The biomechanics of stretching-Duane Knudson

The Biomechanics of Stretching

Duane Knudson
California State University, Chico,
Department of Kinesiology, First and Normal St., Chico, CA 95929-0330, USA
Email: [email protected]

Abstract
This narrative review examined the biomechanical effect of stretching exercises on skeletal
muscles. While there is a long history of clinical research on the effect of stretching on flexibility,
there have only been a few years of research on the acute and chronic effects of stretching on the
biomechanical parameters of muscle function. The acute effect of stretching appears to be a
significant increase in range of motion primarily due to increased stretch tolerance and significant
reductions in most all forms of muscular performance. Stretching also creates significant acute
reductions in passive tension (stress-relaxation) in the muscle, but does not appear to affect its
stiffness/elasticity. Stretch training significantly increases range of motion, but it also tends to
increase the passive tension and stiffness of the musculature. Future research of human muscle in
vivo during stretching and normal movement using ultrasound promises to help clarify the effects
of stretching on the active and passive components of muscle and the many biomechanical
variables of muscular performance.

Key Words: Elasticity, Flexibility, Muscle, Stiffness, Tendon, Viscoelastic

Introduction
Stretching is an important Biomechanics of Muscle Tension
therapeutic and exercise training modality
for increasing joint range of motion. There The tension created by skeletal
has been extensive research on the effects muscle can be classified as originating from
of various stretching programs that have two mechanical sources, active and passive.
documented the clinical effectiveness of Active tension represents the contractile
these techniques in modifying flexibility effects or the force generated by the
(Knudson et al. 2000; Harvey et al., 2002; interaction of actin and myosin filaments.
Shrier, 2004; Decoster et al., 2005). Passive tension arises from the connective
Improvements in soft tissue imaging and tissue components of skeletal muscle when
force measurement technology have only elongated beyond their resting length.
recently begun to allow biomechanical Active and passive tension cannot be
studies to document the mechanisms of the considered separate structural elements of
effect of stretching on the muscle-tendon muscle because the connective tissue
unit and muscular performance. This matrix of muscle is quite complex (within
review will summarize the biomechanical muscle and between muscles in anatomical
research on the effects of stretching on the compartments) and actin cross-bridges have
muscle-tendon unit. These studies provide elastic properties (Proske and Morgan,
important basic science evidence that 1999). Many readers will be familiar with
compliments clinical studies to help guide the electro-mechanical delay and
professionals in prescribing stretching hyperbolic force-velocity properties of
exercises. muscle (Hill, 1938) that also complicate the
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production of muscle force. Most of skeletal muscle is said to have three

biomechanical models of muscle use a Hill regions or limbs (ascending, plateau, and
model that includes a series-elastic descending), while passive tension
component to account for passive tension increases in an exponential fashion (Figure
interacting with active tension. This review 1). While most of these studies have been
will focus on the muscle length-dependent based on tissue preparations from animal
properties of muscle since this is the models (e.g. Taylor et al. 1997; Davis et
mechanical property most strongly related al., 2003), several in vivo studies of human
to stretching exercises. The force and muscle groups have recently reported
moment of force about a joint axis created similar patterns of active and passive tensile
by a particular muscle or muscle group is a resistance, especially in the plantar flexors
result of both active and passive (Maganaris, 2001; Gajdosik, 2002; Hoang
components of muscle tension. et al., 2005). There is considerable
normative data on the rise in passive torque
Biomechanics has typically
provide by passive tension of the plantar
described the active and passive
flexors (Gajdosik et al., 1999; Moseley et
components of muscle as the length-tension
al., 2001).
relationship of muscle. The active tension

Figure1. The force-length relationship of muscle reflects the sum of the active ( ) and passive tension ( )
sources of force. The active tension curve is typically classified as having an ascending, plateau, and descending limbs.
Adapted with permission from Knudson (2003).
(elasticity) have all been measured for a
When connective tissues like
variety of these tissues. For example,
ligament and tendon samples are stretched
whole rabbit muscle preparations have been
to failure in materials testing machines, a
stretched to failure to document the effect
variety of variables can be calculated
of warm-up (Safran et al., 1988) or cadaver
documenting their mechanical response.
tissues tested to document the mechanical
Variables like peak forces, energy
strength of the various bundles of the
absorbed, elongation, and stiffness
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 The biomechanics of stretching-Duane Knudson

