Biology Grade 11 Notes
Biology Grade 11 Notes
Biology Grade 11 Notes
FOR GRADE 11
COVERING ALL THE GRADE 11 TOPICS IN THE ZAMBIAN ‘O’ LEVEL SYLLABUS:
E-MAIL: blisbon001@yahoo.com
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TRANSPORT IN FLOWERING PLANTS
• To carry water and mineral salts from the roots to other parts of the plant
• To transport manufactured foods from the leaves to other parts of the plant
• To transport hormones from sites of synthesis to sites of usage
The transport system in flowering plants is called the vascular system. This consists of xylem and phloem which
are closely associated with a meristematic tissue called cambium. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts from
the roots to other parts of the plant and supports the plant mechanically. Phloem transports manufactured foods
from the leaves to other parts of the plant. Cambium carries out cell division to produce new cells, including
xylem and phloem cells.
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(d) Cross-section of a Monocot Stem
Water and mineral salts are absorbed by root hairs which are found near the tips of roots. Root hairs are
elongated outgrowths of epidermal cells of the roots. A root hair cell absorbs water by osmosis and mineral salts
by active transport and is adapted for absorption in the following ways:
• Has an elongated outgrowth which increases the surface area for faster diffusion during absorption.
• Absence of chloroplast to create more room for absorption.
• High concentration of mitochondria to provide energy for active absorption/transport of mineral salts. In
addition, root hair cells are numerous which further increase their surface area.
Structure of a Root Hair Cell
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Movement of Water from the root hairs to the xylem
After being absorbed, water moves from the root hair cell to the xylem using three possible routes namely
apoplast (from cell wall to cell wall), symplast (from cytoplasm to cytoplasm) and vacuolar route (from vacuole
to vacuole). The movement of water from cell to cell is due to osmosis and transpiration pull.
Water moves up the plant through xylem vessels in a continuous stream known as the transpiration stream. The
forces responsible for movement of water in the transpiration stream are transpiration, capillarity, root pressure
and guttation.
Transpiration (the diffusion of water vapour from plant leaves to the atmosphere through stomata). This creates a
suction force that pulls water up the xylem vessels.
Capillarity: This is the movement of water into narrow tubes or openings as a result of cohesion (attractive forces
between molecules of the same kind) and adhesion (attractive forces between molecules of different substances).
Root Pressure: This is the pressure created in xylem vessels due to osmotic gain of water by the roots. This pushes
water up the xylem vessels.
Guttation: the loss of water drops from the tips and margins of leaves through openings called hydathodes. This
creates a suction force that pulls water up the xylem vessels.
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Transpiration
This is the diffusion of water vapour from leaves to the atmosphere through stomata. In leaves of most plants,
there are more stomata on the under-side than on the upper-side. The water moves from the xylem vessels to the
mesophyll cells by osmosis then it evaporates from the surfaces of the mesophyll cells into the air spaces and
finally diffuses out of the air spaces to the atmosphere through the stomata.
Excessive transpiration can lead to plasmolysis of plant cells causing wilting of the plant. Wilting is the sagging of
delicate plant parts such as leaves, flowers and young stems due loss of water. Temporary wilting is wilting that
can be reversed by supplying a plant with water. Permanent wilting can not be reversed even if a plant is
supplied with water but leads to death of the plant. A plant undergoes wilting when the rate of transpiration is
higher than the rate of water uptake.
Temperature: this is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance. The higher the temperature, the higher the
transpiration rate. This is because high temperatures increase the kinetic energy of the water molecules making
them diffuse faster out of the leaf.
Humidity: this is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. The higher the humidity, the lower the
transpiration rate because high humidity lowers the concentration gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere.
Light Intensity: This is the brightness or dimness of light. The higher the light intensity, the higher the
transpiration rate because high light intensity causes opening of the stomata.
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Wind: wind is moving air. The higher the wind speed, the greater the rate of transpiration. When the air is still, a
layer of water vapour forms over the leaf and reduces the transpiration rate. But when there is wind, this layer of
vapour is blown away thereby increasing the diffusion rate.
Plants can be adapted to reduce the rate of transpiration by having xeromorphic features which include the
following:
Diagram of potometer
When using the potometer it is assumed that water uptake is equal to water loss through transpiration. The
distance moved by the air bubble/meniscus, the cross sectional area of the capillary tube and the time taken need
to be known in order to calculate the transpiration rate using the following formula:
Example
A student used a potometer to measure the transpiration rate of a leafy shoot of a plant. The water meniscus
moved 30 cm in 30 minutes. If the cross-sectional area of the capillary tube was 0.25 cm2, what was the
transpiration rate of the shoot?
Solution
Translocation
This is the movement of manufactured food from the source (point of origin/ manufacture) to the sink sites (the
sites of usage or storage) through phloem. The organic solutes mainly include sucrose and amino acids dissolved
in water. In most cases the leaves are the sources. In some cases, storage sites may also act as sources e.g. when
food from a tuber is being translocated to points of growth.
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Using feeding aphids
When a feeding aphid is anesthetised, a chopped off leaving the mouth part attached to the plant, a drop of liquid
is seen oozing out of the mouth part. Tests on the liquid reveal that it contains sucrose and amino acids. When a
section of the plant is cut, the mouth part is found to be inserted in the phloem.
Ringing experiment
When a ring of bark is removed from a tree, phloem is removed together with the bark. If the tree is left to grow
for several weeks, the bark above the ring swells because it continues receiving food coming from leaves through
the phloem while the part below the ring stays the same. This shows that food is translocated through phloem.
When plants are supplied with radioactive carbon dioxide and allowed to photosynthesise, they form radio active
sugars. Using photographic film, the path used by sugars moving from the leaf is found to be phloem.
The food manufactured by plants is normally converted to starch and oils for storage. Oils are mainly stored in
seeds e.g. in groundnuts and sunflower. Starch is stored in a range of modified plant organs, some of which are
discussed below.
• Root tuber: This a fibrous root swollen with stored food e.g. sweet potato (Ipomea batatas) tuber
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• Stem tuber: This is an underground stem swollen with stored food e.g. Irish potato (Solanum
tuberosum)
• Bulb: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem e.g. onion (Allium sp)
• Corm: This is swollen underground and vertical short stem e.g. Crocus sp.
• Seed: A sexually produced structure containing a plant embryo and its food store protected by a testa.
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TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
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• The blood circulatory system (cardio-vascular
system).
• The lymphatic system.
a) The Heart
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This is a muscular organ that pumps blood around
the body through blood vessels. The type of muscle
found in the wall of the heart is known as cardiac
muscle.
The heart is divided into left and right side by a
middle wall called the septum. Each side has an
upper chamber known as an atrium (plural: atria)
and a lower chamber known as a ventricle. The
atria receive blood form the veins which they pump
to the ventricles. The ventricles receive blood from
the atria and pump it out of the heart through the
arteries.
