Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Level: B.Ed 1.5 Years Semester: Autumn, 2017 Assignment No. 1

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Course: Research Methods in Education (8604)

Level: B.Ed 1.5 Years Semester: Autumn, 2017
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1. What are sources of knowledge? Define scientific method and describe its different
steps.
Answer:
In epistemology, a common concern with respect to knowledge is what sources of information are
capable of giving knowledge.
The following are some of the major sources of knowledge:
1. Perception — that which can be perceived through the experiences of the senses. The view
that experience is the primary source of knowledge is called empiricism.
2. Reason — Reason can be considered a source of knowledge, either by deducing truths
from existing knowledge, or by learning things a priori, discovering necessary truths (such
as mathematical truths) through pure reason. The view that reason is the primary source of
knowledge is called rationalism
3. Introspection — knowledge of one’s self that can be found through internal self-evalution.
This is generally considered to be a sort of perception. (For example, I know I am hungry or
tired.)
4. Memory — Memory is the storage of knowledge that was learned in the past — whether it
be past events or current information.
5. Testimony — Testimony relies on others to acquire knowledge and communicate it to us.
Some deny that testimony can be a source of knowledge, and insist that beliefs gained
through testimony must be verified in order to be knowledge.
Scientific method and its types:
The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new
knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method
of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of
reasoning. The Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the scientific method as "a method or procedure
that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation,
measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses".
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Experiments are a procedure designed to test hypotheses. Experiments are an important tool of
the scientific method.
The method is a continuous process that begins with observations about the natural world. People
are naturally inquisitive, so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear, and
they often develop ideas or hypotheses about why things are the way they are. The best
hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways. The strongest tests of
hypotheses come from carefully controlled experiments that gather empirical data. Depending on
how well additional tests match the predictions, the original hypothesis may require refinement,
alteration, expansion or even rejection. If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported, a
general theory may be developed.
Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, they are frequently the same from
one to another. The process of the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypotheses),
deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or
empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on
knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very specific,
or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies. A
scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome
of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis;
otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested.
The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the
predictions derived from a hypothesis. Experiments can take place anywhere from a college lab to
CERN's Large Hadron Collider. There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however.
Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a
set of general principles. Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same
degree), and they are not always in the same order. Some philosophers and scientists have argued
that there is no scientific method; they include physicist Lee Smolin and philosopher Paul
Feyerabend (in his Against Method). Nola and Sankey] remark that "For some, the whole idea of a
theory of scientific method is yester-year's debate".
There are two basic types of research associated with the scientific method.
1) Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is based on collecting facts and figures.This type research is common in
biology.
2) Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is based on collecting opinions and attitudes.This type research is common in
the social sciences.
{====================}
Q.2. Discuss the concept of educational research. Also examine the need and importance
of research in education.
Answer:
Educational research refers to the systematic collection and analysis of data related to the field of
education. Research may involve a variety of methods. Research may involve various aspects of
education including student learning, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics.
Educational researchers generally agree that research should be rigorous and systematic. However,
there is less agreement about specific standards, criteria and research procedures.[ Educational
researchers may draw upon a variety of disciplines. These disciplines include psychology,
sociology, anthropology, and philosophy. Methods may be drawn from a range of disciplines.
Conclusions drawn from an individual research study may be limited by the characteristics of the
participants who were studied and the conditions under which the study was conducted.
Characteristics of educational research
Gary Anderson outlined ten aspects of educational research:
• Educational research attempts to solve a problem.
• Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data
for a new purpose.
• Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
• Research demands accurate observation and description.
• Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
• Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will help in
understanding, prediction and/or control.
• Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology; technical
skill in collecting and analyzing the data.
• Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains
to validate the procedures employed.
• Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the
problem or questions as the research progresses.
• Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.
Need and importance of research in education:
As earlier said, research is important in all fields, in the similar manner, the importance of research
in education is very vital. This is because of various reasons like:
1. It is a systematic analysis:
In education, research is essential as it gives the systematic analysis of the topic. Also the
objectives are clearly defined through the research process. One needs to study in a systematic
and controlled manner, and this is exactly what the research work provides an individual.
2. Leads to great observations:
In the field of education, the research helps in coming to one conclusion. That conclusion can be
achieved by observing the facts and figures in depth. So, such in depth knowledge is provided by
following various research methods only. So, this way, research also assists in leading to greater
observations.
3. Results in predications, theories and many principles:
The researchers come up with the valid predictions, theories and great results through the
observations, hypothesis and the research queries. So, this way also it helps researchers to come
up with the great conclusions.
