Biological Fixed Film: Md. Shahinoor Islam, Geelsu Hwang, Yang Liu

Biological Fixed Film
Md. Shahinoor Islam, Geelsu Hwang, Yang Liu*
ABSTRACT: The review includes literature published and biofilms in the natural environment has not been
during the year 2011 regarding the use of biofilm and included. Anaerobic biofilms are included in another
bioreactors to treat wastewater. Topics considered are: review paper and will not be included herein.
biofilm formation and factors that impact biofilm Organization and Coverage. The review has
formation; extracellular polymeric substance and its two sections. (1) Biofilms—biofilm formation and impact
extraction from biofilms; biofilm consortia and quorum of parameters such as shear stress, surface properties,
sensing; biofilm imaging techniques; biofilm reactors and nutrients, and bioaugmentation on biofilm formation;
modeling. extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and EPS
extraction from biofilms; gene expression, quorum sensing
KEYWORDS: biofilm, biofilm reactors, modeling, and (QS), and biofilm consortia; biofilm imaging and
biofilm EPS. characterization. (2) Biofilm Reactors—general reactors,
biofilm carriers types of reactors and performance for
doi: 10.2175/106143012X13407275694833 wastewater treatment, reactor modeling, and reactor
comparisons. Reactor modeling is included in a general
Introduction modeling section.
Overview. This review focuses on aerobic
biological fixed film systems used for the purpose of water Biofilm Formation
and wastewater treatment. Research related to medical and Bacterial Adhesion to Surfaces. A comparison
dental biofilms, biofilms for the treatment of air pollution, of bacterial and yeast retention on a range of surfaces
revealed that the physiological state of the cells affected
microbial retention patterns (Carnazza et al., 2011).
*Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Retention patterns were similar for different substrates and
Markin/CNRL Natural Resources Engineering Facility, drastic modification of the surface energy did not impact
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2W2, Canada; the spatial organization of the cells. Bacterial surface
*Corresponding author phone: 780-492-5515; Fax. 780- polymers—lipopolysaccharides (LPS), type 1 fimbria, and
492-0249; E-mail: [email protected] capsular colanic acid (CA)—were investigated in situ for
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Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
their roles in reversible and irreversible attachment of the ammonia-oxidizers displayed higher adhesion rates on
bacteria (Chao and Zhang, 2011). Escherichia coli K-12 the SAMs with higher surface energies.
and six mutants with different surface polymers were used Amos et al. (2011) found several genes important
as test strains, and six different materials were applied as for biofilm formation in Photorhabdus luminescens and
substrata. It was observed that reversible attachment and elucidated the key role of the phosphomannose isomerase
the transformation ratio from reversible to irreversible gene, manA, in the structure of functional EPS. It was
attachment were significantly enhanced by LPS and type 1 found that a manA-deficient mutant was able to attach to
fimbirae, whereas irreversible attachment was significantly surfaces with the same efficiency as that of the wild-type
increased by LPS only. strain but could not develop the more extended biofilm
The effects of species selection, species control, matrix structures. The effect of the manA mutation on the
and substrate properties on the microalgal biofilms of formation of a complete, branched EPS was determined by
Scenedesmus obliquus and Chlorella vulgaris were compositional analysis of P. luminescens EPS.
investigated (Irving and Allen, 2011). Species selection and Impact of Shear Stress. Brugnoni et al. (2011)
species control had significant effects on biofilm studied biofilm formation of Candida krusei in a rotating
development, whereas the effect of substrate surface disk system (RDS) to assess the impact of shear stress on
properties was minimal. These findings indicated that both biofilm formation. Bacteria were grown on food grade
species selection and species control were more important stainless steel coupons under varied shear stress from 0 to
than surface properties in the development of microalgal 91 N/m2 and the shear stress was varied by changing the
biofilms. rotation of disk. It was observed that the microcolonies of
To improve wastewater treatment performance C. krusei in the biofilms were longer in the direction of
through the strategic design of attachment substrata, the flow for turbulent flow, whereas patchy biofilms consisted
attachment rates of two autotrophic ammonia oxidizing of microcolonies and single cells were grown under laminar
bacteria (AOBs) (Nitrosomonas europaea and Nitrosospira flow condition. Lecuyer et al. (2011) investigated the
multiformis) and a heterotroph (Escherichia coli) were influence of the wall (parallel or tangential) shear stress on
evaluated using self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) with a the early-stage adhesion of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA14
range of wetabilities, surface energies, and functional on glass and polydimethylsiloxane surfaces. The
properties (methyl, hydroxyl, carboxyl, trimethylamine, characteristic residence time of bacteria increased
and amine terminated) (Khan et al., 2011). Correlations approximately linearly as the shear stress increased on
between attachment rate and surface free energy were either surface. Although mutant strains defective in surface
determined for all bacteria. Compared to the heterotroph, organelles (type I pili, type IV pili, or flagellum) or
extracellular matrix production showed different
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frequencies of adhesion events and early-stage detachment Significantly different values for biofilm formation on
probabilities, these factors were not responsible for the metallic and ceramic surfaces were observed. The results
trend in the shear-enhanced adhesion time determined. indicated that ceramic brackets exhibit less long-term
Biofilm development in a Couette-Poiseuille biofilm accumulation than metal brackets. The structure
reactor was investigated (El Khatib et al., 2011) to monitor and formation of biofilms formed by Staphylococcus
the hydrodynamic conditions that govern biofilm epidermidis RP62A on polyvinyl chloride (PVC) material
formation. It was found that biofilms formed under a 1/s were investigated (Zhao et al., 2011). It was found that S.
shear rate were porous, thicker, and presented streamers, epidermidis biofilm had a highly organized multicellular
whereas those under a constant 6/s shear rate were more structure. Bacterial biofilm formation on the surface of
compact and thinner. A parietal gradient equal to zero PVC material was a dynamic process; maximal thickness
prevented the growth of biofilm for more than two days. was attained in 12–18 h. Significant differences in the
The spatial distributions of biofilm properties and percentage of viable cells in interior, middle, and outer
water flow pattern in a NiiMi system for river landscape layers of the biofilms were observed (P < 0.05).
water treatment were investigated (Zhang et al., 2011b). Matos et al. (2011) investigated the relationship
Spatial distribution regularities of volatile suspended solids, between biofilm supporting material and reactor
respiration intensity, protein, polysaccharide, viable cell performance for carbon and nitrogen removal using
number, and dehydrogenase activity were consistent with sequencing batch biofilm reactors (SBBRs). Results
the aqueous rate. The viable cell number and protein and suggested that surface area and geometry of support
polysaccharide specific dehydrogenases decreased with materials, as well as the hydrodynamic conditions in the
depth. reactor, impacted biofilm formation.
Impact of Surface Properties. Physicochemical Impact of Nutrients, Trace Elements, Toxic
changes caused by Periwinkle wilt (PW) culture medium Compounds. To investigate carbon transformation by
conditioning film formation on different surfaces (glass and biofilms and changes in biofilm architecture, Pseudomonas
silicon) and their effect on X. fastidiosa biofilm formation sp. biofilms were cultured under alternating carbon-replete
were investigated (Lorite et al., 2011). Hydrophobic and and carbon-limited conditions (Bester et al., 2011). During
rough surfaces were not as important as the surface carbon limitation, the biofilm surface area was significantly
functional groups resulting from PW conditioning film enlarged, which facilitated a rapid increase in whole-
formation for X. fastidiosa adhesion and biofilm biofilm metabolic activity, cell yield, and biomass upon the
development. reintroduction of carbon after 8 days of limitation. It was
Lindel et al. (2011) investigated biofilm found that the rapid response of biofilms to environmental
formation on stainless steel and ceramic brackets.
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perturbations facilitates the utilization of resources and The effect of Zn2+ concentration (0.01–3.5
promotes both proliferation and survival. mg/L), temperature (23–33 °C), and AOB concentration
Soric et al. (2011) presented a preliminary work (3–30 × 106 gene copies/mL) on the activity of AOB in a
to validate a calorimetric technique for the understanding of steel industry wastewater treatment plant was evaluated
biodegradation capacity of wastewater treatment processes. (Lee et al., 2011). It was found that AOB concentration and
Preliminary developed biofilms in columns filled with temperature both had significant effects on lag period for
