binary
Output based on the input key What if more than one input is active?
What if no inputs are active?
Block Diagram, Truth Table
D9 D8 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Remaining Combinations X X X X
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Priority Encoder
Priority Encoders
Assign priorities to the inputs when more than one input are
asserted simultaneously,
Highest priority input is taken into account to produce the
binary output.
At least any one of the input line should be active, to make the
encoder valid. A ‘valid’ indicator, is included to indicate the
same.
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8:3 Priority Encoder
Priority to higher order inputs.
D7 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Y2 Y1 Y0 Valid
D6 Y2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X 0
D5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Y1
D4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 X 0 0 1 1
8:3 Priority Y0
0 0 0 0 0 1 X X 0 1 0 1
D3 Encoder
0 0 0 0 1 X X X 0 1 1 1
D2
0 0 0 1 X X X X 1 0 0 1
D1
V 0 0 1 X X X X X 1 0 1 1
D0
0 1 X X X X X X 1 1 0 1
1 X X X X X X X 1 1 1 1
115
ASCII Encoder
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
0 NUL SOH STX ETX EOT ENQ ACK BEL BS HT LF VT EF CR SO SI
1 DLE DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4 NAK SYN ETB CAN EM SUB ESC FS GS RS US
2 ! -- # $ % & . ( ) * + , - . /
3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : : < = > ?
4 @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
5 P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ / ] ^ _
6 . a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o
7 p q r s t u v w x y z { l } ~ DEL
The code uses 7 bits to encode 128 unique characters

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Decoders
Covert Machine understandable into Human understandable codes
Convert binary information from n input signals to 2n unique
output signals
used in a wide variety of applications, including data
demultiplexing, seven segment displays, and memory address
decoding.
117
2:4 Decoder
D1 D0 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0
Possible minterms
of D1 and D0
With N to 2N Decoder,
N Variable function can
be implemented
www.maven-silicon.com 118 59
118
Decoders with Active High & Low O/P with Enable inputs.
Decoder with Active HIGH Output & active HIGH Enable

En D1 D0 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0
0 X X X X X X
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Generates all
possible
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
minterms
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0
Decoder with Active LOW Output & Active LOW Enable

En D1 D0 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0
1 X X X X X X
Generates all
0 0 0 1 1 1 0
Possible
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 maxterms
0 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 1
119
BCD-to-Seven Segment Decoder
1
1
0
BCD to
7-segment Display 1
Decoder 1
0
1
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Circuit Design using Decoders
Any combinational circuit with n inputs and m outputs can be

implemented with an n-to-2n decoder with m OR gates because
decoder with active HIGH output produces all possible minterms.
Similarly, Any combinational circuit with n inputs and m outputs

can be implemented with an n-to-2n decoder with m AND gates
because decoder with active LOW output produces all possible
maxterms.
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Fulladder using Decoders

Realize a full adder using a 3 to 8 decoder using Active
HIGH output decoder.
m0
A MSB m1
m2
Sum
m3
B 3:8 Decoder m
4
m5
Cin LSB m6
m7
Carry
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Boolean Functions using Decoders
Implement the following function using an active LOW

output decoder.
For implementing any function using active low
output decoder, the function should be in canonical
POS form
m0
A MSB m1
Y
m2
m3
B 3:8 Decoder m
4
m5
C LSB m6
m7
123
MUX & DeMUX
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Multiplexer (MUX)
Logic Symbol & Functionality
Single output line
I0
One of the data input is routed to
I1 o/p
‘2n’ no. of the output based on the select
MUX
inputs signals.
I2n-1
‘n’ no. of
Select lines
125
2:1 MUX
Truth Table
I0 S0 I1 I0 O/P
o/p 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 O/P same
I1 0 1 0 0 as I0
0 1 1 1
S0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 O/P same
Functional Table 1 1 0 1 as I1
1 1 1 1
S0 O/P
0 I0
1 I1
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126
4:1 MUX
Functional Table
I0
S1 S0 O/P
o/p
I1 0 0 I0
I2 0 1 I1
I3
1 0 I2
1 1 I3
S1 S0
Expression for output
127
MUX – Universal Logic

Similar to NAND & NOR, MUX can also be used to realize any
Boolean Function.
MUX – Universal Logic Block
Functions are in Canonical Form - Use truth tables

Not in Canonical Form – Use Shannon’s Expression.
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128
MUX – Universal Logic
129
Implementing Logic Gates using MUX

