THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT

CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS

NAME: GODFREY KOMBE

STUDENT ID №: 14251495

PROGRAMME: BSc. QUANTITY SURVEYING

YEAR: FIVE

LECTURER: MR. C. NONDO

COURSE NAME: CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND BUILDING

SERVICES

COURSE CODE: ESQ 410

SUBMISSION DATE: 28TH AUGUST, 2019

CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................2

2.0 SPACE FRAMES......................................................................................................................3

Types of Space Frames According to curvature:.............................................................................4

i. Flat covers.........................................................................................................................4

ii. Barrel vaults..................................................................................................................4

iii. Spherical domes............................................................................................................4

Types of Space Frames According to the number of grid layers:...................................................4

ii. Double-Layer.................................................................................................................4

iii. Triple-Layer...................................................................................................................5

Space Frames Components..............................................................................................................5

ii. 2- Joints.........................................................................................................................5

iii. Node connectors............................................................................................................5

Advantages of Space Frames.......................................................................................................7

3.0 PARABOLIC PARABOLOIDS................................................................................................7

4.0 LATTICE GIRDER...................................................................................................................8

Advantages..................................................................................................................................8

REFERENCES................................................................................................................................9

APPENDIX....................................................................................................................................10

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Development of an infrastructure of cities needs modernization, changes or rebuilding of existing

structures and construction of new modern and original buildings. Tracing back its origin in the
Stone Age, structural framed construction techniques can be attributed to the ancient Assyrians
and Babylonians who used clay as their main construction material. Later the Egyptians
developed a substance more closely resembling modern day concrete by using limestone and
gypsum as binder. Later on, the Egyptians developed even more complex materials for structural
construction such as timber, steel and a substance more closely resembling modern day concrete
by using limestone and gypsum as binder. LinkedIn Corporation (2019), asserted that over the
past decade, there has been a significant growth in the trend of constructing longer column free
spaces for maximum space utilization and great flexibility with the interiors. Which are referred
to as the large space structure, these colossal units have proved helpful in not only overcoming
various constructional challenges but also satisfying complex design needs. Most importantly,
these structures help in reducing the construction cost and time by a considerable margin.
However, the development of long span structures did not happen overnight as many people
believe. Rather this innovative concept was derived from various ancient structures which
despite their huge size and massive weight, had managed to remain standing for centuries. The
domes and vaults that formed an almost integral part of Roman building construction were
perhaps the first structures that inspired the idea of developing something similar with lighter
materials to handle unbalanced loads caused by various factors[ CITATION Don12 \l 1033 ].

Space frames were independently developed by Alexander Graham Bell around 1900 and
Buckminster Fuller in the 1950s. Bell's interest was primarily in using them to make rigid frames
for nautical and aeronautical engineering, with the tetrahedral truss being one of his inventions,
however few of his designs were realized, while, Fuller's focus was architectural structures and
his work had greater influence[ CITATION Lan99 \l 1033 ]. Alexander was even responsible for
using the space frames for building a watch tower I Canada in 1907.

According to [ CITATION Don12 \l 1033 ] the history of space structures may be divided into
three stages: ancient space structures, pre modern space structures and modern space structures

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with the time divisions as 1925 and 1975. In 1925, the first reinforced concrete thin-shell
structure with a diameter up to 40 m was built in Jena, Germany. In 1924, the first hemispherical
single-layer latticed shell made of steel (pig iron) was built in Zeiss Planetarium, Germany. In
1975, the Pontiac Gymnasium (168 m × 220 m), the first representative air-supported membrane
structure, was built in the US. Generally speaking, modern space structures are light and efficient
structures developed starting in the 1970s and 1980s on the basis of new technologies and light-
weight high-strength materials, such as membranes and steel cables. These structures include air-
supported membrane structures, cable-membrane structures, cable truss structures, beam sting
structures, suspended-dome structures, cable domes and so forth. For pre modern space
structures widely built in the mid-twentieth century (such as thin shells, space trusses, lattice
shells and ordinary cable structures), new space structures were developed by the combination of
different structural forms and materials, the application of pre stressing technology and the
innovation of structural concepts and configurations are also ascribed to modern space
structures[ CITATION Don12 \l 1033 ]. These modern space structures include composite space
trusses, open-web grid structures, polyhedron space frame structures, partial double-layer latticed
shells, cable-stayed grid structures, tree-type structures, and pre stressed segmental steel
structures and so forth. Basic elements of space structures include rigid elements (such as
plate/shell, beam and bar elements) and flexible elements (such as cable and membrane
elements). Modern space structures can therefore be divided into modern rigid space structures,
modern flexible space structures and modern rigid-flexible combined space structures.

