Available online www.ejaet.

com
European Journal of Advances in Engineering and Technology, 2019, 6(5):8-22

Research Article ISSN: 2394 - 658X

Design of a Plant for the Production of 350,000tone/Yr of Ethylene

Oxide Using Ethylene and Oxygen
Ojong, O.E.1 and Walter, C.2
1
Department of Chemical/Petrochemical Engineering, Rivers State University,
Nkpolu, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
[email protected]
2
Department of Electrical and Electronic, Port Harcourt Polytechnic, Rumuola, Port Harcourt, Rivers Stat.
[email protected]
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

ABSTRACT
The manual design of 350kt/yr ethylene oxide production plant from ethylene oxy-catalytic process has been developed.
The essential units of the ethylene oxide plant that the design followed were catalytic packed reactor, packed column
and Distillation column. The design process conditions for ethylene oxide production are 130-150 °C, 1 atm and metal-
oxide Ag-catalyst at conversion rate of 0.9. The following results were obtained; Volume of reactor 372.74 m3,
Diameter of 3.20 m and 3.24 m respectively for packed column and Distillation column gave overall height of 6.48 m
and 17.2 m respectively for Distillation column and packed column. Further the manual design was validated with the
HYSYS design simulation.

Key words: Manual Design, Ethylene Oxide, Oxy-catalytic Process, Conversion Rate and Production Process
________________________________________________________________________________________

1. INTRODUCTION
Ethylene oxide (EO) is a basic chemical produced primarily by the catalytic oxidation of ethylene. It is a chemical
intermediate that cannot be directly used and is further reacted to produce a wide spectrum of products. Ethylene glycols
(mono-, di-, triethylene glycol) constitute by far the single-largest outlet for ethylene oxide, accounting for about 65% of
the EO market in 2018 [1]. Other dominant end uses include higher-value derivatives such as ethoxylates, ethanolamines,
glycol ethers, polyethylene glycol, and polyether polyols.

Fig. 1 Pie chart shows world consumption of ethylene oxide [1, 2]

As of 2018, EO was produced primarily in Northeast Asia, the Middle East, and North America, accounting for a
combined 77% of global production. In these three regions, a significant portion of the producers are forward-integrated
into the production of MEG and the EO consumption pattern is therefore broadly similar to the MEG production
footprint globally.
The Middle East was quite active between 2005 and 2010, with new EO capacity additions. The region was capitalizing
on the availability of extremely cheap ethane to competitively produce ethylene and downstream ethylene derivatives,
including ethylene oxide. But the pace of new additions in the Middle East has slowed with a clear shift in new capacity

8
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
going to North America. Between the late 1990s and the late 2000s, North America lost significant momentum on the
back of new large-scale EO capacity commissioning in the Middle East and Northeast Asia [2]. In the United States,
EO/EG producers had lost their competitive edge because of higher raw material costs and aging production units. Over
the last decade, the net EO capacity change was therefore negative in North America. The advent of shale gas production
in the region has changed the state of the US and North American petrochemical industry. Natural gas liquids
coproduced along with natural gas (ethane and propane, essentially) are now competitively priced feedstock readily
available to the petrochemical industry. As a result, the new petrochemical project pipeline has significantly picked up in
North America and new EO capacity will be started up through 2023.
Overall demand for ethylene oxide is tied to the general economy and has been increasingly linked to emerging
countries, where the improvement in living standards is driving an increasing usage of a broad spectrum of polymers and
chemicals that are further used for the production of packaging, films, textile fibers, soaps, detergents, etc. Over the
coming five years, overall demand for ethylene oxide is expected to increase further, fueled primarily by an incremental
demand for polyester products, antifreeze, polyurethanes, soaps, detergents, etc. in emerging regions [2, 3].
Like all other petrochemicals, the ethylene oxide industry is cyclical, with the equilibrium between supply and demand
driving the state of the industry. In times of large concomitant new capacity commissioning, operating rates generally go
down and margins contract because of increased competition among producers. As margins remain under pressure, no
new capacity is built (trough conditions) [3]. When demand gradually catches up with production, operating rates firm up
and margins expand. This is when the next wave of capacity is generally planned (and the next cycle begins). Peak
conditions were prominent within the ethylene oxide industry between 2011 and 2015, but the ethylene oxide industry is
currently facing five years of forecast oversupply, which will inevitably put pressure on operating rates. These conditions
will be related to new capacity increasing faster than demand. The slowdown in EO demand growth will also further
exacerbate the supply glut seen in the industry.
The Physical Properties of ethylene oxide are as follows [4]:
Chemical formula for ethyleneoxide is C2H4O, and the molecular weight is 44.1 g/mol; vapour pressure for
ethyleneoxide is 1.095mmHg at 20 °C, and it has an octanol/water partition coefficient; (log[Kow]) of -0.22;
Ethyleneoxide has solubility in water of 1×10 6 mg/L at 20 °C and is soluble in alcohol, ether, acetone, and benzene;
Ethyleneoxide has an odor threshold of 787 mg/m3 and Ethylene oxide has an estimated half-life in air ranging from 69
to149 days, while its half-life in water ranges from 12 to14 days in sterile, deionized, and natural river water.
The important of the product Ethylene Oxide as a petrochemical raw materials and also essential chemical in the
petrochemical plant and chemical industries lead to this design [2].
Various authors talked about the production of ethylene oxide by: Person, (2015) [5] researched on the simulation model
of a reactor for Ethylene oxide production, where Aspen plus was used to create a simulation model that correlate with
reality. John, et al., (2008) [6], briefed on the importance of Ethylene oxide as raw materials in the chemical and
petrochemical plant
Process Analyzers in Ethylene oxide production plant was established by oil and gas industry (Siemens) June 2003. This
industry considers the packed bed catalytic reactor for production of Ethylene oxide from oxygen and ethylene and the
instrumentation processes of the full plant.
Bteon, et al., (2002) [7] researched on the design ethylene oxide purification system in which ethylene oxide is produced
by partial oxidation of ethylene. 99.95% purity goal was achieved for this work.
The project aimed at designing 350,000 tons/yr of Ethylene oxide plant from catalytic reaction of ethylene and oxygen.
To achieve this aim, the following steps are noted for the design: study the feasibility of the plant possibility of the
design set-up for the production of 350,000 tone/yr of Ethylene Oxide; Hysys simulation of the 350kt/yr of Ethylene
Oxide; design essential units of the 350,000 tons/yr of Ethylene oxide such as Reactor, Distillation and Packed column;
to do the mechanical design of these units and cost the units in dollars and to consider the plant layout and
instrumentation control and safety, hazards and environmental consideration.