The heart receives blood from blood vessels called
veins. These include the venacava (which carries
blood from the rest of the body to the right atrium)
and the pulmonary vein (which carries blood from
the lungs to the left atrium). The heart pumps
blood out through blood vessels called arteries.
These include the aorta (which carries blood from
the left ventricle to the rest of the body) and the
pulmonary artery (which carries blood from the
right ventricle to the lungs). The wall of the heart
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receives from the coronary artery which branches
from the aorta.
The heart also contains valves which are
responsible for keeping blood flowing in one
direction by preventing back flow. The valves
found between the atria and ventricles are called
atrio-ventricular valves. The one on the right side
is called the tricuspid valve while the one on the
left is called the bicuspid (mitral) valve. Those
found between the ventricles and arteries are called
semi lunar valves. The semi-lunar valve found at
the beginning of the aorta is called the aortic semi
lunar valve while the one found at the beginning of
the pulmonary artery is known as the pulmonary
semi lunar valve.
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Functioning of the heart
The wall of the heart is made of a type of muscle called cardiac muscle which has the following characteristics,
among others:
• It is myogenic (it is self-stimulating, meaning that the stimulus for its contraction comes from the muscle
itself). The stimulus for contraction originates from a special patch of cardiac muscle called the
pacemaker or sinoatrial node (SAN) found in the right atrium.
• It does not develop fatigue
• Its cells are branched and have a single nucleus each.
Contraction of cardiac muscle is called systole while relaxation of cardiac muscle is called diastole. The sequence
of events that occur during a single heart beat are called the cardiac cycle. The events of the cardiac cycle are
summarised as follows:
The following table gives the details of each event of the cardiac cycle:
Atrial Systole Contract Relax Open Close From the atria to the
ventricles
Diastole Relax Relax Open Close From veins into the atria
This is a type of circulation where blood passes through the heart twice during one circulation around the body. It
involves two types of circulation, namely the pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.
This is the flow of blood from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery and from the lungs to
the left atrium through the pulmonary vein. In this circulation, blood is pumped over a short distance and at a low
pressure. As a result, the walls of the right ventricle are relatively thin compared to those of the left ventricles. The
purpose of this circulation is to oxygenate the blood and to remove carbon dioxide from the blood in the lungs.
This is the flow of blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body through the aorta and from the rest of the
body to the right atrium through the venacava. In this circulation, blood is pumped over a long distance and at a
high pressure. As a result, the walls of the left ventricle are relatively thick compared to those of the right
ventricles. The purpose of this circulation is to distribute oxygen around the body and to collect carbon dioxide
from the body tissues.
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The following diagram summarises double circulation.
The term heart rate refers to the number of heart beats per minute. It can be measured using an instrument
called the stethoscope. The heart rate of a normal adult human being at rest is about 72 beats /minute. Factors that
affect and modify the normal resting heart rate are sleeping, emotional excitement, illness (e.g. fever) and physical
exercise, as illustrated in the following table:
Rest 72
Sleeping
Fever
Emotional Excitement
Physical Exercise
A pulse is a wave of pressure created in the arteries by a heart beat. The number of pulses per minute is called the
pulse rate. Measuring the pulse rate is an indirect way of measuring the heart rate. A pulse can be located using
the index and middle fingers on any part of the body where arteries are very close to the skin surface such as
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• Atheroma This is an accumulation of fatty
material in the walls of the coronary arteries.
• Sclerosis This is the hardening of the walls of
coronary arteries due to the presence of fatty
material
• Thrombosis this is the blockage of the
coronary arteries by a mixture of blood clots,
fatty material and fibres. A blood clot within
the blood vessels is called a thrombus.
• Angina This is a sharp pain experienced in the
heart and left arm after exertion due to the
presence of an atheroma or thrombus in the
coronary artery.
• Embolus This is a moving clot that results
when a thrombus is pushed out of place by
heart beat. If it reaches the brain, it may cause
bursting of blood vessels, resulting in stroke.
An embolus in the lungs leads to pulmonary
embolism which is characterized by sharp
pains in the lungs.
• Heart Failure (myocardial infarction) This is
a condition where the heart fails to pump blood
due to a limited supply of blood caused by
blockage of the coronary arteries. The patient
may black-out, collapse and die.
Causes of Coronary Heart Disease
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Factors that increase the risk of coronary heart
disease include the following:
• Excessive intake of fatty foods. Fatty foods
are easily converted to cholesterol which in
turn blocks the coronary arteries.
• Smoking. Cigarette smoke contains a
stimulant called nicotine which tends to
promote the accumulation of cholesterol in the
blood.
• Emotional stress. The body secretes high
levels of adrenaline during emotional stress.
This also tends to promote accumulation of
cholesterol in the blood stream.
• Lack of exercise
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The following diagram illustrates the structure of an
artery.
(ii) Veins
These are blood vessels that carry blood towards
the heart from other parts of the body. The have the
following characteristics:
•
They carry blood towards the heart.
•
They carry blood at low pressure
•
They have thin walls and wide lumens.
•
They have valves to keep blood moving in one
direction by preventing back flow.
• They all carry deoxygenated blood except the
pulmonary vein.
• They appear irregular in cross-section
• They are located nearer to the skin surface than
the arteries.
The following diagram illustrates the structure of a
vein.
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(iii) Capillaries
These are the smallest blood vessels. They form a
link between arteries and veins. As arteries
approach the organs of the body, they branch into
smaller arteries called arterioles. The arterioles
keep on subdividing until they form the capillaries.
The capillaries have direct contact with the tissue
cells. This makes it possible for substances to be
exchanged between the blood and tissue cells. In
addition, the walls of the capillaries are very thin
(just one cell thick) for easy diffusion of materials
between the blood and the tissue cells. The network
of capillaries in the tissue cells is called the
capillary bed. The following diagram illustrates
the structure of a capillary.
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The exchange of materials between blood and the
tissue cells is illustrated by the following diagram
of the capillary bed.
Diagram of Capillary bed
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• The pressure of blood coming from the
arterioles is higher than the pressure in the
venule.
• The walls of the capillaries are very thin (one
cell thick)
Red blood cells are not filtered out of the capillaries
because they are large and rigid. However,
phagocytes are able to change shape and squeeze
out of the capillaries.
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(c) Blood
This is a tissue made of red blood cells, white blood
cells, plasma and platelets.
Red blood cell (Erythrocytes)
These are biconcave discs responsible for
transportation of oxygen and small amounts of
carbon dioxide. They are made in the bone marrow
in adults but can also be made by the liver in
babies. One milliliter of blood contains 5 to 6
million red blood cells. They have a lifespan of
about 120 days and are destroyed by the liver. They
are adapted for transportation of oxygen in the
following ways:
• Biconcave disc shape to increase the surface
area for diffusion of oxygen.