MUX as NOT gate
If input is A, then output should be complement of A.
A O/P (Y) 1
0 1 I0 A’
0
1 0 I1 A
Outputs as
Input Signal as
Data Inputs
Select Signal
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130
MUX as AND gate
0
II00
0 o/p
II11
0
II22
A B O/P (Y)
1
0 0 0 II33 S0
I0 = 0 S1
0 1 0
1 0 0 A B
I1 = B
1 1 1 0
AB
B
A
131
NOT gate AND gate
OR gate
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132
NAND gate NOR gate
EXOR gate EXNOR gate
133
Circuit Design Using MUX
Implement the following function using 16:1 MUX

A B C D Y
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 Since, the no. of literals in the
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1
expression & the no. of select lines is 4,
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
all the input literals can be used as
0 1 1 0 1 select lines.
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0
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Function Implementation Using MUX
A B C D Y
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0
135
Implement using 8:1 MUX
A B C D Y
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
I0 = D
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1
I1 = 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
I2 = 0
0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
I3 = 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
I4 = D
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
I5 = 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
I6 = D
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0
I7 = D’
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136
Implement Using 4: 1 MUX
A B C D Y
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1
I0 = C +D
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
I1 = C
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
I2 = C’D
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
I3 = C ^D
1 1 1 1 0
137
MUX - Shannon’s Expression

2: 1 MUX Expression for the output
Known as Shannon’s
Expression for 2:1 MUX
1. Bring this expression into the form of

Shannon’s Expression.
2. Then draw using 2:1 MUX
3. You can learn this in detail during
Advance Digital course
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138
Hierarchical Design
Several issues arise when designing large multiplexers(as 2-level circuits).
• Number of logic gates gets prohibitively large
• Number of inputs to each logic gate (i.e. fan-in) gets prohibitively large
Instead, design hierarchically

• Use smaller elements as building blocks
• Interconnect building blocks in a multi-tier structure
139
4:1 MUX using 2:1 MUX

Truth Table
S1 S0 O/P
0 0 I0
Y0
0 1 I1
1 0 I2
Y1
1 1 I3
S1 O/P 1. I0 or I1 can be selected by using a 2:1 MUX using S0

as the select line signal.
0 Y0 2. I2 or I3 can be selected by using another 2:1 MUX
using S0 as the select line signal.
3. Y0 or Y1 can be selected by using another 2:1 MUX
1 Y1 using S1 as the select line signal
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140
8:1 MUX using 4:1 & 2:1 MUX
Truth Table I0 0
S2 S1 S0 O/P
I1 1 Y0
I2 2
0 0 0 I0
0 0 1 I1 I3 3 0
Y0 1 0
0 1 0 I2 Y
S1 S0
0 1 1 I3
1 1
1 0 0 I4 I4 0 0
1 0 1 I5 S2
Y1 I5 1 Y1
1 1 0 I6
I6 2
1 1 1 I7
I7 3
141
Demultiplexer (DeMUX)
Logic Symbol & Functionality
It's operation is just opposite to
that of a Multiplexer.
Depending on the data on the
select lines, the input will be
redirected to any one specific
output line.
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142
1:4 DeMUX
Expression for output

Y0
i/p Y1
Y2
Y3
S1 S0
143
Tristate Buffer
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144
Tri State Buffers
Tristate Buffer with Active HIGH Control
Data I/P C X Carry
(X) O/P 0 0 Z
(Z) 0 1 Z
1 0 0
Control I/P (C)
1 1 1
Tristate Buffer with Active LOW Control

Data I/P C X Carry
(X) O/P 0 0 0
(Z) 0 1 1
1 0 Z
Control I/P (C)
1 1 Z
145
Memory Circuit
WE Mode
0 Switches
1 Counter
WE Mode
0 Write
1 Read
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146
Sequential Logic Circuits - I
147
Agenda
Sequential Logic circuits

Latches
Flipflops
Delays in Sequential Circuits
74
148
Sequential Logic Circuits
‘m’ no. of
inputs Combinational ‘n’ no. of
Logic Circuit outputs
Memory
The output depends on the input & past state of the circuit.
Memory Units
149
Memory units
The above circuit is capable of restoring the data which is

available at instant of power ON condition.
Qn Qn+1
1 1
This indicates that cascaded combination of 2 inverters
0 0 with a feedback connection is capable of storing 1 bit
information.
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150
Logic Circuits as memory units
The cascade connection of 2 inverters with a feedback retains the

past information
And hence it can be considered as a 1-bit memory element or 1-
bit memory cell.
But, there is no input port and hence we don’t have the control over
the data that has to be stored.
Let’s try to modify this circuit and provide i/p ports by which we
can customize the data that is going to be stored in the memory cell.
151
1-bit memory cell

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
If A = 0, then Y = B’.
This states that if one of the input to NOR gate is grounded, then
that NOR gate will act as a NOT gate.
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152
1-bit memory cell
In this memory cell, these two inverters can be replaced with a pair
of NOR gates with one input connected to ground.
In this circuit, the feedback is in such a way that, output of first
inverter is input to the second inverter & output of second inverter
is the input to the first inverter.
153
1-bit memory cell
But, even with modification, there is no

input port and hence we don’t have the
control over the data to be stored.
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154
1-bit memory cell
This is how, RS Latch has been evolved.