Process Description

O2/air
EO-recycle CO2vented

Reactor Ag – EO-Absorption
EO Desorption
Catalyst

Purification
Ethylene Fig. 2 Block diagram for Ethylene Oxide Production [2]
To Ethylene glycol and
9 other products
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
Production of Ethylene oxide is based on catalytic oxidation of ethylene using Ag-catalyst. As shown above, Ethylene
oxide produced from a packed bed reactor where ethylene reacts with purification chamber where H 20 is added and
ethylene is recycled but the liquid mixture consists of ethylene oxide and ethylene glycol enters the stripping section and
overhead product is ethylene oxide collected.
Meanwhile the other gases ethylene, oxygen, N2, CO2 enters the vent column where O2 and Ethylene are recycled reactor
for reaction continuation. The process conditions are as follows;
Process conditions are Temperature 130-150 °C; Pressure 1-3 atm and Flow rate: 350,000 tons/yr

2. MATERIAL BALANCE
Rate of inflow – Rate of outflow + Rate of production = 0
CH2 = CH2 + 1/2 O2 CH2 -O- CH2
𝑟𝐸𝑂 = 𝐾𝐶𝜀 = 𝑘 𝑡 𝑃𝑇 𝑦𝜖
Kinetic study: LQiang, et al, (2011) [8]
𝑘 𝑡 = 9.3 𝑥 10−4 ± 7𝑥10−5 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐹𝐴 = 0.3069𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝑦𝐹 = 1 − 𝐹𝐴
𝑟𝐸𝑂 = 𝑘 𝑡 𝑃𝑇 (1 − 𝑋𝐴 ) = 0.001 𝑥 0.9 = 9.0 𝑥 10−4 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.5 𝑥10−5 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝐹𝐴𝑂
𝑉𝑃𝐵𝑅 = 𝐼𝑛 1 1 − 𝑋
𝐶𝐴𝑂 𝑘(𝑡) 𝐴

0.4603𝑙𝑛 1 0.1
𝑉𝑃𝐵𝑅 = = 372.74𝑚3
284.35 𝑥 1.0𝑥 10−5
Material Balance for the packed column
The scrubber is majorly called Ethylene oxide scrubber where gases such as Ethylene oxide, (1-2%); CO2 (5%) and
others such as N2, CH2=CH2, CH4 and aldehyde after being cooled enters the absorption column where absorbent (H 2O)
is used to absorbed the EO alongside CO2,N2 CH4= CH2 and CH4 [9].
LM=?
X2 = 0
2%y1=y2
98% of EO is
absorbed

y1 =8% 1.5
44
X1= 1.5 98.5 =
+
44 18
−3
Fig. 3 Sketch of Scrubber 6.19 𝑥10
𝐹
𝐺𝑀 = = 0.3069𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
300 𝑥 24 𝑥3600

𝑦2 = 0.02 𝑥 0.8 = 0.0016𝑚𝑜𝑙

The material balance is given as:
𝐺𝑀 𝑦1 + 𝐿𝑚 𝑥2 = 𝐺𝑀 𝑦2 + 𝐿𝑚 𝑥 𝑋1
𝐺𝑀 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) 𝐺𝑀 (98%𝑦1 )
𝐿𝑚 = =
𝑥1 𝑥1
0.3069 𝑥 (0.0784)
= = 3.89𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
0.00619
′ ′
Thus: 𝐺𝑚 = 8.9051𝑘𝑔/𝑠, 𝐿𝑚 = 70.02𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑦 0.08
𝑚 = 1 𝑥1 = = 13
6.19 𝑥 10−3
𝑚𝐺𝑚 13 𝑥 0.3069
𝐿𝑚 = 3.89
= 1.0256
𝑦1
𝑁𝑜𝐺 : 𝑦
𝑥2 = 1 2%𝑦 = 50: 𝑁𝑜𝐺 = 10.5
1

Material Balance for Distillation Column

Water and 𝐸𝑂 (Ethylene oxide) are passed into the stripping/Distillation column for the removal of 𝐸𝑂as overhead
product.
Using Antoine equation parameters

10
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
(𝑃 ∗ )
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 𝐴 − [𝐵/(𝑇 + 𝐶)] [10]
= 5.84696 = [2022.83/𝑇 + 62.656)]
𝑇 = 150 + 273
T °C 𝑷∗𝑨 𝑷𝑻 − 𝑷∗𝑩 𝑷𝑨∗ 𝑿𝑨
𝑿𝑨 = ∗ 𝒚𝑨 =
𝑷𝑨 − 𝑷∗𝑩 𝑷𝑻
100 15.987 0.1 0.20
105 18.049 0.2 0.40
110 20.322 0.3 0.45
115 22.821 0.4 0.56
120 25.561 0.5 0.70
125 28.560 0.6 0.80
130 31.836 0.7 0.85
135 35.405 0.8 0.90
140 39.297 1.0 0.98
150 48.063