different porous materials and constitutive components AOB acclimation and rate of ammonia oxidation, whereas
were fed with the same continuous flow of synthetic Zn2+ concentration had a significant effect (5% α) only on
solution (C, N, and P) as a substrate amendment during 3 the rate of ammonia oxidation. However, the effects of the
weeks. Porous media (2 mL) from these columns were variables were not significant when AOB concentration
analyzed in an isothermal calorimeter for 48 h. The was higher than 2.0 × 107 copies/ml, and no visible shift or
microbial reaction due to substrate amendment was highly changes in AOB communities was observed.
dependent on the porous material used for biofilm growth. Ni et al. (2011) investigated factors that affected
Goode and Allen (2011) investigated the effect of heterotrophic growth of the microbial products of
calcium concentration on biofilm structure, microbiology, autotrophs with experimental and modeling approaches.
and water treatment performance in a moving-bed biofilm The total active biomass concentration increased gradually
reactor. Higher calcium concentrations were found to with increasing solids retention time, whereas the fractions
change the biofilm structure and bacterial community, and of active AOB, nitrite oxidizer bacteria (NOB), and
promote the abundant growth of filamentous organisms, heterotrophs varied considerably at different solids
various protozoa, and metazoan populations. At calcium retention times.
concentrations of 50 mg/L and above, chemical oxygen Biofilm growth and community were observed in
demand (COD) removal efficiency was also improved. three airlift reactors at ampicillin (AMP) levels of 0, 4, and
The impact of trace elements (TE) on biofilm formation 8 mg/L (Shen et al., 2011). AMP did not inhibit biofilm
was investigated in a bench-scale up-flow anaerobic sludge growth during 60 days of operation. Community diversity
blanket (UASB) reactor for the treatment of simple decreased but community stability was enhanced in biofilm
molecule wastewater. After addition of 3 mg/L TE at start supplemented with AMP, compared to biofilm free of
up, COD removal efficiency increased. At steady state, no AMP. The quantitative change in AMP-degrading bacteria
improvement in reactor performance was observed. The in the biofilms developed with AMP was positively related
results suggested that TE catalysed COD removal and to the AMP biodegradation performance.
decreased the reactor startup time (Teodosio et al., 2011). Impact of Bioaugmentation. Iasur-Kruh et al.
(2011) investigated the community composition and
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function of biofilms originating from a wetland system, as field-flow fractionation, chemical, and spectroscopic
affected by augmentation of an estradiol-degrading techniques. Results demonstrated that the lower molar-
bacterium (EDB-LI1) under different conditions. It was mass population contained predominantly protein-like
found that EDB-LI1 was detected in the augmented biofilm substances, whereas the higher molar-mass population was
only and the augmented biofilm acquired the ability to rich in exopolysaccharides and exoproteins.
remove estradiol. The bacterial community composition of Sheng and Liu (2011) investigated the potential
the augmented biofilm differed from that of the control antibacterial effect of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) on
biofilm, and the bioaugmentation efficiency of EDB-LI1 biological wastewater treatment processes. It was found
depended on both the quality of the feed water and the that EPS and microbial community interactions in the
microbial community composition in the pond. biofilms played important roles in controlling the
A pyridine-degrading bacterium (Paracoccus sp. antimicrobial effects of Ag-NPs. The microbial
BW001) and a quinoline-degrading bacterium susceptibility to Ag-NPs was different for each
(Pseudomonas sp. BW003) were used for bioaugmentation microorganism.
of biological aerated filter (BAF) packing with zeolite for Purified alginate, a major polysaccharide
treatment of pyridine and quinoline containing wastewater component of some algal and bacterial EPS, was studied to
(Bai et al., 2011). Bioaugmentation accelerated shift of ascertain its chemical reactivity toward dissolved cadmium
bacterial community structure. The introduced bacteria did and protons, and thus to better constrain its role in overall
not remain dominant in the bioaugmented biofilm, EPS reactivity (Petrash et al., 2011). It was found that the
indicating the indigenous degrading bacteria played the apparent acidity constant (pKa 3.98 ± 0.01) and an overall
most significant role in the treatment of quinoline and proton adsorptive capacity (1.728 ± 0.02 mol/kg) of
pyridine. commercial alginate were in agreement with typical
carboxyl acidity (pKa 3–6) and carboxyl functional group
Extracellular Polymeric Substance and Its concentration based on alginate polymer composition. The
Characterization Cd-carboxyl stability constant (log K) was lower than
Extracellular Polymeric Substances. Alasonati carboxyl-Cd stability constants on more heterogeneous
and Slaveykova (2011) investigated the relationship materials such as natural EPS and bacterial surfaces.
between extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) EPS Characterization. Kavita et al. (2011)
composition and molar-mass distribution by comparing the characterized EPS produced by a marine bacterial strain
characteristics of EPS excreted by the wild identified as Vibrio parahaemolyticus using gas
type Sinorhizobium meliloti and a mutant strain deficient in chromatography (GC) coupled with MIDI, FTIR, NMR,
the production of high-molar-mass EPS using asymmetrical and MALDI-TOF-TOF. The average molecular size of the
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EPS was determined, and aliphatic methyl, primary amine, redox stratified membrane biofilm reactor (RSMBR) under
and halide groups, plus uronic acid and saccharides were oxygen limited conditions (Wang et al., 2011a). Ammonia
revealed by FTIR. The presence of arabinose, galactose, oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and nitrite oxidizing bacteria
glucose, and mannose was confirmed by GCMS and (NOB) were dominant in the region adjacent to the
functional groups characteristic of polysaccharides were membrane, while heterotrophic bacteria propagated at the
identified by H-NMR. MALDI-TOF-TOF analysis revealed top of the biofilm. Applying a high ammonia loading
a series of masses exhibiting low-mass peaks (m/z) together with oxygen limitation was found to be an
corresponding to oligosaccharides and higher-mass peaks effective way to start nitrite accumulation in MABs.
corresponding to polysaccharides consisting of different Abundance and distribution of key functional
ratios of pentose and hexose moieties. Ras et al. (2011) microbial populations and their activities were investigated
analyzed EPS from three biofilms grown under different in a full-scale integrated fixed film activated sludge
feeding conditions; the films offered diverging microbial (IFAS)-enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR)
activities and structural characteristics. Higher EPS size process (Onnis-Hayden et al., 2011). AOB, members of the
diversity was observed in tween and sonication extracts, Nitrosomonas europaea/eutropha/halophila and the
compared to EDTA extracts. It was found that EPS clusters Nitrosomonas oligotropha lineages, and NOB belonging to
of specific sizes can be used as potential indicators of the Nitrospira genus were found predominantly in the
microbial and structural properties of biofilms. biofilm on the carrier, and more than 70% nitrification
Cheng et al. (2011) characterized extracellular activity was observed in the biofilm. The study also
DNA (eDNA) having a functional role in EPS for biofilm suggested that the addition of media to the activated sludge
structure and development extracted from the novel (AS) process increased the performance of the AS process.
activated sludge biofilm process of aerobic granules. The Overall performance, functional behaviour, and microbial
eDNA and intracellular DNA (iDNA) from aerobic population composition in attached and suspended phases
granules were extracted by cation exchange resin. It was were compared between pilot-scale IFAS and non-IFAS
found that different bacteria within the biofilm control systems (Kim et al., 2011a). The rates of ammonia
disproportionally released DNA into the EPS matrix of the consumption and nitrate production varied depending on
biofilm. the phase and the reactor system. The presence of AOB
was verified by qPCR, and greater concentrations of
Biofilm Consortia and Quorum Sensing nitrifiers were observed in some phases. Nitrifying bacterial
Biofilm Consortia. To improve the treatment of community structures in suspended and attached biomasses
ammonium-rich wastewater, nitrogen removal performance in a full-scale IFAS process were investigated (Kim et al.,
and nitrifying population dynamics were investigated in a 2011c). A higher number of AOB sequences were observed
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in the suspended biomass than in the attached biomass, Following treatment with ortho-phthalaldehyde
although most of the sequences belonged to the (OPA), the physiology and behaviour of Pseudomonas
Nitrosomonas oligotropha lineage in both biomasses. The fluorescens were investigated in both planktonic and sessile
suspended biomass showed higher nitrification activity states (Simoes et al., 2011). This study demonstrated that
(nitrogen/total suspended solids) (1.13 mg N/TSS/h) than persister cells may survive in biocide-treated biofilms, even
the attached biomass (0.07 mg N/TSS/h). In the wastewater in the absence of EPS.
treatment process the suspended biomass was more active Quorum sensing. Frederix et al. (2011)
