A-LEVEL European - History NOTES PDF
A-LEVEL European - History NOTES PDF
A-LEVEL European - History NOTES PDF
The “A" level History of Europe starts with the French Revolution of 1789. It is
therefore justifiable to argue that after the outbreak of the French
Revolution, European History rotates around the history of one nation, one
event, and one man. The nation is France, which event is the French
revolution and the man is Napoleon Bonaparte I. The French revolution was
therefore the greatest event in the history of not only France but of the
whole Europe. This was partly because it gave rise to the new ideas of
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity and Nationalism that spread throughout Europe
and the world. However, before we sink deep into the French revolution, it
is important to analyze the nature and characteristic of major states before
the revolution.
By 1789 Europe was composed of several states, both big and small. The
bigger states exerted a lot of influence on the small and weaker states.
These states were divided into two conceptual regions i.e. Easter-t Europe
and Western Europe. Eastern Europe composed of Russia, Austrian Empire,
parts of Turkish Empire and Eastern Prussia. Western Europe composed of
Britain, France, Portugal, Holland, Spain and Netherlands.
1 England
England by 1789 was ruled by George III with Pitt, the younger as the Prime
Minister. She was a constitutional monarchy with a functional parliament.
George III also granted political liberties and there was religious freedom.
The economy was the most progressive in Europe. The Agrarian
(agricultural) and industrial revolution had and were making a lot of
progress and England was leading Europe in agricultural and industrial
productions. This is why she was referred as the workshop of Europe.
2 Austria- Hungary
Austria was a German state ruled by Hapsburg ruling family. She had forged
an empire that comprised of different races brought under her control
through force and diplomacy. Austria- Hungary was ruled by Marie Theresa
from 1740-1780. She was very popular amongst all races because of her
The revolution was a product of many forces or factors, which had different
but important magnitudes / weights in causing the revolution. It was caused
by both long term factors which can be traced down to the 17th century
and the immediate factors that went up to the late 18th century. By 1789,
the social, political and economic conditions in France had outlived its
usefulness and the revolution was inevitable as peacock puts it; condition
in society must be very bad before men in large numbers under take its
over throw by violence. Although the revolution was caused by a number
of factors, it is worth observing that the contribution of these factors varied
in degree and magnitude. In other words no single factor however great it
appears to be can adequately explain the occurrence of the revolution.
The causes of this most important event in the history of Europe can
generally be grouped under social, political and economic problems that
France faced by 1789. However this grouping is only for the purpose of
simplifying them so that students as well as teachers find it easy to
understand them. This is because it is very hard to differentiate between
something that is political but not economic or social i.e. some factors can
be considered political, asocial as well as economic.
1- Unfair political system (the nature of the ancient regime)
Despotism
By 1789 France was ruled by the Bourbon Monarchy whose administration
was characterized by corruption, sectarianism, nepotism, human right
abuses, lack of democracy and above all despotism. Power was absolutely
in the hands of the king who was looked at as a demi-god. He was the law
and the law was himself and that is why Louis xvi boasted that; ''The thing is
legal because I wish it so." Even the king's ministers had unlimited powers
that could not be checked. For instance through the Lettress-de- cachet
(arrest warrant) the king and his minister could arrest and imprison anybody
at any time. This inflicted a lot of sufferings to the French men most of whom
were innocent who responded through the 1789 revolution.
Introduction
1. Like the clergy, the nobility were a privileged minority who were favored
by virtue 'of their birth. They were a parasitic group of people who survived
on the sweats of the peasants and middle class and this is why they were
nicknamed the "the spoilt child of France". They monopolized Land and
exploited the peasants on such Land as serfs. This forced the peasants to
take a revolutionary stand in 1789.
1. By 1789, the French peasants were in serious demand for Land, abolition
of uniform tax system, forced Labour, conscription in to the army, feudalism,
and serfdom and wanted Law and order to prevail. While the peasants in
other despotic states like Prussia, Austria and Russia had given up the
struggle for change and accepted their status as sufferers, the conditions
of the French peasants were relatively better and this motivated them to
struggle for better conditions. This is because change can always be
caused by people who have something to sacrifice in order to achieve
such desired changes.
2. The peasants formed the Paris revolutionary mob that greatly cheered
and supported the revolution. This forced Louis xvi to summon the estates
general meeting partly to find a way of handling the chaos caused by the
mobs. Otherwise, had it not been because of the disorder and Lawlessness
caused by peasants, possibly the estates general meeting would not have
been called and there would be no mobs to cheer and support the
revolution.
3. Beside the peasants were active in revolutionary events such as the reign
of terror, storming of Bastilles, March of women, confiscation of property
and setting up barricades against government troops.
8. The contributions of King Louis XVI (see point 6 on causes of the revolution)
9. The role of Marie Antoinette (see point 7 on causes of the revolution)
10. The role of Voltaire (point2 (a)
11. The role of Montesquieu (point2(b)
12. The role of J.J Rousseau (point 2 (c)
13. The role of John Lock (point 2 (d)
14. The role of Encyclopaedists like Diderot (page 6)
15. The role of Economists like Adams Smith and D'Alambert
Introduction
The National assembly was known as the constituent assembly because its
role was to make a constitution for France. But before the constitution could
be made, it was necessary to guarantee the rights of man. On 27 August
1789, the constituent assembly met, its discussion was centered on the
restoration of people's political freedom and how to protect them. By the
end of the session, it had come out with a document called the declaration
of the rights of man and citizens, which was to act as a preamble to the
French constitution. It had the following declarations amongst others;
i)People had the rights to rule themselves and that men were by nature
equal and therefore entitled to equal rights and privileges from the state.
This includes equality before the Law and taxation.
ii) It granted freedom of press, speech, worship, Association, ownership of
property, security and resistance to oppression.
iii) All government officials are public servants and are responsible to the
people. It continues that sovereignty is vested in the people who have the
final voice to determine their leadership.
iv) Imprisonment was not allowed except by laws decided only by the
people. No one was to be arrested without a proof of his or her guilt.
SIGNIFICANCE AND EVALUATION OF THE DECLARATION
i) It’s on record that the declaration of the rights of man and citizens was
the noblest side of the 1789 ; French revolution, without which it might not
have been a great even tin European History (Grant and ' Temperly, 1952,
P24). The human rights that were declared became the foundation for
people's rights and freedom not only in France but the entire world. These
have been adopted by the present UNO. The UNO charter has a special
article (16) on the rights of man and citizens, which was Xeroxed from that
of France. Although the political liberties were short-lived with the reign of
terror France, they were resurrected and have survived up to now.
ii) The declaration destroyed the remains of segregative social system that
had characterized the French society prior to 1789 i.e. between the nobles
Before the revolution, the pope and the Catholic Church had a lot of
influence on the political, economic, social and religious affairs of France.
The Catholic Church and the clergy were the most privileged in France. It's
on this account that the revolutionaries targeted the vast resources and
influence of the church. So in July 1790, the national assembly passed a
law, which incorporated the church in to state and the clergy in to civil
service. This became known as the civil constitution of the clergy. It had the
following implications/effects on France and Europe.
i) It abolished the church tithe since it was a sign of feudalism and a source
of exploitation. This was a relief to the peasants who were able to save part
of their meager/ little incomes.
ii) The Catholic Church monopoly over land was terminated. The church
land was nationalized, and, sold to the French citizens at a fair price. Such
a resolution availed land to the majority peasants and increased their
productivity and socio-economic welfare.
iii) For the first time, the clergy (church officials) were to be elected by the
general public and their salaries were to be paid by the government. The
salaries of the lower clergy were increased while those of the upper clergy
were reduced. These measures turned the clergy in to paid civil servants of
France.
It ought to the recalled that Louis xvi was forced to accept reforms from the
national assembly against his free will. He felt the condition under which he
was kept the Tuilleries were unbearable. He said; I would rather be a king
of Metz than remain king of France in such a position but this will end soon.
Eventually, he decided to join the émigrés in Austria for a counter-
revolution. So, Louis XVI and the royal family stealthily (secretly) left the
Tuilleries at night and headed for Austria. However, he was detected and
arrested by peasants at Varrenes, a few miles from the boarder of Austria
and France. They were brought back to Paris amidst great humiliation.
The significance of this abortive flight is as follows.
1. It depicted King Louis and his family as traitors and conspirators against
the revolution. This event made the revolutionaries to lose the little trust that
they had for the king.
2. It revealed further the king's inconsistent nature and his wavering
character. This is because he succumbed to ill advice of the queen and
the aristocrats to flee abroad and fight against the reforms he had
endorsed.
3. The event was a serious humiliation to the king amongst his subject. He
was arrested by peasants and escorted back to Paris as an enemy of
France and the revolution. The king and his family were kept as prisoners in
the Tuilleries which was a disgraceful event.
4. It strengthened the spirit of republicanism in France. Men like Robespierre
and Danton demanded for the replacement of the monarchy with a
republican form of government. However the National assembly was still
dominated by constitutional monarchists and no action was taken against
the monarchy. The king took an oath of allegiance to the constitution and
the matter rested there. Nevertheless, the spirit of republicanism spread fast
and that's why the monarchy was replaced by a republic the next year
(1792). One historian correctly observed that; At Varrenes, the monarchy
had died; all that Paris had to do a year later was to hurry it
5. While the Jacobins were agitating for a republican government, a
number of people wanted a constitutional monarchy. This marked the
REIGN OF TERROR
The reign of terror was the second significant stage in the course of the
French revolution. It began after the death of Mirabeau and ended with
the death of Robespierre. The reign of terror was characterized by violence,
total breakdown of law and order, economic crisis, under development,
loss of property and heavy massacres. It was championed by lower class
people with burning desires for power like Herbert, Danton, Marat and
Robespierre.
There were three forms of terror i.e. political, terror, which was against anti-
revolutionary elements especially the clergy and the nobles, economic
terror which was designed to eliminate currency manipulators and
hoarders of essential commodities and religious terror which was directed
against the catholic church, its practices and privileges.
It should be noted that the French revolution was initially a peaceful reform
movement that merely demanded for changes within the monarchy.
However by 1793, the peaceful reform movement had changed to a
violent one that demanded for too much blood and heads of the
Frenchmen. This can be attributed to internal and external factors.
The 7 weeks reign of Robespierre made him very unpopular and the
Frenchmen decided to guillotine the guillotiner on 28th July 1794. His terror
was so much that everybody in France decided to risk his or her head by
joining the opposition. He was first imprisoned by the convention
government but was forcefully released by his close followers. However, he
was re-arrested and guillotined as a criminal.
With the death of Robespierre, the leadership of France passed in the
hands of moderates who ended the reign of terror. They enacted measures
that promptly ended the reign of terror. For instance, the revolutionary
tribunal was re-organized on August 10th 1794 to be in harmony with the
ordinary French law. The committee of public safety although continued to
exist was no longer independent. The committee of general security as well
as the Jacobins club was abolished. Most political prisoners were also
released. Finally the convention government enacted a new constitution
and voted for a new government, which came to be known as the
directory government (1795 - 1799).
Negative effects
1. The reign of terror led to massive loss of life. About 17,000 people were
guillotined and these included high level persons like King Louis xvi, Queen
Marie Antoinette, Danton, Marat, Robespierre to mention but the most
important ones. Several other people were butchered by the mob. Most of
these victims were nobles and clergy although some suspected traitors
were also executed.
2. Besides, there was destruction of property and infrastructure. These
included Hotel-De-Ville and the Bastilles, which were destroyed by the mob.