V
n D = 0.3069kmol/s
F=kmol/s R=1.58 yD=0.95
=0.36 yw=0.05
Xw=0.64 Vm

Lm
B
𝑥𝑓′ =5%w/w
𝑥𝑤′ =0.995

It is required that 0.31kmol/s was distilled out at 95% mol/mol of Ethylene oxide at the top and 99.55% mol/mol of water
was found at the bottom of which 36% mol/mol Ethylene oxide enter the column optimally, Input = output.
Total mass balance:
𝐹 =𝐷+𝐵
𝐹−𝐷 =𝐵
Species/components balance:
𝐸𝑂:
𝑥𝑓 𝐹 = 𝑦𝐷 𝐷 + 𝑦𝑤 𝐵
𝑥𝑓 𝐹 = 𝑦𝐷 𝐷 + 𝑦𝑤 𝐵(𝐹 − 𝐷)
0.36𝐹 = 0.95 0.3069 + 0.05 (𝐹 − 0.3069)
0.36 − 0.05 𝐹 = 0.95 0.3069 − 0.05 (0.3069)
0.31𝐹 = 0.27621
0.27621
𝐹= = 0.891 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
0.31
𝐵 =𝐹−𝐷
𝐵 = 0.891 − 0.3069 = 0.5841 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝐿
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑛 𝐷 ⟹ 𝐿𝑛 = 𝑅𝐷 = 0.3069𝑥 1.58 = 0.4849 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝑉𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛 + 𝐷 = 0.4849 + 0.3069 = 0.7918 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝑞 = 1.05, Since the feed enters below its boiling point.
𝐿𝑚 = 𝐿𝑛 + 𝑞𝑓 = 0.4849 + 0.7483 = 1.2332 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝑉𝑛 = 𝐿𝑚 − 𝐵 = 1.2332 − 0.5841 = 0.6491 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠

3. ENERGY BALANCE
Energy across the Reactor [9]
From the material balance:
𝐹𝜀,𝑜 = 0.3069kmol/s
𝐹𝑜,𝑜 = 0.1535kmol/s
𝐹𝜀,𝑜 = 0.3069kmol/s

11
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
Reactants directed = (𝐹𝜀,𝑜 + 𝐹𝑜,𝑜 ) − 𝐹𝜀,𝑜 = 0.4604 − (0.3069) =0.1535kmol/s
Balance:
𝐻1 + 𝐻2 + 𝑄 = 𝛼∆𝐻𝑅 + 𝐻3
Where 𝛼 = Extent of the reaction = 0.85
Take T ref = 30 °C = 303k
𝑄 = 𝛼∆𝐻𝑅 + 𝐻3 − (𝐻1 + 𝐻2 )

H1 EO Reactor H3
H2 O2
∆𝐻𝑅 𝑥 𝛼

Fig. 4 Energy balance in catalytic packed bed reactor [11]

∆𝐻𝑅 = −13. 𝑂𝐾𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −13.0𝐾𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥0.3069𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠 𝑥 0.85 = −3.3912𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝐻3 = 𝐹𝐶𝑝∆𝑇 + 𝑚 ⋋𝜀𝑜 = 𝐹(𝐶𝑝∆𝑇 +⋋𝜀𝑜 )
= 0.3069 (0.0479 473 − 303 + 0.0008) = 2.49933𝐾𝐽/𝑠 = 2.5𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝐻1 = 𝐹𝜀𝑜 𝐶𝑝∆𝑇
= 0.3069 (0.0300 𝑥 120 − 100 ) = 0.18414𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝐻2 = 0.1535 𝑥 0.001 𝑥 20 = 0.00307𝐾𝐽/𝑠
(𝐹𝑜,𝑜 𝐶𝑝0.2 ∆𝑇)
𝑄 = −3.3912 + 2.5 − (0.00307 + 0.1535) = −1.0478𝐾𝐽/𝑠

Energy balance across the Distillation column [9]

From the material balance:
𝐹 = 0.891𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝐷 = 0.3069𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝐵 = 0.5841𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝐿𝑛 = 0.4849𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝐿𝑚 = 1.2332𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝑉𝑚 = 0.7918𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠

Vn Qc
Hv
Hf
D
F HL
T0=473k
Vm HD

QB HB
HB Qb

HD
HF
Qc

Fig. 5 Energy balance across the Distillation column [9]

𝑄𝐵 = 𝐻𝐹 + 𝐻𝐷 − (𝑄𝑐 + 𝐻𝐵 )
𝐻𝐹 = 𝐹𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑣 ∆𝑇
𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑣 = 0.36𝐶𝑝𝜀 + 0.64𝐶𝑝𝑤 = 0.36 𝑥 0.030 + 0.64 𝑥 4.2/18
= 0.160𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑘
∆𝑇 = 20
𝐻𝐹 = 0.891 0.160 𝑥 20 = 2.8512𝐾𝐽/𝑠

12
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
𝐻𝐷 = ∆𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑣 ∆𝑇 = 0.3069 𝑥 0.009 𝑥 170 = 0.4696𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝐻𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑣 ∆𝑇
= 0.5841𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠 𝑥 0.160 𝑥 200 = 18.6912𝐾𝐽/𝑠
Q c = Vn ⋋av
⋋av = yD ⋋εo + yw ⋋w
= 0.95 0.001 + 0.05 x 2256/18 = 6.268KJ/mol
Q c = 0.633kmol/s x 6.268KJ/kmol = 3.96KJ/s
Q B = 𝐻𝐹 + 𝐻𝐷 − Q c − 𝐻𝐵
Q B = 2.85 + 0.4696 − (3.967 + 18.6912)
= 2.3804 − 22.6582 = −20.2778KJ/s

4. EQUIPMENT SIZING AND SPECIFICATION

Sizing of the Reactor [9]
The Diameter and the length of the reactor is determined in other to size and specify the reactor from the material
balance.
The volume of the reactor = 372.74m3
But 𝐿/𝐷 = 2.5 [12]
𝐿 = 2.5𝐷
𝜋𝐷 2
Also, 𝑉𝑃𝐵𝑅 = 𝐿
4
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝐷2
= 𝑥 2.5𝐷 = 𝑥 0.625 𝑥𝐷 = 0.625𝜋𝐷3
4 4
𝑉𝑃𝐵𝑅 1/3
∴𝐷=
0.625𝜋
372.74 1/3
𝐷= = 189.81 1/3 = 5.75𝑚
0.625𝜋
𝐿 = 2.5𝐷 = 2.5 𝑥 4.84 = 14.375m