• Presence of a red pigment called haemoglobin
which has a high affinity (attraction) for
oxygen. Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to
form oxyhaemoglobin when oxygen
concentrations are high (e.g. in the lungs).
When oxygen concentrations are low e.g. in the
muscles, oxyhaemoglobin dissociates forming
haemoglobin and oxygen.
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• Absence of nucleus makes more room for
haemoglobin
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
These are cells that defend the body against infection (diseases) and are made in the bone marrow, lymphoid
tissue, lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus and spleen. Two examples of white blood cells are phagocytes and
lymphocytes.
Phagocytes
Functions
• These defend the body against infection by engulfing and digesting germs (foreign bodies).
Adaptations
Cell membrane
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Cytoplasm
Lobed Nucleus
Lymphocytes
Functions
• To defend the body against infection by producing antibodies and antitoxins. Antibodies are proteins
that destroy germs/foreign bodies while antitoxins are proteins that neutralize poisons from germs.
Adaptations
Cell membrane
Thin Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
These are fragments formed during the manufacture
of red blood cells. They are important for blood
clotting. The steps involved in blood clotting are
described below:
• When platelets are exposed to damaged/injured
body tissues, they release an enzyme called
thromboplastin/(thrombokinase).
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• Thromboplastin acts on a plasma protein called
prothrombin changing it to an active form
called thrombin.
• Thrombin acts on another plasma protein called
fibrinogen changing it into an insoluble form
called fibrin. This reaction occurs in the
presence of calcium ions. The fibrin forms a
mesh (net) over the wound. This mesh traps red
and white blood cells, leading to the formation
of a clot over the wound.
The following diagram summarizes the mechanism
of blood clotting.
Blood Plasma
This is the liquid part of blood. It is made of water
and dissolved substances.The dissolved substances
include the following:
• dissolved food (monosaccharides, amino acids,
fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins and mineral salts)
• dissolved metabolic wastes (urea and carbon
dioxide in form of hydrogen carbonate ions)
• dissolved chemical substances such as
hormones, antibodies, antitoxins and plasma
proteins)
Plasma proteins include prothrombin, fibrinogen
and albumin. The roles of plasma proteins include
maintaining blood viscosity, causing blood clotting,
maintaining a constant blood PH, maintaining
osmotic balance e.t.c. The functions of blood
plasma are:
• Transportation of dissolved food
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• Transportation of metabolic wastes
• Transportation of hormones, antibodies and
antitoxins
• Distribution of heat around the body. Most of
the body heat is generated by the liver and
muscles.
Note: The functions of blood may be summarised
as transport and defence.
Blood Groups
The type of blood group in a human being is
determined by the type of antigen present in the cell
membrane of the red blood cell. There are two
antigens, namely IA and IB, while the absence of
either antigen is represented as IO. This is called the
ABO blood group system. There are four possible
blood groups, namely group A, group B, group AB
and group O. The lymphocytes in each type of
blood produce antibodies against non-self antigens
(antigens that are not present in the cell membranes
of their red blood cells). These antibodies are
released into the blood plasma. The following table
shows the antigens and antibodies present in each
of the four blood groups:
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Blood Groups Type of Type of
antigen(s) antibody
present in the present in the
cell blood plasma
membranes of
red blood cells
Group A antigen A (IA) Anti B
Group B Antigen B (IB) Anti A
Group AB Both antigens A None
and B (IA and
IB)
Group O None Anti A and anti
B
Blood Transfusion
This refers to the transfer of blood from one
individual called the donor to another one called
the recipient. For a blood transfusion to be
successful the blood of the donor has to be
compatible with the blood of the recipient. Blood
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compatibility refers to the capacity of a blood
recipient to receive the donor’s blood without
leading to agglutination or clumping of the blood
received. Agglutination occurs when antibodies in
the recipient’s blood attack non-self antigens
present in the donor’s blood causing the red blood
cells from the donor to stick together. This may
cause blockage of blood vessels, kidney failure and
stroke. Therefore, any blood groups that have
different antigens are incompatible.
The following points must be noted when carrying
out a blood transfusion:
• Blood group O can be given to any blood group
because it has no antigens that can be attacked
by antibodies in the recipient’s blood. For this
reason, blood group O is called the universal
donor. However, blood group O can not
receive blood from any other blood group.
• Blood group AB can receive blood from all
other blood groups because it has no antibodies
to attack the antigens in the donor’s blood. For
this reason, it is called the universal recipient.
However, blood group AB can not give blood
to any other blood group.
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• A person can receive blood from another
person of the same blood group without
complications arising.
• Before a donor’s blood is given to a recipient, it
has to be screened. Blood screening is the
testing of blood in order to determine the
following: the blood group, the rhesus status
and to check for infections such as hepatitis and
HIV.
Rhesus Factor
This is a blood antigen first discovered in monkeys
of the genus called Rhesus. A person whose blood
has this antigen is said to be rhesus positive (Rh+
or Rh positive), while a person whose blood does
not have this antigen is said to be rhesus negative
(Rh- or Rh negative). The rhesus status of a child
depends on the status of its two parents as described
below:
• If both parents are Rh+, all their children will be
Rh+.
• If one parent is Rh+ and the other is Rh- all
children will be Rh+.
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• If both parents are Rh-, all their children will be
Rh-.
Having a rhesus negative mother and a rhesus
positive father can cause serious complications in a
foetus or baby. If some of the blood of the foetus
enters the mother’s blood stream during pregnancy
or birth, the mother’s blood begins making the anti-
rhesus antigens. If the woman conceives another
rhesus positive foetus, these antibodies will cross
the placenta and attack the blood of the foetus. At
the time of birth, the baby will suffer from
haemolytic disease (erythroblastosis foetalis),
which leads to death if the baby does not receive a
comprehensive blood transfusion soon after birth.
Any subsequent pregnancies are miscarried and fail
to thrive up to the time of birth.
Blood Disorders
Examples of blood disorders in humans include
sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia and leukemia.
Sickle Cell Anaemia: This is an inherited disease
where a person has abnormal haemoglobin. As a
result, the red blood cells become sickle-shaped,
especially when oxygen levels are low in the body.
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The disease reduces the capacity of the body to
transport oxygen.
Haemophilia: This is an inherited disease where a
person bleeds for longer periods than normal due to
poor clotting of blood. It is caused by absence of
blood clotting proteins known as factor VIII and
factor IX.
Leukemia: This is defined as cancer of the white
blood cells. The patient makes an abnormally high
number of immature white blood cells.
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• They filter foreign bodies, bacteria and dead
tissue from the lymph before it joins the blood.
• They become very active when the body is
invaded by foreign bodies, becoming swollen and
tender in the process.
The functions of the lymphatic system may be
summarised as follows:
• It drains excess tissue fluid and takes it back to
the blood
• It adds lymphocytes to the blood
• It absorbs and transports cholesterol, fatty acids
and glycerol to the blood.
RESPIRATION
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(ventilation) and gaseous exchange. In this case,
the term external respiration is used.
