Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1998 25/1-2

The Social Response of Buddhists

to the Modernization of Japan
The Contrasting Lives of Two Soto Zen Monks

Is h ik a w a Rikizan
石川力山

What was the response of Soto Buddhist priests to the social situation fac­
ing Japan at the beginning of the twentieth century ? What influence did
their religious background have on their responses to the modernization of
Japan ? This article examines the lives and thought of twoJapanese Soto
Buddhist priests-Takeda Hanshi and Uchiyama Gudd-both with the
same religious training and tradition, yet who chose diametrically opposite
responses. Takeda Hanshi supportedJapan’sforeign policies, especially in
Korea; Uchiyama opposedJapanese nationalism and militarism, and was
executedfor treason. What led them to such opposite responses, and what
conclusions can be drawn concerning the influence of religious traditions
on specific individual choices and activities ?

The meiji government, having put an end to the Tokugawa bakuhan

system through military force and thus bringing about the Meiji
Restoration, turned its efforts to catching up with the West. Among
the measures it took to modernize and strengthen Japanese society
were the establishment of a new system of education, the enactment
of a new law regulating family registration, and the preparation of an
entirely new legal system. It also reformed the industrial structure,
forced the adoption of capitalism, expanded the reach of the military,
and promoted the concept of a unified nation-state. At the same time
the Meiji government, in a move that to some degree ran counter to

* This essay,日本の近代化と仏教者の社会的対応一二人の曹洞禅僧の生き方を通して，was written

bv Ishikawa Rikizan for this soecial issue of the Japanese Journal of Religious studies shortly
before his untimely death in the summer of 1997. It was translated into English by Paul L.
Swanson. We would like to thank Kumamoto Em in 熊本英人 of the Institute for Soto Zen
Studies at Komazawa University for assisting us with proofreading the translation and check­
ing the readings of proper names in the absence of the author.
88 Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2 5 /1 -2

the ideal of modernization, succeeded in reviving the ancient politi­

cal system based on the unity of religion and state (祭政一致）and the
autocratic sovereignty of the emperor. The combined forces of these
initiatives resulted in，among- other things, the development of State
^hmto, the rise of ultranationalism, and the adoption of a policy of
colonization. Heading down the road to imperialism and nationalism,
Japan rushed into wars of aggression, another undeniable part of
Japan’s modernization.
The policy of the Meiji government with regard to religion began
to take shape with the promulgation of the Edict for Distineuishine
between Kami and Buddhas (Shinbutsu hanzen rei 神仏半U然令) on 28
March 18b8. The stormy and often violent movements to separate the
kami and the buddhas (shinbutsu bunri ネ申仏分離) and to reject and
destroy Buddhism in Japanese society (haibutsu kishaku 廃仏毀釈）that
followed had a strong social and economic impact on Buddhist orean-
izations that shook them to their foundations. Then came the Move­
ment to Promulgate the Great Teaching ( Taikyd senpu undo 大教旦
運動） ，w hich aimed to disseminate the Shinto teachings centered on
the emperor, and the establishment of the ^hmto-Buddhist Daikyo-in
大孝文院，the orean for teacnmg the Japanese people to respect the
kami and love their country (keishin aikoku 敬ネ申愛国)，to learn the
divine principles and way of humanity ( tenri jindo 天理人道），and to
learn to revere the emperor and obey the regime (kojo hotai chdshi jun-
shu 皇上奉截朝旨遵寸 J as proclaimed m the Three Standards of Instruc­
tion (Sanjo no kydsoku 三条ノ教則） . The Buddhist world was buffeted
and tossed about by the policies of the eovernment. The Daikyo-in
organization was abandoned in May of 1875，bringing an end to their
promulgations, but the damage was done. The Buddhist world had
experienced a sense of helplessness and defeat at the hands of a pow­
erful state authority, and for a lone time thereafter continued to be
mesmerized by the imperial system.
The academic study of Buddhism in post-Tokugawa Japan quickly
incorporated the textual studies and methods of Western Buddholosrv
and made great strides in developing modern Buddhist research. The
doctrinal and sectarian studies of the sectarian Buddhist organiza­
tions, however, continued to languish. During the fifteen years that
Japan was at war, the teachings of the sectarian Buddnist organizations
(sometimes called the “wartime doctrines” 戦時孝文学）were for the most
part developed under the principles of the modern emperor system,
best represented by an interpretation of the “two truths theory” (shin-
zoku nitai ron 真俗ニf帝論) which justified submission to the “imperial
law” as an expression of the “Buddhist law.” Some famous examples of
the pressure applied by the state are the prohibition of certain mandala
Is h ik a w a ：Social Response of Buddhists 89

and other symbols of the Nichiren school, the incident concerning

disrespectful remarks towards the emperor in N ichiren’s writings
( 日蓮遺文） ，and the revision and deletion of parts of the writings of the
founders in the canon of Jodo Sninshu. This was part of the larger
social movement for heightening respect for the emperor and coun­
try, and to instill into people the obligation to submit to and honor
the emperor, and in fact played a significant role in advancing this
eoal. Thus the Buddhist organizations of modern Japan offered a
Buddhism that was largely regulated by the ruling principles of the
modern imperial system, and came to have qualities that were quite
different from the features of the medieval or modern (Tokueawa)
Buddhist organizations. And, it should be noted，the academic Bud­
dhist scholars who established modern Buddhology on the basis of
textual studies in Japan during this time offered little or no comment
that would have resisted or opposed the development of this sort of
state-regulated Buddhist doctrine.

The Ideas and Actions of Two Zen Monks

As we have seen，the Buddhist world in Japan, for better or worse,

found itself thrown headlong into modern society. However, not all
Buddhists responded in the same way to the currents of the times, nor
was everyone swallowed up in the power structure of the state. One
can make no blithe generalizations or offer easy answers to questions
regarding the response of individual Buddhists in this situation. Lriven
the tensions and currents of Japanese society at this time, there were
not a few Buddhists who made difficult and aneuished choices. Their
positions and responses were varied and diverse. We should not forget
that there were some Zen monks whose reputation has been reversed
from their times to ours. There were people who were affiliated with
the Soto sect but who, rather than restraining themselves with the fet­
ters of the official Soto line, continued to make bold statements with
reeard to their contemporary social situation and acted sacrificially in
accordance with their ideals. I am thinking of the two Zen monks who
are the focus of my essay: Takeda Hanshi 武 田 範 之 (1864-1911) and
Uchiyama Gudo 内山愚童（ 1874-1911).
Before we examine tne lives and ideals of these two ngures, let me
say that as long as Buddhism is a religion offering salvation, one
assumes that certainly the hope for peace is a basic ideal and teaching
common to all Buddhist schools and traditions, and a goal sought by
people and society as a whole. This should be true especially for the
East Asian Buddhist tradition that extols the idea that “all sentient
beings without exception have the Buddha-nature， ，，and teaches that
90 Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2 5 /1 -2

one should “save others before achieving o n e ’s own salvation”

(自未得度先度他） . It is often argued that such Buddhist ideals should
leave no room for the justification of persecuting and harming others.
However, ir I may jum p ahead to my conclusions, the two Zen monks
taken up in this essay were faced, willingly or not, with a conundrum
within their social situation. By examining their respective responses,
we are faced with the realization that the “absolute pacifism” of Bud­
dhism is actually nothing more than an unverified ideal, even an illu­
sion. In other words, the ideals of Buddhism carried the potential,
and actually functioned, both as a justification for war and as a source
of yearning for peace. This point has already been made with great
force by Paul Demieville, in his postscript to G. Renondeau5s Histoire
des moines guerriers du Japon:
This study contains many remarks and information beyond
the topic of warrior monks, including a point I would like to
address here. Namely, is the militarization of Buddhism an
exclusively Japanese phenomenon, or are there other exam­
ples to be founa m the general history of Buddhism? Also,
how was this militarization explained in light of its apparent
deviation from a central doctrine and cardinal principle of
Buddhist teachings, namely, the precept against taking life?
What were the social, economic, and political motivations and
causes of this militarization as an historical event? How did
those who committed these offenses justify their actions?
(P. 347)