human medial collateral ligament is defined as the slope of the stress/strain or

(Robinson et al., 2005). load/deformation curve in the elastic region
of the curve. The load-deformation curves
While the tension of muscle can be
of viscoelastic materials (like Figure 2) are
easily understood as arising from active of
complex and have several regions. The
passive sources, the interaction of these two
“toe” region is the initial quick elongation
sources is very complex. The interaction of
with minimal force rise). There is a highly
these two components of tension implies
nonlinear region followed the “elastic”
that exercise interventions, like stretching,
region where the curve begins to
may have complex effects on skeletal
approximate a straight line. If these tissues
muscle depending on the interaction of the
were pulled to failure the curve would show
tissues and the nature of the training
a “plastic” region where the curve flattens
stimulus.
out as permanent damage is done to the
tissue. During normal activities most
Acute Effects of Stretching
ligament and tendon strain is typically
When a muscle or muscle group is between 2 and 5 percent strain so they
passively stretched using techniques like in occur in the toe and just before the elastic
static, dynamic, or proprioceptive- regions of the curve (Carlstedt and Nordin,
neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching 1989). The viscoelastic response of
there may be some short-term changes in muscles, tendons, and ligaments means that
the muscle. Acute or short-term effects of a slow stretch will create less passive
stretching on muscle relate to the initial tension than a faster stretch to the same
performance changes in the first few hours length.
after stretching. This section will look at
factors affecting the acute response of The acute effect of stretching on
muscle to stretching. The acute effect flexibility is pretty clear. Stretching creates
following stretching then depends on the an acute increase in joint range of motion
biomechanical performance variable of that tends to persist for 60 to 90 minutes
interest. Some biomechanical variables (Moeller et al., 1985; Kirsch et al., 1995;
(like range of motion) have been shown to Zito et al., 1997). Much of this short-term
increase in static flexibility is related to an
improve following stretching, while some
appear to be unaffected (stiffness) and increase in stretch tolerance (Wiemann and
others are significantly reduced (strength). Hahn, 1997; Magnusson, 1998). In other
words, the increased range of motion may
An important factor in the acute be related to an analgesic effect that allows
effect of stretching is that the passive the person to tolerate higher levels of
tension in a muscle depends on the rate of passive tension required to stretch the
stretch. This rate dependency means that muscle farther than it was before. Stretch
the tensile resistance in a muscle strongly tolerance has also been observed to be
depends on the timing of the stretch. This higher in flexible persons than “tight”
property is called viscoelasticity. The persons, so greater range of motion in most
faster the stretch the higher will be the persons is achieved with higher passive
stiffness of the muscle (Figure 2). Stiffness tensions (Magnusson et al., 2000a).
is the measure of elasticity of a material and

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 Journal of Exercise Science & Physiotherapy, Vol. 2: 3-12, 2006

Figure 2. Typical force-elongation curves for slow and fast stretches of a muscle, tendon, or ligament. The visocoelastic
response of these tissues means that faster stretches make the tissue stiffer, resulting in greater force for a given
elongation. Adapted with permission from Knudson (2003).

Another related factor is that stiffness or elasticity of the muscle. While a

stretching decreases the passive tension in patient might feel stretching makes their
the muscle at a given length. This decrease muscles feel less “stiff” (Reisman et al.
in passive tension in the muscle at a 2005), this is not correct in the true sense of
particular joint angle is due to stress the word. What patients are often feeling
relaxation (Figure 3). Stress relaxation is following stretching or mild movement
the decrease in stress (force per unit area) in following inactivity are “thixotropic” or
a material elongated and held at a constant history dependent (length and contraction)
length. Holding stretches for 20 to 30 effects (Hutton, 1993; Magnusson et al.,
seconds is a good standard because most of 1995). An everyday example would be
the stress relaxation in passive stretches when a person is sitting in a constrained
occurs in the first 20 seconds (McHugh et position for a long time; they will find their
al., 1992; Magnusson, 1998; McNair et al., back muscles feel inextensible or „stiff‟
2000; Duong et al., 2001). Patients can feel until they move around for a few seconds.
this decrease in muscle tension when they This change in passive tension very early in
hold a static stretch. Stress relaxation the toe region of a muscle has been called
following stretching provides an acute 10 – “short-range stiffness,” but is not the true
30% decrease in passive tension stiffness of the tissue if it were to be
(Magnusson et al., 1995; Magnusson et al., stretched near injury-producing levels.
2000b; McNair et al., 2000), but this stress
Many studies have measured the
relaxation lasts only about one hour
torque/angle curves immediately following
(Magnusson et al., 1996b).
stretching as estimates of the
This lower tension early in range of load/elongation behavior and passive
motion should not be confused with the stiffness of stretched muscle groups (e.g.
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 The biomechanics of stretching-Duane Knudson