The following diagram summarises the terms
associated with respiration.
Internal Respiration
Internal respiration occurs inside living cells in
organelles called mitochondria (singular:
mitochondrion). The main substrate for internal
respiration in most organisms is glucose. There are
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two types of internal respiration, namely aerobic
and anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic Respiration
This is the release of energy from food in living
cells in the presence of oxygen. This process
releases a relatively high amount of energy (about
2880 KJ from one mole of glucose) and the by
products produced are carbon dioxide and water.
This type of respiration occurs in tissue cells of
animals and plants when there is a sufficient supply
of oxygen. The word and chemical equations for
aerobic respiration are given below:
Word Equation
Chemical Equation
Anaerobic Respiration
This is the release of energy from food substances
in living cells in the absence of oxygen. Types of
anaerobic respiration include alcoholic
fermentation and lactic fermentation.
Alcoholic Fermentation
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This is the release of energy from food substances
in living cells in the absence of oxygen, producing
alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide as by
products. This process releases a relatively low
amount of energy (about 210 KJ from one mole of
glucose). The reaction is catalysed by an enzyme
called zymase which is naturally found in yeast.
The word and chemical equations for alcoholic
fermentation are given below:
Word Equation:
Zymase
Chemical Equation:
Zymase
Lactic Fermentation
This is the release of energy from food substances
in living cells in the absence of oxygen, producing
lactic acid as the only by product. The amount of
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energy released is very little (about 150 KJ from
one mole of glucose).
Word Equation:
Glucose lactic acid + energy
Chemical Equation:
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Materials: two thermal flasks, two thermometers, cotton
wool, two sets of bean seeds.
Method
• Soak one set of seeds until they start germinating and
boil the other set of seeds
• Soak both sets of seeds in disinfectant to kill micro
organisms and place each set in a separate thermal
flask.
• Set the experiment as shown in the following diagram.
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Energy is produced during respiration. Germinating
seeds carry out respiration while boiled seeds do not.
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Observations
• The oil drop in the container having heated soil
remains at the same position while the one in the
container having unheated soil moves inwards
Conclusion
Soil contains living organisms that carry out respiration
and use up oxygen in the process.
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• Leave the setup for five hours and observe what
happens to the position of the drop in the capillary
tube.
Observations
• The oil drop in the capillary tube moves inwards
Conclusion
The plant carries out respiration and uses up oxygen in
the process.
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• Observe and record what happens to the lime water
in containers A and C.
Observation
The lime water in the container C turns milky earlier
than the one in A.
Conclusion
Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide than inhaled
air. That is why the lime water in C turns milky earlier
than in A.
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Gaseous exchange is the diffusion of oxygen into the
blood and carbon dioxide out the blood across a gaseous
exchange surface. In humans the gaseous exchange
surfaces are the alveoli found in the lungs while the
gaseous exchange surfaces in fish are the gills. Gaseous
exchange surfaces have the following characteristics:
• Large surface area to maximise the exchange of
gases
• Moist surface because gases need to dissolve before
they can diffuse across a surface.
• Thin surface to minimise the distance of diffusion so
that there is faster diffusion
• Close association with a transport system to
transport the gases to and from the gaseous exchange
surface, thereby maintaining a constant diffusion
gradient for the gases
• Well-ventilated to maintain a constant diffusion
gradient.
Breathing in Humans
The following diagram illustrates the breathing system
(respiratory system) of a human being.
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The events associated with breathing in human beings
are summarised in the following table:
Inspiration Expiration
Diaphragm Contracts and Relaxes and moves
moves downwards upwards (becomes
(flattens) dome-shaped)
External Contract Relax
intercostal
muscles
Internal Relax Contract
intercostals
muscles
Ribcage Moves upwards Moves downwards
and outwards and inwards
Volume of Increases Decreases
lungs
Pressure in Decreases lower Increases higher
lungs than atmospheric than atmospheric
pressure pressure
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Air flow Into the lungs Out of the lungs
Breathing Rate
This refers to the number of breaths taken by an
individual per minute. The normal breathing rate of an
adult human being at rest is about 18. However, this can
be altered by factors such as sleeping, illness (e.g. fever),
emotional excitement and physical exercise. Sleeping
lowers the breathing rate, while the other factors
mentioned increase it.
Tidal Volume/Tidal Air
This is the volume of air breathed in or out in one breath
when resting. The tidal volume in humans is about 0.5
dm3 (500 cm3).
Vital Capacity
This is the maximum volume of air breathed out after
forced inspiration. The vital capacity in humans is about
3.5 dm3 (3500 cm3). The vital capacity can be measured
using an instrument called the spirometer. When using a
spirometer, a person must first completely fill the lungs
with air and then breathe out through a tube connected to
a spirometer as shown in the following diagram until no
more air can be exhaled. The vital capacity is equal to
the volume of water displaced
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Residual Volume
This is the volume of air that never comes out of the
lungs after forced expiration. It keeps the lungs from
collapsing. It has a value of about 1.5 dm3.
Exercise
The following diagram shows the pattern of breathing in
an animal over a period of nine (9) seconds.
5.0
3.5
3.0 A B
Lung Volumes /dm3
E F
1.5
C D
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (seconds)
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(b) What was the animal’s breathing rate after 3
seconds?
(c) What would happen to distance EF if the animal
undergoes a period of physical exercise?
Composition of inspired and expired air
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Effects of Smoking on the Respiratory System
Cigarette smoke contains three major toxic substances,
namely nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide. Tar is
responsible for causing respiratory diseases such as
bronchitis, emphysema and lung cancer.
Bronchitis: This is the inflammation of the air passages.
Tar immobilizes (stops movement of) the cilia, causing
mucus to accumulate in the air passages. This gives
chance to the germs in the mucus to infect the lining of
the air passages, causing coughing. The overall effect of
bronchitis is that it reduces the amount of oxygen
reaching the lungs.
Emphysema: This is the weakening and bursting of the
alveoli. When tar reaches the alveoli it weakens them
and irritates them. The irritation causes coughing which
makes the alveoli burst. Emphysema reduces the surface
area available for gaseous exchange.
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Lung Cancer: This is the uncontrolled or abnormal
division of cells in the lungs. Smoking increases the risk
of lung cancer because tar which is present in cigarette
smoke is a carcinogen (a cancer-causing agent)
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Gaseous exchange in plants
Gaseous exchange in plants occurs in the spongy layer of
the leaf. When photosynthesis is actively taking place
e.g. during day time), a plant leaf takes in carbon dioxide
and releases oxygen. Note that during such periods,
respiration also takes place. When respiration is the only
process taking place (e.g. at night), the plant leaf takes in
oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. The changes in
amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide used by the plant
at different times of the day may be illustrated as
follows:
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The following diagram illustrates gaseous exchange in
the leaf of a plant.