The Mahayana vinaya masters did not hesitate to make the fol­
lowing argument: “If sentient beings do not exist, then there is
no offense of killing. If there is no offense of killing, then
there is no such thing as upholding the precepts [that pro­
hibits it].... There is no offense in killing a heap of five aggre-
srates [that is essentially empty], for this is like killing an
illusory dream or an image reflected in the m irror.， ，
1It is strik­
ing that Mahayana Buddhism used such casuistry, and that
Buddhists justified aberrant warlike behavior on the basis of
this logic. Hinayana Buddhism views life as fu ll oj iniquity, yet
maintains a strict prohibition against taking life. In contrast,
Mahayana Buddhism claims to revere life, yet allows room in its logic
to excuse or even glorify the taking' of life. (pp. 352-53)
Later he writes specifically about the Zen tradition:

1 Translator’s note: From the Ta chih tu lun, T 25.164al9-23. See the French translation
in L amotte 1949, p. 864.
Is h ik a w a ：Social Response of Buddhists 91

Another sect that played an important role in the military his­

tory of Japan (just as its monks did in China) is the Zen sect.
Although the members of this sect did not personally partici­
pate in the fighting, they made major contributions to the
training of soldiers.... The particular methodfor training people in
the Zen sect—
— that is, the appeal to the direct response of instinct and
to naked action that flows from the depths of the unconscious~-fits
remarkably well with military discipline. Although judo and jujitsu
(the art of the “supple”）developed from Taoism (from which
Zen borrowed much), in Japan the military arts such as kyudd
(archery) and kendo (the way of the sword) are associated
with Zen and its specific methods. There is even a manual
compiled by a Zen monk to explain these arts in Buddhist
terms (the Fuddchi shinmyd roku 不動智神妙録，by Takuan). Dur­
ing the Second World War, at a theater in Paris under German
occupation, we were shown films about the Japanese military
attack on Pearl Harbor that showed scenes of military training
that clearly reflected the influence of Zen.
(emphasis added; D e m ie v il l e 1957，pp. 374-75)
1 hus Demieville points out the complicity of Buddhism and the Zen
tradition both doctrinally and Historically in war, the greatest possible
act of alienation and rejection. Certainly there is a strong conceit in
the discourse of Zen monks that the results or attainments of their
individual practice can be applied immediately and without any other
precondition to actual social conditions. This conceit is repeated
often in their assertions. Sawaki Kodo 澤木興道（ 1880-1965)， for exam­
ple, one of the most representative teachers of the m odern Soto
school, was a veteran of the Russo-Japanese war, honored for his
wounds on the battlefield. In his memoirs he writes:
(1903, immediately after my discharge from military service,
drafted again for service in the Russo-Japanese war.) When I
realized that I had to serve in the military again, I despaired of
my aspirations to cultivate the Buddhist path, and expressed
my feelings in a poem.
Thinking that, for the sake of the Dharma，
I would reduce my body to powder;
Instead I will become a demon
To protect my country.
(Sawaki 1984, p. 93)

"Advancing through a Rain of Bullets”

The thirty-seventh year of Meiji (1904). Along with the out­
break of the Russo-Japanese war, my outfit was incorporated as
the third platoon, second company, thirty-third regiment,
92 Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2 5 /1 -2

third division of foot soldiers of the second army. We landed

on the southern shores of the Liaotung Peninsula on 5 May.
Until we met the enemy I was unsure of my own courage, and
felt a strange emotion....
Once we started fighting, however, I felt that this was great.
When my rifle would not work anymore due to overheating
from continuous firing, I would shift my position and piss on it
to cool it off. Then I would shoot some more. If the rifle
would bend or break, I would exchange it with a good one
from a dead soldier. “Combat is easy, ， ’ I thought. “Until I came
here, nothing' I had experienced gave me such a feeling of freedom.
There is no place better than this. A t ordinary times, there’s
always some sort of trouble, such as uniform inspections and
so forth. But when you enter combat, there are no complica­
tions. You just do what you do in whatever position you like;
you don’t have to follow a set pattern.... It was in combat that I
first experienced the feeling of complete freedom.... I often
heard people say in admiration, “Who is that guy?” “Ah，he， sa
Zen monk.” “Now I understand. Leave it to the Zen monks;
they’ve got eruts.” I felt myself puff up with pride; it was a great
feeling....
I killed a belly full ofpeople in the Russo-Japanese war. There was
one battle in particular during which we lured the enemy tofall into a
pit and wepicked them off like sitting ducks with great efficiency.
(Sawaki 1984，pp. 96-100)

1 he memoirs continue in tms vein. Here is an example of how the

Buddhist ideal of “not taKing life” had no effect whatsoever on the cir­
cumstances of a Buddhist’s experience of “freedom” and satori. Ihere
are not a few Buddhists who, even today, claim that capital punish­
m ent and killing during war~which no one can deny are the “taking
of life”一 are exceptions to the rule against taking life. Again, in the
days before the Russo-Japanese war, the famous Sanskrit scholar Nanjo
B un， y ii 南条文雄 raised the rallying cry “To die is bliss; kill them all!”
(死 [ぬ]るは極楽ヤツツケロ）in one of his speeches. This statement was
severely criticized by Takagi Kenmyo 高木顕明（ 1864-1914)，a Shingon
priest from Shingu who was implicated in the Taigvaku [Treason]
Incident 入迎事件2 along with Uchiyama Gudo and sentenced to life

A rranslator’s note: The Taigyaku Incident of 1911 was sparked by an alleged conspiracy
to assasinate the emperor. The government used the alleged conspiracy as an opportunity
to arrest prom inent socialists such as Kotoku J>husui and “agitators” such as Uchiyama
Gudo, even though they had no direct involvement in the so-called conspiracy. Convicted
for the crime of treason, twelve people (including Kotoku and Uchiyama) were executed,
and twelve sentenced to life imprisonment.
Is h ik a w a ：Social Response of Buddhists 93