Rosenbaum and Hennig, 1995; Halbertsma latter issue is a problem because the
et al. 1996, 1999; Magnusson, 1998; torque/angle slopes in various regions of
Magnusson et al., 1996b; 1998; 2000,). the curve are not strongly correlated to each
These studies are conducted at very slow other (Gadjosik & Williams, 2002). Other
speeds (1 to 5 degrees per second) for studies estimate muscle group stiffness
ethical (safety) and neuromuscular from damped vibration during activation,
(minimal reflex activation) reasons. There but there also is a very low correlation
are many problems in accurately measuring between passive and active muscle stiffness
muscle group/joint stiffness (Latash and (Blackburn et al., 2004). Most strong
Zatsiorsky, 1993) and comparisons are studies of passive stiffness observe results
difficult. There are conflicting results from like in Figure 3, where the slope of the
these studies, different experimental torque/angle curve does not change
protocols (dynamometers, set-ups, test following multiple bouts of stretching. The
speeds) and incorrect definitions of only conclusion is that there is no clear
stiffness (slope not calculated in the elastic evidence that stretching creates an acute
region of the torque/angle curve). This decrease in muscle stiffness.

Figure 3. Torque/angle curves for the hamstring muscles for the first and fifth stretches. Note the lower resistance at
each joint angle from stress relaxation, but also notice the slope of the curve in the elastic (linear) region does not change
so the stiffness of the muscle group is similar. Reproduced with permission from Magnusson et al., (1996a).

It is likely that the stiffness of a can endure before injury (Safran et al.,
muscle group is more dependent on warm- 1989; Noonan et al., 1994). Studies in
up than stretching. One of the most humans that have examined both stretching
effective methods to decrease muscle and active warm-up in combination have
stiffness is to increase muscle temperature shown that the decrease in muscle stiffness
with warm-up activities, this also increases is mainly a result of increased temperature
the maximum strain and stress the muscle from warm-up and not the effects of

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 Journal of Exercise Science & Physiotherapy, Vol. 2: 3-12, 2006

stretching (Rosenbaum & Hennig, 1995; decrease between 4 and 30 percent has been
McNair & Stanley, 1996). One study found observed in maximal strength tests (e.g.
that continuous passive motion significantly Kokkonen et al., 1998; Avela et al., 1999;
reduced the stiffness of the plantar flexors Nelson and Kokkonen, 2001; Marek et al.,
while stretching did not (McNair et al., 2005), jumping (Church et al., 2001;
2000). Cornwell et al., 2001; McNeal and Sands,
2003: Young and Behm, 2003), sprinting
One of the latest areas of research
(Fletcher and Jones, 2004; Nelson et al.
on the acute effects of stretching uses bright
2005a), muscular endurance (Nelson et al.,
mode ultrasound to examine the responses
2005b), and throwing (Noffal et al., 2004).
of the various components of muscle
Stretch-induced decrements in muscular
(fibers, aponeurosis, and tendon). Kubo et
performance seem to be about equally
al. (2002b) studied the acute effect of
related to neuromuscular inhibition and
stretching and contractions on the stiffness
decreased contractile force (Avela et al.,
of the human Achilles tendon. The acute
1999) and can last up an hour (Fowles et
effect of stretching was to significantly
al., 2000). The effect is similar in males
decrease tendon stiffness (8%), but the
and females, with a curvilinear dose-
largest effect of stretching was a 29%
response and 20 to 40 seconds of static
reduction in hysteresis. Hysteresis is the
stretching resulting in significant reductions
energy lost when a viscoelastic material is
in isometric strength (Knudson and Noffal,
stretched and returns to its normal length.
2005).
This is a promising area of research since
ultrasound studies have also begun to It is clear that from the standpoint
document the interaction of length changes of maximizing muscular performance,
of fibers, aponeurosis, and tendons during a stretching creates an acute decrease in
variety of contractions of human skeletal performance, therefore stretching should
muscle (e.g. Fukunaga et al., 1997; Kubo et not normally be recommended prior to
al., 2000). exercise with apparently healthy
individuals, but be programmed during the
Another factor in the acute effect of
cool-down after exercise training (Knudson,
stretching involves the changes in muscle
1999; Knudson et al., 2000). The other line
force following stretching. Stretching of
of evidence that supports this conclusion is
muscle results in an exponential rise in
that the largest, prospective studies of
passive tension in the muscle and research
stretching show no effect of stretching on
on animal models has shown that the force
injury rates (Pope et al., 1998, 2000;
which can damage (weaken) muscle can be
Amako et al., 2003).
as low as 16 to 30% of maximum failure
force or at lengthening as small as 16 to
Chronic Effects of Stretching
25% (Noonan et al., 1994; Sun et al., 1998;
Tsuang et al., 1998). Research in the last The chronic or training effects of
decade on humans has conclusively stretching have also been studied
confirmed that an acute effect of stretching extensively, but surprisingly these effects
is a decrease in the static and dynamic have often differed from the acute effects of
expressions of muscular strength (for stretching. Reviews of research on
reviews see: Knudson et al., 2000; Shrier, stretching a variety of muscle groups report
2004; Weerapong et al., 2004). A significant improvements (5 – 31% or 6 to