Latch is nothing but a one bit memory cell which is capable of retaining
the past state output.
Since, latch is evolved from a cascaded combination of a pair of inverters,
the two outputs of a latch should be always complement to each other.
155
Behaviour of a NOR gate

A B Y
0 0 1
A Y
0 1 0
B
1 0 0
1 1 0
This states that if one of the input to NOR gate is 0, then the output of the
NOR gate will be complement to the remaining input.
This indicates that, if one of the input is 0, then we cannot predict the output
of the NOR gate without having the knowledge of the remaining input.
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156
Behaviour of a NOR gate
A B Y
0 0 1
A Y
0 1 0
B 0
1 0
1 1 0
This states that if one of the input to NOR gate is 1, then the output of the
NOR gate will be always 0 irrespective of the remaining input.
This indicates that, if one of the input is 1, then we can easily predict the
output of the NOR gate without having the knowledge of the remaining input.
157
RS Latch
0 1 R S Q Q’ State
0 1 1 0 Set
0
1
Recollect the fact that, if one of the input The outputs for this input
to NOR is 1, then output will be ‘0’. combination is 1 & 0.
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158
RS Latch
0 1 1 0 Set
0 0 1 0 No Change
0
0
Even though, there is some change

In this case also, the outputs for this
input, the output is same as the
input combination is 1 & 0.
output in the past state
159
RS Latch
0 1 1 0 Set
0 0 1 0 No Change
1 0 0 1 Reset
1
0
Recollect the fact that, if one of the The outputs for this input
input to NOR is 1, then output will be ‘0’. combination is 0 & 1.
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160
RS Latch
0 1 1 0 Set
0 0 1 0 No Change
1 0 0 1 Reset
1 0 0 0 1 No Change
Even though, there is some change

In this case also, the outputs for this
in the input, the output is same as
input combination is 0 & 1.
the output in the past state
161
RS Latch
0 1 1 0 Set
0 0 1 0 No Change
1 0 0 1 Reset
0 0 0 1 No Change
1
0 1 1 0 0 Invalid
Observe what happens if invalid Both the outputs of a latch should be

combination of i/p is followed by no complement to each other. But, in
change combination of input. this case, both the outputs are same.
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162
RS Latch
0 X R S Q Q’ State
0 1 1 0 Set
0 0 1 0 No Change
1 0 0 1 Reset
X 0 0 0 1 No Change
1 1 0 0 Invalid
0
0 0 X X RACE
1. At the o/p terminals, both 1 & 0 will be
Q 1 0 1 0 1 racing with each other even though
there is no change in the i/p .
2. If invalid combination of i/p is
Q’ 1 0 1 0 1 followed by no change combination of
i/p, race around condition occurs.
163
RS Latch
R S Q Q’ State
0 1 1 0 Set
0 0 1 0 No Change
1 0 0 1 Reset
0 0 0 1 No Change
1 1 0 0 Invalid
0 0 - - RACE
1. Since, the Set input is HIGH, output is SET.

2. Since, the Reset input is HIGH, output is RESET.
3. That’s why, RS Latch with NOR Gates is said to be Active HIGH Latch.
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164
RS Latch – NAND Gates
S’ R’ Q Q’ State
0 1 1 0 Set
1 1 1 0 No change
1 0 0 1 Reset
1 1 0 1 No change
0 0 1 1 Invalid
1 1 - - RACE
The only difference is RS Latch with NOR gates is active HIGH Latch
where as RS Latch with NAND gates is active LOW Latch.
In this case, (0 & 0) input combination is an invalid combination of input
and (1 & 1) input combination doesn’t bring any change in the output.
165
Gated RS Latch
1
C S R S’ R’ Q Q’ State
0 X X 1 1 No Change
0
1 0 0 1 1 No Change
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 Reset
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 Set
1 1 1 0 0 - - Invalid
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166
Gated D Latch
C S R S’ R’ Q Q’ State
0 X X 1 1 No Change
1 0 0 1 1 No Change
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 Reset
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 Set
1 1 1 0 0 - - Invalid
C D Q Q’ State
0 X No Change
1 0 0 1 Reset
1 1 1 0 Set
167
Gated D Latch
In Controlled RS Latch, RACE Condition will occur if both inputs

