Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

Basic Electronics Lab

Subject Code: 1620308

1. Aim of experiment

To plot Forward & Reverse biased characteristics of diode

2. Apparatus required

a) A diode
b) ADC voltage supplier
c) Bread board
d) 1000 Ω resistor
e) 2 multi meter for measuring current and voltage
f) Connecting wires

3. Theory of experiment

Donor impurities (pentavalent) are introduced into one-side and acceptor

impurities into the other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor
to form a p-n diode with a junction called depletion region (this region is
depleted off the charge carriers). This region gives rise to a potential barrier
Vγ called Cut- in Voltage. This is the voltage across the diode at which it
starts conducting. The P-N junction can conduct beyond this Potential.

The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of

the input supply is connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input
supply is connected to cathode (N- side), then diode is said to be forward
biased. In this condition the height of the potential barrier at the junction is
lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the
holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the junction
simultaneously and constitute a forward current ( injected minority current –
due to holes crossing the junction and entering N-side of the diode, due to
electrons crossing the junction and entering P-side of the diode). Assuming
current flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be
1
 approximated as short-circuited switch. If –ve terminal of the input supply
is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the input supply is
connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In
this condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the
height of the potential barrier at the junction. Both the holes on p-side and
electrons on n-side tend to move away from the junction thereby increasing
the depleted region. However the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus
a small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the
diode. This small current is due to thermally generated carriers. Assuming
current flowing through the diode to be negligible, the diode can be
approximated as an open circuited switch.

The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by following equation:

I = Io(Exp(V/ ηVT)-1)
I= current flowing in the diode
Io=reverse saturation current
V=voltage applied to the diode
VT=volt-equivalent of temperature=kT/q=T/11,600=26mV(@ room temp).
η=1 (for Ge) and 2 (for Si)

Circuit diagram:

Forward Bias:

2
Reverse Bias:

Forward Biased Condition:

1. Connect the PN Junction diode in forward bias i.e Anode is connected to

positive of the power supply and cathode is connected to negative of the
power supply.
2. Use a Regulated power supply of range (0-30)V and a series resistance of
1kΏ.
3. For various values of forward voltage (Vf) note down the corresponding
values of forward current(If) .

Reverse biased condition:

1. Connect the PN Junction diode in Reverse bias i.e; anode is connected to

negative of the power supply and cathode is connected to positive of the
power supply.
2. For various values of reverse voltage (Vr ) note down the corresponding
values of reverse current ( Ir ).

4. Observation

Tabular column:
3
 Forward Bias:

S. No Vf (volts) If (mA)

Reverse Bias:

S.No Vr (volts) Ir (μA)

Graph ( instructions)

1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the
center of the graph sheet.

2. Now mark +ve x-axis as Vf

-ve x-axis as Vr
+ve y-axis as If
-ve y-axis as Ir.

3. Mark the readings tabulated for diode forward biased condition in first
Quadrant and diode reverse biased condition in third Quadrant.

Graph:

4
Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This
may lead to damage of the diode.

2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the

circuit diagram.

3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit
connections as per the circuit diagram

5
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

Name of the Lab: Basic Electronics Lab

Subject Code: 1620308

AIM: To draw the drain and transfer characteristics of a given FET.

APPARATUS: FET (BFW-11)
Regulated power supply
Voltmeter (0-20V)
Ammeter (0-100mA)
Bread board
Connecting wires
THEORY:

A FET is a three terminal device, having the characteristics of high input

impedance and less noise, the Gate to Source junction of the FET s always reverse
biased. In response to small applied voltage from drain to source, the n-type bar
acts as sample resistor, and the drain current increases linearly with VDS. With
increase in ID the ohmic voltage drop between the source and the channel region
reverse biases the junction and the conducting position of the channel begins to
remain constant. The VDS at this instant is called “pinch of voltage”.

If the gate to source voltage (VGS) is applied in the direction to provide additional
reverse bias, the pinch off voltage ill is decreased.
In amplifier application, the FET is always used in the region beyond
the pinch-off.
IDS=IDSS(1-VGS/VP)^2

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

6
 PROCEDURE:

1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. To plot the drain characteristics, keep VGS constant at 0V.
3. Vary the VDD and observe the values of VDS and ID.
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of VGS at 0.1V and 0.2V.
5. All the readings are tabulated.
6. To plot the transfer characteristics, keep VDS constant at 1V.
7. Vary VGG and observe the values of VGS and ID.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for different values of VDS at 1.5 V and 2V.
9. The readings are tabulated.
10. From drain characteristics, calculate the values of dynamic resistance (rd) by using
the formula
rd = ∆VDS/∆ID
11. From transfer characteristics, calculate the value of transconductace (gm) By using
the formula
Gm=∆ID/∆VDS
12. Amplification factor (μ) = dynamic resistance. Tran conductance
μ = ∆VDS/∆VGS

OBSERVATIONS:

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:

S.NO VGS=0V VGS=0.1V VGS=0.2V

7
 vDS(V) ID (mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID (mA)

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

S.No. VDS = IP(mA) VDS=1V VDS=1.5V

0.5V
vGS (V) VGS (V) ID(mA) VGS (V) ID(mA)

MODEL GRAPH:

TRANSFER CHARAC TERISTICS:-

DRAIN CHARAC TERISTICS:-

8
PRECAUTIONS:-

1. The three terminals of the FET must be carefully identified

2. Practically FET contains four terminals, which are called source, drain,
Gate, substrate.
3. Source and case should be short circuited.
4. Voltages exceeding the ratings of the FET should not be applied.

RESULT:-

1. The drain and transfer characteristics of a given FET are drawn

2. The dynamic resistance (rd), amplification factor (µ) and Tran conductance
(gm) of the given FET are calculated.

9
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

Name of the Lab: Basic Electronics Lab

Subject Code: 1620308

Aim of experiment

To Study the Rectifiers a] Half wave b] Full wave & draw i/p & o/p wave forms.

Apparatus: (i) A step-down transformer,

(ii) A junction diode,
(iii) 3 Load resistors,
(iv) Capacitor,
(v) Oscilloscope,
(vi) Multimeter,
(vii) Connecting wires,
(viii) Breadboard

Theory/Principle:

The process of converting an alternating current into direct current is known as

rectification. The unidirectional conduction property of semiconductor diodes (junction
diodes) is used for rectification. Rectifiers are of two types: (a) Half wave rectifier and
(b) Full wave rectifier. In a half-wave rectifier circuit (Fig. 1), during the positive half-
cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased and conducts. Current flows through the
load and a voltage is developed across it. During the negative half-cycle, it is reverse
bias and does not conduct. Therefore, in the negative half cycle of the supply, no current
flows in the load resistor as no voltage appears across it. Thus the dc voltage across the
load is sinusoidal for the first half cycle only and a pure a.c. input signal is converted
into a unidirectional pulsating output signal.