Sizing and specification of the packed column [9]

Determining of the packed column diameter unit, the overall height, helps to size and specify the column for absorption
process.
From the material balance:
𝐺𝑚 = 0.3069𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝐿𝑚 = 3.89𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝑚𝐺𝑚
𝐿𝑚 = 1.0256
𝑋𝑖 = 6.19 𝑥 10−3
𝑦𝑖 = 0.08
𝑦2 = 0.0016
Column diameter determination
𝐹𝑝 = 170𝑚−1
®
38-min ceramic interlox saddles
𝑀 (273 )
𝜌𝑔 at 300c = 𝜖𝑜 𝑥
22.4 303
44
= 𝑥273/303 = 1.770𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
22.4
𝐿 = 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝜇𝐿 = 0.058𝑁𝑠/𝑚2
𝐿𝑚 𝜌𝑔
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = 𝜌𝑖
𝐺𝑚
3.89 1.770
=
0.3069 1000
0.1637
= = 0.533
0.3069
𝐾4 = 0.58
1
2
𝑘𝜌 𝜌𝑔 𝜌2 −𝜌𝑔
𝑉𝑤 = 𝜇
13.1𝐹𝜌 𝐿 𝜌𝐿

13
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
1
2
0.58 𝑥 1.770 ( 1000 − 1.1770)
=
0.058 0.1
13.1 𝑥 170
1000
1
= (1.22) 2 = 1.105𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑚2
𝐺 8.89
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑚 𝑉 ∗ = = 8.05𝑚2
𝑤 1.105
𝐷𝑐 = 4 𝑥 𝑎𝑐/𝜋 1/2
4 𝑥 8.05 1/2
𝐷𝑐 = = 3.20𝑚
𝜋
𝐿′ 70.02
𝐿∗𝑖 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑐 = = 8.69𝑘𝑔/3𝑚2
8.05
𝐺𝑖∗ = 𝑉𝑒∗ = 1.105𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
0.1 −0.05 0.2
𝜍 0.75 𝐿∗𝑖 𝐿∗𝑖 2𝑎 𝐿∗2
𝑖
𝑎𝑤 = a 1 − exp(−1.45 𝑐 𝜍𝐿
𝑎𝜇𝐿 𝜌𝐿2 𝑔 𝜌𝐿 𝜍𝐿𝑎
2 3
𝑎 = 194𝑚 /𝑚
0.1
0.75
19.54 19.54 𝑥194 −0.05
𝑎𝑤 = 194 1 − exp⁡−1.45(61/70
194 𝑥0.058 106 𝑥9.81
0.2
19.542
103 𝑥 70 𝑥 10−3 𝑥194
𝑎𝑤 = 194 1 − exp⁡[−1.45 𝑥 0.902 1.057 𝑥 1.277 𝑥(0.4895)
= 194 1 − exp⁡ (−8.64 𝑥 10−1 ) = 194 1 − 0.42
= 112.25𝑚2 /𝑚3
2/3 −1/2
𝜌 1/3 19.54 0.058
𝑘𝐿 𝐿 𝜇 𝐿 𝑔 = 0.0051 𝑥 194 𝑥0.038 0.4
112.25 𝑥 0.058 1000 𝑥 1.7 𝑥 10−9
𝑘𝐿 12.068 = 0.0051 2.081 0.00541 222
1.27666
𝑘𝐿 = 𝑥 10−4
12.068
= 1.058 𝑥 10−5 𝑚/𝑠
0.7 1/3
𝐺 𝜇𝑣
𝑘𝐺 𝑅𝑇 𝑎𝐷 = 𝑘5 𝑖 𝑎𝜇𝑉 𝜌𝑔 𝐷𝑣 𝑎𝑑𝑝 −2.0
𝑣
𝑘5 = 5.23
𝜇𝑉 = 0.018𝑥10−3 𝑁𝑠/𝑚2
𝐷𝑉 = 1.45𝑥10−5 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝐺𝑖∗ = 1.015𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑚2
𝑅 = 0.08314𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑚2 /𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑘
0.7 1/3
0.08314𝑥303 1.015 0.018 𝑥10−3 −2.0
𝑘𝐺 = 5.23 𝑥 194 𝑥 0.038
194 𝑥 1.45 𝑥 10−5 194 𝑥 0.018 𝑥10−3 1.770 𝑥 1.45 𝑥10−5
𝑘𝐺 8955.36 = 5.23 53 0.888 184 𝑥 10−2
4.529
𝑘𝐺 = 5.058 𝑥 10−4 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠𝑚2 𝑏𝑎𝑟
8955.36∗
𝐺𝑖 1.015
𝐺𝑚∗ = = = 0.035𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠𝑚2
29 ∗
29
𝐿𝑖 19.54
𝐿∗𝑚 = = = 0.565𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠𝑚2
∗
18 18
𝐺𝑚 0.035 0.035
𝐻𝐺 = = = = 0.6𝑚
𝑘𝐺 𝑎𝑤 𝜌 5.058 𝑥10 −4 𝑥 112 .25 𝑥 1.013 0.0575
𝜌
CT = 𝐿 18 = 55.6
𝐿∗𝑚 1.0856 0.0856
𝐻𝐿 = = = = 1.3𝑚
𝐾𝐿 𝑎𝑤 𝐺 1.058 𝑥 10−5 𝑥 112.25 𝑥 55.56 0.06598
𝑚𝐺𝑚
𝐻𝑜𝐺 = 𝐻𝐺 + 𝐿𝑚 𝐻𝑧 = 0.6 + 0.8 𝑥 1.3
𝑍 = 𝑁𝑂𝐺 𝐻𝑂𝐺 = 17.2𝑚
ZT = 30% ∗ 17.2 + 17.2 = 22𝑚

