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Rudder

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Rudder
The rudder is the most common form of
maneuvering device fitted in ships. Its action is
causing the ship to turn.

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Forces acting on rudder

The rudder arrangement
is also exposed to these
forces:
-Current forces created by
propeller and waves(DRAG)

-Gravity of components
and ship movement

-Side forces when

turning(LIFT)

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RUDDER
Rudder provides a vertical surface
located aft to provide directional
control

A ship must be controllable with respect

to direction in horizontal plane

To maintain certain heading or course.

To turn to port or starboard
To make some collision avoidance
manoeuvre

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The force F which acts on the rudder parallel

to the centerline has two components:

a) The force created by the formation of

streamlines round the rudder, i.e. due to
the change in direction of the water.

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The force F which acts on the rudder parallel

to the centerline has two components:

b) The suction on the after side of the

rudder caused by eddying.

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Forces acting on rudder

The force F (streamline force on rudder) follows the
laws of fluid friction and may be determined from
the expression.
F=k A v² (N)
Where k = a coefficient which depends upon the
shape of the rudder, the rudder angle and the
density of the water.
Average values of k for sea water vary between
about 570 and 610.

A = rudder area, m2
v = ship speed, m/s
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AREA OF RUDDER
• Not specified by Classification Societies

• Experience has shown that area should be related

to the area of the middle-line plane (i.e. length of
ship x draught)

• Values of 1/60 for fast ship and 1/70 for slow

ships have been found successful

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AREA OF RUDDER

For fast ship:

rudder area = (L x d)/60

For slow ship:

rudder area = (L x d)/70

where L = length of the ship

d = draught

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Speed – Length Ratio

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If the rudder is turned to an angle α,then the component of

force acting normal to the plane of the rudder Fn is given
by:
Fn = F sin α (since F = k A v²)
= k A v2 sin α

This force Fn acts at

the centre of effort

Fn
F

C OF SHIP α

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• For rectangular rudders the centre of

effort is between 20% and 38% of the
width of the rudder from the leading edge.

• The effect of the normal force Fn is to

tend to push the rudder back to its
centerline position. Such movement is
resisted by the rudder stock and the
steering gear

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If the centre of effort is b m from the centre of the rudder

stock, then at any angle α
Torque on stock, T = Fn x b
= k A v² b sinα (Nm)

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From the basic torsion equation the

diameter of the stock may be found for
any given allowable stress.

T/J = q/r
Where q = allowable stress in N/m²
r = radius of stock in m
J = second moment of area about
a polar axis in m4
= πd4 / 32
= πr4 / 2

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• For any rudder, at constant ship speed,

values of torque may be plotted on a base
of rudder angle.

TORQUE

RUDDER ANGLE
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Exercise Problem
A rudder has an area of 15 m2 with its center of
effort 0.9 m from the center of stock. The
maximum rudder angle is 35˚and it is designed
for a service speed of 15 knots. Calculate the
diameter of the rudder stock if the maximum
allowable stress in the stock is 55MN/m2 and the
rudder force parallel to the centerline of the ship
is given by :
F = 580Av2 [N with v in m/s]
(Ans: Diameter of rudder stock = 0.29 m)

Solution:
Ship speed, v = 15 knots x (1852/3600)
= 7.717 m/s
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F = 580 x 15 m2 x 7.717 m/s

= 518 060 N
Torque T = Fn b
= F sin α x b
= 518 060 N x 0.5736 x 0.9 m
= 267 440 Nm

T/J = q/r
J = Tr/q
Πr4/2 = Tr/q
r3 = Πq
= (2 x 267 440 Nm)/(3.142 x 55 x 106 N/m2
= 0.003 095 m3
r = 0.145 m

Diameter of rudder stock = 0.29 m Ans.

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Exercise Problem
A ship 150 m long and 8.5 m draught has a rudder
whose area is one sixtieth of the middle line
plane and diameter of stock 320 mm. Calculate
the maximum speed at which the vessel may
travel if the maximum allowable stress is 70
MN/m2, the center of stock is 0.9 m from the
center of effort and the maximum rudder angle is
35 deg.

Ans. V = 16.35 knots

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Exercise Problem
The daily fuel consumption of a ship at 17 knots is
42 tons. Calculate the speed of the ship if the
consumption is reduced to 28 tons per day, and
the specific consumption at the reduced speed is
18% more than 17 knots.

Ans. V = 14.06 knots

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NOTE : In the following questions the rudder force parallel to the

streamline should be taken as 580 Av² (N).

A ship, whose maximum speed is 18 knots, has a rudder of area 25 m².

The distance from the centre of stock to the centre of effort of the
rudder is 1.2 m and the maximum rudder angle 35º. If the maximum
allowable stress in the stock is 85 MN/m², calculate the diameter of the
stock.