10
 Fig.1: Half-wave rectifier circuit
Since the diode conducts only in one half-cycle (0-π), it can be verified that the d.c.
component in the output is Vmax/π, where Vmax is the peak value of the voltage. Thus,

The current flowing through the resistor, and power consumed by

the load,

Ripple factor:

As the voltage across the load resistor is only present during the positive half of the cycle, the
resultant voltage is "ON" and "OFF" during every cycle resulting in a low average dc value. This
variation on the rectified waveform is called "Ripple" and is an undesirable feature. The ripple
factor is a measure of purity of the d.c. output of a rectifier and is defined as

In case of a half-wave rectifier Vrms = Vmax/2 = 0.5Vmax

Rectification Efficiency:

11
Rectification efficiency, η, is a measure of the percentage of total a.c. power input
converted to useful d.c. power output.

Here rd is the forward resistance of diode. Under the assumption of no diode loss
(rd<<), the rectification efficiency in case of a half-wave rectifier is approximately 40.5%.

Filters:
The output of a rectifier gives a pulsating d.c. signal (Fig.1) because of presence of
some a.c. components whose frequency is equal to that of the a.c. supply frequency. Very
often when rectifying an alternating voltage we wish to produce a "steady" direct voltage free
from any voltage variations or ripple. Filter circuits are used to smoothen the output. Various
filter circuits are available such as shunt capacitor, series inductor, choke input LC filter and
-filter etc. Here we will use a simple shunt capacitor filter circuit (Fig. 2). Since a capacitor
is open to d.c. and offers low impedance path to a.c. current, putting a capacitor across the
output will make the d.c. component to pass through the load resulting in small ripple
voltage.

Fig.2: Half-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter

12
The working of the capacitor can be understood in the following manner. When the
rectifier output voltage is increasing, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage Vm. Just past
the positive peak the rectifier output voltage tries to fall. As the source voltage decreases
below Vm , the capacitor will try to send the current back to diode making it reverse biased.
Thus the diode separates/disconnects the source from the load and hence the capacitor will
discharge through the load until the source voltage becomes more than the capacitor voltage.
The diode again starts conducting and the capacitor is again charged to the peak value Vm and
the process continues. Although in the output waveform the discharging of capacitor is shown
as a straight line for simplicity, the decay is actually the normal exponential decay of any
capacitor discharging through a load resistor. The extent to which the capacitor voltage drops
depends on the capacitance and the amount of current drawn by the load; these two factors
effectively form the RC time constant for voltage decay. A proper combination of large
capacitance and small load resistance can give out a steady output.

Circuit Diagram: (As shown in Fig. 1 and 2):

Procedure:

i) Configure the half-wave rectifier circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. Note down
all the values of the components being used
.
ii) Connect the primary side of the transformer to the a.c. Mains and secondary to the
input of the circuit.

iii) Feed the input and output to the two channels of oscilloscope (we will use
oscilloscope here only to trace the output waveform) and save the data for each
measurement.

iv) Measure the input a.c. voltage and the output a.c. and d.c. voltages using multimeter
for at least 3 values of load resistor (Be careful to choose proper settings of
multimeter for ac and dc measurement).

v) Multiply the Vac at the input by √2? to get the peak value and calculate Vdc Using the
formula Vdc = Vmax/ π. Compare this value with the measured Vdc at the output.

vi) Calculate the ripple factor and efficiency.

vii) Connect the capacitor across the output for each load resistor and measure the output
a.c. and d.c. voltages once again and calculate the ripple factor.

Observations:

i) Code number of diode = ________

ii) Input Voltage: Vac = _________ Volt

13
Table(I): Half wave rectifier w/o filter

Table(II): Half wave rectifier with filter (C = ____ µF)

Waveforms without Filter:

RL = ______ Input Output

(Paste data here)

Waveforms with Capacitor Filter:

RL = ______ Input Output

(Paste data here)

Discussions:

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit without & with Filter

Objectives: To construct a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit and analyze its output.

Theory: As you have seen already a half-wave rectifier circuit is unsuitable to applications
which need a "steady and smooth" dc supply voltage. One method to improve on this is to use
every half-cycle of the input voltage instead of every other half-cycle. The circuit which allows
us to do this is called a Full-wave Rectifier. Here, unidirectional current flows in the output for
both the cycles of input signal rectify it.The rectification can be either by a center tap full wave
rectifier(using two diodes) or a full wave bridge rectifier(using four diodes). In this experiment
we will study a full wave bridge rectifier.
14
The Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output as a full-wave rectifier is that of the Bridge
Rectifier (Fig. 1). This type of single phase rectifier uses 4 individual rectifying diodes connected
in a "bridged" configuration to produce the desired output but does not require a special centre
tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding isconnected
to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown in figure.
The 4 diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting
current during each half cycle.
During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while
D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below (Fig. 2).
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1
and D2 switch off as they are now reverse biased.The current flowing through the load is the
same direction as before.

Fig. 1: Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

Fig 2: working of full wave rectifier

15
As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the
load is also unidirectional during both the half cycle. Thus, the average dc output voltage across
the load resistor is double that of a half-wave rectifier circuit, assuming no losses.

Ripple factor:
As mentioned in the previous lab the ripple factor is a measure of purity of d.c output
output of a rectifier and is defined as

In case of a full-wave rectifier Vrms = Vmax/_2 = 0.707Vmax

The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency.

Rectification Efficiency:

Rectification efficiency η is given by

where rd is the forward resistance of diode. Under the assumption of no diode loss
The rectification efficiency in case of a full wave rectifier is 81.1%,which is twice the value of
half wave rectifier.

Filter:

16
The full-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter is shown in Fig. 3. The smoothing
capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth dc output
voltage. The detailed description of its filtering action is already explained in half-wave
rectifier handout. Two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable a capacitor
are its working voltage, which must be higher than the no-load output value of the rectifier
and its capacitance value, which determines the amount of ripple that will appear
superimposed on top of the dc voltage.

Apart from rectification efficiency, the main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier
is that it has a smaller ac ripple value for a given load and a smaller smoothing capacitor than
an equivalent half-wave rectifier. The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of
the dc supply voltage by the diodes can be virtually eliminated by adding other improved
filters such as a pi-filter.

Circuit components/Equipments:

(i) A step-down transformer, (ii) 4 junction diodes, (iii) 3 Load resistors, (iv) Capacitor,
(v) Oscilloscope, (vi) Multimeters, (vii) Connecting wires, (viii) Breadboard.