8. The rise of Napoleon to power was also due to the reign of terror. Before
the reign of terror. Napoleon was an inexperienced and insignificant
artillery officer. But during the reign of terror, he gained experience and
significance especially when he suppressed the royalist uprising at port
Taulon in 1793 besides, the reign of terror led to the disappearance of senior
From 1792-1802, France faced and battled out two major coalitions
(alliances). The first coalition (1793- 97) of Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia,
Spain, Holland and Sardinia was formed by British Premier, Pit the younger.
Pit mobilized the alliance in the aftermath of France's declaration of war
against England in 1793. The war was that of conquest, plunder as well as
self-defense.
The second coalition (1798-1802) of Britain, Russia, Austria, Turkey, Naples,
and Portugal was provoked by Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. European
powers were upset by the aggressive foreign policy of the directory and
when they learnt that Napoleon was engaged in Egypt they decided to
act. It was to destroy the revolutionary government at Paris and to confine
France to her natural boarders.
The root of this war is a very controversial issue amongst historians. While
some scholars emphasize the ambitions and recklessness of the
revolutionaries, others have traced it to the fear and Jealousy of the great
powers. But the real root of the war was lack of mutual understanding
Negative effects
1. There was heavy loss of lives and destruction of properties. A number of
allied and French troops plus civilians lost their lives. Besides, there was
massive looting, confiscation of property that hitherto belonged to the
nobles and clergy.
2. The war led to the spread of revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty and
nationalism to other European states. These ideas were responsible for the
outbreak of thel830 revolutions in Europe, 1848 revolutions plus the German
and Italian unification struggles. Note that these ideas were strengthened
by French troops and rule in the conquered states.
3. The outbreak of the reign of terror in France was also due to the war. The
initial defeat that France experienced made the revolutionaries to resort to
violence in order to eliminate internal collaborators and spies. This led to
heavy shedding of blood that included innocent citizens.
4. The revolutionary wars led to economic decline in France as well as in
Europe. It created a lot of instabilities in France and undermined diplomatic
cooperation in Europe. It also halted industrial revolution and paralyzed
international trade. This slowed economic progress in Europe and thus led
to economic decline.
5. It contributed to the expansion of France and the fall of empires. The
Italians and Germans were conquered, and this led to the collapse of the
Austrian empire that hitherto included the Germans and the Italians. France
therefore became a dominant power, which destroyed the balance of
power in Europe. This created tension and led to poor diplomatic relations
in Europe.
6. The French success in the war made her to be plunged in a protracted
war with the rest of Europe for over 20 years. This made France more
stubborn and Europe more determined to crush her. This why the 3rd, 4th
and 5th coalitions were formed against France. Although France was finally
defeated in 1815, her ideas and influence were already deeply rooted over
Europe.
Positive effects
1. The Directory government ended the reign of terror and restored Law
and order in France. Before the directory government, France was in
anarchy where one had to be a killer in order not to be killed. However, the
directory government abolished the committees of public safety,
revolutionary tribunals and general security which were instruments of the
reign of terror. The government also released political suspects and
prisoners most of whom were unfairly imprisoned during the reign of terror.
These, restored peace, stability, the rule of Law and order.
NAPOLEON BO
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
Background
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Introduction
Napoleon's success as the 1st consul in 1804 made him proud and
increased his ambitions. He started dreaming of living like great statesmen
and conquerors like Julius Caesar, Charlemagne and Alexander the great.
His aims and objectives were to conquer and dominate the whole of
Europe, spread revolutionary ideas, re-establish the French prestige and
colonial influence and gain international prestige. He believed that it was
only him that it was only him who had the immediate solution to the
problem of instability in Europe. He often remarked that Peace cannot be
established in Europe till the whole of Europe comes under one crown.
To show that he was not merely making noise, Napoleon adopted an
aggressive and expansionist foreign policy over the whole of Europe for the
next 10 years (1804 - 1814). As a true child of the French revolution,
Napoleon's ambitions in his foreign policy was to export the revolutionary
principles of Equality, Liberty, Nationalism and fraternity to the whole of
Europe and indeed the world. He was very successful in the early years but
in the years 1808 - 1815 events turned against him as he experienced a
series of military defeats that led to his down fall.
ELEMENTS OF NAPOLEON'S FOREIGN POLICY
i) THESECOND COALITION (1798 -1802)
Napoleon rose to power at a time when the second coalition (Britain,
Turkey, Austria, Russia, Portugal and Naples) had defeated the French
troops. He swiftly re-organized the French troops and defeated Austria at
the battle of Marengo in March 1800. General Moreau also defeated the
second coalition forces at the battle of Hohenlinden (in the German states).
It forced Austria to sign the Luneville treaty (1801) in which she surrendered
Italy, Holland, Switzerland and all territories left of R. Rhine to France. He also
recovered the Campofomio treaty territories of Lombardy, Cisalphine
Republic and the Rhine Republic that had been lost to the coalition forces
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THE IMPACT OF NAPOLEON 1 ON EUROPE
After the battle of Waterloo, Napoleon retreated and reached France from
where he abdicated the throne in favour of his son. He also made a fruitless
attempt to sneak (escape) to America. The British could not allow him to
do so. He was instead forced to surrender himself to the British in the harbor
of Roche fort.
He was eventually exiled to a deserted, hilly and rocky island of St. Hellena
in the Atlantic Ocean.
Napoleon spent his six years exile life writing his memories. However, on 5th
May 1821 he died of stomach cancer. His last will was that he should be
buried on the banks of the Siena in the midst of the French people whom
he said he loved dearly. Nevertheless, this was ignored and he was buried
at St. Hellena. However, in 1846 the Louis Philippe brought his remains to
Paris and he was accorded a heroic burial with an erected memorial. This
was a fulfillment of Napoleon's last will.
THE IMPACT OF NAPOLEON 1 ON EUROPE
Napoleon Bonaparte I made a classical contribution to the history of
Europe. As a child of the French Revolution, Napoleon consolidated and
perfected the changes that the revolution had caused in Europe. In his
reign, he pursued an aggressive foreign policy (Napoleonic war) that
destroyed and shaped the political, social and economic structures of
Europe. The impact of Napoleonic activities and wars on Europe were
positive and negative as analyzed below.
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Effects Cnt
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2. AUSTRIA (EMPEROR FRANCIS II AND PRINCE METTERNICH)
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Methods
From 1802 to 1815, Napoleon was so dominant in European affairs that his
name was a common talk in every household. Although he experienced
serious opposition from 1808 that climaxed in to his downfall, he had
dominated the whole Europe with the exception of Britain and Turkey by
1807. He was able to achieve this by using a combination of force and
diplomacy.
i). In the first place, Napoleon used force to dominate Europe up to his
downfall in 1815. He had a large well motivated and efficient army that he
used to conquer states like Italy, Germany, Holland, Belgium etc and make
them part of his empire. He also maintained an army of occupation to
guarantee the loyalty of conquered states and ensure that they paid
tributes to France. The army was useful in maintaining law, order and
suppressing resistance hence consolidation of power in the conquered
states,
ii. Napoleon also used his close relatives and friends to administer the
conquered States. For example, Louis Bonaparte was made the King of
Holland, Jerome Bonaparte was made the King of Westphalia, Joseph
Bonaparte was in charge of Spain and Sister Caroline was the Queen of
Naples. Thus, by using his brothers, sisters and very close friends. Napoleon
was able to use loyal and trusted administrators who maintained effective
control in their areas of influence, which avoided any sabotage against
him.
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Chronological Time Frame Of Significant Events
1798 9th Nov The Brumier coup, Napoleon overthrew the Directory
government.
Dec Promulgation of a new constitution in France.
Establishment of the Parthenopean republic (Naples)
1799-1804, Napoleon as the first consul.
1799 Russians and Austrians reconquared Northern Italy, France
defeated at the battle of
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Weaknesses, Negative Impact And Failures Of The Vienna
SETTLEMENT
2. Unrealistic methods in countering further French aggression
The Vienna settlement used unrealistic methods to prevent further
aggression from France. States that were culturally, historically and
EUROPEAN HISTORY, DEPARTMENTAL NOTES, JULY 2019
religiously different were forcefully amalgamated to form buffer states. This
was the case with Holland and Belgium which formed the kingdom of
Netherlands. The Belgians were forced against their will to be under Dutch
control. This provoked file Belgians to revolt in 1830 which destabilized
Europe from 1830 up to 1839 when the Belgian neutrality and
independence was declared.
However, to another extent the unrealistic methods used in countering
French aggression was justifiable. This is because the smaller states were
individually too weak and vulnerable to stand against Napoleonic/French
aggression. It was therefore very easy for Napoleon to 'step' on them and
cause more chaos in Europe. To this extent, one can exonerate the
peacemakers because through such measures, they prevented French
aggression and restored peace, which were impossible before 1815.
The big powers are further accused of being too much concerned about
further French aggression that they forgot the fact that one of them could
also become aggressive. They were therefore absent minded that they did
not safeguard aggression from within themselves. Instead, they over
strengthened Prussia that enabled Prussia and later Germany to embark on
aggression against France in 1870 and the whole world that caused the
two world wars.
2. Neglect of Liberalism and Nationalism
The Vienna settlement ignored the forces of Liberalism and Nationalism that
were sweeping across
Europe. The settlement disregarded the plight of oppressed nations like the
Finns, Italians, Serbs and Poles who wanted to regain their independence.
It even went ahead to impose foreign control over the smaller states. For
example, the Italians and Germans were subjected to Austria's control
which led to the 1830 and 1848 revolutions. Poland was shared between
Austria, Russia and Prussia which forced the Poles to revolt in 1.830 and 1863.
One can argue that the Vienna settlement boomeranged in its attempt to
prevent the spread of revolutions simply because it underrated and
ignored the forces of Liberalism and Nationalism.
3. The principle of Legitimacy and the restoration of oppressive, dictatorial
and tyrannical rulers.
The principle of Legitimacy was ignored where it did not appeal to the
interest of the allied powers. For example, legitimate rulers in Poland,
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Background:
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Aims And Objectives Of The Congress System
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Congress Systems Cnt.
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Weaknesses And Failures Of The Congress System
By 1830, the congress system had failed to achieve its noble objectives and
was already languishing in the dustbin of history. The factors for the downfall
of the congress system were too varied and complex. They range from the
selfish and divergent interests of the powers to the absence of an agreed
principle of political faith and the social developments of a new Europe
against conservative forces leave alone the emergence of new and
inexperienced leaders.
1. Self interest of the congress powers
The congress system was doomed from the onset due to conflicting aims of
its participants. It was a combination of different states with different aims
and objectives that became a source of mistrust, suspicion, jealousy and
conflicts amongst the powers. This was because each power wanted to
satisfy its national interest and refused to sacrifice it for the sake of common
interest. Austria wanted to use the congress system to dominate the Italians
and Germans and expand her empire, to central Europe.
Prussia wanted to annex Saxony and the Grand Dutchy of war-saw. Russia
aimed at dominating the remains of the Ottoman Empire. Britain needed
more colonies to promote her trade and France wanted fair treatment and
a revival of her influence over Europe. These explains why there were
disagreements and lack of consensus over sensitive issues like a joint army,
pirates, slave trade, Spanish revolt and colonies and the Greek war of
independence. Each power was motivated by selfish interest that dug a
political grave for the congress system.