imprisonment. We must admit that even Nanjo, one or the founders

and pioneers of modern Buddhology in Japan, was not able to avoid
justifying the Russo-Japanese war as national policy.
Paul Demieville points out that the logic of justifying murder can
be found in Buddhism: “One can find other justifications for murder
in the Buddhist literature that are more subtle. It is above all a 'statisti­
cal5justification: that murder is permitted if many can be saved by
killing only one 一殺多生， ，（D e m i e v i l l e 1957，p. 379). This logic can be
founa in the statements and activities of people such as Inoue Nissho
井上 日 召 （ 1886-1967)，of the Nichiren school, and Yamamoto Genpo
山本 玄 峰 （ 1865-1961).3
W ith the above comments as background for our discussion of
these issues, let us now turn to a specific comparison of the lives of
Takeda Hanshi and Uchiyama Gudo. I have prepared a chart showing
the course of their two lives, along with another column that shows the
developments within the various Buddhist organizations during this
period, as well as major social and political events (see Appendix).
As we consider the lives of these two men, we can see that, although
Takeda Hanshi was ten years older than Uchiyama Gudo, they both
lived life to the fullest around the same time of the Meiji era, and
both passed away in 1911 before the Meiji era came to an end. The
two never met directly, and there was no occasion for them to be
aware of each other. They both chose to become monks in the same
Soto Zen sect after a period of spiritual wandering, and both spent
some time experiencing traditional and orthodox training at a Zen
monastery (sodo 僧堂）. From what can be gathered from memorials
written by their friends, they shared the frank openness of a Zen
monk. However, it is said that Takeda was considered for the honor of
being elevated to a peerage in his later years, while Uchiyama suffered
execution by hanging for his alleged involvement in the Taigyaku
Incident. Again, Takeda was versed in the Chinese classics and skilled
in the traditional Zen art of writing poetry, and a wholehearted sup­
porter of the emperor, while Uchiyama was swayed by Western ways of
thinking through publications such as Yorozu choho 萬草月幸艮 and the
Heimin shinbun 平民亲斤聞 that awakened a sense of his mission, and
embraced the goals of socialism and anarchism. As a result of their
respective ideals, they ended up on opposite extremes, most clearly
symbolized by their contrary attitudes toward the emperor. They
breathed the same air of the same era，took the same Zen as their
starting point, showed a similar interest in politics and international
relations, refused to let their Buddhist ideals remain as abstract theories,

3 N inth abbot of the Rinzai Ryutaku-ji monastery.

94 Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2 5 /1 -2

and tried to actualize their ideals in a concrete way in the society of

their day. Their final horizons, however, were inexplicably opposite
and inimicable. We must conclude that their respective ends were not
the necessary results of their Buddhist ideals, but were the summary
of their subjective attitudes that show how, as individuals, they
responded— in thought and in deed— to the problems with which
they were faced. In the remainder of this essay I will examine more
closely the lives of these two men, what problems they encountered,
and what choices they made.

The Life of Takeda Hanshi and Soto Missionary Activity in Korea

Takeda Hanshi (childhood name Hanji [半治 or IE治]，religious name

Kochu 洪疇，posthumous name Zenrai 善来）was born on 23 Novem­
ber 18b3，in the Kurume fief (present-day Fukuoka Prefecture), as the
third son of a retainer named Sawa Shihei 沢四兵衛. His father was a
devoted follower of the emperor, and was arrested for his involvement
in the so-called “Meiji 4 Incident” (Meishi jiken 明四事件） . Hanshi was
then adopted by the medical doctor Takeda Sadasuke, and studied
Japanese history and Chinese at a local private school (juku). How­
ever, he ran away from home at the aee of nineteen and wandered
from place to place, enjoyine a wealth of experiences. Finally, when
he was twenty-one years o ld ，he became a m onk under Nematsu
Gendo of the Soto temple Kensho-ji m Niigata.
Even after becoming a monk Hanshi was involved in political move­
ments, such as the movement for freedom and people’s rights {jtyu
minken undo)， went to Tokyo, spent time as a police officer in Fukushima,
and sometimes returned to a life of wandering, but for ms whole life
he always maintained contact with his home temple, Kensho-ji. In his
later years he became the official abbot of this temple, and also
became involved in Soto sectarian politics as a representative of the
Soto branch temples. In the meantime he also crossed the sea to
Pusan, where he started a fismng business and became involved with a
political association set up by a Japanese who had moved to Korea
after not beine able to make a livme in Japan, the so-called Chosen
ronin 朝角羊浪人. Thus his background as a Buddhist monk in the Soto
tradition and his deep connections with Korea became the basis for
H anshi， s later activities.
It would not do to eive a quick overview of Hanshi’s life without
examining his ideals and way of thinking. The brief summary of his
activities so far shows clearly that in the first half of his life— symbol­
ized by his involvement in the assassination or Min-bi 閔妃一 he showed
a strong interest in the Korean situation and interference in its internal
Is h ik a w a ：Social Response of Buddhists 95

affairs. In the second half of his life he showed a persistent concern

with the missionary activity of the Soto sect in Korea, including the
attempt to merge the Korean Won sect with Soto. In general, then, it
would not be off the mark to say that he was deeply involved in the
political and religious affairs of Korea. And if we compare his activities
with the historical events of the day, including missionary activity in
Korea and China by the Soto and other Japanese Buddhist sects, we
can see that Hanshi was closely involved with m odem Japan’s foreign
adventures, especially with regard to the Meiji government’s policy of
expansion into Korea and the mainland.
The Japanese advance into the mainland, especially its colonial
intentions, became apparent in 1873 (Meiji 6) with the split between
the political factions supporting the conquest of Korea (seikan-ha
征韓派）and that concerned with internal affairs (naichi-ha 内治派）.
Yoshida Shoin 吉田松陰，whose students were well represented among
the figures who brought about the Meiji Restoration, indicated these
intentions in his Gぬ 海 犬 是 帖 （ 1855):
Concerning the peace treaty concluded with Russia and the
United States, they have broken the peace before us; we
should not lose our taith because of the barbarians, but be
more strict in our conditions and strengthen our faith in the
face of adversity, nurture our national power, and cut off the
easy-to-take Korea, Manchuria, and China. In negotiating with
Russia and the United Mates we will srive up some territory but
be rewarded with Korea and Manchuria.
Ih e same point is made by Hashimoto Sanai 橋本左内，influential dur­
ing the Bakumatsu period with his aavocacv or opening the country
and politically merging the shogunate and the imperial family (kobu
奶 “似•公武合体）
，who wrote in his Taigaisaku 対 外 策 (1857):
Japan is in a position where it is difficult to be independent. In
order for us to be independent, we need the areas of Man­
churia and Korea. If we do not have territory like America or
India, we cannot do as we wish.
I believe we could say that this “vision” of Asian conquest and even
world conquest was common to the people who established the Mei]i
government, that is, the leaders such as Yoshida ^hoin who developed
their ideas during the Bakumatsu times. Saigo Takamori 西郷隆盛 is
often singled out as being in the vanguard of the movement advocat-
ine the invasion of Korea, but it was actually a common idea that
would have been put into practice sooner or later, and was an integral
part of the blueprints of the Meiji government.
O n the relieious front, the various Japanese Buddhist organizations
96 Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2 5 /1 -2

(including the Soto sect), hoping to recover the responsibilities

endangered by the early Meiji situation, all jum ped on the bandwagon
by starting missionary activity on the Asian continent. This was clearly
in line with, and supportive of, the Meiji government’s national policy;
in retrospect it appears almost as if the Buddhist organizations were
programmed by the Meiji government. Han Chol-hi 韓晳曦 captures
this situation accurately:
Backed by six warships, an unequal “friendship” treaty was
signed by Japan and Korea in February 1876 (Meiji 9) that
stipulated one-sided benefits for Japan alone, such as the
opening of Pusan and two other ports along with extraterrito­
riality, the dropping of all tariffs on Japanese goods, the right
to use Japanese currency, and extraterritoriality for Japanese
residents in Korea....
In this way Japan succeeded in forcing open the stubborn
Korean Peninsula, a feat that even the great powers of Europe
and the United States had not accomplished. In addition,
learning- from the example of the West in sending forth Christ­
ian missionaries to accompany overpowering colonial aggres­
sion, and using religion as its advance guard, Japan planned a
spiritual and cultural innltration to embrace the unregistered
masses, and used various political, economic, and diplomatic
intrigue to control the ruling classes.1 his was part of a plan to
carry out the policy of maKing Korea completely dependent
on Japan. (H an 1988, p . 13)