14
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
Equipment sizing and specification of Distillation column [9]
∆𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔𝑕 𝑥 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
= 1.01325 𝑏𝑎𝑟 + 103 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 100 𝑥 10−3 𝑥 12 𝑥 10−5 = 1.131𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝜌𝑔 : 1.1 1.549
1.131 x
1.2 1.428
1.131 − 1.1 𝑥 − 1.549
=
1.2 − 1.1 1.428 − 1.549
0.031 𝑥 1.428 − 1.549 = 0.1 (𝑥 − 1.549)
−0.03751 + 1.549 = 𝑥
𝑥 = 1.51149
𝜌𝑔 = 1/𝑥 = 0.662𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝜌𝐿 = 1/𝑣𝑓 = 1/0.1003 𝑥10−2 = 999.7𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝜌𝜀𝑙 = 882𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
1.131 𝑥 105
𝜌𝜀𝑣 = 𝑃 𝑅𝑇 = = 48𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
8.314 𝑥 (10.4 + 273)
Column Diameter Determination
Given
𝐸𝑂 water [9]
𝜌𝐿 = 882 𝜌𝐿 = 999.7
𝜌𝑔 = 48 𝜌𝑔 = 0.662

𝐹 = 0.891𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝐷 = 0.3069𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝐵 = 0.5841𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝐿𝑛 = 0.4849𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝐿𝑚 = 1.2332𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
𝑉𝑚 = 0.7918𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠
Operating line calculation
UOL:
𝐿𝑛 𝑦
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥 +𝐷 𝐷 𝑉
𝑉𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
0.4849 0.95(0.3069)
= 𝑥 +
0.7918 𝑛 0.7918
𝑦𝑛 = 0.61𝑥𝑛 + 0.37
LOL:
𝐿𝑚 𝐵𝑥𝑓′
𝑦𝑚 = 𝑥𝑚 −
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
1.2332 0.5814 𝑥 0.005
= 𝑥 −
0.7918 𝑚 0.7918
𝑦𝑚 = 1.5575𝑥𝑚 − 0.003671
𝑞 −𝑥𝑓
q line:𝑦𝑞 = 𝑥𝑞 − 𝑞−1
1−𝑞
1.05 0.36
= 𝑥 −
0.05 𝑞 0.05
= 21 𝑥𝑞 − 7.2
𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
⟹ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (21)
= 87. 30
From the given McCabe-Thiele plot, No. of theoretical trays = 7 [9, 13]
Assumed Efficiency of the column = 0.6.
Actual No. of plates = 7/0.6
= 12trays
1.2332 𝜌𝑣
𝐹𝐿𝑉𝑏 = 𝜌𝑖
0.7918
1.2332 0.662
= = 0.04058
0.7918 1000

15
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
𝐿𝑛 𝜌𝑣
𝐹𝐿𝑉𝑏 = 𝜌𝑖
𝑉𝑛
0.4849 48
= = 0.1429
0.7918 882
𝑘1𝑏 = 0.095
𝑘1𝑡 = 0.085
Correction of 𝑘1 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
′
𝑘1𝑏 = 𝑘1𝑏 (𝜍𝑢 /0.02)0.2
15 0.2
= 0.095 𝑥 = 0.039688
20
′
75 0.2
𝑘1𝑡 = (𝜍𝑢 /0.02)0.2 𝑘1𝑡 = 0.056 = 0.112
20
′ 𝜌𝑐 − 𝜌𝑔 99970.662 0.5
𝑈𝑓𝑏 = 𝑘1𝑏 𝜌𝑔 = 0.089688 = 3.48𝑚/𝑠
0.662

′ 𝜌𝑐 − 𝜌𝑔 943.4 − 0.645
𝑈𝑓𝑡 = 𝑘1𝑡 𝜌𝑔 = 0.1 = 3.82𝑚/𝑠
0.646
′ 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑔 882 −48
𝑈𝑓𝑡 = 𝑘1𝑡 𝜌𝑔 =0.112 = 0.466𝑚/𝑠
48
85% 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝑈𝑛𝑏 = 0.85𝑈𝑓𝑏 = 2.958𝑚/𝑠
𝑈𝑛𝑡 = 0.85𝑈𝑓𝑡 = 0.396𝑚/𝑠
𝑉𝑛 𝑀𝑊 𝑏 0.7918 𝑥 18
Û𝑏 = = =21.54𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑣 0.662
𝑉𝑛 𝑀𝑊𝑏
Û𝑡 =
𝜌𝑣
0.7918 𝑥 44
= = 0.7258𝑚3 /𝑠
48
21.54
𝐴𝑛 =Û𝑏 = = 7.28𝑚2
𝑏 𝜇 𝑛𝑏 2.958
𝐴𝑛 =Û𝑡
𝑡 𝜇 𝑛𝑡
= 0.7258/0.3961 = 1.83𝑚3 /𝑠
Column area (Ac)
𝐴𝑛 𝑎𝑡 3.25 2
𝑡= 𝜇 𝑛𝑡 =3.25 =1𝑚
Column area: 𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑛𝑏 7.28
𝐴𝑐𝑏 = = = 8.27𝑚2
0.88 0.88
𝐴𝑛𝑡 2
𝐴𝑐𝑡 = 0.88 = 1.83/0.88 = 2.08𝑚
Column diameter (Dc)
4𝑎𝑐 1/2
𝐷𝑐 =
𝜋
4𝑥8.27 1/2
𝐷𝑐𝑏 = = 3.24𝑚
𝜋
1/2
4 𝑥 2.08
𝐷𝑐𝑡 = = 1.63𝑚
𝜋
Liquid flow pattern
𝐿 𝑀 1.2332 𝑥 44
𝑉= 𝑚 𝐵= = 6.1𝑥 10−2
𝜌𝐿 889.7
Double pass HE needed a diameter of 3.24m.