NB. Britain rejected the formation of an army to suppress revolutions
because she was a liberal country and wanted to maintain her policy of
isolation let alone wasting taxpayer's money and men in suppressing such
movements. She also vetoed the proposal to deal with pirates because the
pirates feared the union jack and British ships. Other powers reacted by
throwing a way British proposals to deal with slave traders because it would
give Britain that had the strongest navy excessive powers of interference.
Britain again resisted the suppression of Spanish revolution and the
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Contributions/ Role Of European Powers In The Dowfall Of The Congress
System
After the defeat of Napoleon and his 1st exile to the land of Elba (1814), the
Vienna Congress powers restored the Bourbon monarchy in France under
Louis Stanislus Xavier de France who took the title Louis
XVIII. This was in accordance to the principle of legitimacy by which rightful
rulers were to be restored to their legitimate thrones. Louis XVIII was 60 years
and was the eldest brother of King Louis XVI who was executed in Jan 1793.
Louis XVIII was both intellectually and by character suitable to be a king. He
had a lot of common sense and had learnt a lot from the French revolution
and Napoleonic era .He was aware of the faults of his brother that caused
his death .He had suffered enough in exile and would never wish to go
back. He therefore stood for a policy of compromise and reconciliation
between the new and old order in France.
However on 1st march 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and landed in
Paris with 1100 men. He received overwhelming ovation and support from
the peasants. The soldiers sent to engage him fraternized when he dimply
moved forward, opened his coat and asked, "Which of you will fire against
his emperor"? This event forced Louis XVIII to flee to exile once again and
Napoleon ruled for 100 more days the allies, who had suffered in the hands
of Napoleon, reorganized themselves and defeated Napoleon at the
battle of Waterloo on 18th June 1815. Louis XVIII returned from exile with a
charter to rule as a constitutional king. The support by the French men to
Napoleon showed Louis XVIII that the Bourbon monarchy was no longer
fashionable in France. He therefore, had no desire to revenge against the
supporters of the previous governments. Although he would have like to
enjoy life as it was in the old days, he had learnt that the good old days
were no more and he was able to let bygones be bygones. He was
therefore ready to accommodate the revolutionary and Napoleonic gains
and accepted to rule by the provisions o f the constitutional charter
provided by the Vienna peacemakers of 1815.
However, Louis XVIII was too old, ugly, sickly and died in 1824. He was
replaced by his brother Comte De-Artois who self styled himself Charles X.
Charles X*s unrealistic policies shortened the reign of the restored Bourbon
monarchy and in July 1830, it was overthrown by yet another revolution.
As already noted, the restored Bourbons were not to be absolute monarchs
but constitutional ones. This was provided by the victorious allies in 1814 and
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Weaknesses Of King Louis Xviii
Although Louis xvi had realized that the best way to rule France was through
a constitutional charter, he failed to hide his monarchial hang over. He still
considered himself as a king by the grace of love other than by the will of
the people .He regarded the charter simply as a gift that ff was to
use according to his wishes. This showed that Louis had not learnt enough
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Introduction
The Crimean war is the third violent event in the 19th century eastern
question. It was fought
by Turkey, Britain, France and Piedmont against Russia on the island of
Crimea in the black
sea from 1854-1856.
The Crimean war was the first major war between the great powers after
the Napoleonic war.
It is one of the most wasteful and useless wars fought without strong reasons.
A critical view
of the characteristics of the war has made some historians to conclude that
it was a war of
insanity and absurdity fought without clear objectives and principles. The
immediate event
that sparked off the war was the Russian occupation of the two Turkish
provinces of Wallacia
and Moldavia in 1853.
Attachments
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CAUSES
1. The Russian imperialism in the Balkans was a serious threat to the British,
French & Turkish interests.
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THE COURSE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CRIMEAN WAR
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ROLE OF EUROPEAN POWERS/PERSONALITIES IN THE OUTBREAK OF THE
CRIMEAN WAR;
The powers concerned were Russia, France, Turkey and Britain who were
the belligerents (powers at war).
MB: When apportioning responsibility a student has to analyze the reasons
for a country's involvement in the (provoking), showing why and how it
brought conflict (war) with other powers. However, if strong reasons exist for
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CONSEQUENCES OF THE CRIMEAN WAR
The Crimean war was concluded by the 1856 Paris peace treaty that was
signed between Russia and the allied powers. The war and the treaty had
political, social and economic impact on Europe both in the short run and
the long run. The consequences of the Crimean war were positive and
negative in the history of Europe.
1. The war resulted into massive loss of lives and destruction of property that
ranked highest in the history of Europe from 1816-1914. It is estimated that
Russia lost over 300,000men, France 100,000 and Britain 60,000. These
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Background
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CHARLES X'S UNREALISTIC POLICIES
1. Compensation scheme
In 1825, Charles X passed a compensation bill by which the émigrés who
had lost their properties during the French revolution and the rule of
Napoleon were to either regain their property or be compensated. He set
aside 1.000 million Francs (£ 40.000.000) for this scheme. Whereas it was
necessary to compensate the émigrés, the way the money was raised was
very unrealistic. This was achieved by lowering the interest rate on public
debts from 5% - 3%, taxing the peasants and die middle class. The peasants
and middle class lost the land that they had acquired during the revolution
which had even been confirmed by the Concordat,
NB. This aspect of Charles X's policy showed that he intended to revive the
privileges of the aristocrats and the unfair tax system which the French men
had fought and buried in 1789. He thus learnt nothing and forgot nothing
from the French revolution and the ancient regime.
2. His policy towards the Catholic Church
Charles X restored the privileges of the church in disregard to the civil
constitution of the clergy and the concordat. He passed a law regarding
defiling religious places and things in which death sentence was fixed for
theft in churches and making holy utensils in church unholy. This law was so
extreme and was never given a practical shape due to intensive opposition
against it. Even then, Charles X pursued pro church policies. For instance,
he revived the influence of the church on the state and education. A clergy
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REALISTIC POLICIES OF CHARLES X
Charles appears to have learnt something from the poor economic policies
of his brother Louis XVI. This made him to embark on socio-economic
developments. In his administration, agriculture, transport and industry
progressed; railways and gas lighting were coordinated throughout Paris
and its immediate towns by 1830.
In his foreign policy, Charles X pursued an adventurous foreign policy that
brought glory to the Frenchmen. He colonized Algeria in 1830 for France
and France became the first effective colonial power in Africa. Algeria
became a potential area for future exploitation through grains and olives
that were shipped as raw materials for French industries.
In the Greek war of independence, France under Charles X allied with
Britain and Russia, and assisted the Greeks against the Turks. The French
fleet took part in the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Navarino bay in 1827.
Although Charles X later withdrew the French troops from the Greek
struggle, he had co operated with England to reduce Russian imperialism
in the Balkans.
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Introduction
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GENERAL CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTIONS
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EFFECTS/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE 1830 REVOLUTIONS ON EUROPE
The 1830 revolutions had positive and negative effects on the political,
social and economic developments of Europe. Some of its effects were
short term while others were long term and everlasting in the history of
Europe.
Negative effects
1. Loss of life and destruction of property
The 1830 revolutions resulted into massive loss of lives and destruction of
property. In Belgium, the Dutch troops attacked and killed thousands of
Belgians while the revolutionaries destroyed important places like opera
house. In Italian states, Spain and Portugal, civil war developed after the
revolutions and led to more death and destruction of property.
2. Downfall of Kings and their governments
The 1830 revolutions led to the downfall of Kings and their governments. The
revolution in Belgium overthrew the Belgian crown as the Belgians regained
their independence from king Leopold II of the Kingdom of Netherlands. In
France, Charles X and the restored Bourbon monarchy were overthrown
and never again re-surfaced in the political leadership of France. In the
German states of Brunswick, the ruling Duke was overthrown. In the Italian
states of Modena and Parma, King Francis IV and Marie Louise were
overthrown respectively. The downfall of these Kings and governments
were a direct consequence of revolutionary activities against them.
3. Downfall of Louis Philippe and Orleans monarchy
The 1830 revolutions in Belgium, Italian states and Poland contributed to the
downfall of Louis Philippe and Orleans's monarchy in France. The liberals.
Catholics and glory seekers in France pressurized Louis Philippe to assist the
revolutionaries in Belgium, Italy and Poland but Philippe declined. It made
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CHARACTERISTICS/COMMON FEATURES OF THE 1830 REVOLUTIONS
INEUROPE
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Background:
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CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION:
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IMPACT/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BELGIANREVOLUTION
The Belgian revolution had positive and negative impacts on the political,
social and economic structures of Belgium as well as Europe.
Positive impact
1. The Belgians succeeded in regaining their independence. The Belgians
fought and repelled Dutch invasion several times. This made King William to
bow to pressure from Britain and France to recognize Belgian
independence by 1839. It led to the emergence of a new Belgium that was
independent on the map of Europe. On the other hand, this practically
ended Dutch exploitative, oppressive and discriminative rule over the
Belgians.
2. Belgium was declared neutral in the London conference of 1839 by the
big powers. This was because France and Russia had hidden ambitions to
dominate Belgium. Besides, the Vienna powers were afraid of war amongst
themselves over Belgium, which was bound to cause a major war in Europe.
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REASONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE BELGIAN REVOLUTION
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Background
The 1830 July Revolution was skillfully and successfully manufactured in Paris
from which the Orleans monarchy under Louis Philippe rose to power. The
revolutionaries (especially Lafayette and Tallyrand) planned to, establish a
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General observations of the 1830 charter
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FACTORS FOR THE RISE TOPOWER OFLOUIS PHILIPPE
1. Revolutionary Background
Louis Philippe had a revolutionary background that became a political
asset for his rise to power in 1830. His father had supported the French
revolution of1789 and had even voted for the death of his own cousin, Louis
XVI in 1793. In 1789, Louis Philippe at a tender age of 16 was already a
member of the Jacobin club. He participated in the French revolution and
physically fought in the revolutionary wars up to 1793. For instance, he
fought against Austria and the Royalists at the battle of Jemappes in 1792.
This made him the only hope for the middle class, peasants and workers
whose interest was jeopardized by the restored Bourbon monarchy hence
they voted him to power.
2. Weaknesses of the restored Bourbons
The Bourbon monarchy had outlived its usefulness as early as 1789. From
1815 when it was restored, it was too unpopular and survived on the support
of external powers. Louis XVIII and Charles X pursued very unrealistic policies
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DOMESTIC POLICY OF LOUIS PHILIPPE (ORLEANS MONARCHY), 1830 - 1848
Louis Philippe's government was very unstable from 1830 - 1840. It was
characterized by revolts, strikes and demonstrations. These were master
minded by republicans who felt cheated in 1830 since they had played a
leading role in the revolution of 1830. They had wanted a republican
government but had failed because of the fear of the possibility of war with
other monarchial governments in Europe. From 1830-1840, ten different
chief ministers (prime ministers) held office. Adolph Thiers was the last who
resigned in 1840 because of dissatisfaction over Mehemet All's affairs. From
1840 - 1848, Guizot's cabinet held power. His policies greatly contributed to
the downfall of Louis Philippe in 1848. The following were the achievements,
failures and weaknesses of Louis Philippe's domestic policies.
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1. Industrialization
Louis Philippe made commendable progress in the industrialization of
France. His pro-middle class and peaceful foreign policy attracted massive
investment in the industrial sector from the middle class.