Circuit Diagram: (As shown in Fig. 1 and 3):

17
Procedure:

i) Configure the full-wave rectifier circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. Note down
all the values of the components being used.

ii) Connect the primary side of the transformer to the a.c. Mains and secondary to the
input of the circuit.

iii) Measure the input a.c. voltage (Vac) and current (Iac) and the output a.c. (Vac) and d.c.
(Vdc) voltages using multimeter for at least 3 values of load resistor (Be careful to
choose proper settings of multimeter for ac and dc measurement).

iv) Feed the input and output to the oscilloscope (we will use oscilloscope here only to
trace the output waveform) and save the data for each measurement. BE CAREFUL
NOT TO MEASURE THE INPUT AND OUTPUT VOLTAGES
SIMULTANEOUSLY.

v) Multiply the Vac at the input by √2 to get the peak value and calculate Vdc Using the
formula Vdc = 2Vmax/ π . Compare this value with the measured Vdc at the output.
vi) Calculate the ripple factor and efficiency.

vii) Connect the capacitor across the output for each load resistor. Measure the output a.c.
and d.c. voltages once again and calculate the ripple factor. Trace the input and output
waveforms in oscilloscope and notice the change.

Observations:

i) Code number of diode = ________

ii) Input Voltage: Vac = _________ Volt

Table(I): Full-wave rectifier w/o filter

Table(II): Full-wave rectifier with filter (C = ____ µF)

18
(III) Input and output waveforms:

Waveforms without Filter:

RL = ______ Input Output

(Paste data here)

Waveforms with Capacitor Filter:

RL = ______ Input Output

(Paste data here)

Discussions:

Precautions:

19
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

Name of the Lab: Basic Electronics Lab

Subject Code: 1620308

Aim: To study Single stage common emitter amplifier & plot its frequency
response.

Apparatus: BJT,Resistors,Capacitors,DC Source,AC Source,Oscilloscope

Theory:

When in an amplifier circuit only one transistor is used for amplifying a weak
signal, the circuit is known as single stage amplifier. However, a practical
amplifier consists of a number of single stage amplifiers and hence a complex
circuit. Therefore, such a complex circuit can be conveniently split into several
single stages and can be effectively analysed

The above fig. shows a single stage transistor amplifier. When a weak a.c. signal is
applied to the base of the transistor, a small base current starts flowing in the input
circuit. Due to transistor action, a much larger (β times the base current) a.c.
current flows through the the load Rc in the output circuit. Since the value of load
resistance Rc is very high, a large voltage will drop across it. Thus, a weak signal
applied in the base circuit appears in amplified form in the collector circuit. In this
way the transistor acts as an amplifier.
20
Circuit Diagram:

Circuit analyses (to be completed before coming to the Lab):

Draw the DC and AC equivalent circuit for Fig 1.1. Work out the equation for the
load line and the operating point. Draw the load line and mark the operating point
on it. Analyse the ac circuit and calculate the expression for voltage gain.

Procedure:

A. To record the operating points of the transistor and confirm that it lies on the
load line.

Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig 2. and record the base current IB, collector
current Ic and collector to emitter voltage VCE or VC and base to emitter voltage
VBE. Verify that operating point lies around the center of the load line. operating
point lies around the center of the load line.

21
B. To measure the gain of the amplifier as a function of frequency

1. Assemble the circuit of Fig 1.1

2. Set the function generator for sinusoidal out put. With the help of a Tee
connector and BNC cable display the function generator output (input to the
amplifier circuit) on one of the channel of the scope. Set the function generator for
~ 1kHz and 20mV peak to peak signal

3. Display the out of the amplifier on second channel of scope.

4. Make sure that both the input and output sine waves are not clipped or distorted
in any way. If it is so then reduce the input voltage from the function generator.
until nice clean looking sine waves are displayed at both input and output
terminals. Also note the polarity of output sine wave relative to the applied input
signal.

5. Record the output signal as a function of frequency maintaining the input fixed
at 20mV.

6. Trace the input and output signals for atleast two frequencies (the scale should
be well labeled)

22
7. Calculate the gain of this amplifier by taking the ratio of the output and the input
amplitude.

8. Plot the gain as a function of frequency and determine the band width of the
amplifier. Mark the cut off frequencies on the graph.

9. Slowly increase the amplitude of the input sine wave until the output sinusoidal
wave begins to clip.

Note the voltage at which clipping is observed for the positive as well negative
polarity. Trace the distorted signals for both the polarity.

The frequency response curve will be

Conclusion:

23
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

Name of the Lab: Basic Electronics Lab

Subject Code: 1620308

Aim:1.To study Transistor shunt voltage regulator, when input voltage Vin is
fixed while Load resistance RL is variable.

Apparatus: 1. Analog board of Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator

2. DC power supply +12V external source

3. Digital Multimeter (2 numbers).

4. 2 mm patch cords.

Theory:

Circuits that maintain power supply voltages or current output within specified
limits, or tolerances are called Regulators. They are designated as dc voltage or dc
current regulators, depending on their specific application. Voltage regulator
circuits are additions to basic power supply circuits, which are made up of rectifier
and filter sections (Fig. 1). The purpose of the voltage regulator is to provide an
output voltage with little or no variation. Regulator circuits sense changes in output
voltages and compensate for the changes.

There are two types of voltage regulators. Basic voltage regulators are classified as
either Series or Shunt, depending on the location or position of the regulating
element (s) in relation to the circuit load resistance. Fig 2 illustrates these two basic

24
types of voltage regulators. Broken lines have been used in the figure to highlight
the difference between the series and shunt regulator

The schematic drawing in view A is that of a shunt regulator. It is called shunt

regulator because the regulating device is connected in shunt or in parallel with the
load resistance. Fig 2 illustrates the principle of shunt voltage regulation. From the
figure it is clear that the regulator is in shunt with the load resistance (R L). In a
shunt voltage regulator, as shown in Fig 2, Output voltage regulation is determined
by parallel resistance of the regulating device, the Load resistance (R L), and the
series resistor Rs. If the load resistance RL increases/decreases, the regulating device
decreases/increases its resistance to compensate for the change.

The schematic for a typical series voltage regulator is shown in Figure 3. It

employs the NPN transistor in shunt configuration in place of the variable resistor
found in Fig 2.

Since AB is in parallel across VL, we have

VL –VZ –VBE = 0 or VBE = VL –VZ (kirchoff's Voltage Law)

Also VL= VZ + VBE

i.e. The output voltage is close to the sum of the voltage across Zener and the
voltage at the base-emitter junction of transistor.

25
Circuit Operation :

Case 1: when input voltage is constant while Load varies.