16
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. MECHANICAL DESIGN [9]
Design of Reactor mechanically:

P=25bars
T=10 °C

D=5.75m

Material type=carbon steel

Design pressure𝑃𝑖 = 10 − 1 𝑥0.11 = 0.99𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Design stress, 𝑓 = 130𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Design Diameter = 5750mm
Corrosion Allowance, 𝑒 = 2𝑚𝑚
Fully radio graphed, 𝐽 = 1, 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑
(1) Cylindrical shell
PiDi
t= e
2 fJ  Pi
0.99  5750
= 2
2(130)  0.99
= 22.5mm
Flat head
0.99
t = CpDe Pi  e =0.4 x 5750 2 =181mm
f 130
c) Doomed head
Ellipsidal head
P1D1 0.99  5750
T= e =  2 =22.4mm
2 fJ  0.2 Pi 260  0.2 * 0.99)
ii. torispherical head
Pi1D1Cs
t= e
2 fJ  P1 Cs  0.2
Cs = 1.77
0.99  5750  1.77
t =  2mm =38.4mm
260  0.99 1.77  0.2
Hence Ellipsoidal head is acceptable together with the cylindrical shell to make better build0up and reduces cost [9].
Packed column mechanical design

T = 150 °C
CP = 5atm
De = 3.20m

Material type: Stainless steel (321) [9]

Design pressure, Pi = (5-1) x 0.11 = 0.44N/mm2
Design stress, f – 140N/mm2
Design diameter, Di = 3200mm
Cp = fully gasket = 0.4
Fully radiographed welds = J=1
𝑅𝑘 = 6%𝑅𝑐 = 6%𝐷𝑖

17
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
Corrosion Allowance, e = 1.25mm
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= +𝑒
2𝑓𝑡 − 𝑃𝑖
= 0.44 𝑥 3200
+ 125𝑚𝑚 = 7.75𝑚𝑚
280 − 0.44
2 Flat head
𝑃𝑖
𝑡 = 𝐶𝑝 𝐷𝑐 𝑓+𝑒
0.44
= 0.4 𝑥 3200 + 125 = 68.4𝑚𝑚
140
(3) Doomed heads

(I) Ellipsoidal head

𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= +𝑒
2𝑓𝐽 − 0.2𝑃𝑖
0.44 𝑥 3200
= + 1.25 = 7.75𝑚𝑚
280 − 0.2(0.44)
(II) Torispherical head
𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑐 𝐶𝑠
𝑡= +𝑒
2𝑓𝐽 + 𝑝𝑖 (5 − 0.2)
0.44 𝑥 3200 𝑥 1.77
+ 1.25 = 11.20𝑚𝑚
280 + 0.44(1.77 − 0.2)
Cylindrical shell and Ellipsoidal head accepted for the design [9]
Packed Column Mechanical Design

P=250bar
s
T=10bar

Dc=3.24

Stainless steel (321)

Design pressure = 𝑃𝑖 = 10 − 1 𝑥0.11 = 0.99𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Design stress, f = 130N/mm2
Design Diameter, Di = 3240mm
(1) Cylindrical shell
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= +𝑒
2𝑓𝑡 − 𝑃𝑖
0.99 𝑥 3240
+ 1.25𝑚𝑚 = 12.38𝑚𝑚
260 − 0.99
𝑡 = 12.38𝑚𝑚
(2) Flat ends
𝑃𝑖
𝑡 = 𝐶𝑝 𝐷𝑐 𝑓+𝑒
𝐶𝑝 = full face gasket = 0.4
𝐷𝑐 = 𝐷𝑖 = 3240𝑚𝑚
0.99
𝑡 = 0.4 𝑥 3240 + 1.25 = 114.34𝑚𝑚
130
(3) Doomed heads
(I) Ellipsoidal head
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= +𝑒
2𝑓𝐽 − 0.2𝑃𝑖

18
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
0.99 𝑥 3240
+ 1.25
260 − 0.2(0.99)
3207.6
= + 1.25 = 12.38𝑚𝑚
259.802
(II) Torispherical end
𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑐 𝐶𝑠
𝑡= +𝑒
2𝑓𝐽 + 𝑝𝑖 (5 − 0.2)
0.99 𝑥 3240𝑥1.77
𝑡= + 1.25 = 21.71𝑚𝑚
260 + 0.99(1.77 − 0.2)

6. PLANT INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

In the process industry, such as this design of a plant for the production of acetic acid from methanol and CO, there is a
high use of gases, hence required instrumentation control to avoid hazardous effects on the process, temperature, noise
electrical equipment, fires and ignition sources and etc. all these are process hazards [14].
Pressure
Pressure pneumatic valves, control, filled as some/most pressure-relief devices, set at the maximum allowable working
pressure of that potential over-pressure is relived in a controlled manner (ASME boiler and pressure vessel code, section
VIII division, part UGT 125) [15].
Some marrival valves (Mechanical pressure control valve) are installed directly and indirectly on pipes/vessels carrying
fluids are controlled manually [16].
Temperature
Temperature control signals are installed into reactors and heaters and even vessels such as boilers, coolers etc to help
check excessive temperature that could cause open fires and other accident in the plant [15, 17]

Cost Estimation and Economic Evaluation

Cost Estimation [9]
(a) Cost of Reactor:
𝑉 0.6
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝐶 = 200,000 [6] 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 372.74
100
200 ,000 372 .74 0.6
𝐶=$ 𝑥365 =$440426.66
300 𝑥 24 𝑥 3600 100
(b) Cost of Packed Column [9]
Total cost = vessel cost + cost of packing’s
𝜋𝐷 2 𝜋 𝑥 3.22
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = 𝑥𝑍𝑇 = 𝑥17.2𝑚3 = 138.33𝑚3
4 4
Suppose cost per saddle intalox rings = $180/m3
Cost of Packing = $180 x 138.33 = $ 24900
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐵𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑥 𝑀𝐹 𝑥 𝑃𝐹 =$100 𝑥 1000 𝑥 2 𝑥 1 = $200,000
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = $224,900.0
𝐻𝑇 = 𝐿𝑡 𝑥 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 + 20% (𝐿𝑡 𝑥 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 )
= 0.45 𝑥 12 + 0.2 (0.45 𝑥 12) = 6.48𝑚
𝐷𝑐 = 3.24𝑚
Cost of DC = Vessel cost + cost of plates
Vessel cost = BVC X MF X PF
Cost of plates = No. of plate x cost per plate
= 12 𝑥 1050 𝑥1.7 = $ 21420
Economic Evaluation [9]
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑎𝑦 − 𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑕 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
350𝑘𝑡 350 𝑥 880
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = = 770000000𝑙𝑏/𝑦 = 770𝑀𝑀𝑙𝑏/𝑦𝑟
𝑦 400
𝐼𝑆𝐵𝐿 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 3.450 (770)0.6 = 186.09𝑀
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 40% 186.09 + 186.09 = $260.52437𝑀
Let the annual cash flow be $30.38M
260 .52437
Thus Pay-Back-Time = = 8.6𝑦𝑟𝑠
30.38
(b) Time value of money
𝑖 = 5%
𝑃 = $260.52347𝑀
Future worth = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛

19
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
= $260.52437(1.05)8.6 = $396.35M
(c) Annualize cost methods
𝑃 𝑖(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 260.52(0.05(1.05)8.6
𝐴= 𝑛
=
(1 + 0) − 1 (1 + 𝑖)8.6 − 1
19.82
= = $38.02𝑀
0.5213
𝐴 38.02
𝐴𝐶𝐶𝑅 = = = 0.1459
𝑃 260.52
𝐴𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶𝐶𝑅 𝑋 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.1459 𝑥 400 = $58.36𝑀
(d) Total Annualized cost = operating cost + ACC [9, 6, 15]
= $500+58.36 = $558.36M

Plant Layout, Safety and Environmental Considerations [9]

Sources and Potential Exposure
 Sources of ethyleneoxide emissions to the air include uncontrolled emissions or venting with other gases in
industrial settings [18]
 Other sources of ethylene oxide air emissions include automobile exhaust and its release from commodity- as
well as its use as a sterilizer of medical equipment.
 The general population may be exposed to ethyleneoxide through breathing contaminated air or from smoking
tobacco or being near someone who is smoking. Certain occupational groups (e.g. Workers in ethylene oxide
manufacturing or processing plants, sterilization technicians, and workers involved in fumigation) may be
exposed in the workplace [19].

Assessing Personal Exposure

 Tests are available to determine personal exposure to ethyleneoxide, such as the determination of ethylene
oxide in the blood or the amount breathed out of the lungs [20].

Health Hazard Formation

Acute Effects
 Acute inhalation exposure of workers to high levels of ethyleneoxide has resulted in nausea, vomiting,
neurological disorders, bronchitis pulmonary edema, and emphysema [21].
 Dermalorocular contact with solutions of ethyleneoxide has caused irritation of the skin and eyes in humans.
 Tests involving acute exposure of animals have shown ethyleneoxide to have high acute toxicity from
inhalation exposures.

Chronic Effects (Noncancer)

 Major effects observed in workers exposed to ethyleneoxide at low levels for several years are irritation of the
eyes, skin, and respiratory passages and effects to the nervous system (e.g., headache, nausea, memory loss,
numbness) [22, 35].
 EPA has not established a Reference Dose (RfD) or a Reference Concentration (RfC) for ethyleneoxide [23,
34]
 The California Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA) has established a chronic inhalation reference
exposure
 Level of 0.03 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) (18 parts per billion [ppb]) for ethyleneoxide based on
nervous system effects in mice. The Cal EPA reference exposure level is a concentration at or below which
adverse health effects are not likely to occur. It is not a direct estimator of risk, but rather a reference point to
gauge the potential effects. At life time exposures increasingly greater than the reference exposure level, the
potential for adverse health effects increases [24].
 ATSDR has established an intermediate inhalation minimal risk level (MRL) of 0.2 mg/m3 (0.09 parts per
million [ppm]) based on an exposure below that associated with renal effects in mice. The MRL is an estimate
of the daily human exposure to a hazardous substance that is likely to be without appreciable risk of adverse
noncancer health effects over a specified duration of exposure. The exposure period for an intermediate MRL
is from two weeks to a year [25, 37].

Reproductive/Developmental Effects
 Some evidence exists indicating that inhalation exposure to ethyleneoxide can cause an increased rate of
miscarriages in female workers [26,36]
 Various reproductive effects have been noted in inhalation exposure studies of animals, including decreased

20
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
number of implantation sites, decreased testicular weights and sperm concentration, and testicular degeneration.

Cancer Risk [27, 30]

 Human occupational studies have shown elevated cases of lymphoid cancer and, also breast cancer in female
workers.
 Ethyleneoxide has been shown to cause lymphoid cancer and tumors of the brain, lung, connective tissue,
uterus, and mammary gland in animals exposed to ethyleneoxide by inhalation.
 EPA has concluded that ethyleneoxide is carcinogenic to humans by the inhalation route of exposure [28, 29].
 EPA additionally concludes that the weigh to evidence supports a mutagenic mode of action for ethyleneoxide
toxicity [30, 31].
 EPA uses mathematical models, based on human and animal studies, to estimate the probability of a person
developing cancer from breathing air containing a specified concentration of a chemical. EPA has calculated an
inhalation unit cancer risk estimate of 3×10-3 perµg/m3 (6×10-3 perppb) for ethyleneoxide for both cancer types
combined (lymphoid cancer, in females, breast cancer). Taking into account the mode of action conclusion,
EPA estimates that if an individual were to continuously breathe air containing ethyleneoxide at an average of
2×10-4 µg/m3 (1×10-4 ppb) over his or her entire lifetime, that person theoretically would have no more than a
one-in-a-million increased chance of developing cancer as a direct result of breathing air containing this
chemical. Similarly, EPA estimates that a lifetime of continuously breathing air containing 2×10-3µg/m3(1×10-3
ppb) ethyleneoxide would result in not greater than one-in-a-hundred thousand increased chance of developing
cancer, and for air containing 2×10-2µg/m3(1×10-2 ppb) ethyleneoxide would result in not greater than a one-in-
tenthousand increased chance of developing cancer. For a detailed discussion of confidence in the potency
estimates, see EPA’s Evaluation of the Inhalation Carcinogenicity of Ethyleneoxide [32, 33, 37].