4. Improving practices:
The educational research is important for the students to improve practices and at the same time,
it helps in improving those individuals who really wish to bring improvement in those practices. So,
this way educational research helps in overall improvement of the individual. Be it a student or any
teacher who is researching on some topic, it is of great help to them. It acts as a lighthouse and
empowers the individual.
5. Develops new understanding related to the learning, teaching etc:
The educators are benefited through various research as it helps them in having a better
understanding of the subject. Along with this, it develops greater understanding related to the
teaching, learning and other educational administration. The new knowledge further helps in
improving educational practices of the teachers and the professors.
6. Helps in initiating the action:
The research you do should result in performing some action or practice. So, the research should
aim to produce the highest result which compliments the study. Also, you should make sure your
study ensures the applicable findings so as to match the result. Research helps in performing well
and also sheds away all the problems. This way, you are able to understand the role of research
which further helps in decision making process.
7. Helps in decision making:
The good research requires proper time and effort. It prepares the person in taking essential
decisions which further necessitates the same from all the participants involved in the process. For
better results, it is important for the participants to consider the required consequences and all the
risks involved in the whole process.
8. Brings consistency in the work:
When the work is done with full in depth analysis, it tends to be right and accurate. The process of
research help brings consistency in the work, which lessens the flaws and mistakes in the final
outcome of the process. The consistency is needed in all sorts of work or you might have to end
up getting wrong and inaccurate result. The research takes lots of time and effort, so it is the duty
of the researcher to be specific and sure with the facts so that the end result is clean and without
any silly mistakes.
9. Motivates others:
The educational research builds patience because it is a lengthy process. In order to get fruitful
results, you need to build patience and only then you will be able to motivate others. Also, if your
research is full of right facts and figures, it will ultimately motivate others. Not just this, an accurate
research assists in enhancing the reader’s knowledge which might not be possible for any other
person.
So, above are some of the benefits which research provides in the field of education. Every kind of
research, every kind of method has been always useful and gives a positive result. In case, you find
something fishy during the research work, it is advisable to consult someone superior to you, or
some expert. Research is useful in all the fields and is used by all the departments, whether public
or private. The research work is done by all age groups, whether the students or the teachers and
even the humankind in order to understand the society, it’s rules and other policies.
{====================}
Q.3. Explain different types of research on the basis of method and explain them suitable
example.
Answer:
Research can be classified in many different ways on the basis of the methodology of research, the
knowledge it creates, the user group, the research problem it investigates etc.
Basic Research
This research is conducted largely for the enhancement of knowledge, and is research which does
not have immediate commercial potential. The research which is done for human welfare, animal
welfare and plant kingdom welfare. It is called basic, pure, fundamental research. The main
motivation here is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. According to
Travers, “Basic Research is designed to add to an organized body of scientific knowledge and does
not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.” Such a research is time and cost
intensive. (Example: An experimental research that may not be or will be helpful in the human
progress.)
Applied Research
Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to
acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human
condition. It focuses on analysis and solving social and real life problems. This research is generally
conducted on a large scale basis and is expensive. As such, it is often conducted with the support
of some financing agency like the national government, public corporation, world bank, UNICEF,
UGC, Etc. According to Hunt, “applied research is an investigation for ways of using scientific
knowledge to solve practical problems” for example:- improve agriculture crop production, treat or
cure a specific disease, improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, how can communication
among workers in large companies be improved
Problem oriented research
Research is done by industry apex body for sorting out problems faced by all the companies. Eg:-
WTO does problem oriented research for developing countries, in India agriculture and processed
food export development authority (APEDA) conduct regular research for the benefit of agri-
industry.
• As the name indicates, Problem identifying researches are undertaken to know the exact nature
of problem that is required to be solved.
• Here, one clarification is needed when we use the term ‘Problem’, it is not a problem in true
sense. It is usually a decision making dilemma or it is a need to tackle a particular business
situation.
• It could be a difficulty or an opportunity.
For e.g.:-Revenue of Mobile company has decreased by 25% in the last year. The cause of the
problem can be any one of the following:
• Poor quality of the product. • Lack of continuous availability. • Not so effective advertising
campaign. • High price. • Poor calibre / lack of motivation in sales people/marketing team. • Tough
competition from imported brands. • Depressed economic conditions
• In the same case, suppose the prime cause of problem is poor advertising campaign & secondary
cause is higher pricing. • To tackle the problem of poor advertising, we have to answer questions
like, what can be the new advertising campaign, who can be the brand ambassador, which media,
which channel, at what time & during which programme advertisements will be broadcast.