Since VZ is fixed, any decrease or increase in VL will have a corresponding effect

on VBE. Suppose, VL decreases then as seen from the above relation VBE also
decreases. As a result, IB decreases, hence IC ( = βIB) decreases, thereby
decreasing I and hence VB (=IR). Consequently, VL increases because at all times.

Vin = VR+ VL or VL = Vin – VR

From the above description it is concluded that when by any reason V L decreases
VR also decreases thereby keeping VL constant.

Similarly, when by any reason VL increases VR also increases thereby keeping VL

constant.

Case 2 : when input voltage varies while Load remains constant.

When the input voltage increases, output voltage across increases momentarily.
This momentarily deviation or variation, from the required regulated output
voltage of 6.3 volts is a result of a rise in the input voltage. This increases forward
bias of transistor. Recall that the voltage drop across Zener remains constant at
5.6V. Since the output voltage is composed of the Zener voltage and the base-
emitter voltage, the output voltage momentarily increases. At this time, the
increase in the forward bias of transistor lowers the resistance of the transistor
allowing more current to flow through it

Since this current must also pass through R, there is also an increase in the voltage
drop across this resistor. Due to increase in this voltage drop across R, voltage
26
across VL remains close to the required regulated value of output voltage.
Similarly, when input voltage decreases, forward bias of transistor also decreases.
This decrease in bias voltage increases the resistance of transistor allowing less
current to flow through it. Since this current must pass through resistor R, there is
also an decrease in the voltage drop across this resistor. This drop in voltage across
R maintain output voltage close to the required regulated value.

Circuit diagram :

Procedure :

1. Connect + 12V dc power supply at its indicated position from external

source.
2. Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and ground to measure input
voltage Vin.
3. Connect ohmmeter between test point 5 and ground and set the value of
load resistance RL at some fixed value [full load (1.1K), 1K, 500Ω...]
4. Connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 3 and 4.
5. Connect voltmeter between test point 5 and ground to measure output
voltage Vout.
6. Switch ON the power supply.
7. Vary the potentiometer P1 to set fixed value of input voltage Vin = 9V and
measure the corresponding values of a. Output voltage Vout between test

27
 points 5 and ground. b. Zener voltage Vz between test points 2 and 6. c.
Forward bias voltage VBE of transistor between test point 6 and ground.
8. Disconnect the 2mm patch cord between test point 3 and 4.
9. Repeat the procedure from step 3 for different sets of load resistance R and
note the results in an observation Table 1.

Observation Table 1 :

Sl.no Load Resistance Voltage Forward bias Output voltage

RL Across voltage VBE Vout at constant
Zener VZ Input voltage Vin
= 9 volt
1 Full Load (1.1K)
2 1KΩ
3 800 Ω
4 600 Ω
5 400 Ω
6 200 Ω
7 No Load

Note : To measure Voltage at No Load disconnect 2mm patch cord between test
point 3 and 4, measure voltage between test point 3 and ground.

Calculations:

Percentage regulation is given by formula

% Regulation = [(VNL – VFL)/VFL] * 100

VNL = No-load or open-circuit terminal voltage.

VFL = Full-load terminal voltage.

Result :

28
 1. The result of Experiment 1 reveal that for the network of Fig 3 with a fixed
input voltage Vin the output voltage will remain close to 6.3 V for a range of
load resistance that extends from extends from _____________ to
_____________
2. Percentage regulation = __________%

Aim 2.To study Transistor shunt voltage regulator, when input voltage Vin
is variable while Load resistance RL is fixed.

Apparatus: 1. Analog board of Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator

2. DC power supply +12V external source

3. Digital Multimeter (2 numbers)

4. 2 mm patch cords.

Circuit diagram :

Procedure :

• Connect +12V dc power supplies at their indicated position from external source
or ST2612 Analog Lab.

29
1. Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and ground to measure input voltage
Vin

2. Connect ohmmeter between test point 5 and ground and set the value of load
resistance RL at maximum value.

3. Connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 3 and 4.

4. Connect voltmeter between test point 5 and ground to measure output voltage
Vout.

5. Switch ON the power supply.

6. Vary the potentiometer P1 to set fixed value of input voltage Vin = 7V, 8V, 9V
and measure the corresponding values of

a. Output voltage Vout between test points 5 and ground.

b. Zener voltage VZ between test points 2 and 6.

c. Forward bias voltage VBE of transistor between test point 6 and ground.

7. Repeat the procedure from step 7 for different sets of input voltage Vin and note
the results in an observation Table 2.

Observation Table 2 :

Sl No. Input Voltage across Forward bias Output voltage

Voltage(Vin) Zener(VZ) voltage(VBE) Vout at fixed
load resistance
RL=Max
1 7V
2 8V
3 9V
4 10 V
5 11 V

30
Results :

1. The result of Experiment 2 reveal that for the network of Fig 5 with a fixed Load
resistance, the output voltage will remain close to 6.3V for a range of input voltage
Vin that extends from _____ to_____ .

31
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

Name of the Lab: Basic Electronics Lab

Subject Code: 1620308

Aim:To study the input and output characteristics curves of the given NPN transistor in
common emitter mode.

Apparatus: An NPN Transistor, regulated power supply, voltmeters and ammeters

Theory/Principle: A transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device The three terminals are the
emitter, the base and the collector. A transistor transfers a signal from low resistance to high resistance;
hence it is named as transistor.

In a transistor, the N and P type semiconductor sections are alternated. Though it is a continuous body of
a single crystal, the doping is done in such a way that either a P section appears in between two N sections
( the NPN transistor), or an N section appears in between two P sections ( the PNP transistor). The middle
appears to be sandwiched between the other two, namely the emitter and the collector. In comparison to
the doping level of the collector, the emitter is always heavily doped in order to provide a large supply of
charge carriers, and the base is lightly doped to minimize the recombination that occurs in it between the
electrons and the holes. The collector will be having a large area in order to efficiently gather the charge
carriers. In order to identify the terminals you should carefully observe the transistor. You can locate a
small projecting flap at its bottom edge. The nearest lead to this tab is always the emitter lead, and the
farthest one is the collector lead. The lead between the emitter and the collector is the base lead.

The emitter base junction of a transistor is forward biased whereas collector base junction is reverse
biased. If for a moment we ignore the presence of emitter base junction, then practically no current would
flow in the collector circuit because of the reverse bias. However, if the emitter base junction is also
present then forward bias on it causes the emitter current to flow. It is seen that this emitter current almost
entirely flows in the collector circuit; therefore the current in the collector circuit depends on the emitter
current. If the emitter current is zero, then collector current is nearly zero. However, if the emitter current
is 1mA then collector current is also about 1mA.