GIVEN : Ship speed, v : 18 knots

Area, A : 25 m²
Distance of centre of effort from the centre of stock, b : 1.2 m
Max rudder angle, α : 35º
Max stress, q : 85 MN/m²

FIND : Diameter of the stock, D

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v = 18 x 1852 When 1 Knots = 1852 m/s

3600 3600
= 9.62 m/s

Torque, T = F sin α x b
= 580 Av² sin α x b
= 580 x 25 x (9.26)² x 0.5736 x 1.2
= 855,816 Nm

T = q
J r

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pr4
J= 2

pr4 x q
T =
2r

Tx2
r³ =
pxq

r3 = 855816 x 2
p x 85 x 10 x 106
= 0.1858 m

Diameter, D = 0.1858 x 2
= 0.3716 m
= 372 mm

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A ship 150m long and 8.5m draught has a rudder whose area
is one sixtieth of the middle-line plane and diameter of
stock 320mm. Calculate the maximum speed at which the
vessel may travel if maximum allowable stress is 70MN/m2,
the centre of stock 0.9m from the centre of effort and the
maximum rudder angle is 35 ˚

Rudder area = (LxD) / 60

= 150 m x 8.5 m / 60
=21.25 m2
Torque T = J q / r
= Πr4q/2r
= Πr3q/2
= Π/2 x (0.16 m)3 x 70 x 106 N/m2
= 0.4504 x 106 Nm

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Also, T = Fn x b
= kAv2b sin α

So:

0.4504 x 106 = 580 x 21.25 x v2 x 0.9 x sin 35 ˚

V2 =0.4504 x 106 / (580 x 21.25 x 0.9 x 0.5736)

V = 8.414 m/s

Ship speed V = 8.414 m/s x (3600 s/1 hr) x

(1na. mi/ 1852 m)

= 16.35 knots Ans.

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ANGLE OF HEEL DUE TO FORCE ON RUDDER

When the rudder is turned from its central position,
a transverse component of the normal rudder
force acts on the rudder.

Fn
Ft

Ft
F

C OF SHIP

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Let Fn = rudder force normal to the plane of the rudder

Ft = transverse rudder force
α = rudder angle

Then Ft = Fn cos α
= Fn sin α cos α
= k A v2 sin α cos α

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Heeling moment = Ft x NL cos θ

Righting moment = Δg x GZ
= Δg x GM sin θ if θ is small
Where: NL = distance from center of the rudder
to the center of lateral resistance
For equilibrium:
Righting moment = heeling moment
Δg x GM sin θ = Ft x NL cos θ
(sin θ/ cosθ) = (Ft x NL / Δg x GM )
tan θ = (Ft x NL / Δg x GM )

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Exercise Problem
A ship of 8000 ton displacement has a rudder of
area 18m2. the center of lateral resistance is 4m
above keel while the centroid of the rudder is
2.35m above the keel. The maximum rudder
angle is 35˚. Calculate the angle of heel due to
the force on the rudder if the latter is put hard
over to port when traveling at 21 knots with
metacentric height of 0.4m

Given F = 580 Av2 (N)

Ship speed v = 21(na. mi./hr) x (1hr/3600s) x
(1852m/1na. mi)
= 10.8 m/s
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Transverse force Ft =580 Av2 sin α cos α

= 580 x 18 x 10.802 x 0.5736x 0.8192
= 572200 N
tan θ = (Ft x NL / Δg x GM )
= [572200 x (4.0-2.35)]/(8000 x 103 x 9.81 x 0.4)
= 0.03007

Angle of heel = 1˚ 43’ to port

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ANGLE OF HEEL WHEN TURNING

• As the ship commences to turn a centrifugal force
acts in addition to the rudder force .The effect of
this force is to create a moment opposing the
rudder force.
• This force acts at the centre of gravity of the ship
and may be calculated from the formula:
Centrifugal force CF = Δv2/ρ (kN)
where v is the ship speed in m/s
ρ is the radius of the turning circle in m

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• A resistance R is again exerted by the water on the ship due to

the transverse moment, and has its maximum value when it is
equal to the centrifugal force . This resistance is known as the
centripetal force . A moment then acts on the ship causing it to
heel.

• The ship will be in equilibrium when the heeling moment is

equal to the righting moment .
Heeling moment = CF x LG cos θ
= Δv2/ρ x LG cos θ
Righting moment = Δg x GZ
= Δg x GM sin θ .if θ is small
so, Δg x GM sin θ = Δv2/ρ x ( LG/ Δg x GM )
(sin θ/cos θ) = (Δv2/ρ)/[LG/(Δg x GM)]
tan θ = v2LG /(g ρ x GM)

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Example. A ship with a metacentric height of 0.4m

has a speed of 21 knots. The center of gravity
is 6.2m above the keel while the center of
lateral resistance is 4m above the keel. The
rudder is put hard over to port and the vessel
turns in a circle 1100m radius. Calculate the
angle to which the ship will heel.
Ship speed v = 21(na. mi./hr) x (1hr/3600s) x
(1852m/1na. mi)
= 10.8 m/s
tan θ = (v2 x LG) /(g x ρ x GM)
= 10.82 x (6.2-4)/(9.81x 1100 x 0.4)
= 0.1189

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Angle of heel θ = 6˚ 47’ to starboard

Using the details from the previous

example, it may be seen that if θ1 is the
final angle of heel:
tan θ1 = 0.1189 – 0.03007
= 0.08883

Final angle of heel θ1 = 5˚ 5’ to starboard

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