Consequently, new machines were imported from England and new
industries like wine, steel and cotton ginning were established. Transport
and communication networks were improved to complement industrial
progress. Many railway lines including the one from Paris to St.German were
also constructed to facilitate transportation of raw materials and finished
products. By 1940, France was the third most industrialized state in Europe.
Industrialization created more employment opportunities, improved the
standard of living and promoted other sectors like agriculture, trade and
transport.
2. Trade
Louis Philippe under took special measures for the progress of trade. A
network of roads, canals, railways and harbours for docking of ships were
constructed to promote export trade. He also encouraged a free market
economy and free trade with the rest of Europe. However, free trade policy
was dropped when it was realized that the French infant industries could
not manage to compete with superior British manufactured products. This
forced Louis Philippe to resort to the policy of protectionism that
safeguarded infant industries in France and promoted economic
prosperity.
3. Education
In 1830, a law was passed to regulate education. Primary education was
entrusted to the church.
However, government control over secondary and higher institutions was
maintained. It was compulsory to educate children about spiritual and
social responsibilities. Louis Philippe also encouraged free education and
children were forbidden from any form of employment to avoid child
labour. His education policy produced useful citizens who steered the
socio-economic and political developments of France.
4. Religion
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Weaknesses, Failures and negative impact of Louis Philippe (Orleans
monarchy) in France
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FOREIGN POLICY OF LOUIS PHILIPPE
After his rise to power, Louis Philippe was immediately faced with a series of
complicated problems across the borders of France. There were political
unrest and disturbances in some parts of Europe right from 1830. The
different political factions i.e. Bonapartists, republicans, liberals, legitimists
and Catholics expected and pressurized Philippe to intervene in such affairs
and bring glory for France. They wanted Louis Philippe to revive French
military glory that was achieved by Napoleon I but disappeared during the
reign of the restored Bourbons.
Unfortunately, Louis Philippe was not bellicose (warlike), he was a man of
peace who did not wish to find himself in a hostile relationship with any of
his neigbours. He therefore, pursued a peaceful, cautious, unadventurous
and often inglorious foreign policy. This was dictated by some
considerations; First he wanted to avoid war with the great powers of
Europe who had fought and defeated Napoleon I. This is because they
were still suspicious of France as a distabiliser of peace. Secondly, Philippe
accurately realized that France had a different political ideology with
despotic Russia, Prussia and Austria except constitutional and liberal Britain.
He therefore, forged a cordial Franco-Anglo alliance where he took extra-
care not to antagonize the interest of Britain. This also helped him not to
antagonize the interest of the middle class who could not do without Britain
(as the workshop of Europe). Lastly, he was aware that although public
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ASPECTS OF LOUTS PHILIPPE'S FOREIGN POLICY
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REASONS/FACTORS FOR THE DOWNFALL OF THE ORLEANS MONARCHY
AND LOUIS PHILIPPE
Right from 1830 when he was elected, Louis Philippe was surrounded by
internal and external problems.
This weaknesses in settling internal and external problems made his downfall
inevitable by 1848. It was largely his inglorious and non adventurous foreign
policy that made his fall a foregone conclusion .The reasons as to why
Philippe fell from power are hereby discussed below:-
1. He was the first elected king in the history of France with the title by the
grace of God and will of the election. This meant that the Frenchmen could
use their votes to unseat him if he went contrary to their expectations. The
revised 1830 constitution greatly reduced his powers. Amongst others, he
could not like special decrees, dissolve the parliament and the parliament
was composed of voted members who could even debate the budget.
These made him a weak king with no proper control over the social, political
and economic affairs of France hence contributing to his downfall.
2. Louis Philippe was not the most popular politician at that time. He won
election by a mere majority of 219 votes out of430 members in the chamber
of deputies. This meant that right from the start he had a majority of 211
opposition members in the chamber of deputies. Even his election was
largely due to misconception rather than any concrete support for him. The
liberals thought that he would be a liberal king. The workers thought that
the long years of poverty had taught him a lesson of the need to alleviate
poverty. The Bonapartists thought that he would revive Napoleon's glory
over Europe. Unfortunately, Louis Philippe had none of such in his political
programs. Apart from the middle class who were appeased up to 1846, the
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Introduction
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METTERNICH
He was born on 15 May 1773 at Coblenz in the Rhine lands in Prussia. His full
name was Klemens Wensel Nepomuk Lothas Von Metternich. In 1792, the
invading French army forced him to flee to Austria from where he married
the granddaughter of Austrian chancellor, Princess Kaunitz of Marie
Theresa. This increased his prestige, respect, rights and influence in Austria
and aided his rise to power. Indeed, it was the then Austrian chancellor who
gave him the high sounding title Prince Von Metternich in 1813.
In 1809, Metternich was made the minister of foreign affairs of Austria and
in 1821, he became the chancellor of the Austrian empire following his
achievements at the Vienna settlement and the congress system. Using
these positions, he dominated European politics to such an extent that the
period 1815 - 1848 has been referred to as the Metternich period and
himself as the coachman of European affairs.
Metternich graduated at Strasbourg University in France and later Mainz
between 1790 - 1792. He specialized in diplomacy although he was equally
interested in linguistics, history, science and astronomy.
By birth, Metternich was from aristocratic family where the new forces of
nationalism, liberalism and democracy were bitterly resented. This together
with his experience of the reign of terror in Prance made him to believe that
revolutions of the French type were the greatest enemy of the aristocracy
and indeed the people. He described the French revolution and all that it
stood for as; The disease which must be cured by the volcano which must
be extinguished, the gangrene which must be burnt out with a hot Iron, the
hydra with Jaws open to swallow up the social order". To him, democracy
could "change day light into darkest night
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METHODS USED BY METTERNICH TO CONTROL EUROPEAN AFFAIRS OR HOW
METTERNICH CONSOLIDATED HIS POWER/ SUPREMARCY IN EUROPE FROM
1815 -1848
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ACHIEVEMENTS AND POSITIVE IMPACT OF METTERNICH IN EUROPE, 1815 -
1848 (ROLE OF METTERNICH IN EUROPEAN AFFAIRS)
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WEAKNESSES, FAILURES AND NEGATIVE IMPACT OF METTERNICH
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REASONS WHY METTERNICH DOMNATED EUROPEAN POLITICS FROM 1815 -
1848
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THE DOWNFALL OF METTERNICH AND COLLAPSE OF THEMETTERNICH SYSTEM
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Introduction
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GENERAL CAUSES OF THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE:
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CONSEQUENCES / SIGNIFICANCE OF THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS ON EUROPE
The 1848 Revolutions had positive and negative impacts on the social,
political and economic structures of Europe.
Positive impact
1. Unifications of Italy and Germany
The 1848 revolutions contributed to the final unifications of Italy and
Germany by 1871. In the first place, the revolutions led to the downfall of
Metternich and collapse of his system that had been obstacles to the
unification of both states. Secondly, the failures of the revolutions in Italian
and German states exposed the real obstacles and enemies in the
unification process of both nations.
Thirdly, these revolutions led to the rise of new men like Victor Emmanuel II,
Cavour and Bismarck who corrected the weaknesses of the 1848
revolutionaries and successfully accomplished the unifications of Italy and
Germany by 1871.
2. Partial Achievements
I Temporary and partial successes were realized out of the 1848 revolutions.
In Italy, Mazzini and Garibaldi succeeded in establishing a Roman Republic
under Dr. Manin by 1849. However, Napoleon III sent French troops under
General Oudinot who destroyed the republican government and the
revolution in Rome. In Hungary, Kossuth succeeded in establishing the
Hungarian Republic in March 1849 with himself as the president. However,
like the Roman Republic, the Hungarian Republic was demolished by
Russian troops who were sent by Tsar Nicholas I. The revolutionaries in the
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COMMON FEATURES / CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS
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GENERAL REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE
/ AUSTRIAN EMPIRE:
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REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF THE 1848 REVOLUTION IN PRUSSIA
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REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS IN ITALIAN STATES
1. The Italians were militarily weak and were not supported by the various
state armies. On the other hand, Austria was a military power with a mighty
army, which was commanded by experienced commanders like Radetsky.
Radetsky was a great mobiliser and a battle hardened soldier, who had
fought Napoleon on several occasions. This is why he defeated Italians at
Custozza and Novara, which brought the revolution to a bitter end.
2. Economic backwardness compared to Austria's strength also made the
Italians to fail The Italians did not have sufficient resources to mobilize,
finance and arm a strong army that could have defeated Austria.
On the other hand, Austria had exploited her subjects (Italians inclusive)
and had sufficient resources, which she successfully used to suppress the
revolutions.
3. Mettenich system had undermined Italian nationalism in favour of
Austrian dominance. His policy of spy network, divide and rule and force
explains why the Italians were not united and organized during the
revolution. Although Metternich fled to exile, his system was effectively used
against Italians by his successor, Schwazenburg.
4. Racial and Ideological differences were also responsible for the failure of
the revolutions in Italian states. The middle class supported Austria to
suppress the revolutions because they were afraid of communism, which
was being advocated by workers and peasants. There were also divisions
and conflicts between agitators of republican, federal and military
governments. The republicans led by Mazzini disregarded foreign
assistance and kings, which made kings to turn against the revolutions. All
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Introduction
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REASONS FOR THE DELAY OF ITALY UN UNIFICATION/OBSTACLES TO ITALIAN
UNIFICATION:
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FACTORS THAT FAVOURED THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AFTER 1850 OR
FACTORS THAT LED TO THE FINAL UNIFIC A1 ION OF ITALY BY 1870
The Italian Unification that was frustrated by so many obstacles was able to
succeed between 1850s and
1870. This was because problems that had hindered successful unification
were addressed from 1850- 1870. The efforts of patriotic Italians and the
changes in the international situation favoured the unification process and
that is why it succeeded, in other words, the factors that favoured the
unification of Italy can be attributed to internal and external factors. These
were;
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THE ROLE OF PERSONALITIES IN THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
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THE ROLE OF GREAT POWERS IN THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
The role of great powers in the unification of Italy was double folded i.e.
both negative and positive. The European powers who played a significant
role in a unification of Italy were France, Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia.
These powers hindered the unification process in the initial stages from 1796
to 1850 but accelerated or favoured it between 1850 to 1870. Their roles
both positive and negative are as discussed below.
FRANCE
a) France is credited for laying foundation for the unification of Italy.
Napoleon I conquered and inspired the Italians with revolutionary doctrines
of equality, liberty and nationalism. He also reduced the number of Italian
states from 13 to 3, which made the Italians to be closer to each other and
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Introduction
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OBSTACLES / FACTORS THAT DELAYED THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
1. Religious Difference
Religious difference divided the Germans and made it difficult to achieve
unity by 1860. The northern German States e.g. Prussia, Saxony, Holstein,
Brunswick and Hanover were Protestants while the Southern German States
e.g. Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Baden were Catholics. The predominantly
protestant northern States were conservative and more affiliated to Prussia
while the Catholics in the South had closer ties with France and Austria. The
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STAGES IN THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
I) NAPOLEONICERA 1807-1815:
In 1807, Napoleon conquered the German states from the Austrian
Habsburg rulers. He re-organised the states and merged them in what is
called the Confederation of the Rhine. He introduced some reforms such
as Universal Education and Constitutional Parliament. As a true son of the
French revolution, Napoleon preached and strengthened the French
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FACTORS THAT FAVOURED THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY OR REASONS
WHY BISMARCK AND PRUSSIA SUCCEEDED IN THE UNIFICATION OF
GERMANY
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SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE UNIFICATIONS OF ITALY AND
GERMANY (COMPARING AND CONTRASTING THE UNIFICATIONS OF ITALY
AND GERMANY).
