Submitted to:

Sir Ghulam Jaffer

ORBIT DESIGNING FOR

Submitted by:

Group 8:
INTERNET SATELLITE
Usman Khalid

NoumanNadeem
IN LEO
Hassaan bin Jalil

Arslan Ahmed This research paper contains a theoretical orbit design for
launching a satellite for internet communication in Low Earth Orbit
Arsalan Ahmedand proves LEO most suitable by comparing with MEO, GEO and
HEO
Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...........................................................................................................................3
Problem Statement......................................................................................................................................4
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................6
Earth Stations..........................................................................................................................................7
History of Internet Satellites....................................................................................................................8
Introduction to Orbits..............................................................................................................................8
LOW EARTH ORBITS:............................................................................................................................8
Medium Earth Orbit:............................................................................................................................9
Geostationary Orbit...........................................................................................................................10
Highly Elliptical Orbits........................................................................................................................11
VAN ALLEN RADAITION BELTS...........................................................................................................12
Applications..............................................................................................................................................14
Remote control and login......................................................................................................................14
Information dissemination and broadcast.............................................................................................14
Videoconferencing.................................................................................................................................15
Electronic mail.......................................................................................................................................15
Information retrieval (WWW, FTP)........................................................................................................15
Interactive gaming.................................................................................................................................16
PARAMETERS AFFECTING ORBITS OF SATELLITES.....................................................................17
Introduction:..........................................................................................................................................17
PAYLOAD:..............................................................................................................................................17
COST:.....................................................................................................................................................18
USABILITY/ EFFICIENCY:.........................................................................................................................18
PROPAGATION DELAY/ LATENCY:..........................................................................................................18
HANDOVER/ HAND-OFF:.......................................................................................................................19
SIZE OF ANTENNA:.................................................................................................................................19
MINIMUM ELEVATION ANGLE:..............................................................................................................20
NUMBER OF SATELLITES:.......................................................................................................................20
 COVERAGE:............................................................................................................................................21
INTERFERENCE:......................................................................................................................................21
TRADE OFF TABLE FOR INTERNET SATELLITE; COMPARING PARAMETERS IN ALL FOUR
ORBITS FOR THE MOST SUITABLE...................................................................................................22
Orbit Selection and Reason.......................................................................................................................26
Orbital Elements........................................................................................................................................27
CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................................................29
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, all thanks goes to Allah Almighty who provided

us the wisdom and strength to complete this research. We

would also like to acknowledge Sir Jaffer for his continual

support and help during this research. We would also like to

extend our appreciation to IST library to provide us with a

vast resource for information on our project.

 Problem Statement

 To design a satellite orbit to in order to facilitate a satellite used for

internet communication worldwide. This orbit must be, by

comparison, in the most cost effective and efficient orbit, choosing

from LEO, MEO, GEO and HEO.

 To calculate, at any one point, all the orbital elements of the designed

orbit for the given satellite.

 ABSTRACT
This research focuses on Satellite Internet. This is an under-rated, yet,

widely used technological method to provide internet to a large coverage of

the world. In this research we have gathered information about the cost,

efficiency and other important parameters in order to determine the most

suitable orbit in which we should place the satellite. From the analysis of

our gathered information we have concluded that for a satellite carrying the

payload of internet communication system should be deployed in(LEO)

Low Earth Orbit at an altitude of 1000km. this is safely below the Van Allen

radiation belt and also minimizes propagation delay.

 INTRODUCTION
A satellite is an object that orbits or revolves around another object. For example, the

Moon is a satellite of Earth, and Earth is a satellite of the Sun. In this document, we will

examine artificialsatellitesthat orbit Earth. They are highly specialized wireless

receiver/transmitters that are launched by a rocket and placed in orbit around the Earth.

There are hundreds of satellites currently in operation.

Satellites are very diverse in usage and structure. The first artificial satellite, called

Sputnik, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Its purpose was simply to transmit a

Morse code signal repeatedly. In contrast, modern satellites can receive and transmit

hundreds of signals at the same time, from simple digital data to complex television

programs. They are used for many purposes such as television broadcasting, amateur

radio communications, Internet communications, weather forecasting, Global

Positioning Systems (GPS) etc.