are 1.
In controlled RS Latch, if both the inputs are complement to each
other, the output follows the S input.
So, to avoid RACE conditions, both the inputs must be complement
to each other.
This is how D Latch is constructed.
Output Q follows the input D, said to be transparent Latch.
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168
Master Slave Configuration
169
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170
The output at the final stage will be depending on the input

available at the instant of negative edge.
Master Slave configuration of two latches is treated as a flip flop.
171
Construction of Flipflops
Negative Edge Sensitive flipflop is constructed by using HIGH
level latch as master and LOW level latch as slave.
Positive Edge Sensitive flipflop is constructed by using LOW level

latch as master and HIGH level latch as slave.
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172
SR Flip-flop
Truth Table
Clk S R Q+ State
X X Q No Change
0 0 Q No Change
0 1 0 Reset
1 0 1 Set
1 1 - Invalid
Wave forms Excitation Table

Q Q+ S R
0 0 0 X
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 X 0
173
D Flip-flop
Truth Table
Clk D Q+ State
X Q No Change
0 0 Reset
1 1 Set

Q Q+ D
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
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174
JK Flip-flop
Truth Table
Clk J K Q+ State
X X Q No Change
0 0 Q No Change
0 1 0 Reset
1 0 1 Set
1 1 Q’ Toggle

Q Q+ J K
0 0 0 X
0 1 1 X
1 0 X 1
1 1 X 0
175
T Flip-flop
Truth Table
Clk T Q+ State
X X No Change
0 Q No Change
1 Q` Toggle

Q Q+ T
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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176
Symbols of flipflops
Positive Edge D flipflop Positive Edge RS flipflop
Negative Edge D flipflop Negative Edge RS flipflop
177
Symbols of flipflops
Positive Edge JK flipflop Positive Edge T flipflop
Negative Edge JK flipflop Negative Edge T flipflop
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178
Timing Waveform
Draw the timing waveform for the below components, which receives same
Clk and D input signals.
CLK
QL
Qp
Qn
179
Flipflops with Asynchronous inputs.

The inputs of the flipflops like R, S, D, J, K & T are called
synchronous inputs because, these inputs can bring a change in the
outputs of the flipflops only at the instant of posedge or negedge of
the clock.
So, we need to wait till the instant of posedge or negedge of the
clock to set or reset the flipflop.
Hence, flipflops are provided with a pair of asynchronous inputs
(preset & clear) to make the flipflop set or reset at any instant of
time without waiting for the active edge of the clock signal.
90
180
Flipflops with Asynchronous inputs.
Flipflop with active HIGH Asynchronous Inputs.
Flipflop with active LOW Asynchronous Inputs.
181
Active HIGH Asynchronous inputs.

When preset is HIGH, the flipflop will be driven into set state
without waiting for the posedge of the flipflop.
When clear is HIGH, the flipflop will be driven into reset state
without waiting for the posedge of the flipflop.
For normal operation both the asynchronous inputs must be
connected to ‘0’
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182
Synchronous Clear
183
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184
D2Q Delay : change in input D alone cannot bring a change in the
output . So, D2Q delay is not valid.
Clk2Q Delay : Time taken by the flipflop to provide a stable output
after a clock edge occurs.
R2Q Delay : Time taken by flipflop to come to RESET state after
the application of asynchronous CLEAR input.
S2Q Delay : Time taken by flipflop to come to SET state after the
application of asynchronous PRESET input.
185
Setup & Hold Times

Setup Time : is the minimum time interval for which the input signal
must be stable (unchanging) prior to the sampling event of the clock
for the input signal to be recognized correctly.
Hold Time : is the minimum time interval for which the input signal
must be stable (unchanging) following the sampling event of the
clock for the input signal to be recognized correctly.
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186
Setup & Hold Times
A hold time violation is when a input signal change too quickly, after
the clock's active transition
A setup time violation is when a signal arrives too late, and misses
the time when it should advance.
If the setup or hold time parameters are violated, the output would be
either logic0, logic1 or metastable state (output oscillates between 0
& 1).
Learn this in detail during

advanced course
187
FF Conversions
Learn this during advanced

course
94
188
Sequential Logic Circuits - II
189
Agenda
Registers
Counters
95
190
Registers
Group of many flipflops to store multiple bits of information is

called as “Register”.
Registers can be used to perform the following two different
functions.
Data storing
Data shifting
191
Classification of Registers
Registers can be classified as follows.
Registers
Buffer Registers Shift Registers
Shift Registers are capable