Working of NPN transistor: The forward bias causes the electrons in the N type emitter to flow towards
the P type base. This constitutes the emitter current Ie. As these electrons flow through the P type base,
then tend to combine with holes. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few
electrons combine with holes to constitute base current Ib. The remainder cross over into the collector
region to constitute collector current Ic. In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the
collector circuit. It is clear that emitter current is the sum of collector and base currents.

i.e., Ie = Ib + Ic ……(1)

32
Current amplification factor is the ratio of output current to the input current.
Current amplification factor in common emitter configuration is the ratio of change in collector current to
the change in base current, denoted by β.

Circuit Diagram:.

Expected Graphs:

33
Experimental Procedure:

The circuit connections are made and the transistor is connected in CE configurations.
Input Characteristics: The collector emitter voltage (Vce) is kept constant. Now the base emitter
voltage (Vbe) is varied and the corresponding base current Ib readings are noted. Similarly, one
more set of readings are taken by keeping Vce constant. A graph of Vbe against Ib is plotted.
Output Characteristics: The base current Ib is kept constant and collector emitter voltage Vce is
varied and corresponding current Ic are noted. Similarly, one more set of readings are taken for

34
Table.2:- Output Characteristics

IB = in μA IB = in μA
VCE in Volts Ic in mA VCE in Volts Ic in mA
0.1 0.1
0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
0.5 0.5
0.6 0.6
0.7 0.7
0.8 0.8
0.9 0.9
1.0 1.0

Table.3:- Transfer Characteristics

VCE = in V
IB in μA Ic in mA
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

35
Result: The input and output characteristics of transistor is studied and the values of β and α are found.
β =……….(from output characteristics graph)
β =……….(from transfer characteristics graph)
α = ………..

36
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

Name of the Lab: Basic Electronics Lab

Subject Code: 1620308

AIM: To Plot Input & output characteristics of transistor in CB mode.

APPARATUS: Transistor, variable DC power supply, micro-ammeter, milli-

ammeter, voltmeter.

THEORY:

Transistor characteristics are the curves, which represent relationship between

different DC currents and voltages of a transistor. These are helpful in studying the
operation of a transistor when connected in a circuit. The three important
characteristics of a transistor are:

1. Input characteristic.

2. Output characteristic.

3. Constant current transfer characteristic.

Input Characteristic :

In common base configuration, it is the curve plotted between the input current
(IE) versus input voltage (VBE) for various constant values of output voltage
(VCB). The approximated plot for input characteristic is shown in figure 1. This
characteristic reveal that for fixed value of output voltage VCB, as the base to
emitter voltage increases, the emitter
current increases in a manner that
closely resembles the diode
characteristics.

37
Output Characteristic :

This is the curve plotted between the output current IC versus output voltage VCB
for various constant values of input current IE.
The output characteristic has three basic region of interest as indicated in figure 2
the active region, cutoff region and saturation region.
In active region the collector base junction is reverse biased while the base emitter
junction if forward biased. This region is normally employed for linear
(undistorted) amplifier.
In cutoff region the collector base junction and base emitter junction of the
transistor both are reverse biased. In this region transistor acts as an ‘Off’ switch.
In saturation region the collector base junction and base emitter junction of the
transistor both are forward biased. In this region transistor acts as an ‘On’ switch.

Constant current transfer Characteristic :

This is the curve plotted between output collector current IC versus input emitter
current IE for constant value of output voltage VCB.
38
The approximated plot for this characteristic is shown in figure 3.

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure :

· Connect -5V and +12V DC power supplies at their indicated position from

external source .

39
· To plot input characteristics proceed as follows :

1. Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in CCW (counter clockwise

direction).

2. Connect Ammeter between test point 2 and 3 to measure input emitter current IE

(mA).

3. Short or connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 4 and 5

4. Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and ground to measure input voltage
V BE other voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to measure output voltage
VCB.

5. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.

6. Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VCB at some constant
value (1V, 2V…)

7. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of input voltage VBE from
zero to 0.9V in step and measure the corresponding values of input current IE for
different constant value of output voltage VCB in an observation Table 1.

9. Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of output voltage VCB.

10. Plot a curve between input voltage VBE and input current IE as shown in figure
1 using suitable scale with the help of observation Table l. This curve is the
required input characteristic.

Observation Table 1 :

SL No. Input Voltage VBE Input current IE(mA) at constant value of

output voltage
VCB=1 V VCB=3 V VCB=5 V
1 0.0V
2 0.1 V
3 0.2 V
4 0.3V
5 0.4 V
6 0.5 V
40
 7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8 V
10 0.9 V

· To plot output characteristics proceed as follows:

1. Switch ‘Off’ the power supply.

2. Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in CCW (counterclockwise

direction).

3. Connect voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to measure output voltage
VCB.

4. Connect one Ammeter between test point 2 and 3 to measure input current
IE(mA) and other Ammeter between test point 4 and 5 to measure output current
IC(mA).

5. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.

6. Vary potentiometer P1 and set a value of input current IE at some constant value
(0mA, 1mA...)

7. Vary the potentiometer P2 so as to increase the value of output voltage VCB

from zero to maximum value in step and measure the corresponding values of
output current IC for different constant value of input current IE in an observation
Table 2.

8. Rotate potentiometer P2 fully in CCW direction.

9. Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of input current IE.

10. Plot a curve between output voltage V CB and output current IC as shown in
figure 2 using suitable scale with the help of observation Table 2. This curve is
the required output characteristic.

Observation Table 2 :
SL No. Input Input current IC(mA) at constant value of output voltage
Voltage
VCB(V) IE=0 mA IE=1 mA IE=2 mA IE=3 mA IE=4 mA
41
 1 -1.0
2 0.0
3 0.5
4 1.0
5 2.0
6 3.0
7 4.0
8 5.0
9 6.0
10 7.0

· To plot constant current transfer characteristics proceed as follows:

1. Switch ‘Off’ the power supply.

2. Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in CCW (counter clockwise

direction).

3. Connect voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to measure output voltage
VCB.

4. Connect one Ammeter between test point 2 and 3 to measure input current IE
(mA) and other Ammeter between test point 4 and 5 to measure output current
IC (mA).

5. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.

6. Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VCB at maximum

value.

7. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of input current IE from

zero to 10 mA in step and measure the corresponding values of output current IC
in an observation Table 3.

8. Plot a curve between output current IC and input current IE as shown in figure 3
using suitable scale with the help of observation Table 3. This curve is the
required Transfer characteristic.

Observation Table 3 :

42
SL No. Input Output current IC(mA) at
current constant output voltage VCB = 10 V
IE (mA)
1 0.0
2 1.0
3 2.0
4 3.0
5 4.0
6 5.0
7 6.0
8 7.0
9 8.0
10 9.0

Calculations :

1. Input resistance : It is the ratio of change in the input voltage VBE to change in
the input current IE at constant value of output voltage VCB or it is the reciprocal
of the slope obtained from the input characteristic.