In addition, the various sects of Japanese Buddhism competed to get

the most powerful Korean Buddhist temples to be their “branch tem-
ples.” Hanshi decries this situation in his Treatise on the Six Truths of the
Won Sect (Enshu rokutairon 円宗六締論） ，but Han is not very sympathetic.
Takeda lamented the vulgar actions of Japanese priests who
showed no sympathy for the feelings of the Korean people and
scurried to plunder the Korean temples. However, he believed
that merging all of Korean Buddhism was the only way “to
bring back the glory of the Silla and Kosruryo eras，
，
’ and thus
sought to merge Korean Buddhism witnin the Soto sect. It was
Takeda who sought cooperation with the Isshmkai of Li Yong-
ku 李容九 and Song Kyum Joon 宋隶峻，and was the man who
worked in the background with Uchida Ryohei to promote the
“merging of Japan and Korea.” (Han 1988，p. 63)
In contrast to this perspective, Takizawa Makoto claims that
Hanshi chose a form of Asianism as a source of salvation. At
this time the position taken by Hanshi was to call for expelling
Is h ik a w a ：Social Response of Buddhists 97

the White Man and maintaining solidarity with the Asian peo­
ples. Ih is ideal was directly related to the way of thinking
inherited from his father and the pro-emperor stand of the
Kurume fief. And H anshi， s Asianism was also influenced by
the commune-like lifestyle he had experienced back in
Kurume. This was the structure that informed his fishing ven­
ture near Pusan, and his involvement in the Isshinkai.
Along with Buddhism, belief in the emperor system was the
backbone of Hanshi^ faith.... When H anshi^ father was
caught up in the whirlwind of political turmoil through the
pro-emperor Meiji 4 Incident, his family was mined; it would
not be surprising if Hanshi had turned against and rejected
emperor worship. In fact, however, through this experience of
the Meiji 4 Incident and the hardship it brought upon him,
Hanshi’s pro-emperor sentiment seemed to become even
stronger. (T a k iz a w a 1986，p. 276)
This perspective emphasizes Hanshi’s Asianism and the attempt to
expel the “White Man” as the basic principle behind H anshi， s actions.
Some suppose that respect for the emperor, which had deep roots
among the people in Kurume and was an attitude Hanshi had inherited
from his father, formed the background of Hanshi5s way of thinking.
However, the idea that the conquest of Korea was a necessary condi­
tion for Japan to dominate Manchuria was surely a common topic
among the intellectual followers oi the movement for freedom and
people’s rights with whom Hanshi was acquainted, such as Seki Tsune-
kichi 関常吉 of the Kan to Jiyuto (Freedom Party). People such as Itaga-
ki Taisuke were w ithout exception deeply comm itted to Ja p a n ’s
subjugation of Korea, as is evident from the promise he made with
Saigo Takamori concerning the conquest of Korea. Furthermore they
believed that Japan, having been forced by the great powers of the
West to sign an unequal treaty, whether right or wrong would have to
subjugate Korea in order to gain control over Manchuria. The ^>ino-
Japanese war was fought in order to eliminate the conditions negotiated
with China over Japan’s aggression in Korea. And the causes for the
Russo-Japanese war can be traced to Russia’s southern move into
Manchuria.
The actions taken by Takeda Hanshi with regard to Korea, as
reflected in his appointment by the Soto sect administration to the
role of superintendent of the Korean mission, were greatly welcomed
by that organization. It is well known that Christian missionaries were
dispatched as the vanguard for colonial policy by the ereat powers of
the West, to carry out acts of spiritual and cultural aggression. It is not
clear how m uch the strategy was consciously coordinated by the
98 Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2 5 /1 -2

respective organizations of the Meiji government and Japanese Bud­

dhism. However, we do know that in 1877， ju st a year after the signing
of the Japan-Korea “friendship” agreement ( 日朝修好条規[江華頭
条約])，Okubo Toshimichi 大 久 保 利 通 (Secretary of the Ministry of
Internal Affairs) and Terashima Munenori 寺島宗貝IJ (Secretary of the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs) sent a letter to Gennyo 歌ダロ (chief abbot
of Hongan-ji) encouraging the sect to send missionaries to Korea. It is
likely that similar contacts were made individually with each or the
other Buddhist sects as well, which adds up to a concerted advance
into Korea by a combined force or both the public and private sectors
in Japan. Hanshi, as a member of the Soto sect，already had a number
of encounters in Korea, albeit on a personal level, and his activities
w e re w e ll k n o w n by th e s e c ta r ia n h e a d q u a r te r s . His a D p o in t m e n t as a
representative of the Soto branch temples in 1902，as an official mis­
sionary of the Soto sect to Korea in 1904，and his later promotion to
the Soto sect council, indicate that the Soto organization approved of
H anshi， s activity.

The Life of Uchiyama Gudo and the Taigyaku Incident

Uchiyama Gudo, the second figure we will examine in tms essay, was
born on 17 May 1874 (Meiji 7) in the small town of Ojiya in Niieata
Prefecture. His father’s name was Uchiyama Naokichi, his mother’s
name was Kazu, and he was given the name Yoshikichi 慶吉. He was
the eldest of four brothers. He entered elementary school on 1 July
1880 and studied there for five years, until 188d. He graduated at the
top oi his class, and it is said that he was such an exceptional student
that he received a commendation from the governor, though no doc­
umented records remain of his graduation. Judging from his later
intellectual activities, however, from his absorption of Western ideas
after he became a socialist to his continuing academic work even
while in jail, we can well imagine that he showed intellectual promise
in his youth.
G udo5s father, JNaokichi，is said to have been a shrine carpenter,
who later learned the techniques for large-scale production of cookies
and cakes. Gudo was not allowed to advance in school beyond the ele­
mentary level, and instead helped his father and brothers in the fami­
ly business, and stayed at home until he grew to be an adult. In his
later years as a priest at Rinsen-ji he often carved Buddha images for
the temple parishioners, and also made inkstones and vase stands by
h a n d for socialist comrades such as K otoku ^ h u s u i 辛徳秋水 and
Morichika Unpei 森近運平. He seems to have been very skilled with his
Is h ik a w a ：Social Response of Buddhists 99

hands, no doubt a result of helping with his father’s work.