Problem solving
This type of research is done by an individual company for the problem faced by it. Marketing
research and market research are the applied research. For eg:- videocon international conducts
research to study customer satisfaction level, it will be problem solving research. In short, the main
aim of problem solving research is to discover some solution for some pressing practical problem.
Quantitative Research
This research is based on numeric figures or numbers. Quantitative research aim to measure the
quantity or amount and compares it with past records and tries to project for future period. In
social sciences, “quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of
quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships”. The objective of quantitative
research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories or hypothesis pertaining to
phenomena.
The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides fundamental
connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative
relationships. Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research.
Statistical methods are used extensively with in fields such as economics and commerce.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research presents non-quantitative type of analysis. Qualitative research is collecting,
analyzing and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Qualitative research refers
to the meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols, metaphors, and description of things.
Qualitative research is much more subjective and uses very different methods of collecting
information,mainly individual, in-depth interviews and focus groups.
The nature of this type of research is exploratory and open ended. Small number of people are
interviewed in depth and or a relatively small number of focus groups are conducted. Qualitative
research can be further classified in the following type.
I. Phenomenology:-a form of research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one or
more individuals experience a phenomenon. Eg:-we might interview 20 victims of bhopal tragedy.
II. Ethnography:- this type of research focuses on describing the culture of a group of people. A
culture is the shared attributes, values, norms, practices, language, and material things of a group
of people. Eg:-the researcher might decide to go and live with the tribal in Andaman island and
study the culture and the educational practices.
III. Case study:-is a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed account of
one or more cases. Eg:-we may study a classroom that was given a new curriculum for technology
use.
IV. Grounded theory:- it is an inductive type of research,based or grounded in the observations of
data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative data,
review of records, interviews, observation and surveys
V. Historical research:-it allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present
condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and problems.
Eg:-the lending pattern of business in the 19th century.
In addition to the above, we also have the descriptive research. Fundamental research, of which
this is based on establishing various theories
{====================}
Q.4. Define historical research. Elaborate concept of criticism with example.
Answer:
“Historical method refers to the use of primary historical data to answer a question. Because the
nature of the data depends on the question being asked, data may include demographic records,
such as birth and death certificates; newspapers articles; letters and diaries; government records; or
even architectural drawings.
The use of historical data poses several broad questions:
1. Are the data appropriate to the theoretical question being posed?
2. How were these data originally collected, or what meanings were embedded in them at the time
of collection?
3. How should these data be interpreted, or what meanings do these data hold now?"
So, Stan decides that he wants to figure out why the Nazis acted the way they did. He wants to
do historical research, which involves interpreting past events to predict future ones. In Stan's
case, he's interested in examining the reasons behind the Holocaust to try to prevent it from
happening again.
Historical research design involves synthesizing data from many different sources. Stan could
interview former Nazis or read diaries from Nazi soldiers to try to figure out what motivated them.
He could look at public records and archives, examine Nazi propaganda, or look at testimony in
the trials of Nazi officers. There are several steps that someone like Stan has to go through to do
historical research:
1. Formulate an idea: This is the first step of any research, to find the idea and figure out the
research question. For Stan, this came from his mother, but it could come from anywhere. Many
researchers find that ideas and questions arise when they read other people's research.
2. Formulate a plan: This step involves figuring out where to find sources and how to approach
them. Stan could make a list of all the places he could find information (libraries, court archives,
private collections) and then figure out where to start.
3. Gather data: This is when Stan will actually go to the library or courthouse or prison to read or
interview or otherwise gather data. In this step, he's not making any decisions or trying to answer
his question directly; he's just trying to get everything he can that relates to the question.
4. Analyze data: This step is when Stan goes through the data he just collected and tries more
directly to answer his question. He'll look for patterns in the data. Perhaps he reads in the diary of
the daughter of a Nazi that her father didn't believe in the Nazi party beliefs but was scared to
stand up for his values. Then he hears the same thing from a Nazi soldier he interviews. A pattern
is starting to emerge.
5. Analyze the sources of data: Another thing that Stan has to do when he is analyzing data is to
also analyze the veracity of his data. The daughter's diary is a secondary source, so it might not be
as true as a primary source, like the diary of her father. Likewise, people have biases and
motivations that might cloud their account of things; perhaps the Nazi soldier Stan interviews is up
for parole, and he thinks that if he says he was scared and not a true Nazi believer, he might get
out of jail.