EXCRETION
This is the removal of toxic metabolic waste products from the bodies of living organisms. The products of
excretion are called excretory products while the organs used to remove them are called excretory organs.
The sources of the major excretory products in the human body and the organs used to remove them are
summarised in the following table.
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Bile pigments Liver Destruction of old red
blood cells
a) The Kidneys
The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped organs found in the lower abdomen. They are part of a system called the
excretory system or urinary system or renal system.
Structure of the Urinary System
Structure of a Kidney
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The dialysis machine also contains dialysis fluid
which is a solution of salts and glucose in water and
its concentration is equal to the normal
concentration of blood.
The patient’s blood is drawn from a vein on the
patient’s arm and taken into the dialysis machine
through a tube with the help of a pump. After
passing through the machine, blood is returned to a
different point on the same patient’s vein. The
dialysis fluid is introduced into the machine using
an inlet and removed using an outlet at a different
location. The flow of the dialysis fluid through the
machine is opposite to the flow of the patient’s
blood through the dialysis tubing. This is called
counter-current flow and helps make diffusion
faster by maintaining a constant diffusion gradient.
Normally, only urea, excess salts and excess water
diffuse from the patient’s blood into the dialysis
fluid. A patient needs to be on the machine at least
twice a week and each session lasts about 8 hours.
Exercise:
1. Does active transport take place in the dialysis
machine? Give reasons for your answer.
2. An anticoagulant called heparin is added to
the blood as it enters the machine during the
early stages of dialysis. Why is this important?
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Why is the addition of heparin discontinued
towards the end of a dialysis session?
Excretion in Plants
Plants excrete a wide range of metabolic waste
products. These are removed from plants through
different parts of the plant such as leaves, flowers,
the barks of stems and roots. The method of
excretion varies according to the nature of the
metabolic waste products. Examples plant
excretory products are discussed below:
• Alkaloids such as morphine (in opium plants),
quinine (in cinchona plants) and cocaine (in
cocoa plants). Alkaloids are nitrogen-
containing metabolic wastes in plants.
• Tannins which are reddish and are usually
deposited in the barks of trees e.g. Acacia and
red mangrove.
• Anthocyanins. These wastes are red and blue
in colour and are deposited in the petals and are
responsible for the red, blue and purple colours
of the petals. They are removed from the plant
when petals are shed off.
• Oils are deposited in fruits and seeds and are
got rid of when the fruit or seed is dispersed
from the plant. Sugar compounds in fruits also
are removed when the fruits fall off from the
plants.
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• Latex is a milk-like whitish liquid which is
excreted by plants such as Euphorbia and Ficus
elastica.
• Resins, gums and mucilages.
• Carbon dioxide produced during respiration
and released from the plant through the stomata
in the leaves.
• Oxygen produced during photosynthesis and
released from the plant through the stomata in
the leaves.
• Water may be released from pores on the
margins or tips of leaves in liquid form by a
process called guttation.
HOMEOSTASIS
This is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment. It involves the regulation of body
temperature (thermoregulation), regulation of the amount of water in body fluids (osmoregulation), regulation of
blood sugar and removal of toxic metabolic wastes (excretion).
Thermoregulation
This is the maintenance of a constant body temperature. The temperature of the human body must be kept around
37oC because that is the optimum temperature for its enzymes. If the temperature goes lower then 37oC, the
enzymes become less active and if the temperature is too high, the enzymes become denatured.
Body heat is normally generated by metabolic reactions in the liver and through shivering in the muscles. Body
heat may be lost through the following processes: expiration (heat is lost from the surfaces of the lungs), sweating,
conduction, radiation, excretion and egestion.
The regulation of body temperature is mainly carried out by the skin under the control of the hypothalamus,
which is found in the fore brain.
Structure of the Skin
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Mechanism of Thermoregulation by the Skin
In Cold Temperatures
The skin prevents loss of heat in the following ways:
• Erector muscles contract, pulling the hairs upright. The erect hair traps a layer of air which insulates
the skin against heat loss. The contraction of hair erector muscles leads to development of goose bumps
on the skin in cold weather.
• Vasoconstriction (narrowing of skin arterioles) occurs to reduce the amount of blood passing through
the skin. This reduces heat lost.
• Shunt vessels open, reducing the amount of blood passing through superficial vessels near the skin
surface. This reduces heat loss.
• Sweat glands become less active or inactive to minimise loss of heat which might occur through
sweating.
In Hot Temperatures
The skin promotes loss of heat in the following ways:
• Erector muscles relax, causing the hair to lie on the skin. This increases heat loss from the body by
conduction since no layer of still air forms
• Vasodilation (widening of skin arterioles) occurs, increasing the amount of blood passing through the
skin. This allows more heat to be lost from the blood by conduction.
• Shunt vessels close, allowing more blood to pass through superficial vessels near the skin surface. This
increases heat loss from the body.
• Sweat glands become more active and produce more sweat. The water in sweat absorbs heat from the
body in order to evaporate, thereby cooling the body.
When glucose levels are too high in blood, the pancreas secretes insulin which lowers the levels of glucose in the
following ways.
• It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert excess glucose to glycogen which is stored in the
liver and muscles. The body can only store about 400g of glycogen (about100g in the liver and 300g in
the muscles).
• It causes the cells of the adipose tissue to convert excess glucose to fats. The fats are stored under the
skin and around delicate body organs such as the heart, liver, kidneys, intestines and brain.
• It enables body cells to absorb and use glucose from the blood.
Lack or insufficient production of insulin leads to the disease called diabetes mellitus whose signs and symptoms
include the following:
• High levels of glucose in blood (hyperglycaemia)
• Glucose in urine (glucosuria)
• Persistent thirst leading to excessive intake of water
• Drastic loss of weight
• Loss of sensation in some body parts.
When glucose levels are too low in blood, the pancreas secretes glucagon which increases glucose levels in blood
in the following ways:
• It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert glycogen to glucose.
• It causes fat to be changed into glucose and may cause proteins to be modified so that they are utilised
for energy production.
(For more details, refer to notes on the pancreas under the endocrine system)
Growth in Plants
Plants undergo two types of growth, namely, primary
growth and secondary growth. Primary growth is the
increase in the length of the shoots and roots while
secondary growth is the increase in the width or girth
of shoots and roots. Primary growth enables the roots to
penetrate the ground and the shoots to grow towards
sunlight.
Plant growth involves three stages. These are cell
division, cell vacuolation (cell elongation) and cell
specialisation (cell differentiation) which may be
described as follows:
Cell division: The process by which new cells (daughter
cells) are formed from cells that are already existing
(parent cells). The type of cell division involved in
growth is called mitosis. This is a type of cell division
where one parent cell produces two daughter cells that
are genetically identical to the parent cell. Immediately
after cell division, all cells look alike. Regions of active
cell division are known as meristems, or meristematic
tissues. There are two types of meristematic tissues in
plants, namely apical meristems and cambial
meristems (or simply cambium). Apical meristems
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occur at the tips of shoots and roots and are responsible
for primary growth. There are two types of cambium,
namely, vascular cambium and cork cambium; both
are responsible for secondary growth.