in nitrification than the attached biomass. discovered an unusual type of gene regulation that relies on
Santa Domingo et al. (2011) investigated the the population density-dependent accumulation of an
microbial composition of concrete biofilms within antirepressor by performing an analysis of quorum sensing
wastewater collection systems using molecular assays. It (QS) regulation in Rhizobium leguminosarum. The cinS
was found that β-Proteobacteria (47%) species were more gene is required to fully induce rhiR and raiR, whose
abundant in the pipe crown than in any of the other products, together with their partners AHL synthases,
concrete surfaces, and concrete sewer biofilms were found regulate other genes in a QS-regulated hierarchy. As CinS
to be more diverse than previously reported. accumulates in a population density-dependent manner it
Relationships between biofilm formation, induces the QS hierarchy by relieving PraR-mediated
denitrification activity, phosphorus removal, and the repression of rhiR and raiR.
compositions of EPS and the bacterial community were Shrout et al. (2011) reviewed how bacteria
investigated using biofilms of several denitrifying and perform QS and motility during biofilm formation. It was
phosphorus removing bacterial strains (Andersson et al., found that surface motility affects the assembly and
2011). It was found that denitrification activity within the architecture of biofilms, and some aspects of motility are
biofilms increased with the amount of biofilm, whereas also influenced by QS. Although some genes and their
phosphorus removal was dependent on the bacterial growth functions are specific to P. aeruginosa, many aspects of
rate. Datta et al. (2011) sampled two full-scale trickling biofilm development can be used as model systems to
filter (TF)/solids contact basin plants for the investigation understand how bacteria differentially colonize surfaces.
of concentrations of ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite and Sonner et al. (2011) analyzed a system of
profiles of AOB and NOB communities. In both reaction-diffusion equations that model QS in a growing
plants, Nitrosomonas europaea and Nitrosomonas spp. biofilm. Two nonlinear diffusion effects—a porous
were the dominant AOB and NOB, respectively. Different medium-type degeneracy and super diffusion—were
species diversity was observed in different seasons. included in the model. In addition, the behavior of model
solutions in numerical simulations was illustrated.
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To stimulate aerobic granular sludge (AGS) Yang et al. (2011) proposed novel tools to
growth, Zhang et al. (2011d) added an essential element characterise the fate of oxyanions (selenate, selenite,
(boron) of interspecies QS signals to a sequencing batch arsenate, arsenite) in multispecies biofilms inoculated from
reactor (SBR). Boron was found to accelerate aerobic a source receiving coal mining effluent. Confocal laser
granular sludge (AGS) growth, resulting in improved scanning microscopy was used to demonstrate a distinct
settlement performance and increased biomass in the SBR. biofilm morphology at elevated oxyanion concentrations.
Biofilm Imaging and Characterization. The X-ray absorption spectroscopy was used to show biofilm
structure and activity of biofilms and the control of biofilm biotransformation of oxyanions and extended X-ray
development have been studied extensively for the last 20 absorption fine structure was used to confirm elemental
years. Jain et al. (2011) reviewed seminal and recent selenium as a product. It was found that biofilms can both
advances in biofilm-based technologies and their potential detoxify and sequester selenium and arsenic in aquatic
applications. Daims and Wagner (2011) outlined digital environments.
image analysis methods to quantify coaggregation, mutual Alnnasouri et al. (2011a) compared two
avoidance, or random distribution in microbial populations nondestructive methods of biofilm quantification (estimate
in biofilm and flocs. A protocol for fluorescence in situ of optical density via a flatbed scanner and measurement of
hybridization with an rRNA-targeted probe that preserves biofilm thickness) to two destructive methods (crystal
the three-dimensional biofilm architecture for confocal violet staining after biofilm disintegration and measurement
microscopy and image analysis was described. These of dry weight). Biofilms developed on a modified rotating
approaches were combined to perform spatial analyses of biological contactor (RBC) were tested and the results of
nitrifying bacteria in complex biofilm samples. the different methods were highly correlated. The scanning
Biofilm formation on stainless steel 316 (SS316) method monitored biofilm development over large surfaces
by three bacterial species was investigated by examining without destroying the biofilm.
surface force interactions between cells and metal surface Alnnasouri et al. (2011b) investigated the effect
using atomic force microscopy (AFM) (Harimawan et al., of surface topography on the long-term development (≈ 10
2011). Adhesion to an SS316 surface was higher for two weeks) of biofilms using a monitoring technique based on
Gram-negative bacteria (8.53 ± 1.40 nN and 7.88 ± 0.94 images produced by a flatbed scanner initially developed
nN) than for Gram-positive bacteria (1.44 ± 0.21 nN). The for flat surfaces. Laboratory scale RBCs were used to
higher hydrophobicity, surface charges, and greater investigate the biofilm response to rotation speed changes.
propensity to form EPS of the Gram-negative bacteria Increases in rotation speed induced large detachments of
accounted for their stronger (than Gram-positive bacteria) biofilm, and biofilm on rough discs recovered more
adhesion to the metal surface. effectively due to faster regrowth than biofilm on flat discs.
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Granules sampled from two SBR for anaerobic Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus thuringiensis, and
ammonium oxidization (anammox) were regularly mapped Lysinibacillus fusiformis were isolated and used for the
in vivo for three months after SBR startup (Kniggendorf biological treatment of poultry processing wastewater
and Meinhardt-Wollweber, 2011). Uncultured (Tarntip and Sirichom, 2011). All three bacteria grew good
microorganisms and mineral particles were tracked biofilms and a reduction (71.2 ± 0.20%) of COD was
throughout operation and identified in situ by confocal achieved. Combined bacteria strains achieved high
resonance Raman microscopy. Complex biological performance with respect to COD reduction and protease,
aggregates can be analysed noninvasively with this tool lipase, and biosurfactant production at an initial pH of 7.0
without preparation and without prior knowledge of the and over a wide range (1000 to 5000 mg/L) of organic
samples. Different bacterial responses to the variable loads.
toxicity of the mineral phase were observed. Zekker et al. (2011) modified biomass on ring-
The build-up of biofilm in the upper layer below shaped carriers from nitrifying to nitritating in a short
the surface of polishing filters intermittently loaded with period of time (37 days) by limiting the air supply,
effluent from a novel horizontal flow biofilm reactor used changing the aeration regime, shortening the hydraulic
for the treatment of domestic-strength wastewater was retention time, and increasing the free ammonia (FA)
characterized (Healy et al., 2011). Soil water retention, total concentration in a moving-bed biofilm reactor (MBBR).
phosphorus (Tot-P) content, and loss on ignition were the Nitritation and nitrification kinetics at various FA
parameters used to measure biofilm build-up. Because concentrations and temperatures were investigated.
biofilm formed in a thin layer close to the filter surface, Inhibition of nitrifying activity by FA combined with
time domain reflectrometry probes were used as an in situ optimization of the main control parameters was found to
proxy for measurements that usually require the destructive be a good strategy to achieve nitritating activity and
sampling of a filter. suppress nitrification.
Xia et al. (2011) studied the degradation of
Biofilm Reactors phenol in a photolytic circulating-bed biofilm reactor made
General. Ghoshal et al. (2011) investigated the of quartz glass using three protocols: photolysis with UV
removal of mercuric ions by a mercury resistant bacteria light alone (P), biodegradation alone (B), and the two
(Bacillus cereus (JUBT1)) isolated from the sludge of a mechanisms operating simultaneously (PB). The phenol
local chlor-alkali industry. Removal of mercury up to near- removal rate was highest with B, whereas more complete
zero level was achieved with a biofilm of B. cereus mineralization of phenol was achieved with PB than with
(JUBT1) on rice husk packing followed by on an activated other protocols. During the PB experiment, microorganisms
carbon packing in the reactor. (dominantly Thauera sp. MZ1T) on the porous ceramic
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carrier degraded phenol bioactively, even under UV light Fluidized Bed Biofilm Reactor. Eldyasti et al.
irradiation. (2011) used a circulating fluidized bed biofilm reactor
Impact of Packing Materials. Paca et al. (2011) (FBBR) for biological treatment of landfill leachate at
investigated the treatment of 2,4-DNT (dinitrotoluene) in empty bed contact times (EBCTs) of 0.49 and 0.41 days
batch and continuous modes using two packed bed biofilm with volumetric nutrient loading rates of 2.2–2.6 kg
reactors (PBBRs) with poraver (porous glass) and COD/m3·d, 0.7–0.8 kg N/m3·d, and 0.014–0.016 kg P/m3·d.
expanded slate as packing materials in aerobic conditions. The study employed BioWin® and AQUIFAS® software to