Mathematically
1 𝑉𝐵𝐸
Rin= =1/𝐼𝐸/IBE= at constant VCB
Slope from input Characteristic 𝐼𝐸

To calculate input resistance determine the slope from the input characteristic
curve obtained from observation Table 1. Reciprocal of this slope will give the
required input resistance.

2. Output resistance : It is the ratio of change in the output voltage VCB to change
in the output current IC at constant value of input current IE or it is the reciprocal of
the slope obtained from the output characteristic.
Mathematically

Rout = 1/ Slope from output Characteristic=1/I C/VCB=VCB/IE at constant IE

To calculate output resistance determine the slope from the output characteristic
curve obtained from observation Table 2. Reciprocal of this slope will give the
required output resistance.

43
3. Current Gain : It is the ratio of change in the output current I C to change in the
input current IE at constant value of output voltage VCB or it is the slope
obtained from the constant current transfer characteristic. It is denoted by αac.

Mathematically
αac = Slope of constant current transfer characteristic = IC/IE

To calculate current gain, determine the slope from the constant current transfer
characteristic curve obtained from observation Table 3. This slope is the required
current gain.

Results :

Input resistance Rin = ___________

Output resistance Rout =________
Current Gain αac = ___________

44
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

Name of the Lab: Basic Electronics Lab

Subject Code: 1620308

Aim: To study Two stage RC coupled amplifier & plot its Frequency response.

Apparatus:

1. BJT (BC107BP) 2No.

2.Resistors (47k, 2.2k, 10k, 10k, 1k) 10No.

3.Capacitors (10UF, 10UF, 10UF, 100UF,100UF) 5No.

4. DC source 1No.

5. AC source 1No.

6. Oscilloscope 1No.

Theory:

Due to its low cost and excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequencies,
an RC Coupled Amplifier is the most popular type of coupling used in a multi
stage amplifier.

It is usually used for voltage amplification.

The figure below shows two stages of an RC coupled amplifier.

45
A coupling capacitor CC is used to connect the output of first stage to the base i.e.
input of the second stage and this continues when more stages are connected

Since here the coupling from one stage to next is achieved by a coupling capacitor
followed by a connection to a shunt resistor, therefore, such amplifiers are known
as resistance-capacitance coupled amplifier or simply RC coupled amplifier.

The resistances R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilisation network.

The emitter bypass capacitor offers a low resistance path to the signal. Without this
capacitor the voltage gain of each stage would be lost.

The coupling capacitor CC transmits a.c. signal but blocks d.c. This prevents d.c.
interference between various stages and the shifting of operating point.

Working of RC Coupled Amplifier:

When a.c. signal is applied to the base of the first transistor, it is amplified and
appears across its collector load RC. The second stage again amplifies this signal
and the more amplified signal appears across the second stage collector resistance.
In this way the cascaded stages amplify the signal and the overall gain is
considerably increased. However, the total gain is less than the product of the gains
of individual stages. It is because, when a second stage follows the first stage, the
effective load resistance of first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the
46
input resistance of second stage. This reduces the gain of the stage which is loaded
by the next stage.

Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier:

The figure below shows the frequency response of a typical RC coupled amplifier.

We can notice from the above fig. that the voltage gain drops off at low (< 50 Hz)
and high (> 20 KHz) frequencies. However, it is uniform over the mid-frequency
range i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz.

Circuit Diagram:

47
Circuit analyses (to be completed before coming to the lab)

Draw the ac equivalent circuit and work out the expression for voltage gain for this
amplifier.

Procedure:

1. Assemble the circuit shown .

2. Apply sinusoidal signal having peak to peak voltage~ 10mV to the input of
the amplifier.

3. Display input as well as out put signal on to the CRO on two different channels
simultaneously.

4. Measure the output voltage as a function of frequency keeping the input

voltage fixed ~10mv.

5. Plot the gain as a function of frequency.

6. Determine the lower and higher frequency cut off and hence the bandwidth of
the amplifier.

7. Trace input and out put signals at two-three frequencies. (The traces should be
well labeled).
48
 8. Compare the frequency response of single stage amplifier of experiment 1 and
the RC coupled amplifier.

9. Record the band width for triangular as well as square waves also.

10. Compare the frequency response of sinusoidal, triangular and square pulse

Application:

used as voltage amplifiers for example in the initial stages of public address
system.

If other type of coupling such as transformer coupling is used in the initial stages,
this results in frequency distortion which may be amplified in the next stage.

But, due to its poor impedance matching, it is rarely used in the final stages.

Conclusion:

49
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

Name of the Lab: Basic Electronics Lab

Subject Code: 1620308

AIM: To study the Characteristics of UJT

APPARATUS:- Regulated Power Supply (2Nos) (0-30V, 1A) , UJT
2N2646,Resistors 10kΩ, 47Ω, 330Ω, Multimeters ,Breadboard
and Connecting Wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

A Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device

that has only one junction. It has three terminals an emitter (E) and two
bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of
silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The
emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The resistance between B1
and B2, when the emitter is opencircuit is called interbase resistance.
50
The original UJT, is a simple device that is essentially a bar of N type
semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused
somewhere along its length.

The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This
causes a potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter
voltage is driven approximately one diode voltage above the voltage at
the point where the P diffusion (emitter) is, current will begin to flow
from the emitter into the base region. Because the base region is very
lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in the base region)
causes (conductivity modulation) which reduces the resistance of the
portion of the base between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal.
This reduction in resistance means that the emitter junction is more
forward biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect
is a negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the
UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits. When the emitter

51
voltage reaches Vp, the current starts to increase and the emitter voltage
starts to decrease. This is represented by negative slope of the
characteristics which is referred to as the negative resistance region,
beyond the valley point , VEB proportional to IE.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connection is made as per circuit diagram.
2. Output voltage is fixed at a constant level and by varying input
voltage corresponding emitter current values are noted down.
3. This procedure is repeated for different values of output voltages.
4. All the readings are tabulated and Intrinsic Stand-Off ratio is
calculated using η = (Vp-VD) / VB2B1 5. A graph is plotted
between VE and IE for different values of VB2B1.
OBSEVATIONS:

VB2B1=2V VB2B1=3V

52
 VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA)

CALCULATIONS:

VP = ηVB2B1 + VD

η = (VP-VD) / VB2B1

η = ( η1 + η2 ) / 2

APPLICATION: UJT can be used as trigger device for SCR’s. traics

and other applications including sawtooth generator, phase control and
timing circuits.