Once Stan has gone through all of these steps, he should have a good view of what he wants to
know about his question. If he doesn't, then he goes back to step two (formulating a plan) and
starts again. He will keep doing steps two through five until he finds something that he can use.
Concept of criticism:
Criticism is the practice of judging the merits and faults of something.
• The judger is called a critic.
• To engage in criticism is to criticise (in British English).
• One specific item of criticism is called a criticism or critique.
Criticism is an evaluative or corrective exercise that can occur in any area of human life. Criticism
can therefore take many different forms (see below). How exactly people go about criticizing, can
vary a great deal. In specific areas of human endeavour, the form of criticism can be highly
specialized and technical; it often requires professional knowledge to understand the criticism. This
article provides only general information about criticism. For subject-specific information, see
the Varieties of criticism page.
To criticize does not necessarily imply "to find fault", but the word is often taken to mean the
simple expression of an object against prejudice, no matter positive or negative. Often criticism
involves active disagreement, but it may only mean "taking sides". It could just be an exploration
of the different sides of an issue. Fighting is not necessarily involved.
Criticism is often presented as something unpleasant, but sometimes, that may not be the case.
There are also friendly criticisms, amicably discussed, and some people find great pleasure in
criticism ("keeping people sharp", "providing the critical edge"). The Pulitzer Prize for Criticism has
been presented since 1970 to a newspaper writer who has demonstrated 'distinguished criticism'.
Normally criticism involves a dialogue of some kind, direct or indirect, and in that sense criticism is
an intrinsically social activity. Even if one is only criticizing a book or an idea in private, it is usually
assumed there is someone who will be made aware of the criticism being expressed at some point,
although who exactly will hear it, may also remain unknown. One is still engaging with the ideas of
others, even if only indirectly. One can of course also keep a criticism to oneself, rather than
express or communicate it, but in general the intention is, that someone else ought to be aware of
it, however that may occur. Self-criticism, even if wholly private, still mentally takes the concerns of
others into account.
{====================}
Q.5. Define descriptive research, what are its major forms? Strengthen your answer with
the example of survey studies, and interrelationship studies.
Answer:
Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being
studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred. Rather it
addresses the "what" question (what are the characteristics of Minnesota state population or
situation being studied?) The characteristics used to describe the situation or population are
usually some kind of categorical scheme also known as descriptive categories. For example, the
periodic table categorizes the elements. Scientists use knowledge about the nature of electrons,
protons and neutrons to devise this categorical scheme. We now take for granted the periodic
table, yet it took descriptive research to devise it. Descriptive research generally precedes
explanatory research. For example, over time the periodic table’s description of the elements
allowed scientists to explain chemical reaction and make sound prediction when elements were
combined.
Hence, descriptive research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, descriptive research
cannot be used as the basis of a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In other
words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity.
The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the best
approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation. Qualitative
research often has the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with examinations of why
the observations exist and what the implications of the findings are.
Descriptive science is a category of science that involves descriptive research; that is, observing,
recording, describing, and classifying phenomena. Descriptive research is sometimes contrasted
with hypothesis-driven research, which is focused on testing a particular hypothesis by means
of experimentation.
David A. Grimaldi and Michael S. Engel suggest that descriptive science in biology is currently
undervalued and misunderstood:
"Descriptive" in science is a pejorative, almost always preceded by "merely," and typically applied
to the array of classical -ologies and -omies: anatomy, archaeology, astronomy, embryology,
morphology, paleontology, taxonomy, botany, cartography, stratigraphy, and the various
disciplines of zoology, to name a few. [...] First, an organism, object, or substance is not described
in a vacuum, but rather in comparison with other organisms, objects, and substances. [...] Second,
descriptive science is not necessarily low-tech science, and high tech is not necessarily better. [...]
Finally, a theory is only as good as what it explains and the evidence (i.e., descriptions) that
supports it.
A negative attitude by scientists toward descriptive science is not limited to biological
disciplines: Lord Rutherford's notorious quote, "All science is either physics or stamp collecting,"
displays a clear negative attitude about descriptive science, and it is known that he was dismissive
of astronomy, which at the beginning of the 20th century was still gathering largely descriptive
data about stars, nebulae, and galaxies, and was only beginning to develop a satisfactory
integration of these observations within the framework of physical law, a cornerstone of
the philosophy of physics.
{====================}

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