In the batch mode of operation, 2,4-DNT biodegradation predict reactor performance and noted that both software
rates increased with organic loading rates (OLRs). In the programs were capable of predicting most of the
continuous mode, the removal rate of 2,4-DNT was further performance parameters (TKN [total Kjeldahl nitrogen],
increased up to 180–265mg/L·d. NH4+-N, NO3--N, TP, PO4-P, TSS, and VSS [volatile
A trickling filter (TF) without the secondary suspended solids]) with an average percentage error (APE)
sedimentation stage was investigated for the treatment of of 0–20%. BioWin® underpredicted effluent BOD and
treated wastewater from UASB (upflow anaerobic sludge SBOD values in various runs by 80%, whereas AQUIFAS®
blanket) reactors. Four TFs with different media were used. predicted effluent BOD and SBOD with an APE of 50%.
Sponge based packing material showed improved sludge A three-phase FBBR was investigated for the
removal with high quality water. It was important to treatment of sugar industry wastewater. It was observed
manage the anaerobic sludge in the UASB to avoid that a 175 µm thick biofilm was developed within 12 days
overloads on the TF (de Almeida et al., 2011). in an inoculation experiment. Removal of COD and NH4+-
Chu and Wang (2011) performed simultaneous N were 85% and 80%, respectively, at OLRs of 2.3–5.1 kg
nitrification denitrification (SND) at a low C/N ratio in a COD/m3·d with an HRT of 3 h. FBBR performance was
MBBR (moving-bed biofilm reactor) using the robust to variation of OLRs and a high recycle ratio (Hu et
biodegradable polymer polycaprlactone (PCL) as both al., 2011).
carbon source and biofilm carrier. The average total A multilevel bioreactor comprising a biopond-
nitrogen (TN) removal efficiency was 74.6% with a biofilter, anoxic/aerobic (A/O) fluidized beds, and a
hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 18.5 h at a consumption photoautotrophic system was investigated for the treatment
of PCL of 1.27 g/gN. SND using the biofilm attached to of complex wastewater consisting of domestic, tobacco
PCL achieved 96.3% nitrogen removal compared to 52.0% processing, and building materials washings. At steady
nitrogen removal for the suspended sludge with addition of state with a hydraulic load of 200 m3/d, average COD and
glucose. UV245 removals were 89% and 91%, respectively. Removal
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efficiencies for Cu, Zn, and Fe were 78%, 79%, and 84%, equipped with a retention-averaging tank and oxic
respectively (Wu et al., 2011b). biological pond with a volume of about 240 m3, suggesting
Xing et al. (2011) used an integrated aerobic that RBC contactors can be successfully applied to treat
sponge FBBR in an anoxic granular activated carbon FBBR small amounts of wastewater.
to treat synthetic primary treated sewage effluent (PTSE) Treatment of synthetic wastewater containing
with or without addition of a new starch based flocculant. acrylonitrile (ACR) (similar to petrochemical industry
The results suggested that removal of dissolved organic wastewater) was carried out using a laboratory scale RBC.
carbon (DOC), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus The reactor was operated at influent concentrations of
(TP) was more than 93%, 61%, and 60%, respectively at an cyanide (CN), acetonitrile (ACN), and ACR at 5–40, 41–
HRT of 50 min. High dissolved oxygen (DO) consumption 113, and 45–142 mg/L, respectively, to acclimatise the
(> 66%) and a specific oxygen uptake rate of > 35 mg biofilm bacteria at an HRT of 30 h. Steady state removals
O2/gVSS·h were observed during the reactor run. of CN, ACN, ACR, and COD were 97%, 81%, 89%, and
Aquaculture industrial wastewater was treated 95%, respectively (Kubsad et al., 2011).
using an airlift reactor with zeolite carrier material. It was Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor. Nitrification of
observed that around 535 mg NH4+-N/ m2·d was fully AS treated saline wastewaters from a chemical industry and
oxidized to nitrate with a dilution rate of 4.8/d. NH4+-N domestic sewage was performed using MBBRs. The
concentration was kept at 100 mg/L during startup to nitrification process for industrial wastewater was observed
improve growth of the nitrifying population in the biofilm to be strongly inhibited. Ozonation and carbon adsorption
(Seca et al., 2011). pretreatments increased the nitrification efficiency to above
Rotating Biological Contactor. A laboratory 90% for all tested chloride concentrations up to 8000 mg/L
scale RBC was used for the treatment of sewage by removing DOC (dissolved organic carbon) (Bassin et
wastewater at a volumetric loading rate of 840 N/L·d with al., 2011).
influent NH4+-N concentrations of 66 and 29 mg/L. At Dong et al. (2011) investigated an AS reactor and
HRTs of 2.0 and 1.0 h, nitrogen removal rates were 444 two MBBRs with unmodified and sepiolite-modified
and 383 mg N/L·d, respectively. Adapted nitritation and suspended ceramic carriers with a filling fraction of 50%
anammox communities were established at low N for the treatment of oilfield produced water. The highest
concentration. DO concentration played a central role in N removals of COD, ammonia nitrogen, and polycyclic
removal (De Clippeleir et al., 2011). aromatic hydrocarbons were achieved when the wastewater
Ignatowicz and Puchlik (2011) investigated two was treated with the reactor filled with the sepiolite-
RBCs for the treatment of raw sewage wastewater at an modified carriers followed by the reactor filled with the
influent flow rate of 6.5–10.0 m3/d. The system was
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unmodified carriers and the activated sludge reactor at an and NH4-N were 81%, 89%, 94%, and 93% (Li et al.,
HRT of 10 h. 2011b). A similar removal efficiency of phenol was
In post treatment of expanded granular sludge obtained at HRTs from 48 to 32 h, whereas removal
bed (EGSB) effluent, an MBBR was found have a mean efficiencies of SCN- and NH4-N decreased with changes in
efficiency for COD removal of 82.4% (Fu et al., 2011). HRT. In a subsequent study (Li et al. 2011a), nitrification
Archaeal 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis confirmed the was completely inhibited with a sudden increase of
presence of Methanomethylovorans, Methanolinea, ammonia concentration in the influent. Dilution of influent
Methanoregula boonei, Methanosarcina barkeri, and wastewater with tap water increased the nitrification ratio
Methanospirillum hungatei in the EGSB reactor. Bacterial to 65% within 12 days of operation. The nitrification ratio
16S rRNA gene sequencing suggested the presence of decreased to 25% with an influent COD concentration
Runella limosa, Dokdonella, Sphaerotilus, increase from 650 to 1000 mg/L, but recovered by 70%
Hydrogenophaga, and Pseudomonas in the MBBR. after 4 days.
A laboratory-scale anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (A2O) Two aerobic MBBRs in series with polyurethane-
process was modified with fiber polypropylene media at dyeing sludge carbonaceous material (PU-DSCM) foam
different operational conditions for treatment of municipal and chemical coagulation were used for the treatment of
wastewater. COD, TN, and TP removal ranges were from dyeing wastewater. Reactors were filled with 20% v/v
91–98%, 48–63%, and 56–71%, respectively. Removal of media inoculated with a white-rot fungus (Phanerochaete
COD from the anaerobic reactor was 55–68% (Lai et al., chrysosporium) for biological treatment followed by
2011). An A2O MBBR system was used for the treatment chemical coagulation with FeCl2 or alum. COD and color
of model wastewater containing phenol (2500 mg/L), SCN- were removed by 95.7% and 73.4%, respectively(Park et
, and NH4+-N (500 mg/L) (Sahariah and Chakraborty, al., 2011).
2011). In the anaerobic reactor, the maximum COD and In the treatment of oil refinery wastewater using a
phenol utilization rates were 0.398/d and 0.486/d, MBBR in series with a biological activated carbon (BAC)
respectively. In the anoxic reactor, the maximum SCN-, column, COD and NH4+-N removal efficiencies were 69–
phenol, COD, and NO3-N utilization rates were 0.23, 5.28, 89% and 45–86% at an HRT of 6 hours with an employed
37.7, and 11.82 g/L·d, respectively. In the aerobic reactor, bed to bioreactor volume ratio of 0.6. BAC column
COD, SCN-, and NH4+-N removal rates were 10.53, 1.89, performances for both ozonated and nonozonated MBBR
and 2.17 g/L·d, respectively. effluents were identical. The DOC removal from activated
Coal gasification wastewater was treated using a carbon columns was in the range of 52 to 75% with influent
laboratory-scale MBBR with a volume of 4 L. Maximum concentrations of 2.1–3.8 mg/L (Schneider et al., 2011).
removal efficiencies of COD, phenols, thiocyanate (SCN-), Zafarzadeh et al. (2011) carried out a study of partial
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nitrification of wastewater for low to high C/N ratios using with a binary community comprising Stenotrophomonas
anoxic and aerobic MBBRs. Complete organic removal maltophilia and Arthrobacter sp. for biodegradation of
occurred when the aerobic reactor DO level was higher chloro-triazinic herbicides such as atrazine and simazine.
than 1 mg/L. The average NH4+-N nitrification rate was Both herbicides were removed at all loading rates but the
about 0.96 g N/ m2·d at various COD/N ratios, whereas a complete biodegradation of cyanuric acid was not achieved
maximum nitrification rate of 2 g N/ m2·d was obtained at even with a two stage reactor (Galindez-Najera et al.,
COD/N ratios lower than 6. In the anoxic reactor, the total 2011).
denitrification was about 99% at a COD/N ratio equal to Kumar et al. (2011) investigated a PBBR for
14. nitrification of brackish water and marine hatchery systems
Sequencing Batch Biofilm Reactor. A using indigenous nitrifying bacterial consortia integrated