Cell Elongation: This is a process by which cells grow
bigger and develop their vacuoles by absorbing a lot of
water. The greatest increase in length occurs in the
region of cell elongation during growth. After being
vacuolated all cells still look identical.
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Diagram Illustrating Regions of Growth at the Root
Apex
Germination
This is the process by which seedlings develop from
seed embryos. To fully understand germination, it is
important to first understand the structure of seeds in
monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants.
Structure of a Monocot Seed e.g. Maize Seed.
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Structure of a Dicot Seed e.g. Bean Seed
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The plumule and radicle together make up the embryo
of the seed. The region of the embryo next to the
plumule is called the epicotyl while the region next to
the radicle is called the hypocotyl.
Cotyledons: These store food and enzymes in non-
endospermic seeds, mainly dicot seeds. In most
monocot seeds, food is stored in another tissue known as
the endosperm. Seeds, which have the endosperm, are
called endospermic seeds while those without the
endosperm are called non-endospermic seeds. The
main forms of foods stored in seeds include starch, oils
and proteins.
In some monocot seeds such as maize, the plumule is
protected by a sheath called the coleoptile while the
radicle is protected by a sheath called the coleorrhiza.
These prevent damage during germination.
Types of Germination
There are two types of germination, namely epigeal and
hypogeal germination.
Epigeal Germination
This is a type of germination where the cotyledons are
pushed above the ground by elongation of the
hypocotyl. The plumule is covered by cotyledons and
comes out of the ground with a hooked shape in order to
protect the delicate shoot. The cotyledons also carry out
photosynthesis during the first few days before the
leaves develop fully. Examples of seeds that carry out
this type of germination are beans, sunflower, castor oil
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and groundnut seeds. This type of germination is
commonly associated with dicotyledonous seeds.
Diagram Illustrating Epigeal Germination
Hypogeal Germination
This is a type of germination where the cotyledons
remain underground, due to elongation of the epicotyl.
The plumule is covered with a sheath called the
coleoptile to protect it from abrasion as it pushes out of
the soil. Examples of seeds which undergo this type of
germination are monocotyledonous seeds such as maize,
sorghum and millet seeds.
Seed Dormancy
Seed dormancy is the state/condition during which a
seed carries out minimum metabolism and does not
germinate. Seed dormancy is important in the
following ways:
• It gives time for seeds to reach full maturity.
• It prevents the seed from germinating when
conditions are harsh. Hence it is a survival
mechanism
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Causes of Seed Dormancy
• Hard Testas: In some seeds, the testas are hard and
impermeable to water and oxygen, thereby
preventing germination of the seeds.
• Chemical Substances: Some seed embryos have
hormones, such as abscicic acid (ABA) which keep
them from germinating
• Physiological Conditions: Some plant seeds can
only germinate if first exposed to certain conditions
of the environment such as cold temperatures, light
or darkness.
Dormancy may be broken in the following ways:
• Scarification: This is the physical destruction of
hard testa so that a seed becomes permeable to water
and oxygen. It can be done manually or by the
action of digestive juices or gizzards of some
animals.
• Soaking Seeds in Water: This softens hard testas in
some seeds
• Fire: The resistant testas of some seeds are only
made permeable to water and oxygen through
burning them.
• Exposure to appropriate environmental
conditions such as light, darkness and cold
temperatures.
• Exposure to appropriate chemical substances
which reverse the effects of chemical inhibitors of
germination e.g. gibberellic acid is thought to
reverse the effects of ABA in some cereals.
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Seed Viability
Seed viability is the ability of a seed to germinate into a
seedling. It may be reduced by prolonged periods of
storage, high temperatures, physical damage, parasites
and pests.
Growth in Animals
1. Life cycle of a Mosquito
The mosquito undergoes complete metamorphosis.
This is a type of life cycle where the different stages of
the cycle have different body forms (morphologies) from
each other and different behaviours and nutritional
requirements. The stages of a mosquito life cycle are
egg, larva, pupa and adult (imago) as summarised in
the following diagram.
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Eggs are laid in water by female mosquitoes after
mating and they hatch into larvae (singular: larva).
Larvae can swim and they feed on phytoplankton
and zooplankton. They eventually develop into
pupae (singular: pupa) which are a less active stage
that continually undergoing internal changes. After
some time, the adult insect emerges out of the pupa
case (puparium). The adult flies and feeds mainly
on plant juices. However, when female mosquitoes
are carrying fertilized eggs, they develop a desire
for animal blood which they need for egg
development.
Because of blood sucking, the female Anopheles
mosquito is a vector for malaria in humans. A
vector is any organism that transmits parasites from
one host to another. Mosquitoes are said to be
biological vectors. A biological vector is one that
carries parasites inside its body systems and the
parasite undergoes part of its life cycle inside the
vector.
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Control of mosquitoes (in order to control malaria)
can be targeted against the different stages of the
life cycle in the following ways:
(i) Draining all stagnant pools of water to
eliminate eggs, larvae and pupae
(ii) Spraying stagnant water with insecticides
and/or oil. Insecticides such as DDT kill the
eggs, larvae and pupae directly. Oil blocks
the oxygen supply from the eggs, larvae and
pupae, thereby killing them.
(iii) Biological control (the use of one type of
organism called the control agent to get rid
of another – called the target organism –
which is a nuisance). The control agent must
be a natural enemy (predator or parasite) of
the target organism. Biological control may
also involve interfering with reproduction by
use of radiation or chemicals and the artificial
synthesis of chemical substances normally
produced by the target organism to be used in
traps. Examples of biological control against
mosquitoes include:
• Use of a bacterium called Bacillus
thuringiensis which infects and kills
mosquito larvae.
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• Use of insectivorous fish from the Genus
Gambusia that feeds on mosquito pupae
and larvae.
(iv) Use of insecticide – treated mosquito nets to
trap and kill adult mosquitoes
(v) Clearance of bushes and tall grass where
adults normally live before entering houses
(vi) Physical killing of adult mosquitoes
Importance of Houseflies
Houseflies are vectors for pathogens that cause
cholera, dysentery and typhoid among others. The
adult stage is able to fly. This makes it a very
efficient vector. A housefly is a mechanical
vector. A mechanical vector is a vector that carries
pathogens on the external surface of its body.
Control of Houseflies
Houseflies may be controlled using the following
methods;
• Sanitary disposal of refuse and faeces (this
reduces the breeding sites for houseflies)
• Spraying with insecticide (to kill adult flies)
• Use of fly traps e.t.c.
• Covering the ‘mouths’ of pit latrines.
RESPONSES
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A response is an action or process that occurs in an
organism due to the presence of a stimulus (plural –
stimuli). A stimulus is any substance or factor that
causes a response from an organism. Examples of
responses in living organisms are tropic responses
(tropisms) and taxic responses (taxism).