However, this paper endeavors to discuss the long span in building construction with particular
attention to Space Frames, Parabolic Paraboloids and Lattice Girders.

2.0 SPACE FRAMES

A space frame is a structure system assembled of linear elements so arranged that forces are
transferred in a three-dimensional manner which often takes the form of a flat or curved
surface[ CITATION Lan99 \l 1033 ]. ‘In some cases, the constituent element may be two-
dimensional’. A space frame is usually arranged in an array of single, double, or multiple layers
of intersecting members. Space frames usually utilize a multidirectional span, and are often used
to accomplish long spans with few supports[ CITATION KKe09 \l 1033 ]. They derive their
strength from the inherent rigidity of the triangular frame - flexing loads (bending moments)

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which are transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of each strut. The
system of the space frame is known as the common space lattice, the octet truss, or the
octahedron - tetrahedron complex.

The steel space frame structures are popular in covering the large areas with or without any
intermittent supports. The space structures are widely used to construct the transmission line
towers, micro wave towers, airport hangers, swimming pools, sports stadiums, exhibition halls,
community halls, industrial buildings, bridges, railway platforms etc. The popularity and use of
space structures are due to its ability to resist and redistribute the large concentrated and
unsymmetrical loading. The space structures have higher reliability and stability. They have
become known for their aesthetical view, light weight, ease of fabrication, reassembling and their
higher percentage reusability.

Types of Space Frames According to curvature:

i. Flat covers
These structures are composed of planar substructures. The plane are channeled through the
horizontal bars and the shear forces are supported by the diagonals.

(See appendix for figure 2.0)

ii. Barrel vaults

This type of vault has a cross section of a simple arch. Usually this type of space frame does not
need to use tetrahedral modules or pyramids as a part of its backing.

(See appendix for figure 2.1)

iii. Spherical domes

These domes usually require the use of tetrahedral modules or pyramids and additional support
from a skin.

Types of Space Frames According to the number of grid layers:

i. Single-Layer

All elements are located on the surface to be approximated.

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 ii. Double-Layer
The elements are organized in two parallel layers with each other at a certain distance apart. The
diagonal bars connecting the nodes of both layers in different directions in space.

iii. Triple-Layer
Elements are placed in three parallel layers, linked by the diagonals. They are almost always flat.
This solution is to decrease the diagonal members’ length.

Space Frames Components

A space frame consists of axial members and connectors, which join the members together. The
majority of space frame systems for building structures are manufactured from steel or aluminum
although timber, concrete and reinforced plastics are also used.

i. 1- Members

As illustrated in Figure 1.1, space frame members are axial elements with circular or rectangular
sections, all members can only resist tension or compression. The space grid is built of relatively
structural members are left exposed as a part of the architectural expression.

ii. 2- Joints
In a space frame, connecting joints play an important role, both functional and esthetic, which
derives from their rationality during construction and after completion. Since joints have a
decisive effect on the strength and stiffness of the structure and compose around 20 to 30 percent
of the total weight, joint design is critical to space frame economy and safety. The following are
the types of space frame connectors:

iii. Node connectors

The nodes may be of many forms depending on the system used (e.g. ball joints, hollow spheres,
profiled plates etc.) and this tremendous variety of jointing systems demonstrates the difficulty of
achieving a simple, aesthetically pleasing tension joint.

Mero system: It consists of a threaded spherical ball of hot forged steel with as many as
18 tapped holes, at different angles which are distributed evenly over its surface in order
to receive the members at different angles. The sphere has flat surfaces around the

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threaded holes to improve the seating of the partner sleeve. The holes are precisely drilled
so that the center lines of the tubes at node meet at the center of the sphere.

(See appendix for figure 2.2)

Octatube system: The Octatube system was developed by Prof. Dr Ir. Mick Eekhout of
the Netherlands consists of an octagonal base plate to which are welded two semi-
octagonal plates placed at right angles to each other. The Octatube node connector is a
plate connector, the tubes meeting at a node are flattened and connected by means of
high-strength bolts. Developed in 1973, this node connector can be manufactured in any
workshop. The connector is designed for space frames meant to roof workshops,
warehouses and other structures where cost rather than aesthetics is the governing
consideration. It is possible to use sections other than tubes to effect the connection if a
plate is welded to the end of the member.

(See appendix for figure 2.3)

Tuball connector: developed by Eekhout in 1984, is a hollow sphere made of spheroidal

graphite. One-fourth of the sphere comprises a cap and the rest is a cup .The end of THC
circular or rectangular hollow section member to be connected is fitted at its ends with
threaded solid props by welding. Working from inside the cup, high-strength bolts,
normally of 8.8 or 10.9 grade are driven into the threaded prop by means of a torque
wrench. Coning of the ends of the tube is resorted to if tubes of large diameter are to be
accommodated without congestion over the surface of the cup. If the tension to be
transmitted to a node exceeds the permissible tensile strength of the node. The member is
carried through the node by using a threaded rod to connect the ends of the tubes. Being
hollow, the Tuball node tends to be lighter than a solid forged node. It is also less
expensive, because spheroidal graphite costs less than forged steel. The Tubal node has

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 been used successfully for building numerous space frames in India. The United Arab
Emirates and the Far East using relatively unskilled labours.