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 The biomechanics of stretching-Duane Knudson

12 degrees) in range of motion with 3 to 6 increasing muscle stiffness, it is unclear if

weeks of training (Knudson et al., 2000; this would be beneficial. The predominant
Harvey et al. 2002; Guissard and hypothesis is that a stiff muscle may be
Duchateau, 2004; Decoster et al. 2005). better adapted for force transmission in
The long-term extensibility of muscles due concentric muscle actions, while a more
to stretching or physical activity are compliant muscle may be better for shock
believed to be due to a myogenic response absorption, stretch-shortening cycle muscle
of sarcomeres and its clinical implications actions, and reducing risk of injury (Wilson
fairly well understood (DeDeyne, 2001; et al., 1991, 1994; Walshe et al., 1996).
Gajdosik, 2001). The effects of stretch There is very little training or basic science
training on muscular strength and the research to confirm or refute these
mechanical properties of the muscle-tendon hypotheses (Owen et al. 2005). It is
unit, however, are less clear. unknown if a more compliant tendon that
absorbs small, rapid stretches allowing the
A common belief in many circles is
muscle fibers to remain in concentric or an
that stretch training will decrease muscle
isometric state would be better or worse
stiffness, possibly even decrease the
than a stiff muscle that can absorb more
increases in muscular stiffness that results
energy but may force the fibers into
from strength training. Like the acute
eccentric action. The complexity of the
effects of stretching, this belief about the
active and passive components of muscle
chronic effect of stretching is not likely
tension mentioned earlier and the variety of
correct. The combination of stretching with
movements makes it difficult to predict
isometric training does not prevent the
what changes in stiffness in what muscle-
increase in muscle group stiffness (Klinge
tendon components would do to muscular
et al., 1997). Other studies of stretch
performance.
training alone show no effect on stiffness
(Halbertsma and Goeken, 1994; It is likely that the addition of
Magnusson et al. 1996b&c) or increases in stretching following strength training bouts
muscle stiffness (Reid and McNair, 2004). is effective not only in maintaining normal
Kubo et al. (2002a) found no change in the range of motion, but also as an additional
stiffness of the Achilles tendon following overload stimulus that tends to increase
three weeks of stretch training. When strength adaptations (Shrier, 2004). The
studies report decreases in passive muscle research does not support the belief that
stiffness following stretch training it is stretch training decreases muscle stiffness,
often because they do not use correct but there is preliminary evidence that it
definitions of stiffness, taking torque/angle may increase stiffness and decrease energy
slopes at standardized points in the range of lost in recovery from stretch (Kubo et al.
motion before the linear region (e.g. 2002a). The relationship between any
Guissard and Duchateau, 2004). The muscle mechanical adaptations to stretch
research is fairly consistent that stretch training and muscular performance is likely
training will not likely significantly to be complex. This will be a fertile area
decrease muscle stiffness, rather it may for future research on stretching.
have no effect or increase muscle stiffness.
Conclusion
If future research were to confirm
Recent research with
that stretching has a chronic effect of
dynamometers and ultrasound imaging has
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 Journal of Exercise Science & Physiotherapy, Vol. 2: 3-12, 2006

cast new light on the biomechanical tibalis anterior muscle. Journal of Biomechanics,
36: 505-512.
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