Naokichi passed away on 23 October of 1890 (Meiji 23)，and Gudo
took this occasion to act on his desire to pursue further studies. He
left home and wandered from place to place around the country. He
visited Tokyo when he was about twenty years old and it is said that he
lived for a while in the home of Inoue Enryo 井上円 了 （ 1858-1919)，a
distant relative of ms mother, though once again we have no concrete
evidence of this stay. Inoue Enryo was originally from a village near
Uchiyama’s home, and was a scholar and m onk who contributed
greatly to the modernization of Buddnism in Japan from Meiji to the
Taisho eras. He was also the founder of the Tetsueakudo, the forerun­
ner of Toyo University. He was an innovative Buddholoeist, and if in
fact Uchiyama spent some time staying in Inoue’s home, he would cer­
tainly have been greatly influenced by him. From the time Ucniyama
became a monk, there is no trace of any easy escapism from current
realities such as a fundamentalistic emphasis on “returning to the
founder,” but we can assume that his studies before he entered the
priesthood had a great influence on his later development. Uchi-
yama’s most representative work，Ordinary Self-Awakening (Heibon no
フ 平 凡 の 自 覚 ) ，shows the germination of the idea of the “self” of
“self-awakening， ，
，an idea that never really matured in modern Japan.
This idea must have come from somewhere (perhaps from Inoue
Enryo), and not just his fertile intellect.
Uchiyama took the tonsure as a Buddhist monk on 12 April 1897，
at the temple Hozo-ji in what is now Atsugi しlty in Kanaeawa Prefec­
ture, under the priest ^akatsume Kodo 坂詰孝里. He took the Buddhist
name Tenshitsu Gudo 天至,#、 童，and officially joined the ranks of the
Soto sect. The course of events that led to Gudo becoming a Zen
monk are completely unknown. Morinaga Eizaburo 森長英三良!^ specu­
lates that when Uchiyama left home he visited his uncle (on his moth­
er^ side) Aoyagi Kendo 青柳賢道，a priest of the nearby Seigen-in
清源院，who introduced him to Sakatsume Kodo. In any case, from
October of that year Uchiyama stayed in Kaizo-ji滩 蔵 寺 (in present-
day Odawara しlty) and devoted himself to Zen Buddhist practice
under the priest Sato Jitsuei 佐滕実央• It was not lone before he
entered the Soto sect Number 12 Middle School in September of
1898，and he graduated in February of 1899. From April 1899 until
February 1902 he served as a priest of the Kaizo-ji. He passed the
examination for certification as a preacher, and m the winter of 1900
was certified (risshoku 立職）under Wada Jusei 和田寿静 of Seigen-in.
On 10 October of 1901 he became the follower and Dharma successor
(嗣法）to Miyagi Jitsumyo 宮城実苗 of J6sen-ji 常泉寺. O n 7 July 1902 he
received the robe of transmission at the Soto head temple of Eihei-ji.
100 Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2 5 /1 -2

In this way Uchiyama finished all the rituals that a Soto monk can
fulfill in the short span of five years after his original taking of the ton-
sure, and completed the requirements for becoming a temple priest
{jushoku 住職） . This is an unusually short time, and though I have yet
to read anything that comments on this record，it may reflect Gudo5s
own ambitions. In fact, Uchiyama’s curriculum vitae lists a reprimand
from the Soto sect headquarters in January of 1904 as an “apology for
breaking regulations; certified before completing sufficient Dharma
seniority” （ 法臘未満立身ニ付、違規懺謝*) .
In any case, i^udo had fulniled all the reauirements for a ^>6to
priest, and when his teacher Jitsumyo passed away unexpectedly on 5
April 1903, he moved into the affiliated temple of Rinsen-ji 林泉寺 at
Ohira-dai m Hakone, officially becoming the chief priest there in Feb­
ruary of 1904. The period during which ^u d o was at Rinsen-ji coin­
cides with the Russo-Japanese war, and was a time when the people in
general suffered various hardships. There was no industry in Ohira-
dai, and the life of the villagers was one of extreme poverty. G ud6， s
experience with these conditions was undoubtedly a factor in his
embrace of socialism. Gudo also visited and observed other villages in
the surrounding area and prefecture. He witnessed firsthand the dis­
tressing plieht of the tenant farmers, and these experiences were
reflected in the contents of his secret publications that preached
socialism and anarchism. There is some question as to when exactly
Gudo began to advocate socialism, but in an article published in num­
ber 10 of the Heimin shinbun, Gudo wrote:
“How did I become a socialist?” by Uchiyama Gudo (Hakone).
I am a Buddhist preacher, and say “all sentient beings have
Buddha-nature,w“all dharmas are equal and none are higher
or lower，” and “all sentient beings are like my children.” These
are the golden rules that are the basis of our faith. I discovered
that these ideals match exactly with the maxims of socialism,
and so I became a believer in socialism.
It seems that Gudo was a conscious follower of socialism already from
the time he became chief priest at Rmsen-ji. This statement by Gudo
that the ideals of socialism and Buddhism are the same is reminiscent
of the ideas of Ambedkar，who broke with Gandhi and converted to
Buddhism in order to advocate the liberation of the untouchables in
India. Ambedkar struggled to choose between Buddnism and Marx­
ism as a theoretical basis for human liberation, and finally converted
to Buddhism. It must be admitted that the Buddhism chosen by
Ambedkar was that of “early” Buddhism 原始仏孝文，whose teachings are
often not the same as the Mahayana Buddhism of Japan. However,
Is h ik a w a ：Social Response of Buddhists 101

given that Buddhism often stops at an abstract idealism, we could say

that Gudo was creative and original in embracing socialism, and then
anarchism, as a means to actualize the ideals of Buddhism. There
were a number of Buddhists among those who were involved in the
Taigyaku Incident and were found guilty and sentenced to death: in
addition to Uchiyama Gudo of the Soto sect, Takagi Kenmyo of the
Jodo Shin sect, Otani branch (first sentenced to death and later par­
doned and given life imprisonment); Mineo Setsudo 山.尾節堂 of the
Rinzai sect, Myoshm-ji branch (also pardoned and given life imprison­
ment) ; and Sasaki Doeen 佐々木道兀 of the Jodo Shin sect, Honean-ji
branch (also life im prisonm ent). Except for lakagi, the others (such
as Mineo and Sasaki) did not make any theoretical identification
between socialism and Buddhism.
In this way, through the Heimin shinbun and through the introduc­
tions of the doctor Kato Tokijiro 加滕時次郎，Gudo came to know and
be in contact with fellow socialists such as Kotoku ^husui 幸徳秋水，
Sakai Toshihiko # 利彦，and Ishikawa Sanshiro 石川三四郎. His sympa­
thies quicklv shifted from socialism to anarchism.丄n June of 1908, on
the occasion of the “Akahata [Red Flag] Incident” 赤旗事件，which
involved government suppression of socialists and anarchists, Uchi­
yama decided to promote socialism through publications. He pur­
chased equipment and secretly set up a printing press under the
shumidan altar of Rinsen-ji. Here he also showed his skill in worKing
with his hands as he published one secret document after another.
The first secret document that Uchiyama published was entitled
Nyugoku kinen museifu kydsan 入獄g己念無政府共産（ Anarchic commu­
nism m commemoration of imprisonment), a pamphlet of sixteen
pages. He printed one thousand copies. The contents, as reflected in
the subtitle Kosakunin wa naze kurushiika 小作人ハナゼ苦シイカ（ Why do
tenant farmers sufreiY)，argue for a way tenant tarmers can be liberated
from the sufferine of their daily lives. He urged that “tenant farmers
not deliver rice and not pay taxes.” His arguments became more and
more radical, finally reaching the point where, in order to destroy the
roots of the people’s suffering, he advocated the refusal of military
conscription and the denial of the emperor system. The records of
the preliminary hearings on the laigyaku Incident call this publica­
tion “the most evil wnune since the beginning of Japanese history.” In
any case, Uchiyama sent a copy of this publication to sympathizers
around the country. The acquisition of this pamphlet by Miyashita
Takichi 宮下太吉，a worker in Aichi Prefecture, became the link for
Uchiyama being implicated in the Taievaku Incident.
There were three other publications printed secretly at Rinsen-ji: a
Japanese translation by Osugi Sakae 大杉栄 of H erv6， s (1871-1944)
102 Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2 5 /1 -2