sequencing batch biofilm reactor (SBBR) with a newly into a Penaeus monodon recirculating maturation system.
developed intelligent controlling system (ICS) was used for The total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) removal rate was
the treatment of domestic wastewater. The observed increased from 43.51 to 130.44 gTAN/ m3·d when the flow
degradation rates of NH4+-N, TP, and COD at steady state rate was increased from 250 L/h to 2500 L/h. Fluorescent
were 99%, 100%, and 96%, respectively, at an HRT of 7 h. in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis of the biofilms
Compared to conventional SBBR, better COD removal was suggested that NSO 190 (beta ammonia oxidizers), NsV
obtained; and the HRT and total aeration time were reduced 443 (Nitrosospira spp.), NEU (halophilic Nitrosomonas),
by 56% and 50%, respectively. The simultaneous and Ntspa 712 (Phylum Nitrospira) were the consortia of
nitrification denitrification (SND) efficiency was 98% at a bacteria.
COD/N ratio of 12.5 without any accumulation of NO3-N The effect of salinities, temperatures, ammonia,
or NO2-N (Ding et al., 2011). and nitrite concentrations on nitrification was investigated
A study suggested that a two reactor-tank in fixed-bed reactors (Sudarno et al., 2011). Ammonium
pumped flow biofilm reactor (PFBR)-SBBR had some oxidation rates (AOR) and nitrite oxidation rates (NOR)
advantages over conventional SBBR for the treatment of increased as the temperature was increased from 12.5 to
municipal wastewater. Removals of BOD, TSS, and NH4+- 400C. The AOR number was zero at ammonia
N were 94%, 86%, and 80%, respectively. The study concentrations of 5 g N/L or nitrite concentrations up to
suggested the system was very energy efficient and 0.125 g N/L. AOR and NOR were inhibited by 50% at
minimal maintenance was required for municipal ammonia concentrations of 1 and 5 g N/L, whereas 27 mg
wastewater treatment (O'Reilly et al., 2011). N/L nitrite inhibited AOR by 50%.
Packed Bed Biofilm Reactor. A packed bed Trojanowicz et al. (2011) suggested that PVC
reactor was evaluated under various operational conditions media were able to maintain a shear stress in the reactor
1093
necessary for controlling excess biofilm on the surface for removal decreased to below 80% when the OLR was
the treatment of oil-refinery wastewater. Reactor efficiency higher than 669 mg/L·d.
did not decrease significantly, although a significant An aerobic batch biofilm reactor with a perlite
decrease in biofilms thickness and a decrease in the amount carrier was used to treat dairy farm wastewater under
of biomass in the reactor were observed. The reactor continuous aeration conditions. Nitrate removal was 114.4
average COD loading rate was 9 g COD/m2·d with the mgN/kg perlite·h from wastewater containing cow milk
minimum hydraulic loading rate of 1.9 m3/m2·d. and manure. Clone library analysis of the biofilm revealed
Harremoes and Wanner & Reichert models were that the bacterial species Thauera spp. was highly similar to
calibrated and verified for petrochemical wastewater the denitrifying bacteria (Yamashita et al., 2011).
treatment in pilot- and lab-scales using an ASFBBR type Trickling Filter. Soriano et al. (2011) studied the
bioreactor at various surface OLRs, DO concentrations, and Rhizopur® process (TF or a RBC combined with
temperatures. The study suggested that the model can be constructed wetlands) for the treatment of both wastewater
applied to petrochemical wastewater treatment and sludge. The process removed BOD5 more than 90%,
(Trojanowicz and Wojcik, 2011). COD more than 80%, and TSS more than 90%. By
Yanez-Ocampo et al. (2011) investigated a increasing the size of the trickling filter, nitrification was
tezontle-packed up-flow reactor for biofilm treatment of also achieved.
methyl-parathion and tetrachlorvinphos. The reactor was Michailides et al. (2011) used a full-scale TF
operated at flow rates of 0.936, 1.41, 2.19, and 3.51 L/h with a recirculation tank system for biological treatment of
with HRTs of 0.313, 0.206, 0.133, and 0.083 h. Both olive mill wastewater with indigeneous bacteria. The
methyl-parathion and tetrachlorvinphos were removed at a observed OLR removal was > 50% from initial COD and
rate of 75% with an operating time of 8 h and a flow of phenol concentrations of 43,000 and 9500 mg/L,
0.936 L/h. respectively, at an HRT of 24 h without nutrient addition.
Zhang et al. (2011c) used a laboratory scale Almstrand et al. (2011) investigated the
anoxic-oxic biofilm reactor with zeolite support media for nitrification potential and population dynamics of nitrifying
the treatment of coking wastewater. The removal bacteria in pilot-plant nitrifying trickling filters fed with
efficiencies of COD and NH4+-N were 81.13 and 99.69%, full-scale plant wastewater with high (8–9 mg NH4+ /L) or
respectively, at an influent flow-rate of 1.0 L/h, a reflux low (< 0.5 mg NH4+ /L) ammonium concentrations. They
ratio of 2.0, a temperature of 33 ± 2 °C, and an HRT of found that nitrification potentials stabilized after 10–43
50.24 h. High nitrification (90%) was observed even at a days of ammonium shifts, depending on the feed regime.
high NH4+-N loading rate (103 mg/L·d), whereas COD Four equalized pilot-scale algae-rock-filter ponds (ARP) in
parallel with four equalized algae-based ponds (ABPs)
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were investigated over 6 months to evaluate the treatment Gallego et al. (2011) investigated continuous
efficacy of domestic wastewater in both systems. Removals down-flow fixed-bed reactors with hollow PVC cylinders
of TSS, COD, NH4+-N, phosphorous, and fecal coliform as support material for the treatment of 2,4-dichlorophenol
from the ARP system were 86%, 84%, 68.8%, 50%, and 4 (DCP) and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP) with an indigenous
log, respectively, whereas removals from ABPs were 81%, bacterial strain Delftia sp. and indigenous bacterial
81%, 57.9%, 41.5%, and 3 log, respectively (Al-Sa'ed et community, respectively. Results indicated that Delftia sp.
al., 2011) was able to degrade 95.6% of DCP, whereas the indigenous
Bioaugmented zeolite-biological aerated filters bacterial community removed 96.5% of TCP. Respective
(Z-BAFs) were investigated for the treatment of coking removals of COD were 88.9% and 91.6% for DCP and
wastewater containing high concentrations of pyridine. TCP from the reactors.
High removal of pyridine, quinoline, TOC, and NH4+-N Garzon-Zuniga and Buelna (2011) used a septic
were obtained from bioaugmentation and adsorption. tank and an aerated percolating filter packed with organic
Average removals of H2S were 94.7%, 87.3%, and 85.6% media to treat wastewater from a school. Steady state
at HRTs of 160, 80, and 40 s, respectively, with a biogas to removals of BOD, COD, TKN, PO4, TSS, and VSS were
air ratio of less than 4 and a maximum elimination capacity 97%, 71%, 93%, 11%, 95%, and 96%, respectively, at a
of 256.4 g/ m3·h (Chaiprapat et al., 2011). hydraulic loading rate of 0.078 m3/ m2·d. Fecal coliforms
Dalahmeh et al. (2011) studied the treatment of and helminthes egg removals were 4 log units and 100%,
greywater with a wide range of SS, BOD, and COD respectively.
concentrations using down-flow-mode vertical mulch Guerdat et al. (2011) operated three biological
filters. SS, BOD, and COD removals were 51–91%, 55– filters for the treatment of aquaculture recirculating
99.9%, and 51–98%, respectively. The study suggested that wastewater with average feed rates of 45 kg/d with 40% of
mulch materials such as bark, peat, and woodchips have protein and an average biomass of 6750 kg. Reactors were
potential for the treatment of greywater and would be operated with and without carbon source (sucrose). Total
resilient in dealing with variable low and high organic volumetric ammoniacal nitrogen removal was reduced by
loads. approximately 50% in the presence of an applied carbon
Chernicharo and Almeida (2011) used a set of source compared to normal operating conditions.
compact UASB/TF systems without the final clarification Huang et al. (2011) investigated two up-flow
stage for the treatment of domestic wastewater. Deep and BAFs with iron ore sinter particles (IOSP) and clay ceramic
shallow TFs with various packings were used and 90–100% particles (CCP) as support media for the treatment of
of the results met Brazilian discharge standards regarding wastewater. Higher removal percentages of dye (reactive
BOD, COD, and TSS. blue 19), COD, and NH4+-N were obtained from the IOSP
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reactor. The biomass densities in the reactors were 39.12 substrate, which indicates a higher energy footprint for
mg/g for IOSP and 25.95 mg/g for CCP. TP removals from aeration is required for the IFAS system than for activated
IOSP and CCP reactors were around 70% and < 40%, sludge (Rosso et al., 2011).
respectively. Reactor overall performance, functional behavior,
Jimenez et al. (2011) employed a submerged TF and microbial population composition were compared for
for the treatment of wastewater containing diesel and two pilot scale IFAS reactors and suspended systems (Kim
phenanthrene. The highest degradation obtained was et al., 2011b). The second aerobic IFAS reactor had
around 78% for recalcitrant components with a biofilm significantly higher rates of ammonia consumption and
thickness of 789 µm and an HRT of 3 h. Removal nitrate production whereas the first aerobic IFAS reactor
increased further when a matured inoculum of had the lowest ammonia consumption rates compared to the
Pseudomonas sp., Klebsiella sp. and Enterobacter at a control suspended system. Mathematical modeling and
concentration of 6.45 × 109 CFU/mL was used to culture qPCR revealed that the increased competition of
biofilm. heterotrophs and autotrophs for space in the attached phase