The following table compares tropic and taxic
responses:
Tropic response Taxic response
Occurs in plants Occurs in invertebrates
Involves growing either Involves moving either
towards or away from the towards or away from the
stimulus stimulus
Only part of the plant The entire organism
responds responds
Slower Faster
1. Tropic Responses
A tropic response or tropism is the response of a plant
part to a stimulus by either growing towards or away
from the stimulus. When a plant part grows towards a
stimulus, the response is called a positive tropic
response, but when a plant part grows away from a
stimulus, the response is called a negative tropic
response. The name of a tropic response depends on the
type of stimulus causing it.
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Examples of tropisms, corresponding stimuli and the
plant parts involved are given in the following table:
Tropism Stimulus Positively Negatively
Tropic Part Tropic Part
Geotropism Gravity Roots Shoots
Phototropism Light Shoots Roots
Hydrotropism Water Roots –––––
Chemotropism Chemicals Roots, –––––
pollen tube
Phototropism
This is the response of a plant part to light by growing
either towards or away from the light. Growth towards
light is called positive phototropism while growth away
from light is called negative phototropism. Generally,
plant shoots are positively phototropic while roots are
negatively phototropic.
Experiment to Investigate the Effect of Light on
Growth of Maize Coleoptiles
Materials:
Maize seedlings, cardboard box with a hole on one side
and two tins.
Method:
• Select seedlings with straight coleoptiles and place
them in two separate tins.
• Place one tin of seedlings in the box with a hole on
one side and put the box in the sunlight.
• Leave the other tin of seedlings in sunlight to act as
a control.
• Observe and record what happens after four days.
Observations:
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The coleoptiles placed in the box with a hole on one side
grow towards the source/direction of light; those placed
in sunlight continue growing straight upward as
illustrated by the following diagram:
Conclusion:
Plant shoots are positively phototropic
Significance of Phototropism
Positive phototropism in plant shoots ensures that the
leaves are exposed to sunlight in order for
photosynthesis to take place.
Geotropism
This is the response of a plant part to gravity by growing
either towards or away from the gravity. Growth towards
gravity is called positive geotropism while growth away
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from gravity is called negative geotropism. Generally,
plant roots are positively geotropic while shoots are
negatively geotropic.
Conclusion:
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Plant roots are positively geotropic while plant shoots
are negatively geotropic.
Significance of Geotropism:
Positive geotropism in the roots makes it possible for
roots to grow towards water and nutrients in the ground.
Hydrotropism
This is the response of a plant part to water by growing
either towards or away from the water. Growth towards
water is called positive hydrotropism while growth
away from water is called negative hydrotropism. Plant
roots are generally positively hydrotropic. This ensures
that the roots absorb the water the plant needs.
Conclusion:
Plant roots are positively hydrotropic
Chemotropism
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This is the response of a plant part to chemicals by
growing either towards or away from the chemicals.
Growth towards chemicals is called positive
chemotropism while growth away from chemicals is
called negative chemotropism. Plant parts grow
towards chemicals relevant to them e.g. the pollen tube
grows towards the ovary in response to chemicals
secreted in the ovary to bring about fertilization.
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Homework: Suggest what would happen if the tips of
the coleoptiles are covered with aluminium foil (which is
opaque) and the coleoptiles are exposed to unilateral
light.
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The Role of Auxins in Geotropism
When germinating bean seeds are placed on moist cotton
wool in a dark place, with their plumules and radicles
horizontal, the following observations are made after
several days:
• The plumules grow away from gravity
• The radicles grow towards gravity
Taxic Responses
A taxic response is a response of an invertebrate
animal to a stimulus by moving either towards or away
from the stimulus. Movement towards the stimulus is
called positive taxism (positive taxic response) while
movement away from the stimulus is called negative
taxism (negative taxic response). Examples of taxic
responses in invertebrates are:
• Woodlice are positively hydrotaxic and negatively
phototaxic
• Earthworms are positively hydrotaxic and
positively geotaxic
• Cockroaches are negatively phototaxic
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COORDINATION AND RESPONSE IN ANIMALS
Coordination is the process by which different organs and systems of he body work together efficiently.
There are two main systems of coordination in animals. These are the endocrine system and the nervous system.
Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is also called he master gland of the endocrine system. This is because it secretes hormones
that stimulate other endocrine glands to function. These hormones include the following:
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): This stimulates the thyroid gland to function
• Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH) ): This stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete hormones
• Intestinal Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) ): This stimulates the tests to function
• Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): This stimulates formation of follicles in the ovaries.
• Luteinising Hormone (LH): This causes ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum.
There are other hormones produced by the pituitary gland which are not involved in stimulating other endocrine
glands. These include:
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Also called vasopressin, this hormone stimulates re-absorption of water
from the renal tubule and loop of Henle in the kidneys when the body has little water e.g. when it is hot
or after sweating. Insufficient or lack of ADH leads to diabetes insipidus (a condition where an
individual passes out large volumes of dilute urine)
• Growth Hormone: This stimulates growth by stimulating synthesis of macromolecules such as proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids. Too much secretion of growth hormone leads to giantism/gigantism and
acromegaly. Gigantism or giantism is a condition where an individual is abnormally tall and huge.
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Acromegaly is enlargement of bones often accompanied by protrusion of the lower jaw. Little secretion
of growth hormone leads to dwarfism, a condition where an individual has physically stunted growth
and appears too small for their age.
• Oxytocin: This causes rhythmic contractions of the uterus wall during child birth and also stimulates
release of milk from mammary glands in the breasts.
• Prolactin: This stimulates milk production by the mammary glands in the breasts.
The Thyroid Gland
This is an H-shaped gland located in the neck near the larynx. It produces a hormone called thyroxine.
Thyroxine controls the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of the body, stimulates respiration of glucose and fats as well
as cotrolling the growth and differentiation of cells. The formation of thyroxine by the thyroid gland requires
iodine. Over production of thyroxine causes hyperactivity which is characterised by an increased metabolic and
heart rate, loss of body mass and extreme irritability. Under production of thyroxine causes myxoedema and
cretinism. Myxoedema is a condition where the basal metabolic rate and mental development are slow.
Cretinism is a condition where the physical, mental and sexual developments of a child are retarded. A person
who suffers from cretinism is called a cretin. Iodine deficiency causes swelling of the thyroid gland, a condition
known as goitre.
The Adrenal Glands
This is a pair of glands, each located just above each kidney. The cortex of the adrenal glands produces a
hormone called adrenaline. This hormone is called the “fight or flight hormone” and is produced when an
individual is angry, scared, emotionally excited or under stress. It prepares the body for action in the following
ways:
• It boosts the changing of glycogen to glucose, thereby increasing glucose levels in the blood to be used
for respiration
• It increases the breathing rate so that more oxygen is taken in to be used for energy production
• It increase the heart rate so that more blood containing glucose and oxygen can be carried to the muscles
• It diverts blood from the gut to the muscles by constricting the blood vessels of the gut and dilating the
blood vessels of the muscles.