Buffer Registers are capable
of storing the data & Shifting
of storing the data. In these
the data either in LEFT or
registers, the output will be
RIGHT directions.
same as the input at active
edges
96
192
Functionality of a D flipflop
0 0 1 1
193
Buffer Register
holds the 4-bit data
97
194
Serial Shift Registers
Serial In Serial Out ( Right Shift ) Serial In Serial Out ( Left Shift )
Rotate Right Rotate Left
195
Parallel Shift Registers
Serial In Parallel Out Parallel In Serial Out
Parallel In Parallel Out
98
196
SISO Shift Registers
197
SIPO Shift Registers
99
198
PISO Shift Register
0 1 1
1
199
PISO Shift Register
1 0 1
100
200
PIPO Shift Register
201
Bidirectional Shift Registers
101
202
Bidirectional Shift Registers
203
Counters
What is a counter ?
As the name suggests, it counts the no. of clock pulses.
This counting can be done in a
Sequential manner to count the no. of clock pulses.
Random manner to generate a specific sequence.
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204
Classification of Counters
Counters can be classified based on
Clock : Synchronous or Asynchronous
Clock Trigger : Posedge trigger or Negedge trigger.
Counts : Binary, Decade
Count Direction : UP, DOWN, UP-DOWN, RANDOM
Flipflops Used : JK or T or D.
205
Concept of Frequency Division

The output of a +ve edge triggered T-flipflop
toggles at every +ve edge in the clock signal.
And remains constant during the period other
than the instant of +ve edge of the clock.
103
206
Asynchronous counter
3 Bit Asyn Down Counter using +ve edge triggered FF
207
3-bit Asyn. up counter using Posedge triggered T-Flip Flop
104
208
UP/DOWN Counter
209
UP/DOWN Counter
105
210
3-bit Asyn. up counter using Negedge triggered T-Flip Flop
211
3-bit Asyn. down counter using Negedge triggered T-Flip Flop
106
212
Synchronous UP Counter
UP Counting Sequence
Q2 Q1 Q0
Q0 toogles for every cycle.
0 0 0
0 0 1 And Q1 toggles only when Q0
0 1 0 is ‘1’
0 1 1
Q2 toggles only if (Q1 & Q0)
1 0 0
are ‘1’.
1 0 1
1 1 0 Important Point : T FF toggles
1 1 1 only when the T input is ‘1’
0 0 0
213
Q0 toggles for every cycle. So, T0 should be supplied with ‘1’.
Q1 toggles when Q0 is ‘1’ T1 should be supplied with Q0.
Q2 toggles only if (Q1 & Q0) ‘1’

T2 should be supplied with Q0 & Q1
107
214
215
Synchronous DOWN Counter
108
216
Modulus of a Counter
The number of unique states that a counter may have before the
sequence repeats itself is the modulus of the counter.
An UP counter with 3 flipflops counts from 0 to 7 and again repeats
from 0 after 7. So, the no. of states is 8 (i.e., 0 to 7).
So, a counter with ‘n’ no. of flipflops counts from 0 to 2n-1. So, the
Modulus of this counter is 2n.
The output frequency of the last FF of any counter will be the clock
frequency divided by the MOD of the counter.
A T flipflop with T input tied to Vcc acts as divide by 2 counter.
217
Mod-16 Counter
109
218
Frequency Division using Counters
Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3
Clk
Q0
Q1
Q2
Q3
219
Advantages of Syn. Counters over Asyn. Counters.
The outputs of all the flipflops will change simultaneously.

A synchronous counter can operate at much higher frequency, but
the circuitry are more complex than that of the asynchronous
counter.
110
220
Counter Design
Step 1: Derive the State Transition Diagram

Step 2: Draw State Transition Table
Step 3: Choose flip-flop type for implementation
Use Excitation Table to remap Next State Functions
Step 4: Obtain the expressions for input variables of the flipflops in
terms of the present state values.
You will learn during
Step 5: Minimize them using K-maps the advanced course
Step 6: Implement Resulting Logic with the minimised expressions.
221
Counter Design
Design a counter that generates the sequence.
0,2,3,5,6,0,---.
Counter using different 000
ffs are shown here
110 010
101 011
111
222
Comparison
T FFs well suited for straightforward binary counters