CONCLUSION:

53
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

Name of the Lab: Basic Electronics Lab

Subject Code: 1620308

Aim:1To study Transistor shunt voltage regulator, when input voltage Vin is
fixed while Load resistance RL is variable.

Apparatus: 1. Analog board of Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator

2. DC power supply +12V external source

3. Digital Multimeter (2 numbers).

4. 2 mm patch cords.

Theory:

Circuits that maintain power supply voltages or current output within specified
limits, or tolerances are called Regulators. They are designated as dc voltage or dc
current regulators, depending on their specific application. Voltage regulator
circuits are additions to basic power supply circuits, which are made up of rectifier
and filter sections (Fig. 1). The purpose of the voltage regulator is to provide an
output voltage with little or no variation. Regulator circuits sense changes in output
voltages and compensate for the changes.

There are two types of voltage regulators. Basic voltage regulators are classified as
either Series or Shunt, depending on the location or position of the regulating
element (s) in relation to the circuit load resistance. Fig 2 illustrates these two basic

54
types of voltage regulators. Broken lines have been used in the figure to highlight
the difference between the series and shunt regulator

The schematic drawing in view A is that of a shunt regulator. It is called shunt

regulator because the regulating device is connected in shunt or in parallel with the
load resistance. Fig 2 illustrates the principle of shunt voltage regulation. From the
figure it is clear that the regulator is in shunt with the load resistance (R L). In a
shunt voltage regulator, as shown in Fig 2, Output voltage regulation is determined
by parallel resistance of the regulating device, the Load resistance (R L), and the
series resistor Rs. If the load resistance RL increases/decreases, the regulating
device decreases/increases its resistance to compensate for the change.

The schematic for a typical series voltage regulator is shown in Figure 3. It

employs the NPN transistor in shunt configuration in place of the variable resistor
found in Fig 2.

Since AB is in parallel across VL, we have

VL –VZ –VBE = 0 or VBE = VL –VZ (kirchoff's Voltage Law)

Also VL= VZ + VBE

i.e. The output voltage is close to the sum of the voltage across Zener and the
voltage at the base-emitter junction of transistor.

55
Circuit Operation :

Case 1: when input voltage is constant while Load varies.

Since VZ is fixed, any decrease or increase in VL will have a corresponding effect

on VBE. Suppose, VL decreases then as seen from the above relation VBE also
decreases. As a result, IB decreases, hence IC ( = βIB) decreases, thereby
decreasing I and hence VB (=IR). Consequently, VL increases because at all times.

Vin = VR+ VL or VL = Vin – VR

From the above description it is concluded that when by any reason V L decreases
VR also decreases thereby keeping VL constant.

Similarly, when by any reason VL increases VR also increases thereby keeping VL

constant.

Case 2 : when input voltage varies while Load remains constant.

When the input voltage increases, output voltage across increases momentarily.
This momentarily deviation or variation, from the required regulated output
voltage of 6.3 volts is a result of a rise in the input voltage. This increases forward
bias of transistor. Recall that the voltage drop across Zener remains constant at
5.6V. Since the output voltage is composed of the Zener voltage and the base-
emitter voltage, the output voltage momentarily increases. At this time, the
increase in the forward bias of transistor lowers the resistance of the transistor
allowing more current to flow through it

Since this current must also pass through R, there is also an increase in the voltage
drop across this resistor. Due to increase in this voltage drop across R, voltage
56
across VL remains close to the required regulated value of output voltage.
Similarly, when input voltage decreases, forward bias of transistor also decreases.
This decrease in bias voltage increases the resistance of transistor allowing less
current to flow through it. Since this current must pass through resistor R, there is
also an decrease in the voltage drop across this resistor. This drop in voltage across
R maintain output voltage close to the required regulated value.

Circuit diagram :

Procedure :

10.Connect + 12V dc power supply at its indicated position from external

source.
11.Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and ground to measure input
voltage Vin.
12. Connect ohmmeter between test point 5 and ground and set the value of
load resistance RL at some fixed value [full load (1.1K), 1K, 500Ω...]
13. Connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 3 and 4.
14.Connect voltmeter between test point 5 and ground to measure output
voltage Vout.
15.Switch ON the power supply.
16. Vary the potentiometer P1 to set fixed value of input voltage Vin = 9V and
measure the corresponding values of a. Output voltage Vout between test

57
 points 5 and ground. b. Zener voltage Vz between test points 2 and 6. c.
Forward bias voltage VBE of transistor between test point 6 and ground.
17.Disconnect the 2mm patch cord between test point 3 and 4.
18. Repeat the procedure from step 3 for different sets of load resistance R and
note the results in an observation Table 1.

Observation Table 1 :

Sl.no Load Resistance Voltage Forward bias Output voltage

RL Across voltage VBE Vout at constant
Zener VZ Input voltage Vin
= 9 volt
1 Full Load (1.1K)
2 1KΩ
3 800 Ω
4 600 Ω
5 400 Ω
6 200 Ω
7 No Load

Note : To measure Voltage at No Load disconnect 2mm patch cord between test
point 3 and 4, measure voltage between test point 3 and ground.

Calculations:

Percentage regulation is given by formula

% Regulation = [(VNL – VFL)/VFL] * 100

VNL = No-load or open-circuit terminal voltage.

VFL = Full-load terminal voltage.

Result :

58
 3. The result of Experiment 1 reveal that for the network of Fig 3 with a fixed
input voltage Vin the output voltage will remain close to 6.3 V for a range of
load resistance that extends from extends from _____________ to
_____________
4. Percentage regulation = __________%

Aim 2.To study Transistor shunt voltage regulator, when input voltage Vin is
variable while Load resistance RL is fixed.

Apparatus: 1. Analog board of Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator

2. DC power supply +12V external source

3. Digital Multimeter (2 numbers)

4. 2 mm patch cords.

Circuit diagram :

Procedure :

• Connect +12V dc power supplies at their indicated position from external source
or ST2612 Analog Lab.

59
1. Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and ground to measure input voltage
Vin

2. Connect ohmmeter between test point 5 and ground and set the value of load
resistance RL at maximum value.

3. Connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 3 and 4.

4. Connect voltmeter between test point 5 and ground to measure output voltage
Vout.

5. Switch ON the power supply.

6. Vary the potentiometer P1 to set fixed value of input voltage Vin = 7V, 8V, 9V
and measure the corresponding values of

a. Output voltage Vout between test points 5 and ground.

b. Zener voltage VZ between test points 2 and 6.

c. Forward bias voltage VBE of transistor between test point 6 and ground.

7. Repeat the procedure from step 7 for different sets of input voltage Vin and note
the results in an observation Table 2.