By 1850, the unification of Italy and Germany were faced with internal and
external obstacles that rendered the unifications of the two nations a
failure. However, after 1850, there were changes internally and externally
that favoured the unification of both nations. The two unifications were
stimulated by the French revolution and completed by the Franco-Prussian
war of 1870-1871. The main architects of Italian unification were Mazzini,
Garibaldi, Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II while the German unification
was achieved through the efforts of Bismarck, Von roon, Von Moltek and
King William 1. A critical analysis of the origin, course and consequences
presents us with striking similarities (comparison) amidst some differences
(contrasts) as the foregoing analysis reveals.
SIMILARITIES:
1. The greatest obstacles to the two unifications by 1848 were Austria and
Prince Metternich. Metternich used a combination of diplomacy and force
to block all attempts to unify Italian and German states up to 1848. It was
only after his downfall in 1848 that the two unifications progressed. Even
after the downfall of Metternich, Austria continued to have direct and
indirect control over Italian affairs. In the German affairs, Austria dominated
the Confederation Parliament, which she manipulated to oppress and
exploit the Germans. Thus, Metternich and Austria were the greatest
bottlenecks in the unifications of both Italy and Germany.
2. Foreign assistance was another key element in both unifications. The
unifications of both states were hindered by lack of foreign assistance
before 1848 and favoured by the role of it after 1850. The Italians were
assisted in the liberation of Lombardy and Venetia by France and Prussia
respectively. On the other hand, the Germans were assisted in the liberation
of Schleswig and Holstein by Austria and Italy respectively.
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Introduction
The Franco-Prussian war was the last event that completed the unifications
of Italy and Germany. It was a military confrontation between France and
Prussia, which led to the downfall the second French Republic| and
changed the European balance of power in favour of Germany. This
caused a lot of tension in Europe, which climaxed into the outbreak of the
First World War. This catastrophic war was caused by a combination of long
term and immediate factors as portrayed by the following analysis.
i) Historical problem between France and Prussia was responsible for the
outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war. From 1792, Prussia openly opposed
French revolutionary ideas and changes that it caused in France and
Europe. She allied with other powers and fought in all the coalitions against
France under the revolutionary government and later Napoleon Bonaparte
up to the downfall of Napoleon. In 1815, the
Vienna Settlement disappointed France by giving Prussia the Rhine lands,
parts of Poland and Saxony
Prussia also remained threatened by the success of further French
revolutions of 1830 and 1848 that consolidated the seeds of liberalism and
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CONSEQUENCES/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE WAR
Positive consequences
1. The war was a great success for Bismarck and a proof that he was the
"master political tactician of the 19th century". Bismarck had argued that
Germany would be unified on Prussian terms using the policy of blood and
iron. He had also assured Disraeli that he would "attack Denmark to gain
possession of Schleswig and Holstein, put Austria out of the German
confederation and attack France". This is exactly the manner and stages
throughout which Bismarck achieved the unification of Germany. The
success of Prussia over France in the Franco-Prussian war boosted
Bismarck's popularity and influence in German as well as European politics.
He became the chancellor of United Germany and played a major role in
directing German and European affairs from 1871-1890.
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REASONS FOR THE DEFEAT OF FRANCE:
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Introduction
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ELEMENTS OF BISMARCK'S DOMESTIC POLICIES (ACHEIVEMENTS AND
FAILURES)
ACHEIVEMENTS
1) Constitutionalism
Bismarck successfully manipulated the new constitution of 1871 to his own
advantage and that of Prussia.
The constitution provided for a parliamentary democracy with two
assemblies (houses) i.e. the Bundesrat and the Reichstag. The Bundesrat
was the legislative assembly (law making body). It was constituted by
58members from the different German states. Out of the 58 representatives,
Prussia alone had 17 who were Bismarck's own men. The decision of the
Bundasrat could be vetoed by 14 Prussian representatives. This gave Prussia
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WEAKNESSES AND FAILURES
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FAILURES, WEAKNESSES, NEGATIVE ROLE OF BISMARCK IN EUROPE
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THE DOWNFALL OF BISMARCK, 1890
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BACKGROUND
The Eastern Question refers to the 19^ Century problematic and often
violent events in the Balkans that arose from the decline of Turkey, the rise
of Balkan nationalism and the involvement of the great powers in the
Balkan-Turkish affairs. Dr. Mill called it “the problem of filling the vacuum
caused by the decline of the Turkish Empire in Europe". The Question can
broadly be expressed as; who was going to take Over from Turkey, where,
when, how and to what extent? The attempt to answer these questions
involved the European powers in a series of quagmires, quarrels and wars
that left the Eastern Question unanswered until the Versailles settlement of
1919.
From the 14th to 17th centuries, Turkey made great conquests and created
a great empire. The empire stretched from the boarders of Russia and
Austria in the north through Asia Minor, Syria, North Africa (Maghreb), and
Mediterranean Sea islands of Crete, Cyprus, Malta etc. In the Balkans, it
included Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Wallacia, Moldavia, Macedonia,
Transylvania etc. The Turks had built a large empire at Constantinople and
the Sultans of Turkey were very influential in European affairs.
The empire surrounded areas that were of great political, social, economic,
strategic and religious significance to European powers. The black and the
Mediterranean seas were areas of great Economic and strategic interests.
Bethlehem was a social and religious centre of the world. The smaller Balkan
states were important for imperial & colonial ambitions of the great powers.
This explains why there were convergent and conflicting interference by
Western European powers like Britain, France, Russia, Austria, Prussia and
later Germany.
It was a heterogeneous empire composed of people of different races,
religion, language, culture & customs. These diverse nationalities were
subjected to the Ottoman rule by force against their will. It therefore
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REASONS FOR THE DECLINE/ WEAKNESS OF TURKEY
1. The loss of Turkey's military power was responsible for the collapse of the
Ottoman Empire. From the 14th -17th Centuries, Turkey was a world military
power and had an extensive empire that included the continents of
Europe, Asia and Africa. But towards the end of the 18 th century and the
beginning of the 19th Century, Turkey lost her military glory. She had a
cosmopolitan array that disciplining and integrating under one command
became impossible. Consequently, the army lost its effectiveness and
could not hold the different nationalities together as a sign of weakness.
Even her former subject states like Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria and Greece
became more powerful and started disobeying the sultan like the way
Mohamed Ali (Egypt) and the Greeks did. In fact, Turkey became so sick
(weak) that she had to be assisted in suppressing internal revolts like in the
Syrian question.
2. Administrative problem was one issue that contributed to the crumbling
of the Ottoman Empire.
Turkey had created a heterogeneous empire that covered the continents
of Europe, Asia and Africa. These were people of different historical,
cultural, and linguistic background that were difficult to hold under a
centralized administration. The empire was therefore too large to be ruled
led by any single power or person.
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EVENTS OF THE EASTERN QUESTION
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Introduction
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COURSE
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CONSEQUENCES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE GREEK WAR OF REVOLT
Positive Impact
The war made the Greeks to regain their independence. The Turks had
conquered the Greeks in the 14th century but the Greeks revolted and
freed themselves from Turkish rule. They were assisted by France, Russia and
Britain to get unconditional independence in 1832 under the leadership of
Prince Otto of Bavaria.
2. The map of Europe was redrawn as a consequence of the Greek war of
independence. The Greeks with assistance from the Russians, French and
British defeated Turkey and were granted their independence by the
London treaty of 1830. In 1832, Britain, France and Russia demarcated her
(Greece) boarder and that of Ottoman Empire. This led to emergence of a
new independent state of Greece on the map of Europe, which changed
the map of Europe.
3. The revolt revived European diplomacy much as it divided the powers
leading to the collapse of the concert of Europe. It threatened European
peace and forced European powers to come together to solve the
problem. This led to the calling of the congresses of Laibach in 1821,
Veronna in l822, St. Petersburg in l825 and the London conference in 1830.
These were diplomatic meetings that were intended to peacefully address
the Greek concern for independence.
Negative Impact
4. The Greek war of independence was one of the most destructive
resistances that led to massive loss of lives and destruction of property.
About 25,000 Turks and 30,000 Greeks were massacred in Morea and Chios
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Background
This was the second violent event that constitutes the Eastern question. It
refers to confrontation between Mehemet Ali of Egypt against Sultans
Mohamad II and later Abdul Majid of Turkey over the possession of Syria. It
was sparked off by Sultan Mohamad II's refusal to fulfill his reward to
Mehemet Ali for his assistance in the Greek war of independence that
made Mehemet Ali to forcefully occupy Syria in 1831 and threaten to
takeover Constantinople. This attracted the intervention of the big powers
of Europe who provided wrong answers, which left the question
unanswered until the 1841 Straits convention provided concrete solutions.
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Causes
1. The 1821 - 1832 Greek war of independence was a significant event that
made the outbreak of the Syrian question/war inevitable. Sultan Mohamad
n called on Mehemet Ali of Egypt to assist him to suppress the Greek
resistance with promises of Syria, Morea and Damascus. However, the
Greeks succeeded in regaining their independence with the support of
European big powers by 1832. This left Sultan Mohammad II so disappointed
that he declined to fulfill his promises of territorial rewards to Mehemet Ali,
which provoked him to use force to take over Syria. Besides, the Greek war
of independence accelerated the downfall of the Congress system and
left European powers so divided that they could not provide a diplomatic
solution / answer to the Syrian question.
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CONSEQUENCES / SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SYRIAN QUESTION /WAR
Positive consequences
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Introduction
The Berlin congress was a European diplomatic meeting held at Berlin, the
Capital of Germany from June- July 1878. It was chaired by Bismarck who
played the role of an "honest broker". Britain was represented by Disraeli
and Salisbury, Russia by Gortschakoff, France by Wadington, Austria by
Andrassy and Corti represented Italy. The main pre-occupation of the
congressmen was to settle the Eastern question especially the problem of
the big Bulgaria.
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REASONS WHY THE CONGRESS WAS CALLED/AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
1. To revise the San Stefano treaty that Russia had imposed on Turkey in
March 1878. The big powers wanted to dismantle the big Bulgaria that was
created by Russia.
2. To stop Russian imperialism that had made her dominant in the Ottoman
Empire. For instance, the San Stefano treaty had given Russia control over
Bessarabia and Bulgaria.
3. The congress was also to settle territorial disputes that were a source of
tension amongst the European powers. Territorial conflicts were mainly
between Russia, Turkey and Austria in the
Balkans.
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CONSEQUENCES/ SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BERLIN CONGRESS ON EUROPE
i) The Berlin congress saved the Ottoman Empire from disintegration. Russia
had conquered the Empire, acquired Bessarabia and instituted the Big
Bulgaria. She had also given independence to states like Serbia,
Montenegro and Romania. However, the Berlin Congressmen revised the
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Introduction
World War 1 refers to the first most disastrous war that was fought on a
global scale from 1914 - 1918. It was fought between Britain, France, Russia,
USA, Italy and their allies against Germany, Austria- Hungary, Turkey,
Bulgaria and their allies on the other hand. The war was fought on land, in
the air, on the sea, under and above the sea by both soldiers and civilians.
The World War was the climax of international tension that had been
building up in Europe after the unifications of Germany and Italy. Such
tension found a line of weakness in the Balkans to explode into a global
war. Bismarck prophesized it when he told a friend that; I shall not see the
World War but you Will, it will start from the near east
History proved him a true prophet when the First World War was sparked off
after the assassination of France Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne
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CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR
The causes of the First World War are so complex and intertwined that no
single factor can be held absolutely responsible for this catastrophic event.