essays published in the French anarchist journal L' Anarchie，a reprint

of an essay entitled “Advice to new soldiers” (Shinpei shokun ni atau
新兵諸君に与ふ），that had been published in the jo u rn a l Hikari 光
(number 28)，retitled “A motto for imperial soldiers to keep at their
side” ( Teikoku gunjin zayu no mei 帝国車人ノ坐石之銘）；and a Japanese
translation (by Oishi ^emosuke 大石誠/^助，w ith an introduction) of a
tract on Marxism and the denial of morality by a German anarchist.
The police began to follow Gudo from around the time he started
these secret publications. He briefly visited Eihei-ji m April 1909，and
also went to see mends in the Kansai area. He left to head home when
he heard that Rinsen-ji had been searched, and was arrested when he
eot off the train at Kozu 国府津 station. The criminal charges filed
against him were for violation of the laws regulating explosives and of
the law controlling publications. O n 5 November of that year he was
sentenced to seven years in prison by the Yokohama District court. It
was on 21 June in this year that Gudo was expelled by the Soto sect.
This, however, was not the end of the case. O n 25 May 1910，a con­
spiracy planned by Miyashita Takichi, Kanno Suga 菅野スガ，and oth­
ers, to assassinate the emperor was discovered; this was the so-called
laigyaku Incident. Kotoku Shusui was arrested on 1June. Since it was
determined that Miyashita’s decision to assassinate the emperor had
been greatly influenced by the above-mentioned publication by Uchi­
yama, and that his other secret publications were replete with radical
theories denying the legitimacy of the emperor system, Uchiyama was
charged again. A total of eleven people, including Uchiyama and
Kotoku Shusui, were given the death penalty. Gudo was executed at
丄 丄 on the morning of 24 January 1911.rie was only thirty-six years
and eight months old.
The trial on the Taievaku Incident beean on 1 December 1910，and
reached its decision quickly on 18 January of the followine year. Ih e
executions were carried out witnin a week. This “rush to judgement”
was described by the lawyer Imamura Rikisaburo 今ネナカ三良！ ^ as “a trial
like a runaway horse.，Following the lead of the elder statesman Yama-
gata Aritomo 山県有朋 and o th e rs , the government and court acted as
one in using this opportunity to eradicate the socialist movement,
wmch indicates that tms in turn was an unprecedented plot by the
state. In addition, the fact that the trial ended m executions without
hearing even one witness indicates that this was a frame-up of Kotoku
Shusui as the m ain conspirator, because of his great social and intel­
lectual influence. We can conclude that this was a national crime con­
trived by those in power to deal a single crushing blow to the socialist
movement.
The response of the Soto sect headquarters to this incident was to
Is h ik a w a ：Social Response of Buddhists 103

send a note to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and to the court stating
that Uchiyama had already been removed from the rolls of the Soto
sect, and apologizing for their negligence in controlling the situation.
There was absolutely no attempt to question the authorities or see to
the facts of the matter. O n 30 March 1911，the Soto sect headquarters
published “An Interpretation of a Blemish” (Kunkai ippan 訓誡一斑)，a
record of meetings sponsored by the sect concerning the Taisvaku
Incident on lb to 18 February, soon after Gudo5s execution. Over a
hundred of the leaders and teachers of the Soto sect, including the
presidents of the Soto schools, were gathered together at the sect
headquarters for talks on the incident. Invited speakers included
Shiba Junrokuro 其 if波浮ハ良!^，director of the Religions Department of
the Ministry of Internal Afrairs; Inoue \uichi井上友一，director of the
Department of Shrines; Inoue Tetsujiro 井上哲次良!^，professor of Tokyo
Imperial University; and Koyama Atsushi小山温，director of the Pris­
ons Department of the Ministry of Justice. It records that the head
priests of both Eihei-ji and Soji-ji were reprimanded. It goes on to say
that Japanese Buddnism is based on the idea or honoring the emperor
’ the country 尊皇護国，that Buddhism is inseparable
and “protecting，
from the imperial family, and that this has not only been true histori­
cally but is also to be taken for granted as natural and right from the
perspective of national polity. This offers a concise expression of the
basic stance of Meiji-era Buddnists.
As for the Taisrvaku Incident itself, the trial was carried out in a very
calculated manner in which it was assumed that anyone claiming to be
a socialist or anarchist was, ipso facto，guilty and thus subject to pun­
ishment for treason. The judgements were rendered as a form of pun­
ishment for a way of thinking. Most of the defendants were guilty of
nothing more than lese majesty. Uchiyama Gudo himself was certainly
falsely charged with treason. As for the other defendants, a claim for a
retrial with reeard to the Taigyaku Incident was filed in 19ol，but this
claim was rejected by the Supreme Court on 5 July 1967，thus closing
forever the road for the defendants to legally recover their honor.

The significance of Ucniyama Gudo

It is not my intention to reevaluate and idealize Uchiyama Gudo as an
eminent and virtuous monk beyond his accomplishments. Rather, I
wish to reexamine some important problems for modern Buddhism—
such as the relationship between Buddhism and the emperor sys­
tem— that cannot or should not be avoided. The thoughts and actions
of Uchiyama Gudo, in many ways just an ordinary Soto Zen monk,
serve as a good foil for such a reexamination.
104 Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2 5 /1 -2

The modernization of Buddhism in Japan started with a period of

hardship, beginning with the movement to separate Buddhism and
Shinto {shinbutsu bunri) and continuing with the establishment of the
Daikyo-in to officially promote Shinto. There were those in leadership
positions of the Buddhist sects or schools who made every effort to
respond to this crisis, but for the most part there was almost no one in
the official Buddhist organizations who raised questions about what
would be appropriate Buddhist responses to war and politics in such
a social situation, nor did they squarely face and debate the question
oi the social responsibility of Buddhism. The Taigyaku Incident con­
tained in a condensed form the various problems faced by Buddhism
in modern Japan. The figure of Uchiyama Gudo, in particular, plainly
reflects the most important issues.
The claims made by Uchiyama are, from a theoretical perspective,
still intellectually undeveloped. People often point out a certain im­
maturity in his thought. However, he revealed a sensitivity toward the
weak members of society, and his direct way of expression has a mov­
ing appeal. Take, for example, the letter “to a soldier’s mother” that
he sent to the journal Muga no ai (published on 21 February 1904):
On the train I seem to hear the voices of the soldiers，mothers.
“Yes, we are truly grateful. We are pleased to hear that we will
be of service, and that it is an honor, but this is surely a mixed
blessing. With my son gone, my daughter-in-law and grand­
children and I are helpless. If we are lucky and my son returns,
by that time we will have all starved to death. I don’t under­
stand the logic that dying is a sign of loyalty. Why is it that peo­
ple with strong children are the ones who must die?” When I
heard this I could not stop the tears from flowing down my
cheeks, and realized that all soldiers，mothers must feel the
same. (Kashiwagi 1986，p. 49)
Uchiyama5s pam phlet Nyugoku kinen can be summarized in three
points: denying the emperor (or admitting that the emperor is not
divine), the liberation of tenant farmers, and rejection of military
conscription. These points are developed in a clear and rational form
that was almost unique for his time. While admitting the practical
difficulty of actualizing these abstract ideals, I feel we have no grounds
to dismiss these points as “immature.” When we consider that this was
written in the midst of an era when fascism was already raising its
head, and when even the idea of the emperor as merely an organ of
government was denounced as unacceptable, the liberating ideas of
Uchiyama present many suggestions that provide a connection
between modern and contemporary Buddhism.
Is h ik a w a ：Social Response of Buddhists 105