But yielded worst gate and literal count for this example
223
Comparison
JK FFs yielded lowest gate count

Tend to yield best choice for packaged logic where gate
count is key
112
224
Comparison
D FFs yield simplest design procedure

Best literal count
D storage devices very much transistor efficient in VLSI
Best choice where area/literal count is the key
225
Shift Register Counter
We are aware of the fact that counters are used for producing a
special sequence of numbers.
Similarly, a shift register with the serial output connected back to
the serial input to produce special sequence.
Two of most common type of shift register counters are :
Ring counter
Johnson counter [ Shift Counter / twisted ring counters].
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Ring Counter
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Ring Counter
Cycle
Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3
Number Modulus of a ‘N’ bit ring
0 1 0 0 0 counter is ‘N’.
1 0 1 0 0
4 Cycles
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 0 1
4 1 0 0 0
5 0 1 0 0
4 Cycles
6 0 0 1 0
7 0 0 0 1 For every 4 clock cycles, this
counter goes into the same set
of states. So, modulus of a 4 bit
ring counter is 4.
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Twisted Ring Counter
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Twisted Ring Counter
Cycle
Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q3‘
Number
0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 1
For every 8 clock cycles, this
2 1 1 1 0 1 counter goes into the same
3 1 1 1 1 0 set of states. So, modulus of
4 0 1 1 1 0 a 4 bit Jhonson counter is 8.
5 0 0 1 1 0
6 0 0 0 1 0
7 0 0 0 0 1 So, modulus of a ‘N’ bit
8 1 0 0 0 1 Jhonson counter is ‘2N’.
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Finite State Machines
231
Agenda
Finite State Machine

Mealy Machine
Moore Machine
Design Examples
Glitches and Hazards
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232
Finite State Machines
Systematic way of specifying any sequential logic

Ideally suited for complex sequential logic.
To specify the sequential circuits which are :
complex in their transition sequence &
depend on several control inputs
Different models in FSM are :
Mealy Model
Moore Model
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Mealy Machines
I/P
next
state
Comb. Logic Seq. Logic for Comb. Logic O/P
for next determining the for the
state I/P Clk state. Output
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234
Moore Machines
I/P
next
state
Comb. Logic Seq. Logic for Comb. Logic O/P
for next determining the for the
state I/P Clk state. Output
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Mealy Vs Moore
Mealy Moore
Output depends on both input & current Output depends only on current state of
state of the circuit. the circuit.
Next state is dependent on both input & Next state is dependent on both input &
current state. current state.
Outputs are Asynchronous. So, glitches Outputs are Synchronous. So, glitches can
can occur. never occur.
Less no. of states. Obviously, less no. of More no. of states. Obviously, more no. of
flipflops are sufficient for implementation. flipflops are required for implementation.
Not safe to use. Safe to use.
Area efficient. Not area efficient.
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Mealy FSM
Glitch free Outputs
May be having some

glitches
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Sequence Detector - FSM Example

Specification
Design a sequence detector that receives binary data stream at its
input, X and signals when a combination '110' arrives at the input by
making its output ,Z high which otherwise remains low.
Consider the first received bit is LSB
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Sequence Detector - Moore
State Meaning
S0 Initial state
S1 0
S2 10
S3 110
S0 S1 S2 S3
www.maven-silicon.com
239
Sequence Detector - Mealy
State Meaning
S0 Initial state
S1 0
S2 10
S0 S1 S2
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Sequence Detectors
Example
Lets consider a sequence recognizer which is capable of detecting
1001 Sequence.
Cycle Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Input Sequence 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
O/P for overlapping
Seq. Detector
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
O/P of non overlapping
Seq. Detector
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
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Sequence Detector for 1001 Sequence

Overlapping Moore FSM
S0/0 S1/0 S2/0 S3/0 S4/1
State Meaning
S0 Initial state
S1 1
S2 01
S3 001
Non Overlapping Moore FSM S4 1001
S0/0 S1/0 S2/0 S3/0 S4/1
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Vending Machine - FSM Design
Specification
Design a vending machine which delivers a product when it
receives Rs.3/- and also it has to return the change if receives
Rs.4/- . The machine can take only two types of coins of
denomination 1 and 2 in any order.
Rst
P
Coin Vending
R
Machine
Clk www.maven-silicon.com 243
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Vending Machine
State Meaning
S0 Initial state
S1 Re.1
S2 Rs.2
S3 Rs.3
S4 Rs.4
S0
P = 0, R=0
S1 S2 S4
P = 0, R=0 P = 0, R=0 P = 1, R=1
S3
P = 1, R=0
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Odd Parity Detector-FSM Design
Specification
Assert output whenever input bit stream has odd number of 1's.
EVEN
Z=0
Present Next State
I/P (X) O/P (Z)
State (Q) (Q+)
Even 0 Even 0
Even 1 Odd 0
ODD Odd
Odd 0 1
Z=1 Odd Even
1 1
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Odd Parity Detector-FSM Design