Even the Sarajevo double murder that sparked off the war was itself a result
of accumulated tension that had piled up in Europe for a long time. If s
therefore logical that the causes of the war be traced from events that
created such tensions and made the outbreak of the war inevitable be
examined.
1. ALLIANCE SYSTEM.
After the Franco-Prussian war, Bismarck started the alliance system to
isolate France and make it difficult for her to wage a successful war of
revenge against Germany. During his lifetime, France was effectively
isolated and the Alliance system became an instrument of peace in
Europe. However, after his resignation (1890) the alliance system and
European peace were left in the hands of young, inexperienced and
aggressive men like Kaiser William 11 which drove Germany and the world
to the First World War. A number of scholars have asserted that alliance
system was primarily responsible for the outbreak of the First World War.
Byl914, alliance system had divided Europe into two hostile and
antagonistic camps.
The two camps were the German centered triple alliance (1882) that had
Austria - Hungary and Italy and the Triple entente (1907), which comprised
of Britain, France, Russia and Japan as the main allies. These contributed to
the catastrophe of 1914 in a number of ways.
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ROLE OF EUROPEAN POWERS IN THE OUTBREAK OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR
Each and every power that participated in the war should be held
responsible although the degree of responsibility differs. In other words, the
responsibility varies from country to country based on the magnitude of the
blame; It should be noted that much as countries like Italy, Japan, USA,
Bulgaria and Turkey participated in the First World War, they cannot be held
responsible for the outbreak of the war.
This is because they joined the war later when it had already started i.e.
"broken off'. Thus, with or without them the First World War would still have
been an important event in the history of Europe and indeed the whole
world.
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REASONS FOR THE DEFEAT OF CENTRAL POWERS/GERMANY IN WORLD WAR
I OR REASONS FOR THE TRIUMPH OF ALLIED POWERS IN WORLD WAR I
Background
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EFFECTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR
The First World War was the most destructive war fought between the highly
organized states of the 20th century. It was the first war on a large scale that
dislocated the political, social, economic and military structures and the
whole world. Every belligerent state bore lasting scars of the terrible ordeal
between the years 1914 - 1918. Its impact will directly and indirectly
continue to affect the style and pattern of life of mankind in the universe.
Positive impact
i) Political freedom
The war gave rise to new and independent states on the map of Europe.
The Versailles peacemakers granted independence to Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia etc. The independent
Republic of Yugoslavia was created by merging Herzegovina, Croatia,
Slovenia and Montenegro.
Rumania also became independent and even acquired Bessarabia from
Russia and Transylvania from Austria-Hungary. Most of the newly created
states were formerly under the Ottoman Empire. However, the merging of
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Introduction
The First World War finally ended at the 11th hour of the 11th day in the
11th month. It was after a spokesman of the central powers (Germany and
her allies) conceded defeat and agreed to an armistice with Marshall
Forhe, the commander of the allied forces. This left the leading statesmen
with the task of settling the problems created by the war and maintaining
world peace. After the surrender of Germany and her allies, the victorious
powers met in a conference at Versailles in Paris between January and
June 1919. They came out with the Versailles peace treaty; The Versailles
treaty was an elaborate document of 800 words that contained 440
articles. It was a peace agreement signed between the victorious powers
(who were 27 by then) and the defeated powers between 1919- 1923.The
main treaty was signed in the hall of mirrors at Versailles. Other treaties
imposed on the defeated powers were included in its final version, such
were;
i) The treaty of St. German with Austria in September 1919.
ii) The treaty of Trianon with Hungary in June 1920.
iii) The treaty of Nuilly with Bulgaria in Nov 1919
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WOODROW WILSON'S 14 POINTS
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THE TERMS/PROVISIONS OF THE VERSAILLES TREATY
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AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE VERSAILLES PEACE MAKERS
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ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE VERSAILLES PEACE TREATY OF 1919
1. The treaty concluded the First World War and created some relative
peace in Europe. At Versailles,
Germany and her cohorts (allies) were forced to denounce war and
accept defeat. The terms of the treaty e.g. disarmament and reparations
weakened Germany and her allies which safeguarded Europe and
mankind from war. This is why there was a period of relative peace up to
the outbreak of WorldWar11 in 1939.
2. It brought diplomatic understanding that had failed in Europe before and
during the First World War.
Collective decisions were made on international issues as opposed to the
pre-1914 idea of every nation for itself and God for us all. Although the
treaty was un-realistic to the defeated powers, it nevertheless brought
together the formerly divided Europe before 1914 to a roundtable
settlement as a step towards global co-operation.
3. The neutrality of all important water bodies was guaranteed. For
instance, the Dardanelles (mouth of the Baltic Sea) that was an area of
economic conflict was open to all ships of ail nations to ensure free
navigation. The treaty also removed trade barriers, which boosted
international trade. Although countries pursued the policy of protectionism
which undermined free international trade, the treaty has to be
commended for ushering peaceful trade which renewed economic co-
operation in Europe.
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WEAKNESSES AND FAILURES OF THE VERSAILLES TREATY
The idea that World War I was fought to end all wars was rendered null and
void by the unrealistic terms of the Versailles settlement. The unfairness of
the treaty to the defeated powers created great need for revenge against
the signatories of the settlement. This brought tension in Europe, which
climaxed in the outbreak of yet another World War in 1939 justifying the
view that the 1919 statesmen had made peace without peace. The
foregoing are the weaknesses and failures of the Versailles peace treaty;
1. The treaty was imposed on Germany and her allies since there was no
open and frank discussion. It was not negotiated but dictated by the
victorious powers against the defeated nations making it unrealistic in an
attempt to bring about reconciliation in Europe. The treaty was dominated
by France, Britain and USA, who worked hard to see that the defeated
powers were permanently disabled. It therefore failed to capture European
public opinion.
2. Apart from Germany and her allies, the Versailles Treaty also left Italy and
Japan dissatisfied. Italy and Japan were poorly compensated for the role
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The Versailles treaty of 1919 that Germany was forced to sign is one of the
most unrealistic treaties that have ever existed in the history of mankind. The
terms were carefully and skillfully manipulated to punish Germany plus her
allies and reward the victorious powers. It therefore had negative impact
on the social, economical and political developments of Germany. This is
what made Germany to reject the Versailles treaty in the later years which
objection was justified basing on the unrealistic terms of the settlement.
i) The Versailles framers/makers forced Germany to renounce war and
accept defeat. This was done by the Weimer Republic that was hurriedly
set up after the abdication of the troublesome Kaiser William II. However,
this made the Weimer Republic unpopular to the majority of the Germans
led by Hitler who blamed the government for accepting the Versailles
settlement.
ii) The reparations which Germany was forced to pay crippled Germany's
economy and led to the great economic depression of 1929 - 1933 in
Europe. It left Germany too poor to fight unemployment, inflation and
poverty. This is why Germany had the worst inflation in the history of the
world between 1930-1933.
iii) Germany was weakened militarily by the settlement. She was disarmed
and allowed to maintain an army of 100,000 just to maintain law and order.
This left the Weimer Republic weak since even the 100,000 troops could not
maintain law and order in time of political disturbance. The 100,000 soldiers
could not even defend the territorial integrity and independence of the
government.
iv) Germany was deprived of her colonies in Africa and Europe. They were
given to Britain, France, Belgium, Austria, Japan and South Africa as
mandate slates. This undermined Germany's external trade opportunities
which would have strengthened Germany's economy.
v) Germany was forced to hand back Schleswig to Denmark which she had
forcefully annexed (from Denmark) in 1864. She was also forced to give
back to France the mineralized provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. This
seriously affected Germany's economic recovery since these territories
were the richest in minerals e.g. iron and coal deposits.
vi) The settlement scattered the Germans under the newly created states.
For example, 2.5 million Germans were given to Poland, 3 million to
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REASONS WHY THE GERMANS REJECTED THE VERSAILES SETTLEMENT
Hints
NB. For details refer to the earlier notes most especially on weaknesses or
failures of the treaty as far as Germany was concerned or else look in the
previous notes on the negative consequences of the treaty on Germany
i.e. why they rejected it with time.
i) The treaty was dictated and Germany was forced to sign. There was no
discussion which could have given the Germans the chance to air their
views.
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Introduction
The Russian revolution of 1917 is the most important event in the political
history of the 20thcentury. It was the first successful socialist revolution in the
history of mankind. The revolution, whose causes were similar in many
aspects, occurred twice in the same year (1917). The first was in March,
which led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and ended the reign of
Tsardom in Russia. This gave way to the establishment of a provisional
government under Prince Lvov. The immediate cause of the March
revolution was acute food shortage.
The second revolution was masterminded by Lenin on 6th November 1917
through a coup against the provisional government of Lvov. This led to the
establishment of the first Socialist Republic in- Russia.
The immediate cause was the failure of the provisional government to
address the causes of the March revolution; hence the same fate had to
befall it in November.
Historically, both the revolutions of March and November are called the
Russian/Bolshevik/October revolutions of 1917.The Russians called it the
"October revolution" because according to the Old Russian calendar, it
was in the month of October (the old calendar is behind by one month).
The revolution is also known as the Bolshevik revolution because it was
spearheaded by the Bolshevik party. Bolshevik is a Russian word that means
majority. The Bolshevik's party was dominated by workers who were
exploited by the capitalists.
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REASONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE REVOLUTION(S)
The Bolshevik revolution of 1917 is by far the most important event in the
political history of Europe during the 20th century. It is a watershed/
Landmark in the history of both Russia and the world at large. The revolution
brought fundamental changes in the political, social and economic
structures of Russia and Europe as the foregoing analysis reveals.
POSITIVE IMPACT
i) The revolution led to the establishment of the first communist government
in the history of Russia and the entire world. The Russian revolutionaries led
by Stalin and Lenin were communists who were inspired by Karl Marx's
socialist ideas that was written in 1847.After the First World War, communism
spread from Russia to other parts of Europe. By 1945, Eastern countries like
Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Poland had adopted
communism and there was an increase in socialist vote in Western countries
such as France, Germany and Italy. Thus, the Bolshevik revolution led to the
first socialist government in Russia that later spread to other parts of the
world.
NB Russia was later transformed into a super world power with a permanent
place in the security council of the United Nations organisation (U.N.O).
ii) Associated with the above was the rise to power of commoners (men of
low birth) for the first time in Russia. Revolutionary leaders like Lenin, Stalin
and Trotsky were commoners who rose to prominence only because the
revolution had destroyed the social class discrimination that existed in
Russia. By 1917, Russia was still under the ancient system of Tsardom in which
important political posts were dominated by the Nobles and clergy. This
system was buried together with the monarchy in 1917.
iii) The success of the Bolsheviks in November led to the withdrawal of Russia
from the First World War.
The Russians had suffered greatest amongst the allies from World War 1 yet
the provisional government was ready to continue with the war. Lenin
promised to end the war and when he rose to power he signed the Brest-
Litovsk treaty with Germany on 3rd March 1918 that ended Russia's
participation in the First World War. This cowardly withdrawal prompted USA
The idea of the League of Nations was adopted from President Woodraw
Wilson's Fourteenth point (last point), which stated that an International
Organization be formed to guarantee the independence of states both
great and small. To Denis Richards, the League “…was Wilson's greatest gift
of Europe
The League of Nations was first adopted at the Paris peace conference
and thus becomes an integral part of the Versailles settlement. It officially
came into existence on 10th January 1920. The League had 26 articles
(clauses) of the covenant (constitution) and the most important of all was
the sanction clause. In the initial stage, the League was composed of only
the allied and associated powers plus key neutral states. They were 42 but
the number 'increased to 55 by 1926. However, 9 countries including United
States of America, whose President had suggested the idea of forming the
League did not join it. The League was based in Geneva, Switzerland, as it's
headquarter.