Conclusion

O n 20 November 1992 the Soto sect published an official apology for

the organization’s ingratiation with the political powers before and
during the war, for “taking actions that harmed the pride and dignity
of people” in Asian countries, and for evading until this time any
recognition of responsibility for these events (Sotoshuho no. 688 [Jan.
1992]). Soon thereafter, in February of 1993，the Soto Sect Assembly
(Sotoshu shugikai) passed a resolution for restoring the honor of
Uchiyama Gudo, who had been expelled from the sect. The executive
committee acted on this resolution and, on 13 April, resolved that the
expulsion of Uchiyama Gudo, former head priest of Rinsen-ji, be
revoked. A letter to this effect was sent out on 6 May to the head of
the Kanagawa Prefecture Soto sect headquarters, all the temples in
the district, and to Gudo5s former temple Rinsen-ji {Sotoshuho no. 694
[July 1993]). This resolution and letter was in response to a request
for the restoration of G udo5s honor (restoration of his status as a
monk) submitted by the current head priest of Rinsen-ji. Through
this action the Soto sect gave recognition that their reprimand of
Uchiyama at the time of the Taigyaku Incident was a mistake and that
they had swallowed whole the oppressive policies of the government.
1 his action was reported extensively in the nationwide news in Japan,
with headlines such as “Honor Restored to Monk Executed for Tai­
gyaku Incident Eighty-three Years Ago” and uSoto Sect Reexamines
Reprimand” (Mainichi shinbun, 12 August 1993). The Kansai edition
of the same paper included a huge headline in its “society” section
reading “Honor Restored after Eighty-three Years.”
More than eighty years have passed since these events occurred,
and none of the people involved in this incident are still alive. The
legal appeal for a retrial to restore their honor has been rejected, and
there are no options left to legally remove the stain of being found
guilty of “treason.” However, in this day when Buddhists are faced with
how to deal with issues of “human rights” and “peace， ” and when reli­
gionists are questioning their social responsibilities and what it means
to have a modern sensibility, it is important to look back and see that
there were Buddhists and other religionists who, in the midst of a
whirlwind of oppression, came forward as Buddhists [or religionists]
and desperately tried to change society. At the same time，the fact that
each and every one of the Buddhist organizations responded to the
religious policies of the government by completely surrendering their
own autonomy and judgement, allowing themselves to be completely
manipulated, is a source of great regret that calls for deep reflection
and repentance.
106 Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2 5 /1 -2

How are we to understand and interpret today the ideas and

actions of Takeda Hanshi who, although his specific plans railed, sympa­
thized with the government policy of annexing Korea and attempted to
swallow up Korean Buddhism within the Soto sect，thus promoting,
even leading, this religious policy?
The horizons reached by Takeda and Uchiyama were so different as
to defy rationale. What were the causes for them to arrive at such
opposite positions? To discuss this in terms of the categories of inher­
ent good or evil is too easy and simplistic, and to fall back on talk of
“orthodox” or right Buddhism is merely to avoid responsibility. We
cannot rely just on the teachings of the Buddhist sutras or sayings
from the Zen tradition to provide an opening to solutions to contem­
porary problems such as human rights and discrimination, since，as
Demieville pointed out in his article and as the real-life examples of
Takeda and Uchiyama reveal, the same doctrinal and historical basis
can lead to diametrically opposed conclusions.
Uchiyama Gudo s actions led to arrest，imprisonment，and finally
to execution by hanging. In the meantime he suffered expulsion by
his chosen religious sect. Thus, in his time he suffered criticism,
blame, and censure from all sectors of society, including his own reli­
gious order. Nevertheless, reflecting the wider reevaluation of Uchi­
yama in recent years, the Soto sect has revoked G ud65s expulsion.
What should be heeded here is that, rather than making easy judge­
ments concerning individuals in terms of inherent goodness or evil,
we should look at the situation in which an individual finds himself or
herself. The environment and conditions that one meets throughout
one’s life are certainly different for each person, but I would like to
emphasize here the different conclusions reached through the subjec­
tive choices of these two figures who shared the common foundational
experience of the modern period and who reacted, each in his own
way, to the new winds of rationalism. We are also in a situation where
we are personally faced with choices with regard to current problems,
from welfare policies that abandon the weakest members of society, to
the corruption of the political world，to problems of our environ­
ment. In a sense we are in a similar situation to that of Uchiyama and
Takeda, and are reproducing their choices.

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108 Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2 5 /1 -2

1973b Meiji makki no shakaishugi undo 明治末期の社会主義運動. In

Kanagawa ken-shiy Kakuronhen 1，Seiji-gydsei 神奈川県史，各論編一，
政治•行政，Kanagawa: Kanagawa Prefectural Government.
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K a sh iw a g i R y u h o 柏木隆法
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Dan.
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1992 Nichikan koshoshi 日韓交渉史. Tokyo: Sairyusha.
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L a m o t t e , E tie n n e , trans.
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theque du Museon.
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o u n ShuD pan.

R e n o n d e a u , G.
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Is h ik a w a ：Social Response of Buddhists 109

T sunoda Fusako 角田房子

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 Appendix: Chronology o f the Lives o f Takeda Hanshi and Uchiyama Gudo, with Major H istorical Events

Takeda Hanshi (1864-1911) Uchiyama Gudo (1874-1911) Major H istorical Events; Soto Sect
and Other Buddhist Events
1864 Born on 2 January as the third son
1868 of Sawa Yukitaka 沢之高，a retainer of Third month. Government promul­
the Kurume domain gates the Edict for Distinguishing
between Kami and Buddhas; move­
ments to destroy the influence and
images of Buddhism spring up in vari­
ous locales
1869 Sixth month. Founding of the Tokyo
Shokon-sha 招 魂 社 (shrine to the war
dead; later Yasukuni Jinja)

JapaneseJournal of Reli^ous Studies 25 /1 12

1870 First month. Imperial proclamation
to “Promulgate the Great Teaching”
1871 (9) Father arrested for involvement (Daikyd senpu 大教宣布）
1872 lplan to overthrow Meiji gov’t Fourth month. Promulgation of the
“Three Standards of Instruction” (Sanjo
no kydsoku三条ノ教則）
1873 (11) Adopted into the family of February, mounding of the Daikyo-in
Takeda Sadasuke 武田貞祐，a medical 大教院；Eihei-ji publishes “Defense of
doctor the Three Standards” (Sanjo benge
三条弁解） ；October, resignation of the
“invade Korea” faction
1874 Born on 17 May as the eldest son of January. Itasraki Taisuke 板垣退助
Uchiyama Naokichi 内山直吉 in Ojiya organizes the Patriotic Party 愛国党
in Niigata Prefecture
 8
7
5
May. Disbanding of the Daikyo-m
8
7
9

(17) Enters the school (juku 塾、of November. Dogen given the post­

I
8
8
0
S

Ezaki Son’a n 江崎巽庵 After graduating from elementary humous title Joyo Daishi 承陽大師
8
8
1