Low efficiency of dye removal by mixed of the upstream aerobic reactor was responsible for a higher
bacterial communities and high rates of dye decolorization concentration of nitrifying bacteria in the downstream
by white-rot fungi suggested the two processes be aerobic reactor.
combined (Novotny et al., 2011). High dye decolorization Both batch AS and IFAS systems were used to
was achieved in 5–12 d from wastewaters containing 2–3 investigate nitrification at low MLSS SRT (mixed liquor
different dyes. The study suggested a two step sequential suspended solids, solids retention time) and low
treatment of textile wastewaters: FTF for removing color, temperatures. The pilot plant was operated in two phases
and a bacterial bioreactor for removing 95–97% TOC. with HRTs of 4.5 hours and 3.5 hours at an average
Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge. A temperature of 11.5 °C. The average mixed liquor was 5.7
train of three aerobic IFAS reactors with AnoxKaldnes days. The results suggested that this kind of reactor can be
media was operated independently in parallel with an used effectively for upgrading a conventional activated
existing full-scale activated sludge process. DO sludge plant at low temperatures without the need of
consumption in the IFAS process was double because of additional volumes (Di Trapani et al., 2011).
diffusional limitation of DO through the biofilm, although A dynamic mathematical model was established
removals of COD and ammonia were the same from both describing the biokinetic processes occurring in a hybrid
AS and IFAS processes. High air flux through the IFAS MBBR-IFAS process (Mannina et al., 2011). Simulation
reactors was specified to avoid media coalescence on the results were compared with measured data from a hybrid
reactor surface and to promote biofilm contact with the MBBR pilot plant consisting of three aerobic tanks in
1096
series. The second reactor was filled with the AnoxKaldnes thickness of 200–350 µm, and a low air pressure of 41 kPa
(TM) K1 carriers, whereas the first and the third reactors during membrane operation.
were pure suspended biomass systems. Biochemical A three stage MBR with a first methanogenic
conversions were evaluated using activated sludge model UASB stage, a second aerobic biofilm stage, and a third
No. 1 (ASM1) for both attached and suspended biomass. In membrane filtration stage was used to treat synthetic
addition to biochemical conversion, the model contains a wastewater with an influent COD range of 200–1,200
simulation of particulate detachment from the biofilm into mg/L, an ammonium range of 10–35 mg/L, and
the bulk liquid. There was good agreement between phosphorous concentration of 8 mg/L. COD removal
measured and simulated data, for both biofilm and efficiencies were 90–96% of which 40–80% was removed
suspended biomass. in the first methanogenic chamber. Average permeability
Regmi et al. (2011) investigated an IFAS reactor was 150 L/m2·bar with operating fluxes of 11–15 L/m2·bar
for James River water treatment with a capacity of 76,000 (Buntner et al., 2011). A bench-scale experimental system
m3/d. Activity of AOB and NOB on the carriers and comprising an anaerobic biofilter, an anoxic reactor, and an
suspension were elevated and compared. AOB and NOB aerobic MBR was used to investigate textile wastewater
activities for media were 4.97 mg NOx/gMLSS·h and 7.55 treatment. High COD removal of 90–95% and effective
mg NOx/gMLSS·h, respectively, whereas the respective color removal of 70% were obtained (Grilli et al., 2011).
results for suspended growth were 1.72 mg NOx/gMLSS·h Addition of nanofiltration removed residual COD, color,
and 0.82 mg NOx/gMLSS·h during all periods of the study. and salt by 70–90%, 50–80%, and 60–70%, respectively.
The average in-basin nitrification rate was 0.90 mg A novel bioelectrochemical membrane reactor
NOx/m2·d which was comparable to the average of 0.89 was used for wastewater treatment and energy recovery.
mg NOx/m2·d for IFAS mixed liquor and media from batch COD and NH4+-N removal efficiencies were 92.4% and
testing. 95.6%, respectively. Maximum generated power density
Membrane Biofilm Reactor. Two full scale and current density were 4.35 W/m3 and 18.32 A/m3 at a
membrane aerated biofilm reactor units (ZeeLung (TM) hydraulic retention time of 150 min and external resister of
system) were used to treat high-strength synthetic industrial 100 Ohms. Coulombic efficiency was 8.2% (Wang et al.,
wastewater (Stricker et al., 2011). COD and TKN 2011c). A tubular bioreactor and a membrane filter hybrid
concentrations were 4700 mg/L and 145 mg/L, system were studied for removing carbohydrate and
respectively, and the reactors were operated successfully protein. The reactors were operated in series and the
for 16 months. The membrane reactors were maintained at removal efficiencies decreased with increases in OLR. Flux
a low surface loading rate of 3.6 g COD/m2·d, a biofilm through the ultrafiltration membrane didn’t change
significantly even with high protein at the bioreactor outlet.
1097
SEM showed a significant accumulation of organisms on The effects of temperature regime, hydrodynamic
the surface which indicated that biofilm thickness was conditions, and water quality on the biofouling potential of
controlled by diffusion limitations (Dizge et al., 2011). hydrophobic membranes in direct contact membrane
Mafirad et al. (2011) evaluated the effects of biofilm distillation (DCMD) using coastal seawater as a feed were
formation on membrane performance for a submerged investigated (Krivorot et al., 2011). The results suggested
MBR system with six different types of micro-and that the modules tested in temperature cycles between 40
ultrafiltration membranes. Because of biofilm formation and 70 °C were less fouled than those run at a constant
and the role of dynamic members in the biofilm layer, temperature of 40 °C.
significant enhancement in COD removal occurred at the Biomass characteristics and membrane
initial filtration stage. Although membranes with various performance in MBRs operated at a high flux of 30 L/m2·h
pore sizes had approximately the same permeate quality, were monitored under different sludge retention times
the ultrafiltration membranes achieved 43% more COD (SRTs) (Wu et al., 2011a). More serious cake fouling
removal efficiency than the other applied membranes at the occured at infinite SRT. It was suspected that activated
beginning of filtration (before biofilm formation) because sludge characteristics (such as MLSS concentration, EPS
of smaller pore sizes and better sieving. properties) and hydrodynamic conditions influenced by the
Membrane Fouling. The effect of DO SRTs were associated with cake layer development and
concentration on the generation of EPS and SMP in mixed membrane fouling propensity. An MBR system employed
liquor and biocake, and variation of a microbial community for the treatment of synthetic hypersaline oily wastewater
in an aerobic membrane bioreactor were investigated (Gao and membrane fouling was characterized with the effects of
et al., 2011). The microbial community was ultimately ultrasound and addition of four types of flocculants
responsible for biofouling, and the high concentration of (aluminium sulfate, chitosan, ferric chloride,
EPS in the biocake under a low DO concentration (0.5 polyaluminium chloride) (Pendashteh et al., 2011). The
mg/L) caused severe biofouling. results showed that the membrane fouling layer was
Berman et al. (2011) used an experimental cross- governed by the deposition of organic and inorganic
flow membrane array to investigate relationships between substances composed of EPS (proteins, polysaccharides,
the rate of membrane clogging, levels of transparent etc.), hydrocarbon components, inorganic matter, and rod-
exopolymer particles (TEP), and other water quality shaped bacteria. Organic flocculant was a more effective
variables in a lake water source. It was found that TEP in foulant than inorganic chemicals.
source waters play a significant role in the early stages of Juang et al. (2011) investigated membrane
aquatic biofilm formation and are an important causative fouling in a combined aerobic granular membrane
factor in membrane fouling. bioreactor (AGMBR) and a conventional MBR process.
1098
Multiple staining and confocal laser scanning microscopic COD, NH4+-N, and color were 97.8%, 96.5%, and 98.7%,
techniques were used to investigate irreversible fouling on respectively, at a membrane flux of 6.21 L/m2·h. The
hollow-fibre membranes in both reactors. Biofilm buildup sludge relative hydrophobicity, bound EPS, soluble EPS,
on the interior surface of the membrane contributed to the and EPS in the membrane fouling layer were 70.3%, 52.0
resistance from irreversible fouling. Prevention of mg/g VSS, 38.8 mg/g VSS, and 90.8 mg/g VSS,
development of internal biofilm was essential to reduce respectively, which showed close relationships between
irreversible fouling of AGMBR and MBR membranes. pollutant removal and membrane flux (Wang et al., 2011b).
Membrane Fouling Reduction. A novel Other Reactors. An innovative hybrid baffled
bioentraped membrane reactor packed with bio-ball carriers reactor was used to investigate the treatment of livestock
was investigated and compared to a conventional and poultry farming wastewater. COD and NH4+-N
membrane bioreactor (CMBR) with respect to performance removal efficiencies were 90% and 70%, respectively at an
in treating identical wastewater from a food and beverage HRT of 24 h (Shi et al., 2011).
processing plant (Ng et al., 2011). The study was carried A subsurface cobble-bed biofilm system was
out at three HRTs of 6, 9, and 12 h. The new reactor used for the treatment of municipal wastewater (Fan et al.,
offered effective organics removal with reduced membrane 2011). Influent concentrations of BOD, SS (suspended