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ORGANS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
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REASON FOR THE FORMATION OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS/ AIMS AND
OBJECTIVES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
The basic aims and objectives of the League of Nations were found in
articles 9 to 17 and 23 -24 of the league covenant (constitution). Generally,
the League was formed due to political, social and economic
considerations.
1. The need to maintain peace
The League of Nations was an instrument to preserve and promote world
peace and stability. The First World War was the worst experience (by then)
that had led to massive loss of lives, displacement of people and
destruction of property. It was caused partly due to the weakness of
international organisation to settle dilutes and preserve world peace. The
league was formed to address this weakness. It was to be a forum to
arbitrate and settle disputes peacefully before such disputes escalates to
war. Thus, one can argue that the League of Nations was formed to
maintain international relations and pre-empt the outbreak of another
major war in Europe.
2. To protect the territorial integrity and independence of states
The desire to promote the respect for territorial integrity and independence
of member states against aggression also led to the formation of League
of Nations. Europe had suffered the dangers of French aggression of 1792-
1815 and German aggression prior to 1914 that had led to wars and
instability. It should be emphasized that the violation of territorial integrity of
smaller states like Serbia by Austria is what sparked off the outbreak of the
First World War. The league was therefore formed to avoid this by protecting
such smaller and weaker states against aggression by bigger and stronger
states. This was to be achieved through sanctions and military intervention
amongst others. It should be noted that article 16 provided for collective
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ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS, 1920- 1945
The League of Nations played positive and negative roles in the social,
political, economic and humanitarian developments of Europe during the
inter- war period. Its achievements were more in the xonoraic, social and
humanitarian fields as compared to politics and peace.
1. Peace
The League maintained relative peace in Europe from 1920 to 1939. It
organized world peace conferences that revived the spirit of
internationalism and the concert of Europe in the Inter- war period. In 1925,
the league initiated the Locarno conference that led to the signing of
Locarno treaty by Britain, France, Germany, Belgium and Italy. The treaty
brought temporary reconciliation between Germany and her former
enemies i.e. Britain and France. It made Germany to join the league from
1926 up to 1934 when Hitler with drew Germany's membership from the
League of Nations. This also brought Germany back to international
community and into the disarmament talks, which ushered a new era of
peace in Europe.
Stress man (German foreign minister, 1923-1929) stressed that the Locarno
treaty introduced "a new era of co-operation among nations, a time of real
peace"
2. Legal disputes
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WEAKNESSESAND FAILURES OFTHE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
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REASONS FOR THE FAILURE/ COLLAPSE OF THE LEAGUE OFNATIONS
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Introduction
The term Fascism refers to an axe surrounded by a bundle of rods that was
used as a symbol of power and authority. In the ancient Roman Empire,
"Faces" was used as a badge/ identity to show the authority of rulers and
magistrates over life and death. The sticks symbolized unity and the axe was
a symbol of power.
The Italian version of fascism was fascio, which refers to a group or squad
of a few determined and superior men.
In the post-world war I Italy, the fascists portrayed themselves as the only
symbol of authority and power for the revival of Italy and forceful
elimination of socialism and communism. Fascism was founded in Milan, a
city of Italy. It was composed of Industrial capitalists, middleclass men and
frustrated jobless youth.
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CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPLES OF FASCISM
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THE RISE OF MUSSOLINI/ FASCISM IN ITALY
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REASONS FOR THE RISE OF FASCISM AND MUSSOLINI IN ITALY
The circumstance that led to the rise of Fascism and Mussolini is attributed
to social, political and economic conditions that prevailed in the post-
World War I era. Generally, the reasons for the rise of fascism and Mussolini
were due to internal and external factors.
1. The repercussions of World War!
The impact of the First World War aided fascism and Mussolini to power by
1922. The war had negative consequences on Italy, which favoured the rise
of strong anti-government movements. It led to the death of more than
600,000 Italians, both civilians and soldiers. Mussolini associated the
democratic government with such losses, decampaigned it as weak and
incompetent of handling the Italian affairs. This paralysed the democratic
government and undermined its popularity in favour of fascism and
Mussolini.
2. Post-world war socio' economic problems
The post war socio- economic problems conditioned the rise of fascism and
Mussolini by 1922. Since the unification of Italy (1871), successive
governments failed to address socio- economic grievances such as
inflation, poverty, unemployment, poor standard of living, corruption and
urban congestion. These problems worsened after the end of world war I.
Mussolini used such problems to decampaign the liberal democratic
government and popularise his fascist propaganda with promises of better
working conditions and employment to all. He also promised a rapid
economic transformation through a comprehensive economic recovery
program. This explains why fascism won mass support from ex-soldiers,
jobless and idle youth, hence the rise of fascism in the history of Italy
3. The unrealistic terms of the Versailles Settlement
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METHODS USED BYMUSSOLINI TO CONSOLIDATE FASCISMINITALY, 1922-
1943:
Mussolini and fascism assumed state power over Italy in 1922 and reigned
up to 1945 when Mussolini was killed. He used a combination of internal and
external policies to strengthen and consolidate fascism in Italy from 1922-
1945.
1. Creation of abroad based government
In the initial stage, Mussolini created a broad based government as a
strategy to draw opposition closer so as to easily monitor their activities. He
also appointed opposition leaders in his government in order to popularise
fascism and check on subversive activities of the opposition. Thus, Mussolini
disorganized and weakened opposition by scattering them in different
government departments. There was hardly any serious criticism from the
opposition who were part and parcel of fascist administrative organ in Italy.
It should be emphasised that Mussolini retained authority to appoint,
promote, demote and dismiss officials in the local government and
provinces. He used such power to appoint only those whose loyalty to
fascist ideology were unquestionable and dismiss those with questionable
loyalty to fascism. By 1935, this strategy had left the local government to be
dominated by fascists, which consolidated fascism in Italy.
2. Suppression of rival political opponents
Mussolini used dictatorship to suppress rival political opponents and
consolidate fascism. By 1925, the socialists had gained ground due to the
disputed elections of 1924 and violence against opposition.
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ACHIEVEMENTS OF BENITO MUSSOLINI/FASCISM IN ITALY, 1922-43
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WEAKNESSESAND FAILURES OFMUSSOLINI/FASCISM IN ITALY
1. Dictatorship
Mussolini is blamed for being a fanatical dictator. He established a fascist
slate i.e. rule by decree. In 1922, he forced the parliament to grant him
dictatorial power for one year and extended it throughout his regime. The
fascist Grand council and corporate state system were all instruments of his
dictatorship. In 1925, Mussolini abolished political parties, which event
suffocated pluralism. There after there was intensive persecution of
opposition through imprisonment, exile and death that denied Italians
peace, democracy, freedom of choice and expression.
2. Discrimination
Mussolini's achievements were monopolised by a few diehard supporters of
fascism at the expense of the masses. In his domestic policy, he is accused
of promoting dualism and more poverty in the south in comparison to other
parts of Italy. He also encouraged anti-Semitism where the Jews were
segregated and persecuted.
3. Press censorship
Mussolini and his fascist regime censored the press just to promote fascism.
The opposition newspapers were banned and their offices were locked.
Anti-fascist journalists, editors, presenters of radios, films and theaters were
arrested and exiled to Lipari Island. These undermined press freedom and
"killed" freedom of expression.
4. Election malpractices
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CONSEQUENCES OF ECONOMIC DEPRESSION
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HOW THE DEPRESSION WAS SOLVED
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BACKGROUND:
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REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE WEIMER REPUBLIC BY 1933:
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Background
Hitler was an Austrian born on 20th April 1889 in the Austro-German boarder
town of Brounaal. His father, Alois Hitler was a minor customs official in
Austria. In 1902 his father died and in 1907 his mother also died. Hitler did
not get proper education on account of his obscure background and
being a total orphan. His ambition was to become a fine artist but this was
frustrated when he failed to join the Vienna academy of fine art in 1907. For
some time, Hitler lived a poor lonely life at Vienna as a sign painter, causal
labourer of odd jobs and a street beggar. This is what shaped Hitler's
personality of poor interpersonal relationship, intolerance and hatred of the
bourgeoisie, the royalists, the socialists, the Republicans and the Jews.
In May 1913, Hitler went to live in Munich, a city in Germany. He fought for
Germany in World War I where he was promoted to the rank of Lance
Corporal and awarded the "Iron cross" for his bravery.
Towards the end of the war, Hitler was badly wounded and was
hospitalized when the armistice was being signed. He was discharged and
returned to Munich where he lived for some time on occasional work.
Hitler was very disappointed with the defeat and humiliation of Germany in
the First World War. His views were that Germany was not defeated due to
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THE RISE OF HITLER TO POWER
Hitler's rise to power is one of the most spectacular events in the history of
great men of the world. His rise is significant not only because he established
a perfect Nazi dictatorship that led to the Second World War but also
because his origin and background were more obscure than any leader
history has ever seen.
His rise to power can be attributed to the post World War 1 condition in
Germany but his personal character was the most important. According to
Strong;
Hitler was not a military genius like Napoleon /, master of state craft like
Bismarck, a diplomat like Cavour, not an experienced politician like
Clemenceau/Lloyd George, not a thinker like Lenin, an organiser like Trotsky
or a planner like Stalin. Although he possessed a diabolical fiare which was
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FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF HITLER AND NAZISM IN GERMANY
1. Hitler centralised and vested in himself all authority over German affairs.
He dissolved the past administrative structure and created his own with
himself as the highest political figure. Jews and other suspected enemies of
the state were dismissed from the civil service. He appointed his loyal
friends, relatives and fellow veterans to administer on his behalf in the up-
country districts and the Federal states of Germany. They were responsible
to him as the appointing authority and therefore worked according to his
orders and policies.
2. Hitler banned all political parties and declared all their activities illegal.
He started with the socialist party, then the catholic party and finally the
monarchists. Such drastic actions bullied the opposition, forced their
leaders into hiding and left the Nazi party as the only legitimate party in
Germany.
3. He also used suppressive policies against his political enemies and
saboteurs. Hitler used spies and secret police to inform him on daily events.
He set special prisons (concentration camps) for those with anti-Nazi ideas.
A number of them were killed. For example Ems, the leader of the socialist
party was brutally murdered together with other socialist supporters. This
demoralised Hitler's opponents and consolidated Nazism in Germany.
4. Hitler's anti-Semitic policy (racist policy against the Jews) destroyed their
influence and helped to consolidate his power. He regarded the Jews as
traitors and self-seekers with a worldwide ambition to undermine the
superiority of the German race. Consequently, in 1935 Hitler enacted the
Nuremburg law for the protection of the German blood and honour. The
law deprived Jews of their citizenship, prohibited them from; marrying non-
Jews, holding government jobs, owning business or practicing their
profession. Warning signs like Jews strictly forbidden in this town or Jews
enter this town at their own risk were common in many public places. Jews
were assassinated, arrested, unfairly tried and sent to concentration camps
where they died in millions. Their shops and other properties were looted
and vandalised. These, forced many Jews to flee to exile abandoning their
property and investments in Germany. Henceforth, Hitler's persecution of
the Jews radically eliminated their threat and consolidated his power.