Observation Table 2 :

Sl No. Input Voltage across Forward bias Output voltage

Voltage(Vin) Zener(VZ) voltage(VBE) Vout at fixed
load resistance
RL=Max
1 7V
2 8V
3 9V
4 10 V
5 11 V

60
Results :

1. The result of Experiment 2 reveal that for the network of Fig 5 with a fixed Load
resistance, the output voltage will remain close to 6.3V for a range of input voltage
Vin that extends from _____ to_____ .

61
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

Name of the Lab: Basic Electronics Lab

Subject Code: 1620308

AIM: To study the Zener Diode as Regulator& calculate load regulation

APPARATUS: Zener diode, Resistors, Power supply, Multi meter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

Zener diode is a P-N junction diode specially designed to operate in the reverse
biased mode. It is acting as normal diode while forward biasing. It has a particular
voltage known as break down voltage, at which the diode break downs while
reverse biased. In the case of normal diodes the diode damages at the break down
voltage. But Zener diode is specially designed to operate in the reverse breakdown
region.

The basic principle of Zener diode is the Zener breakdown. When a diode is
heavily doped, it’s depletion region will be narrow. When a high reverse voltage is
applied across the junction, there will be very strong electric field at the junction.
And the electron hole pair generation takes place. Thus heavy current flows. This
is known as Zener break down. So a Zener diode, in a forward biased condition
acts as a normal diode. In reverse biased mode, after the break down of junction

62
current through diode increases sharply. But the voltage across it remains constant.
This principle is used in voltage regulator using Zener diodes.
The figure shows the zener voltage regulator, it consists of a current limiting
resistor Rs
connected in series with the input voltage Vs and zener diode is connected in
parallel with the load RL in reverse biased condition. The output voltage is always
selected with a breakdown voltage Vz of the diode.

The input source current, Is = IZ+ IL………….. (1)

The drop across the series resistance, Rs = Vin – Vz …….. (2)

And current flowing through it, Is = (Vin – VZ) / RS ………….. (3)

From equation (1) and (2), we get, (Vin - Vz )/Rs = Iz +IL ………… (4)

Regulation with a varying input voltage (line regulation):

It is defined as the change in regulated voltage with respect to variation in line

voltage. It is denoted by ‘LR’.

In this, input voltage varies but load resistance remains constant hence, the load
current remains constant. As the input voltage increases, form equation (3) Is also
varies accordingly. Therefore, zener current Iz will increase. The extra voltage is
dropped across the Rs. Since, increased Iz will still have a constant Vz and Vz is
equal to Vout.

The output voltage will remain constant. If there is decrease in Vin, Iz decreases as
load current remains constant and voltage drop across Rs is reduced. But even
though Iz may change, Vz remains constant hence, output voltage remains
constant.

Regulation with the varying load (load regulation): It is defined as change in

load voltage with respect to variations in load current. To calculate this regulation,
input voltage is constant and output voltage varies due to change in the load
resistance value.

Consider output voltage is increased due to increasing in the load current. The left
side of the equation (4) is constant as input voltage Vin, IS and Rs is constant.
Then as load current changes, the zener current Iz will also change but in opposite
63
way such that the sum of Iz and IL will remain constant. Thus, the load current
increases, the zener current decreases and sum remain constant. Form reverse bias
characteristics even Iz changes, Vz remains same hence, and output voltage
remains fairly constant.

PROCEDURE:-

A) Line Regulation:

1. Make the connections as shown in figure below.

2. Keep load resistance fixed value; vary DC input voltage from 5V to 15V.
3. Note down output voltage as a load voltage with high line voltage ‘VHL’ and
as a load voltage with low line voltage ‘VLL’.
4. Using formula, % Line Regulation = (VHL-VLL)/ VNOM x100, where VNOM =
the nominal load voltage under the typical operating conditions. For ex.
VNOM= 9.5 ± 4.5 V

B) Load Regulation:

1. For finding load regulation, make connections as shown in figure below

2. Keep input voltage constant say 10V, vary load resistance value.
3. Note down no load voltage VNL’ for maximum load resistance value and full
load voltage ‘VFL’ for minimum load resistance value.
4. Calculate load regulation using, % load regulation = (VNl-VFL)/ VFL x100

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Calculations:

% Line Regulation = (VHL-VLL) / vNOM x100 = ------------ %

% voltage regulation = (VNL-VFL)/VFLx100 =----------%

CONCLUSION:-

64
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

Name of the Lab: Basic Electronics Lab

Subject Code: 1620308

1. Aim of experiment

To plot Forward & Reverse biased characteristics of Zener diode

2. Apparatus: Zener diode, Power Supply, dc milliammeter and dc voltmeter

3. Theory/Principle:

A PN junction is known as a semiconductor or crystal diode, so called because

PN junction is grown out of a crystal.
Biasing a diode means applying appropriate DC voltage to a diode. A forward
biased diode conducts easily whereas reverse biased diode practically conducts no
current. It means that forward resistance of a diode is quite small as compared with
its reverse resistance

Forward current is the current flowing through a forward biased diode. Every
diode has a maximum value of forward current, which it can safely carry. If this
value is exceeded, the diode may be destroyed due to excessive heat. Reverse
current or leakage current is the current that flows through the reverse biased
diode. This current is due to the minority carriers. Under normal operating voltages
the reverse current is quite small. Its value is extremely small for silicon diodes but
it is appreciable for germanium diodes. Peak inverse voltage is the maximum
reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the junction. If the
reverse voltage across a diode exceeds this value, the reverse current increases
sharply and breaks down the junction due to excess heat. Peak inverse voltage is
important when diode is used as a rectifier.

Zener diode is a heavily doped PN junction diode, meant to operate in reverse bias
condition. The breakdown or zener voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If
the diode is heavily doped, depletion layer will be thin and consequently the
breakdown of the junction will occur at a lower reverse voltage. On the other hand,

65
a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown voltage. When zener diode is
forward biased, its characteristics are just same as ordinary diode.

Circuit Diagram:

66
Expected Graph:

Experimental Procedure:

The circuit connections are made as shown in the Fig.1. Initially the voltage
is set at 0V. The voltage is then varied in the steps of 0.1V and the
corresponding reading of the ammeter is noted. This set of reading
corresponds to the forward bias.
The circuit is then made for reverse bias as shown in Fig.2. The current is
measured by varying voltages in steps of 1V (in steps of 0.1 after the
current starts increasing).
A graph is plotted by taking voltage along X-axis and current along Y-axis.
The knee voltage is found by drawing a tangent in the forward bias at a
point where the current starts increasing at a faster rate. The breakdown
voltage is found by extending the curve to the X-axis in the reverse bias.

67
Result:

The Knee voltage = ……………………..V

The Breakdown voltage = ……………….V

68