(19) Rebelling against the plans of school, helps in the family business of
his foster father, he abandons home manufacturing cookie molds October. Itagaki founds Freedom
n
and wanders from Kumamoto to Party (Jiyu-to 自由党） ，becomes Prime
Osaka and Koriyama, finally stopping Minister 内
rt
to study at the juku of Kanbara Seiji ぐ
神原精ニ at Zojo-ji増 上寺in Tokyo o
1882
g
n
(20) Meets Yamaoka Tesshu
山岡鉄舟 at the juku, quits the juku to
W
travel to Mt. Hida and Mt. Akasri, reads
a
Buddhist texts at Hokai-ji 宝海寺 in a
Niigata
1883 (21) Enters the Buddhist priest­
1884 hood (出家）under Nematsu Gendo Change of government in Korea;
根松玄道of Kensh6-ji顕聖 寺in Niigata; Japan tries to remove Chinese influ­
everyone is surprised by his diligence ence from Korea but fails
in reading Buddhist texts
1885 (23) Hearing of the situation in The Soto sect determines its 'Sectar­
Korea, he visits Tokyo. He learns of ian rules”宗制
the Tenshin Treaty 天津条約，returns to April. Signing of the Tenshin Treaty
his temple, and then becomes a police 天津条約 by China and Japan calling for
officer in Fukushima Prefecture the withdrawal of both Chinese and
Japanese troops from Korea
1886 Daido Choan 大道長安 founds the
Kannon Guzekyo観音救世教
1888 (26) Enters the Kashiwazaki Soto Ouchi Seiran 大内青巒 founds the
I— i
sect branch school, joins the other Sonno Hobutsu Daidodan尊皇奉仏大同団 l— l
l— l
 students in forming an association of I—1
l— i
IsO
“those who skip lectures” (Fujuko
Domei 不受溝同盟） ；becomes an elder
(chdrd 長老')
1889 (27) Leaves Kensho-ji; wanders from Father, Naokichi, dies on 23 Octo­
1890 place to place ber; leaving the inheritance to his December. The Shushogi 修証表 pro­
1892 (30) Attempts a fishing business in younger brother, Uchiyama leaves claimed as the standard teachings for
Pusan but fails; begins relationship home and wanders from place to place Soto sect propagation
with the Japanese political association
Gen’ydsha 玄洋社(Black Ocean Society);
involved in obscure activities related to
the start of the war with Manchuria
1894 (32) Joins the military for the war
with Manchuria; becomes ill; remains August. Outbreak of war between
at Pusan and later returns to Japan and Japan and China
his home temple
1895 (33) October. Goes to Korea again;
April. Japan and China sign peace
I

f
is arrested for his involvement in the
assassination of the Korean queen Min- treaty
bi 閔妃暗殺事件；imprisoned in Hiroshi­ a
ma but later released
1896 (34) January. Acquitted in a prelimi­
nary hearing'
1897 (35) Gains the status of abbot (24) April, fakes the tonsure at 05
{jushoku 住職）（ ten k 転衣）from Soji-ji; Hozo-ji宝増寺 in Kanagawa，receiving Co
joins the staff of Torin-ji 東林寺；offers the name Tenshitsu Gudo 天室通童.
help to Japanese workers in Korea; Begins practice at Kaizo-ji 海蔵寺 in
Odawara.
N
oO
r
commemorates the third anniversary of \
1898 Min-bi， s (閔妃）death (25) September. Enters the Soto
 sect Number 12 middle school
(38) May. Head of Kensho-ji passes (第十二中学）
away, and appoints Takeda as his suc­ (27) October. Nominated abbot
cessor on his death bed; Takeda com­ 立職 at Seigen-in 清源院 in Aiko, Kana­
poses a revolutionary manifesto for gawa Prefecture
Sun W e n 孫文
(39) August. Begins official tenure (28) O ctober. Becomes follower and Muramatsu Ryokan 村松良寬 plans to
(晋山）at Kensho-ji; joins Uchida Dharma successor 酬法 to Miyagi Jitsu­ establish missionary center in Pusan
Ryohei^ 内田良平 Kokurytikai myo 宮城実苗at Hoju-in宝珠院
黒竜会（ Amur River Society)
(40) Becomes a representative of (29) July. Receives the robe of transmis­ mx hundredth anniversary of
the branch groups for the Soto sect sion at Eihei-jiス欠平寺 D6gen， s death; Doffen receives hon­
orary title Joyo 承陽 by imperial procla­
mation
(42) Appointed missionary/teacher (31) January. Writes article on “How January. The Soto sect provides
to Korea by the Soto sect; becomes I Became a Socialist” for Heimin shinbun srants for overseas missionaries; Matsu-
member of the Soto sect council 平民亲斤聞；begins to attend meetings at moto is officially appointed missionary
(宗会議員） Ito Sh6shin’s 伊藤証信Muga-en無我苑； to Korea; February, outbreak of Russo-
February, submits essay on “The Sol- Japanese war
(43) Writes the poem Ryojun kan- dier， s Mother” to the bulletin Muga no Yabe Kiyoshi矢部喜好，member of
raku shi旅順陥落詩 似•無我の愛；becomes abbot {jushoku the Japanese ^eventn-day Adventists
(44) Goes to Korea at the invitation 住職）of Rinsen-ji林泉寺 末世福音教会，pleads conscientious
of Uchida Ryohei objection to military service, is sen­
tenced to two months in prison, after
discharge from prison serves in the
medical corps; February, Ito H irobumi
伊藤博文 assumes office of commander
in Korea; September, end of Russo-
Japanese war
1907 January. Meets with Li Yong-ku December. Distribution of ^>oto Sect

114
李容九，chairman of the Isshin-kai Regulations for Missionary Activity in
一進会；becomes an advisor for this Korea (Sotoshu Kankoku kaikyd kitei
group, and later an official consultant 曹洞宗韓国開教規程）
to the headquarters of the Won sect 円宗
1908 (46) Goes to Korea. Appointed (35) begins to have inclinations Establishment of the Won Sect
supervisor of the Soto sect missionary toward anarchism; Kotoku Shusui Headquarters (円宗宗務院）as the organ
activity in Korea 幸徳秋水 visits Rinsen-ji; August, pur­ for unitying Korean Buddnism
chases printing press; October, secretly
publishes “Anarchic communism in
commemoration of imprisonment:
Why tenant farmers suffer” ；December,
secretly publishes a Japanese transla­
tion of a tract by a German anarcnist
1909 (36) Begins to be followed by the September. Keizan Jokin 瑩:山紹瑾

〗
apams6Journal of Religious Studies
authorities; arrested while returning to given the posthumous title Josai Daishi
Rinsen-ji from Eihei-ji; sentenced to 常済大師；October, Ito Hirobumi assassi­
twelve years imprisonment for violating nated; Korea forced to sign treaty call­
the law against unauthorized publica­ ing for “merger” of Japan and Korea
tions and explosives; sentence reduced
to seven years after appeal; October,
rearrested for involvment in the
Taigyaku Incident
1910 (48) Hanshi schemes with Li Hoi- (37) June. Expelled from the Soto August. Japan annexes Korea,
gang 李晦光，chairman of the Korean sect on the basis of the Soto Sect Disci­ begins colonial rule
Buddhist Research Association plinary Rules Sotoshu chdkai 曹洞宗懲
朝鮮仏教研究会，to negotiate with 戒 法 •
Ishikawa Sodo 石川素童, chief abbot of

25 /1 12
the Soto sect, to merge the Korean
 Won sect with the Japanese Soto sect.
Word of this plan leaks out and incites
opposition. Hanshi returns to Japan,
rests with his sister at a hot springs
resort in Andai, Nagano Prefecture.
1911 (49) Travels to Tokyo to receive January 18. Death penalty handed January. Morita Goyu 森田悟由，chief
medical treatment, but passes away on down to Kotoku Shusui and twenty- abbot of the Soto sect, and Ishikawa
23June four co-conspirators; twelve of these Sodo 石川素童，head priest of Soji-ji,
members pardoned with reduced sen­ send letter of apology to Minister of the
tence on 19 January; Kotoku, Uchiya­ Imperial Household; Soto teachers and
ma, and others executed on 24 the president of the Soto sect schools
January; Kanno 菅野 executed on 25 are gathered together to meet from 16
January to 18 February to discuss the Uchiyama
incident; the head priests of Eihei-ji
and Soji-ji are adm onished and repri­
m anded, and it is em phasized th at all
members are to respect the emperor
and honor the country, and that the
sect is inseparable and one body with
the emperor; Tanaka Chigaku 田中智学, a
Nichiren-school activist，advocates the
study of the ‘Japanese national polity.”