(See appendix for figure 2.4)

Advantages of Space Frames

i. Lightweight this is mainly due to the fact that material is distributed spatially in such a
way that the load transfer mechanism is primarily axial; tension or compression.
Consequently, all material in any given element is utilized to its full extent. Furthermore,
most space frames are now constructed with aluminum, which decreases considerably
their self-weight.
ii. Mass Productivity
Space frames can be built from simple prefabricated units, which are often of standard
size and shape. Such units can be easily transported and rapidly assembled on site by
semi-skilled labor. Consequently, space frames can be built at a lower cost.
iii. Stiffness
A space frame is usually sufficiently stiff in spite of its lightness. This is due to its three
dimensional character and to the full participation of its constituent elements.
iv. Versatility
Space frames possess a versatility of shape and form and can utilize a standard module to
generate various flat space grids, latticed shell, or even free-form shapes. Architects
appreciate the visual beauty and the impressive simplicity of lines in space frames.

3.0 PARABOLIC PARABOLOIDS

Parabolic Paraboloids are structural shapes curved in two directions. They form part of a family
of single layer shell structures (or double curved lattices) that cover long spans with a light-
weight structural network, acting in tension or compression. The Parabolic Paraboloids have
closely spaced tubes which directly support cladding without the need for intermediate or
secondary trusses. This results in a visually appealing roof profile, a very shallow roof depth and
lower cost due to reduced material mass[ CITATION KKe09 \l 1033 ]. The Hypars roofs of
Parabolic Paraboloids can be designed and built to any elevation or plan geometry and multiple

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structures can be combined to achieve a ribbon-like appearance. The edges of each Hypars are
restrained and foundations are designed to resist thrust and overturning movement under all
service conditions. Hypars also provide the aesthetics of tensile fabric structures, but with the
added structural integrity needed in regions subject to hurricane or snow loads [ CITATION
KKe09 \l 1033 ].

(See appendix for figure 3.0)

4.0 LATTICE GIRDER

According to [ CITATION Dun19 \l 1033 ] a lattice girder is a type of girder with a criss-
crossed web design. The diagonal lines of steel give support in all directions, helping to prevent
the girder, from bending. The intersecting vertical latticed trusses form the space grids consisting
of a combination of square or triangular pyramids which creates a regular grid form. A lattice
girder has parallel grids that are similar in design and directionally same, with one layer directly
over the top of another. Lattice girders are also widely used in mining tunnels for roof support
during excavations and can be erected quickly. They are also used for reinforcement when
applying shotcrete, a form of concrete or mortar pneumatically applied at high velocity from a
hose to construction supports. Another characteristic of latticed structural system is that their
load-carrying mechanism is three dimensional in nature [ CITATION Dun19 \l 1033 ].

(See appendix for figure 4.0)

Advantages
i. Immediate and reliable ground support in the excavation area.
ii. Can be fully integrated with the shoctcret lining and form an optimum bond to the
ground supported.
iii. Complete encapsulation in sprayed concrete with no voids or fissures visible.
iv. Light weight for easy handling and quick assembly.
v. Guide for next round excavation.

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 vi. Can be manufactured to suit all types of excavation geometry.

REFERENCES

Dong, S., Zhao, Y. & Xing, D., 2012. Frontiers of Structural and Civil Engineering. 1 ed.
Hangzhou: Zhejiang University.

Dunaway, J., 2019. WiseWEEK. [Online]

Available at: https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-lattice-girder.htm
[Accessed Monday August 2019].

James , Kodur & Marrion, 2010. Word Trade center building performance study. s.l.:Fedral
Agency.

Keding, K., 2009. SPACEFRAME, Skopje, st. Kliment Ohridski 43 a: Keding.

Lan, T. T., 1999. “Space Frame Structures” Structural Engineering Handbook. Beijing: CRC
Press LLC.

LinkedIn Corporation, 2019. LinkedIn Corporation. [Online]

Available at: https://www.slideshare.net/HindustanAlcoxLmited/a-brief-history-about-the-
evolution-of-large-span-structures
[Accessed Saturday June 2019].

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 APPENDIX

Space Frames (Figure 2.0-2.1),

Parabolic Paraboloids (Figure 3.0) and

Lattice Girders (Figure 4.0)

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