Specification
Assert output whenever input bit stream has odd number of 1's.
Present Next State
I/P (X) O/P (Z)
State (Q) (Q+)
Even 0 Even 0
Even 1 Odd 0
Odd 0 Odd 1
Odd 1 Even 1
State Encoding
Design a circuit from

FSM will be discussed in
advanced course
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Glitches & Hazards
247
Glitches & Hazards
When the input to a combinational circuit changes, unwanted

switching transients (Glitches) may appear in the output.
These transients occur when different paths from input to output
have different propagation delays.
A hazard is said to exist when a circuit has the possibility of
producing such a glitch.
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Types of Hazards
Static 1 - Hazard
Possibility of a circuit's output producing a 0 glitch
when we would expect the output to remain at a
steady 1.
Static 0 - Hazard
Possibility of a circuit's output producing a 1 glitch
when we would expect the output to remain at a
steady 0.
Dynamic Hazard
Possibility of the output of a circuit changing more
number of times when it should change from (0 to
1) or (1 to 0).
249
Elimination of Hazards
Technique 1
Adding delay to balance the delays in the parallel paths can
eliminate hazards since, unequal delays is the main cause of
these glitches.
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250
Technique 2
Adding the redundant gates can eliminate the hazards.
0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
f = AB’ + BC + AC
251
Technique 3
Adding the pipelining registers at the outputs the combinational
circuits.
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Memories
253
Agenda
Classification of Memories
Basics of Memories
Composition of Memories
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254
255
Optical memories like CD, DVD and magnetic memories like floppy, HDD
will come under other forms of memories.
Let’s concentrate more on semiconductor memories.
Sequential Access Memories : In these memories, data cannot be accessed
from random address locations. It can be accessed in a serial manner.
Random Access Memories : In these memories, data can be accessed from
random address locations.
FIFO & LIFO comes under sequential access memories.
Volatile Memories : In these memories, stored data will be lost, if there is a
loss in power supply.
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256
Non - Volatile Memories : In these memories, stored data will not be lost,
even if there is a loss in power supply.
SRAM & DRAM will come under volatile random access memories.
Synchronous DRAM : In these memories, the basic read & write will be
done in synchronism with a clock signal.
Asynchronous DRAM : In these memories, the basic read & write will not
be done in synchronism with a clock signal.
Single Data Rate: 1 Byte of data for each clock cycle, either at posedge or
negedge.
Double Data Rate : 2 Bytes of data for each clock cycle. One data at posedge
& second data at negedge.
257
Double Data Rate – 2nd Gen : 4 Bytes of data for each clock cycle. two
bytes at posedge & two more bytes at negedge.
Double Data Rate – 3rd Gen : 8 Bytes of data for each clock cycle. four
bytes at posedge & four more bytes at negedge.
Double Data Rate – 4th Gen : 16 Bytes of data for each clock cycle. eight
bytes at posedge & eight more bytes at negedge.
In these days, DDR4 is the commonly used memory in LAPTOP’s & Servers.
ROM: Data stored in these memories is fixed at the time of fabricating the
memories and cannot be changed again.
No further write operation is possible. Only READ operation is possible.
Programmable ROM: These memory chips can be programmed only once.
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258
Erasable Programmable ROM : These memory chips can be programmed
for any no. of times & data will be erased by the application of UV light rays.
Data stored in these memories can be programmed by the user based on his
requirement. Both read & write are possible in these memories.
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM. These memory chips can be
programmed for any no. of times & data will be erased by the application of
electrical signals.
Erasable Alterable Programmable ROM. These memories are special type
of EEPROMs and data can be written at the block level instead of byte level.
Can be programmed while in the circuit. USB drives, Memory cards & SSD’s
will come under this category.
259
SRAM vs DRAM
Static RAM Dynamic RAM
Static RAM uses static devices like Dynamic RAM uses dynamic devices like
transistors & MOSFET’s to store the data. capacitors to store the data.
At least, 6 no. of transistors are required for One transistor & one capacitor are sufficient
implementing one bit memory cell. for implementing one bit memory.
Not area efficient. Occupies more area. Area efficient. Occupies less area.
No periodic refresh required. Periodic refresh required.
Less access time b/c of static devices. High access time b/c of usage of capacitors.
Standard IC fabrication process is sufficient Special IC fabrication process is required for
for fabricating these memories. fabricating these memories.
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Basic Concepts of Memories
8 bit information in each location
(word_size is 8 bits)
clk
rst 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0
1
wr_enb 2
wr_addr 3
4 data_out
16
wr_data 8
8 12
13
rd_enb
14
15
rd_addr
4
16 * 8 Memory
261
Composition of Memories
It is the process of creating large memory module using smaller
memory module.
The following are the different requirements.
We may need to construct a large memory with larger word
size (more bits per word) or
We may need to construct large memory with Wider
addressing space (more words) or
Both
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Memory with larger word size
Construct 256*24 RAM using 256*8 RAM