fouling and chemical cleaning frequency. solids), NH4+-N, and TP were 66.99 mg/L, 26.14 mg/L,
A moving-fiber biofilm MBR system including 17.33 mg/L, and 1.96 mg/L, respectively, with a flow rate
an up-flow anaerobic sludge reactor, an aerobic moving- of 4000 m3/d. Removals were 91.3%, 84.0%, 84.0%, and
fiber biofilm reactor, and a submerged membrane filtration 26.0%, respectively, for BOD, SS, NH4+-N, and TP after 39
unit was designed and investigated at different operating months of operation; Klebsiella spp. was predominant in
conditions to control the biofilms growing on the moving the biofilm system.
fibers (Phattaranawik and Leiknes, 2011). Reactor Zhang et al. (2011a) used an integrated EGSB-
performances were evaluated for organic removal rates, and BAF system for the treatment of different synthetic
optimum operating conditions for the system were wastewaters using the principles of anaerobic ammonium
developed using the data from membrane fouling rates at oxidation (anammox), and methanogenesis. Feed
various membrane aeration rates and permeate fluxes. concentrations of COD and NH4+-N were 300–1200 mg/L
Impact of aeration intensity on the effluent and 30–120 mg/L, respectively, at an outer recycle ratio of
quality from an anoxic/aerobic-type (A/O-type) SB-MBR 200%. Better reactor performance was obtained at lower
system was investigated for treating azo dye wastewater. COD/N ratios. Partial nitritation was optimized in a fixed
Results showed a 0.15 m3/h aeration intensity was bed biofilm reactor for the treatment of synthetic
promising for treatment of azo dye wastewater; removal of wastewater by stepwise increases of influent NH4+-N at pH
1099
7.8 ± 0.2, 30 ± 1 °C, and a DO range of 0.5–0.8 mg/L. At a biofilm biological treatment processes, and the integration
controlled influent HCO3-/NH4+-N molar ratio of 1:1 and an of biofilm and suspended growth process modelling.
HRT of 12 h, nitritation was stable at 50% regardless of Daigger and Boltz (2011) described essential components
influent NH4+-N variation. Fluorescence in situ of TF and summarizes how to operate and design a modern
hybridization (FISH) results indicated that AOB (64.1%) TF.
dominated the biofilm which was highly affiliated with Tabis and Skoneczny (2011) developed a
Nitrosomonas spp. and Nitrosospira spp. with a compact mathematical model for mass transfer between liquid and
structure during the stable 50% partial nitritation period biofilm phases for determining the stationary characteristics
(Liang et al., 2011b). A new vertical submerged biofilm of a bioreactor. The model was verified for degradation of
reactor for complete autotrophic ammonia removal was phenol and showed that the scale influenced both substrate
investigated using synthetic wastewater. At control HRT conversion and biomass concentration in the liquid phase.
and alkalinity, stable autotrophic nitrification was observed Mannina et al. (2011) established a dynamic
with an influent NH4+-N concentration of 40–280 mg/L. mathematical model to describe quantitatively the
Autotrophic denitrification revealed that anammox bacteria biokinetic processes occurring in a hybrid MBBR-AS
were present in the active anaerobic parts of the bioreactor system. The activated sludge model No. 1 (ASM1) matrix
which was inoculated with a mixed microbial consortium was used to estimate biochemical conversions for both
from activated sludge (Liang et al., 2011a). attached and suspended biomass. The results showed good
Three distinct flow cells were employed in the agreement between measured and modeled data for both
post treatment of a synthetic wastewater simulating the biofilm and suspended biomass.
effluent from a up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor A model was developed for predicting bed
(Gonzalez et al., 2011). The AOB population was greater expansion, solid-liquid-gas hold up volumes, and specific
than the NOB population; this observation was supported surface area of the biofilm particles for two-phase and
by the lower production of nitrate determined by three-phase FBBRs (Andalib et al., 2011). The model was
physicochemical and microsensor analyses. A loading rate linked to 1 d AQUIFAS APP software (Aquaregen) for
of 0.25 g NH4+-N/m2biofilm·d and surface velocity of 1 simulating biological nutrient removal from synthetic and
m/h promoted the greatest nitrogen removal. municipal wastewater using two phase (anoxic) and three
Modeling of Biofilm Reactors. A review of phase (aerobic) twin circulating FBBRs. Two sided t-tests
wastewater treatment plant modeling was provided by revealed that the simulated SCOD (soluble chemical
Daigger (2011). It was concluded that the major oxygen demand), NH4+-N, NO3-N, TN, VSS, and biomass
considerations for modeling are metabolic modelling, yields were at the 95% confidence level compared to
characterisation of the hydrodynamics of suspended and experimental data.
1100
Shetty et al. (2011) operated a pulsed plate which was helpful in controlling membrane fouling in the
bioreactor (PPBR) with cell immobilised glass particles in MBR system.
the interplate spaces for continuous aerobic biodegradation McQuarrie and Boltz (2011) addressed
of phenol present in wastewater. A mathematical model advantages of the MBBR over the activated sludge process.
was presented to describe the steady-state degradation of Design procedures and an overview of some commercially
phenol by Nocardia hydrocarbonoxydans (Nch.) in a available systems and their components are provided. The
PPBR. The growth of Nch. on phenol was found to follow advantages are smaller tank volume, clarifier-independent
the Haldane substrate inhibition model and the biofilm biomass retention, a special operational cycle for biofilm
internal diffusion rate was found to be the slowest step in thickness control is not required (e.g., biologically active
the biodegradation of phenol in a PPBR. filter backwashing), and both conventional and compact
Mehdizadeh et al. (2011) used an extractive MBR high-rate processes for liquid solids separation. Sahar et al.
for the treatment of toluene contaminated wastewater by (2011) investigated the removal of antibiotics such as
inoculation with pure culture Alcaligenese faecalis and macrolide, sulphonamide, and trimethoprim in
strain of A. faecalis. The Haldane kinetic model was valid conventional AS (CAS) treated sewage wastewater using
for toluene biodegradation for initial toluene concentrations MBR and ultrafiltration (UF) unit. The CAS-MBR unit
up to 501,000 mg/L. No biofilm formed on the exterior showed stable removal of 15–42% higher than that of a
surface of the membrane. A mathematical model was CAS system, whereas the CAS-UF system showed a
established from the study for predicting the pollutant maximum of 20% higher removal comparing to the CAS
concentration profile along the tube side of the membrane system alone. Batch experiments suggested that biomass on
modules. membrane sorbed the tested antibiotics was the reason for
Reactor Comparisons. Achilli et al. (2011) obtaining higher performance from CAS-MBR system
carried out a study for evaluating performances of three comparing to CAS-UF system.
laboratory-scale submerged aerobic MBR (AMBR), Papadia et al. (2011) investigated four pilot units:
anaerobic MBR (AnMBR), and attached-growth aerobic bioflotation (R), fixed bed biofilm reactor, flow-jet
MBR (AtMBR) systems for treating domestic wastewater aeration, and standard aerobic sludge reactor inoculated
at the same operating conditions. TOC (total organic with indigenous microbial consortium. Identical textile feed
carbon) and COD removals from all three systems were streams were passed through the reactors. COD, TC, and
greater than 80%. Three months acclimation time was nonionic surfactants in effluents and the cultivable
required for the AnMBR system compared to one month heterotrophic microorganisms prevailing in each of the
for the aerobic systems. Critical flux experiments suggested units were monitored.
that the AtMBR showed a relatively higher critical flux
1101
Ivanovic and Leiknes (2011) suggested that the Alasonati, E.; Slaveykova, V. I. (2011) Composition and
biofilm membrane bioreactor (BF-MBR) is an alternative Molar Mass Characterisation of Bacterial
technology to activated sludge membrane bioreactors (AS- Extracellular Polymeric Substances by Using
MBR). The BF-MBR offered some advantages such as less Chemical, Spectroscopic and Fractionation
membrane clogging/sludging problems, lower fouling, ease Techniques. Environmental Chemistry, 8 (2), 155-
of cleaning, less energy consumption for air-scouring, and 162.
new membrane module/reactor designs. Three different Almstrand, R.; Lydmark, P.; Sörensson, F.; Hermansson,
BF-MBR designs were investigated, and results showed M. (2011) Nitrification Potential and Population
that lower concentrations of MLSS and COD around the Dynamics of Nitrifying Bacterial Biofilms in
membranes were achieved which reduced membrane Response to Controlled Shifts of Ammonium
fouling. Concentrations in Wastewater Trickling Filters.
Sombatsompop et al. (2011) performed a Bioresource Technology, 102 (17), 7685-7691.
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conventional SBR for the treatment of piggery wastewater Comparison of Four Methods to Assess Biofilm
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COD/ m3·d and > 80% for the moving-bed SBR at an OLR Alnnasouri, M.; Lemaitre, C.; Gentric, C.; Dagot, C.; Pons,
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86–93% and 75–87% from moving-bed SBR and Biofilm Development: Experiment and Modeling.
conventional SBR systems, respectively. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 57 (0), 38-45.
Amos, M. R.; Sanchez-Contreras, M.; Jackson, R. W.;
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Biological Fixed Film