CONCLUSION
The design of 350kt/y of Ethylene Oxide from Ethylene and Oxygen plant was carried out. The reaction chemistry
considered was Ethylene and oxide at conversion rate of 0.90. Material and energy balances were carried out for the
reactor, distillation column and packed column. Also, sizing of these selected units of the entire plant were carried out
and importantly mechanical and Cost-estimation and economic evaluation analysis were also done and results gotten
HYSYS simulation process of the plant was done and compared.

REFEREN CES
[1]. Ethylene Oxide, Kirk-Othmer Encyclopaedia of Chemical Technology. Elastomers, synthetic to Export Systems,
4th edition, John Wiley & Sons, Ney York, 1994, pp. 450-466.
[2]. PP McClellan, Manufacture and Uses of Ethylene Oxide and Ethylene Glycol, Ind. Eng. Chem. 1950, 42(12),
2402-2407.
[3]. S Betton and C Ruehl, Ethylene oxide purification, Journal of Chemistry and Science, 2002, 11(2), 1245-1248.
[4]. GL Cunningham, WI Levan and WD Gwinn, the Rotational Spectrum of Ethylene Oxide, Phys. Rev., 1948,
74(10), 1537
[5]. PV Zimakov, and OH Dyment, Chapter III: Review of Individual Reactions of Ethylene Oxide, Ethylene Oxide,
M. Khimiya, 1967, pp. 90-120
[6]. P Dagaut, D Voisin, M Cathonnet, M Mcguinness and JM Simmie, Oxidation of Ethylene Oxide in a Jet –
Stirred Reactor and its Ignition in Shock Waves, Combustion and Flame, 1996, 156, 62-68.
[7]. CR Ashafi, Industrial safety and Health Management, 5th edition prentice Hall: McGraw Hill, New York, 2003.
[8]. H Person,. A simulation model of a reactor for Ethylene oxide production. Lund University, Sweden, 2015.
[9]. JM Coulson, JF Richardson, J Backurstand JH Harker, Chemical Engineering 6th edition, Butterworth
Heinemann, USA, 2002.
[10]. Han, Yuan-Zhang and Viswanathan, Hydroformylation of Ethylene Oxide, Krishnan, 20,030,032,845, 2003.
[11]. K Weissermel and HJ Arpe, Industrial Organic Chemistry, 4th edition, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2003, pp. 145-
148.
[12]. LM Neufeld and AT Blades, Kinetics of the Thermal Reactions of Ethylene Oxide, Canadian Journal of
Chemistry, 1963, 41(12), 2956-2961.
[13]. American Conference of Governmental, Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).2015TLV sand BEIs. Threshold Limit,
USA, 2015.
[14]. RJ Lewis, Sax’s Dangerous properties of Hazardous, Butterworth-Heinemann, USA, 2004

21
Ojong & Walter Euro. J. Adv. Engg. Tech., 2019, 6(5):8-22
_________________________________________________________________________________
[15]. K Onda, H Takeuchi and Y Okumoto, Mass transfer coefficient between gas and Liquid phases in packed
columns, Journal of Chemical Engineering Japan, 1968 1, 56.
[16]. R Sinnott and G Towler, Chemical Engineering Design, 5th Edition, Butter worth-Heinemann, Ney York, 2009.
[17]. M Fingas, (2002) Handbook of Hazardous Materials Spills and Technology McGraw-Hill, London, 2002.
[18]. DW Green and RH Perry, Perry’s chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th Edition McGraw Hill, New York, 2008
[19]. L Octave, Chemical Reaction Engineering,3rd edition, 2005, New York: John Wiley
[20]. DD Eley, H Pines and PB Weisz, Catalytic Oxidation of Olefins, Advances in Catalysis and Related Subjects,
Academic Press Inc., 1967, 17, pp. 156-157
[21]. WL McCabe and EW Thiele, (1925) Graphical Design of Distillation Column Ind. Eng. Chem., 1925, 17, 605.
[22]. MA Schuttz, DG Steward, JM Harris, SP Rosemblum, MS Shakur and DE O’brien, (2002) Reduce Costs with
dividing wall columns, Chem. Eng. Prog., 2002, 98 (5), 64.
[23]. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. Cincinnati, OH .http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/, 2015
[24]. JM John (2008), Hazardous Chemical, Encyclopaedia of Chemical Processing and Design, 2008, 20(2), 388-
345.
[25]. American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA), AIHA 2013 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines and
Regulation, USA, 2013.
[26]. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).Occupational Safety and Health Standards, Toxic and
hazardous
[27]. In Support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System
[28]. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards U.S.A
[29]. Valves for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents Biological Exposure Indices Cincinnati, OH. 2015.
[30]. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Ethylene Oxide U.SA.
Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides Handbook
https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/iris_documents/documents/toxreviews/1025tr.pdf, 2013
[31]. JS Arendt, and DK Lorenzo, Evaluating process safety in the chemical industry: A user’s Guide to quantitative
Analysis, Wiley-AICHE, 2000.
[32]. CSHB, Chemical safety and hazardous investigation board preliminary findings, Americans Texas city
explosion, available from www.chemsafety.gov, 2005.
[33]. Dow, Dow’s fire and Explosion Index Hazard classification Guide, American Institute of chemical Engineers,
New York, 1994.
[34]. RW Johnson, SW Rudy, and SD Unwin, Essential Practices for Managing Chemical Reactivity Hazards,
American Institute of chemical Engineers, USA, 2003.
[35]. California Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA) (2008). Air Toxics Hot Spots Program Technical
Support Document for the Derivation of Noncancer Reference Exposure Levels Appendix D3. Chronic RELs
and Toxicity Summaries Using the Previous Version of the Hot Spots Risk Assessment Guidance (OEHHA
1999).
[36]. Environmental Protection Agency. Evaluation of the Inhalation Carcinogenicity of Ethylene Oxide (CASRN),
USA (IRIS). National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development.
Washington, DC.EPA/635/R-16/350Fa.
[37]. Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and HumanServices, Atlanta, GA. 1990.

22