• It dilates the pupils in the eyes for increased alertness
• It dilates the bronchi and increases the volume of the thorax so that more air containing oxygen may be
taken in
• It increases the sensitivity of the nervous system for faster response to stimuli
• It raises hair in furry animals and causes the appearance of ‘goose bumps’.
Pancreas
The pancreas has cells known as the Islets of Langerhans which produce hormones involved in blood sugar
regulation. These cells are of two types, namely alpha cells (α-cells) and beta cells (β-cells). Alpha cells secrete
a hormone called glucagon. Beta cells secrete a hormone called insulin.
When glucose levels are too high in blood, the pancreas produces insulin which lowers the levels of glucose in the
following ways.
• It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert excess glucose to glycogen which is stored in the
liver and muscles. The body can only store about 400g of glycogen (about100g in the liver and 300g in
the muscles).
• It causes the cells of the adipose tissue to convert excess glucose to fats. The fats are stored under the
skin and around delicate body organs such as the heart, liver, kidneys, intestines and brain.
• It enables body cells to absorb and use glucose from the blood.
Lack or insufficient production of insulin leads to the disease called diabetes mellitus whose signs and symptoms
are:
• High levels of glucose in blood
• Glucose in urine
• Persistent thirst leading to excessive intake of water
• Drastic loss of weight
• Loss of sensation in some body parts.
When glucose levels are too low in blood, the pancreas secretes glucagon which increases glucose levels in blood
in the following ways:
• It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert glycogen to glucose.
• It causes fat to be changed into glucose and may cause proteins to be modified so that they are utilised
for energy production.
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A negative feedback mechanism is a mechanism whereby changes in the internal environment are detected by a
monitor/detector which produces a hormone to return the condition to normal. In the regulation of blood sugar, the
pancreas plays the role of detector, as illustrated in the following diagram:
Neurones
The basic functional units of the nervous system are neurones or nerve cells. Types of neurones include sensory,
relay (connector, intermediate, multipolar, pyramidal) and motor neurones
Sensory Neurones
These are neurones that carry impulses from sense organs (receptors) to the central nervous system. A receptor is
any organ that detects a stimulus and converts information about it to electrical impulses. Characteristics of
sensory neurones include the following:
• They carry impulses from sense organs to the central nervous system.
• They have long dendrons and short axons.
• Their cell bodies are not terminally located but are axillary.
Diagram of Sensory Neurone
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Motor Neurones
These are neurones that carry impulses from the central nervous system to effectors. An effector is any part of the
body that carries out a response to a nervous impulse. Most effectors are glands or body organs such as muscles.
Motor neurones have the following characteristics:
• They carry impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors.
• They have long axons and short dendrites.
• Their cell bodies are terminally located (located at the end).
Diagram of a Motor Neurone
Relay Neurone
These are neurones that form a link between sensory neurones and motor neurones. They are located in the
central nervous system and are multipolar so as to provide many alternative paths for impulses.
Synapses
A synapse is a point where two neurones meet. The neurones at the synapse are not joined to each other but have
gaps between them called synaptic gaps (synaptic cleft).
The following passage describes how a nerve impulse moves across a synaptic gap:
1. An impulse arrives at the synapse
2. At the end plates, there are vesicles (tiny sacs) containing a chemical (neurotransmitter).
3. The vesicles fuse with the cell membrane (presynaptic membrane) and the chemical is released into the
synaptic gap.
4. The chemical diffuses across the gap and the impulse restarts at the other side.
Reflex Actions
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A reflex action is an automatic and stereotyped response to a stimulus. Reflex actions are often quick, but some
of them are slow. Examples of quick reflex actions include:
• Withdrawing of a hand from a hot object
• Jumping up after sitting on a pin
• Blinking when an object approaches the eye
• Knee-jerk reflex
• Shedding of tears when an object enters the eye.
An example of a slow reflex action is the pupil reflex (iris reflex). Each reflex action has a survival value which
protects an animal from dangerous factors. What is the survival value of each of the reflex actions stated above?
Other examples of reflex actions are sneezing, salivating, peristalsis, vasoconstriction and vasodilation
There are two types of reflex actions, namely spinal and cranial reflexes. During a spinal reflex impulses pass
through the spinal cord, whereas during a cranial reflex impulses pass through the brain.
Reflex Arc
The path travelled by a nerve impulse during a reflex action is called a reflex arc.
Conditioned Reflex
A conditioned reflex is a response that results from learning or training. The response given during a conditioned
reflex is not related to the stimulus but the animal associates it with a related stimulus after being trained to do so.
This may be illustrated by Pavlov’s experiment.
Pavlov’s Experiment
Pavlov observed that dogs always salivated when they saw, smelled or tasted food. For some days, Pavlov would
ring a bell each time before giving the dogs food. Eventually, the dogs started salivating at the sound of the bell
alone. In this case, the salivation of the dogs is an example of a conditioned reflex and the sound of the bell may
be referred to as a conditioned stimulus.
Conditioning is used in training of animals for different tasks. In humans, activities such as walking, responding
to a name, cycling and driving are examples of conditioned reflexes.
The Brain
The brain is the enlarged anterior end of the spinal cord. It is made of three regions which are:
(i) Fore brain (cerebrum, hypothalamus, pituitary gland and olfactory lobe)
(ii) Mid brain (optic lobe)
(iii) Hind brain (medulla oblongata and cerebellum)
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Functions of Brain Parts
Medulla Oblongata: This is located between the spinal cord and the brain and conducts nerve impulses between
these two parts. It controls automatic processes such as heart rate, breathing rate, vasodilation, vasoconstriction,
swallowing, salivating, sneezing and coughing.
Cerebellum: This controls co-ordinated movement, helps maintain posture and also controls the sequence of
activities involved in dancing, acrobatics and playing of musical instruments.
Hypothalamus: Sometimes regarded as the centre of homeostasis, this controls thirst, hunger and
thermoregulation.
Pituitary Gland: This belongs to both the central nervous system and the endocrine system. (Refer to notes on
the endocrine system for the hormones it secretes and their functions)
Cerebrum: This is the largest part of the brain and is the centre of intelligence, memory, language and
consciousness. It occupies three quarters of the brain and has both motor and sensory areas. The motor areas
control voluntary movement. The sensory areas interpret sensations and are linked by association areas. Injury to
the cerebrum lowers intelligence. Human beings have got the largest cerebrum of all animals. It is divided into
two halves which are known as cerebral hemispheres. The outer part (cerebral cortex) is folded and wrinkled to
give a very large surface area. The cortex is grey in colour because it contains cell bodies of neurones. The inner
part is white in colour because it is made up of axons of neurons.
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