Md. Shahinoor Islam, Geelsu Hwang, Yang Liu*

modeling. extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and EPS

extraction from biofilms; gene expression, quorum sensing

biofilm EPS. characterization. (2) Biofilm Reactors—general reactors,

biofilm carriers types of reactors and performance for

doi: 10.2175/106143012X13407275694833 wastewater treatment, reactor modeling, and reactor

comparisons. Reactor modeling is included in a general

Introduction modeling section.

Overview. This review focuses on aerobic

revealed that the physiological state of the cells affected

microbial retention patterns (Carnazza et al., 2011).

biofilms. rotation of disk. It was observed that the microcolonies of

extracellular matrix production showed different

depth. reactor, impacted biofilm formation.

Impact of Surface Properties. Physicochemical Impact of Nutrients, Trace Elements, Toxic

development. reintroduction of carbon after 8 days of limitation. It was

formation on stainless steel and ceramic brackets.

various protozoa, and metazoan populations. At calcium retention times.

(2011) investigated the community composition and

A pyridine-degrading bacterium (Paracoccus sp. antimicrobial effects of Ag-NPs. The microbial

(Pseudomonas sp. BW003) were used for bioaugmentation microorganism.

pyridine. commercial alginate were in agreement with typical

carboxyl acidity (pKa 3–6) and carboxyl functional group

Characterization Cd-carboxyl stability constant (log K) was lower than

Extracellular Polymeric Substances. Alasonati carboxyl-Cd stability constants on more heterogeneous

corresponding to polysaccharides consisting of different Abundance and distribution of key functional

was verified by qPCR, and greater concentrations of

to be more diverse than previously reported. accumulates in a population density-dependent manner it

Relationships between biofilm formation, induces the QS hierarchy by relieving PraR-mediated

solutions in numerical simulations was illustrated.

applications. Daims and Wagner (2011) outlined digital environments.

samples. Different bacterial responses to the variable loads.

sampling of a filter. suppress nitrification.

Xia et al. (2011) studied the degradation of

Biofilm Reactors phenol in a photolytic circulating-bed biofilm reactor made

irradiation. (2011) used a circulating fluidized bed biofilm reactor

biodegradable polymer polycaprlactone (PCL) as both al., 2011).

glucose. UV245 removals were 89% and 91%, respectively. Removal

(Seca et al., 2011). pretreatments increased the nitrification efficiency to above

wastewater at a volumetric loading rate of 840 N/L·d with al., 2011).

influent flow rate of 6.5–10.0 m3/d. The system was

HRT of 10 h. 2011b). A similar removal efficiency of phenol was

presence of Methanomethylovorans, Methanolinea, ammonia concentration in the influent. Dilution of influent

Hydrogenophaga, and Pseudomonas in the MBBR. after 4 days.

A laboratory-scale anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (A2O) Two aerobic MBBRs in series with polyurethane-

, and NH4+-N (500 mg/L) (Sahariah and Chakraborty, al., 2011).

14. nitrification of brackish water and marine hatchery systems

nitrification denitrification (SND) efficiency was 98% at a bacteria.

tezontle-packed up-flow reactor for biofilm treatment of also achieved.

0.936 L/h. respectively, at an HRT of 24 h without nutrient addition.

parallel with four equalized algae-based ponds (ABPs)

wastewater containing high concentrations of pyridine. TCP from the reactors.

greywater with a wide range of SS, BOD, and COD respectively.

loads. approximately 50% in the presence of an applied carbon

respectively. Reactor overall performance, functional behavior,

biofilm. heterotrophs and autotrophs for space in the attached phase

by white-rot fungi suggested the two processes be aerobic reactor.

suspended biomass. in the first methanogenic chamber. Average permeability