modules
24 bit wr_data
MSB LSB
24 bit data_out
263
Memory with more words
Construct 256*8 RAM using 64*8 RAM modules
For constructing 256 * 8 Memory using 64 * 8 Memories, we

need 4 modules of 64 * 8 memories since 256/64 = 4.
The available 64 * 8 Memory will have 6 address lines.
But, the required memory should have 8 address lines.
The extra 2 lines can be used for selecting any of the 4 smaller
memory modules by using a decoder logic.
Recall the fact that, only one of the output line of a decoder will be
at HIGH level depending on the input available.
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264
Memory with more words
O to 63
64 to 127
O to 255
128 to 191
192 to 255
data_out
265
FIFO
Used to pass data between two asynchronous clock domains.
Used to pass data between two systems working with same clock
but with different throughput.
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266
Cache Memory
Speed
HDD RAM CPU
Data Storage Capacity
HDD RAM CPU
267
Cache Memory
CPU Contains Registers and Cache Memory So, that it can access
frequently accessed data at a faster speed instead of accessing from
slower memories like RAM & HDD.
CPU has only few MB of Cache. But, CPU makes a tremendous use of
this small memory because the speed of data access in cache is high
because it need not do periodic refresh unlike DRAM.
Cache uses SRAM Technology. So, Many no. of memory cells cannot
be fabricated in a small processor. So, cache memories will be in the
order of MB unlike DRAM which will be in the order of GB.
For a better performance, Use a processor with more Cache Memory.
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VLSI Design
Thank You [email protected]
+91 74067 30555
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ASIC Design Flow

Maven Silicon Confidential

Behavioral Model Clock Tree Synthesis Timing

Synthesis Physical Layout

Gate Level Simulation Design Rule Check

DFT Insertion Layout Vs Schematic

 Introduction  Combinational Logic Circuits

 NAND & NOR Circuits  Tristate Buffers.

 Sequential Logic Circuits  Finite State Machines

Binary, Decimal, Octal and Hexa Decimal Number

Binary Number System

Octal Number System

Hexa Decimal Number System

Radix of the number system

No. of digits to the right of the radix point.

Binary to Decimal Conversion

Fractional part of Decimal number

Decimal to other number system

Appending ‘ 0’s at MSB position

100 111 110 101 100 011

1010 1101 1110 0101 0100 1100

Schemes to represent the signed numbers

Range of the n bit signed magnitude integer :

2’s complement - Add 1 to 1’s complement.

Complement Number system

System Base Possible complement systems

Octal 8 7’s comp & 8’s comp

Hexa 16 15’s comp & 16’s comp

‘77’ is the maximum

Additional Carry (if any) has to be

Arithmetic using Complement System

If the additional carry is not ‘FF’ is the

To get the magnitude of

Weighted Binary Codes

Binary and Gray code Conversion

XOR XOR XOR XOR

Gray to Binary code Conversion

The code uses 7 bits to encode 128 unique characters

Parity codes - Parity bits for detection of errors.

AND gate Truth Table of AND gate

Properties of XOR Gate

Output is complement of EXOR gate.

(T6) X + Y = Y +X (T6') X . Y = Y .X;

(T11) X . Y + Y . Z + X'. Z = X . Y +X' . Z

Famous De Morgan Rules Dual of the Expression

Consensus Theorem Dual of the Expression

Another way of finding Complement function

Logic Circuit from function

SOP & POS

 Product Of Sums (POS).

Voltage Logical Voltage Logical

NAND & NOR Gate - Universal Logic Elements

NAND Gate NOR Gate

NAND - Faster and Smaller

Step 1: Implement the Logic Step 2: Replace the intermediate

SOP - NAND Gates

Step 3: Replace bubbled OR gate

Notice the fact that inputs are also

SOP - NOR Gates