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THE DOWNFALL OF HITLER AND NAZISM IN GERMANY
As Germany drew towards defeat and Berlin was about to fall Hitler
committed suicide on 30 April 1945. Kaiser William II's aggressive foreign
policy was responsible for the First World War and led to the downfall of the
German empire. History repeated itself from 1939 - 1945 when Hitler's
aggression provoked the outbreak of the Second World War and finally led
to the collapse of Nazism in Germany.
Internal and external factors were responsible for the downfall of Nazism
although external factors played a primary role.
WHY HITLER AND NAZISM COLLAPSED IN 1945
1. The downfall of Mussolini and the collapse of Fascism in Italy also
contributed to the downfall of Hitler and the collapse of Nazism in
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CAUSES
The Second World War is the most destructive war that mankind has ever
experienced. It started with the German invasion of Poland on 1st Sept 1939
and ended with the surrender of Japan on 14th August 1945.
The war was fought between the axis powers of Italy, Japan and Germany
(Rome-Tokyo- Berlin axis) against the allied powers led by Britain, France,
Russia and USA. A number of factors played a role in this most destructive
war. However, the Versailles settlement of 1919 was the primary factor in
the outbreak of the war.
CAUSES
1. THE VERSAILLES SETTLEMENT OF 1919
a) It has been argued that the Versailles settlement of 1919 sowed seeds
for the outbreak of the Second World War. The peace treaty was very
unrealistic in its attempt to create a lasting peace, which ploughed ground
for the outbreak of war in 1939. It was a dictated treaty that Germany was
forced to endorse (sign) without negotiation. The German delegates were
not allowed to defend themselves and although they tried to defend
themselves in writing, their defense was ignored. The delegates were
treated like criminals who were escorted in and outside the hall of mirrors.
This created a strong desire for revenge, which partly made Hitler to adopt
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REASONS FOR APPEASEMENT POLICY
These questions demand the reasons why appeasement policy was used
in Europe after the First World War up to the outbreak of the Second World
War in 1939. Thus, give a background to appeasement policy, Explain the
reasons and Conclude.
Reasons
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ROLE OF EUROPEAN POWERS AND PERSONALITIES IN THE OUTBREAK OF THE
SECOND WORLD WAR
1. GERMANY/HITLER'S ROLE
a) Germany was primarily responsible for the outbreak of the Second World
War. Hitler started the arms race in order to avenge the disarmament
clause of the Versailles settlement and dominate Europe. This was adopted
by other powers and created hostility, fear, panic and recklessness that led
to the Second World War.
b) Hitler created the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis to oppose and destroy the
influence of the western democratic powers led by Britain and France. This
made the western powers to form the democratic alliance that divided
Europe into two antagonistic camps leading to the Second World War
c) Germany led by Hitler boycotted the League of Nations and left it
weakened. The Nazi aggression challenged and made the League of
Nations to fail to preserve peace in the interwar period. The weakness of
the League opened way for war other than diplomacy as a means of
settling world disputes hence the outbreak of the Second World War.
d) The German and Hitler's aggressions in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Rhine
lands, Sudetenland and Poland disorganised Europe and led to the
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CONSEQUENCES/ EFFECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR
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REASONS FOR THE DEFEAT OF THE AXIS P0WERS/GERMANY
1 The axis powers were faced with internal opposition that made them
vulnerable to defeat by the, a powers. Germany, Italy and Japan had
dictators who could not rally and Mussolini were very unpopular, which
made their own people to turn against them. This explains why Mussolini
was arrested and executed by his own fellow fascists, which led to the
surrender of Italy. This also partly made Hitler to commit suicide and marked
the defeat of Germany as well. On the other hand, there was patriotism in
allied countries due to charismatic leadership of Winston Churchill, FD
Roosevelt, Truman and Stalin. Their popularity made it very easy to mobilise
resources most especially manpower to fight and defeat the axis powers. '
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Introduction
The cold war refers to the global state of affairs that was characterised by
persistent tension and conflicts between the western countries led by USA
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CAUSES OF THE COLD WAR
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CONSEQUENCE/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE COLD WAR
The cold war brought positive and negative political, social and economic
consequences not only in Europe but the entire world up to the present era.
Positive consequences
1. Spread of communism
The cold war led to the spread and consolidation of communism in Eastern
Europe. Russia was alarmed by the growing threat of the Western powers
led by USA and hurried to strengthen her influence in the East. By 1949, she
had succeeded in setting up communist governments in the Eastern states
of Poland, Bulgaria, Rumania, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Albania.
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Background
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ORGANS OF THE U.N.O
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WHY U.N.O WAS FORMED
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WEAKNESSES AND FAILURES OF THE UNO
The loans and grants from IMF and world bank had some negative
consequences on the development of the third world countries they had
strings attached that promoted political ideologies of the western
capitalistic powers sometimes the third world countries were forced to
EUROPEAN HISTORY, DEPARTMENTAL NOTES, JULY 2019
invest in non-priority areas on the directive of the lending body i.e. IMF or
world bank besides it accelerated unemployment because of the so called
experts who were sent and paid very highly to monitor the aids or projects
worst of all the loans were lent at very high interest rates and that is why
poor countries who depended on such loans became poorer by 1970.
2. Although the UNO reduced drug trafficking, it failed to eliminate it
completely. This was because the JNO did not have an effective and
competent force to control drug trafficking on land, air and the sea. Thus,
the sales and consumption of cocaine, opium and marijuana continued to
the extent that it became an acceptable way of life amongst many
societies in the middle east. This promoted ant-social behaviours and crimes
like murder, defilement, suicide bombing etc. These undermined peace,
stability and prosperity In Europe by 1970.
3. The decolonisation and democratization programs was incomplete by
1970. The UNO did not have a clear policy for granting independence to
the colonised nations. The independence especially of African nations was
mainly due to the efforts of the oppressed and exploited Africans other
than the UN. Moreover, America and other Western capitalists were against
decolonisation.
This is because imperialism is the highest form of capitalism and that is why
USA supported apartheid, which explains why South Africa, Angola and
Mozambique were still colonised by
1970. The rise and existence of autocratic and undemocratic leaders like
Fidel Castro in Cuba,
Kamuzu Banda in Malawi and Mobuto Sese Seko in Congo demonstrate
the failure of the democratisation program of the UN. This was because
some members of the UNO especially USA and USSR supported such
dictators as long as they were able to further their political ideology.
4. The rise and existence of neocolonialism and its associated evils in third
world countries exposed the failure of UNO. After colonialism, European
powers resorted to neocolonialism as an indirect means to control, exploit
and oppress the third world countries. This was accomplished through
imposing unfavourable foreign political ideologies like capitalism and
communism, economic policies such as liberalisation and establishment of
military bases e.g. USA in the Middle East and Africa by more developed
nations in less developed countries. By 1970, these practices had led to
underdevelopment of third world countries and subjected formerly
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DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
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PRE-COLONIAL SOCIETIES
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2. DISCUSS THE ORGANISATION OF PRE-COLONIAL ASANTE KINGDOM
Approach
• Show a brief foundation of Asante kingdom
• Examine its social, political and economic organization
Background
It was founded by members of Oyoko clan of Akan speaking people
around 1620 in West Africa. Her capital was Kumasi. Its rise and expansion
attributed to the clan, state building genius and military strength of kings
like ObirYeboa, Opukuwere, and Osei Tutu. Nineteenth century was at its
climax having expanded to inc1udethewholeofmodem Ghana, Ivory
Coast and Togo because of its strong political, social and economic set up
as seen below,
Political organization
1. The society was highly centralized led by Asantehene.Also know as
Kumasihene, resident at the capital Kurnasi,
2. It was divided into provincial and metropolitan Asante.
3. Metropolitan Asante (Kurnasi) led by Kurnasihene (Asantchcnc)
4. Amato states were located in the radius of 15 - 40 miles outside Kumasi,
led by Arnunihene
5. Asante states such as Nsuta, ofinso, Dwaben and Kokofu had a large
degree of autonomy, led by Arnunihene who could be summoned It I
Kumasi by the king at any time.
6. Amunihene and Kumasihene formed the Asante confederation council
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3. EXAMINE THE POLITICAL, SOCIALAND ECONOMIC ORGANISATION OF THE
FON / DAHOMEY BY THE MIDDLE OF 19TH CENTURY
Approach
Examine the political, social and economic organization of the Fon.
Background to the question
The Fon society is popularly known as Dahomey, scholars stress the origin of
Dahomey from the reign of wegbaja. Dahomey was founded out of the
conquest 0f several small Aja states under the Aladaxonu dynasty. It was
located in the poorest areas 0f West African coastal areas. It reached the
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4. ACCOUNT FOR THE DISENTEGRATION OF THE DAHOMEY KINGDOM
DURING THE 2ND HALF OFTHE 19TH CENTURY
Approach
• Brief background of the downfall of the kingdom.
• Factors for the decline
• Conclusion
Background
Dahomey started declining at the close of the 191h century, in 1892, the
French invaded Dahomey and took its leader Behanzin a captive and
exiled him to West Indies setting the last blow to the kingdom existence.
Factors to consider
I. The vastness of the kingdom, by 1840, the kingdom swallowed most
territories including Ifebu, Savaloy, Idassa among others controlling them
from Abome, became difficult.
2. Weak character of Behanzin, he murdered his own people especially
those who proposed the option of surrender 'this made him so un popular
and his people then resorted to supporting the French.
3. The British act of disarming the Fon and stopping the importation of guns
into Dahomey deprived them with guns and this made them vulnerable to
British imperialism.
4. The Naye occasionally influenced the king to take wrong decision, they
, could misinform the king about the activities of the chiefs, and this made
the king to do several mistakes which led to the downfall of the kingdom .
5. The dictatorial nature of Dahomey kings, they over taxed their subjects,
sold them into slavery, this made the people hate traditional rule, that's why
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when the French took over Dahomey in 1892, they supported mem
indirectly.
6. Decline in trade activities due to the seizure of Port Novo in 1883 and
denied the kingdom the economic backbone necessary for protection of
the kingdom
7. The kingdom was hit by natural calamities like drought and famine as it
was located in poor Savannah and its capital was on a plateau.
8.Resistances from vassel states militarily and economically weakened the
kingdom (those states wanted to break away from Dahomey), their
breaking away deprived the kingdom from tributes.
9. The kingdom was torn apart by her over ambitious foreign policy, leaders
invaded other societies leaving them wounded and others captured e.g.
in 1844, Gezo invaded Egba and was defeated on 15th march I 864, Glele
was defeated by Ketu. This militarily \weakened the kingdom and the
French found an already weak kingdom.
10. Death of able leaders like Gezo deprived the kingdom able leadership;
Behanzin who succeeded them could not overcome the dangers that
apparently facet the kingdom.
11. Weakness of Glele, he had inferiority complex, he believed that he who
makes powder wins the battle meaning that he who could not j make
powder (the gun) could not defeat the whites, this was made worse when
he opted to poison himself rather than surrender the territory, this all made
the kingdom vulnerable to British rule.
12. The French invasion of Dahomey in 1892 marked the final collapse of
the kingdom.
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5. EXAMINE THE POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ORGANISATION OF
BUNYORO KINGDOM BY 1885.
Approach
• Bunyoro’s background