Arguing Persuasively and Logically

Arguing Persuasively and Logically
We use logic every day to figure out test questions, plan our budgets, and decide who
to date. We borrow from the vocabulary of logic when we say, "Brilliant deduction"
or even "I don't want to argue about it." In the study of logic, however, each of these
terms has a specific definition, and we must be clear on these if we are to
communicate.
Vocabulary
Proposition --
T or F in an argument, but not alone. Can be a premise or conclusion. Is not
equal to a sentence.
Premise --
Proposition used as evidence in an argument.
Conclusion --
Proposition used as a thesis in an argument.
Argument --
A group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from the others.
Induction --
A process through which the premises provide some basis for the conclusion
Deduction --
A process through which the premises provide conclusive proof for the
conclusion.
Argument Indicators: Premise Indicators: Conclusion Indicators:

 should  since  therefore
 must  because  hence
 ought  for  thus
 necessarily  as  so
 inasmuch as  consequently
 for the reason  it follows that
that  one may infer
 first ...  one may conclude
When dealing with persuasive writing, it will be helpful for you to outline the
argument by premises and conclusions. By looking at the structure of the argument, it
is easy to spot logical error.
Example 1
"Universities are full of knowledge. The freshmen bring a little in, and the seniors
take none away, and knowledge accumulates.
-- Harvard President A. L. Lowell
Premise 1 Freshmen bring a little (knowledge) in

Premise 2 Seniors take none away
Premise 3 Knowledge accumulates
Conclusion Universities are full of knowledge
Example 2
(Here, the conclusion of one argument is used as a premise in another. This is very
common.)
Even though there may be a deceiver of some sort, very powerful and very tricky,
who bends all his efforts to keep me perpetually deceived, there can be no slightest
doubt that I exist, since he deceives me; and let him deceive me as much as he will, he
can never make me be nothing as long as I think I am something. Thus, after having
thought well on this matter, and after examining all things with care, I must finally
conclude and maintain that this proposition: I am, I exist, is necessarily true every
time that I pronounce it or conceive it in my mind.
-- Rene Descartes, *Meditations*
Argument 1 Premise 1: To be deceived ... I must exist
Conclusion of Argument 1 When I think that I exist I cannot be

Argument 2 Premise 1: deceived about that
Conclusion: I am, I exist, is necessarily true ... .
Exercises
Find the Arguments and Outline them in These Statements:
1. Ask the same for me, for friends should have all things in common.
-- Plato, Phaedrus
2. Matter is activity, and therefore a body is where it acts; and because every particle
of matter acts all over the universe, every body is everywhere.
-- Collingwood, The Idea of Nature
3. The citizen who so values his "independence" that he will not enroll in a political
party is really forfeiting independence, because he abandons a share in
decision©making at the primary level: the choice of the candidate.
-- Felknor, Dirty Politics
Reaching Logical Conclusions

This article is reprinted from pages 78-79 of Pearson-Allen: Modern Algebra , Book
One. In the book it is one of several between-chapter articles that add interest and
provike thought on subjects related to the topics discussed in the text.
Consider the two statements:
1. Any member of a varsity squad is excused from physical education.

2. Henry is a member of the varsity football squad.
Our common sense tells us that if we accept these two statement as true, then we must
accept the following third statement as true:
3. Henry is excused from physical education.
We say that the third statement follows logically from the other two.
In drawing logical conclusions it does not matter whether the statements we accept as
true are reasonable or sensible. This is because we depend entirely upon the form of
the statements and not upon what we are talking about. Thus, if we accept the
following statements as true:

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Arguing Persuasively and Logically

Argument Indicators: Premise Indicators: Conclusion Indicators:

-- Harvard President A. L. Lowell

Premise 1 Freshmen bring a little (knowledge) in

-- Rene Descartes, Meditations

Argument 1 Premise 1: To be deceived ... I must exist

Conclusion of Argument 1 When I think that I exist I cannot be

Conclusion: I am, I exist, is necessarily true ... .

Find the Arguments and Outline them in These Statements:

-- Collingwood, The Idea of Nature

Reaching Logical Conclusions

Consider the two statements:

1. Any member of a varsity squad is excused from physical education.

3. Henry is excused from physical education.

We say that the third statement follows logically from the other two.

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