Satellite Internet access is internet access provided through satellites. The service can

be provided to users worldwide. Different types of satellite systems have a wider range

of different features and technical limitations which can greatly affect their usefulness

and performance in specific orbits

Satellite internet communication systems differ from terrestrial systems in that the

transmitter is not based on the ground but in the sky: the transmitter here consists of a

ground-based part called the uplink, and the satellite-based part that 'reflects' the

signals towards the receivers. This part is called the transponder.

The two most important elements of the internet satellites are the satellite itself and the

Earth station.

Earth Stations
The term Earth station refers to the collection of equipment that is needed to perform

communications via satellite: the antenna (often a dish) and the associated equipment

(receiver/decoder, transmitter etc.).

Earth stations include all devices and installations for satellite communications:

handheld devices for mobile satellite telephony, briefcase satellite phones, satellite TV

reception, as well as installations that are less familiar, e.g. VSAT stations and satellite

broadcast TV stations.

The other part of the Earth station is the application device which, in the case of

reception, translates radio signals into information that can be displayed on a TV screen

or processed by a computer. In the case of transmission, this device will transform

information into a signal that is suitable for transmission via the antenna, using

modulation, amplification and other processing techniques. In the case of VSAT- type

two-way systems both send and receive functions can be carried out at the same time.
History of Internet Satellites
The WINDS satellite was launched on February 23, 2008. It is equipped with a multi-

beam antenna that can obtain two-way communication with the ground at speeds of 1.2

Gigabit/s for businesses (with a 15 ft diameter antenna) and 155 Megabyte/s (with 4 ft

ground antenna).

On December 26, 2010, Eutelsat's KA-SAT was successfully launched by an ILS Proton

Breeze M vehicle at the BaïkonourCosmodrome Kazakhstan. The last satellite was due

in service in mid 2011. It covers the European continent with 80 spot beams—focused

signals that cover an area a few hundred kilometers across Europe and the

Mediterranean. Each of the spot beams will have an overall capacity of 900 Mbit/s and

the entire satellite will have a capacity of 70 Gbit/s

Introduction to Orbits
With advancement in space technology we are faced with new challenges for

deployment of satellite. The first and foremost priority is choosing an orbit. Generally a

choice four standard orbit is present. They can be classified as following:

LOW EARTH ORBITS:

A low Earth orbit (LEO) is an orbit within the locus extending from the Earth’s surface up

to an altitude of 2,000 km. Given the rapid orbital decay of objects below approximately

200 km, the commonly accepted definition for LEO is from160–2,000 km (100–1,240

miles) above the Earth's surface.

Although the Earth's pull due to gravity in LEO is not much less than on the surface of

the Earth, people and objects in orbit experience weightlessness due to the effects of

freefall.

SPACE DEBRIS
Space debris is a great concern in the LEO.The Joint Space Operations Center

currently tracks more than 8,500 objects larger than 10 cm in LEO

Medium Earth Orbit:

Medium Earth orbit (MEO), sometimes called intermediate circular orbit (ICO), is the

region of space around the Earth above low Earth orbit (altitude of 2,000 kilometers

(1,243 mi) and below geostationary orbit(altitude of 35,786 kilometers (22,236 mi).

The most common use for satellites in this region is for navigation, such as

the GPS (with an altitude of 20,200 kilometers (12,552 mi), Glonass (with an altitude of

19,100 kilometers (11,868 mi) and Galileo (with an altitude of 23,222 kilometers

(14,429 mi) constellations. Communications satellites that cover the North and South

Pole are also put in MEO.

The orbital periods of MEO satellites range from about 2 to 24 hours.Any satellite that

orbits the earth between about 1000-22,000 miles (1609.34- 35,405.57 km)

above earth is an MEO.

In 1962, the first communications satellite, Telstar, was launched. It was

a medium earth orbit satellite designed to help facilitate high-speed telephone signals.

A medium earth orbit satellite may have a variety of different orbits, including elliptical

ones and may provide better overall coverage of satellite communications, if enough of

them are in place and the orbit is swift.

Today the medium earth orbit satellite is most commonly used in navigation systems

round the world. These include Global Positioning System (GPS).

Geostationary Orbit
This orbit has an altitude of about 36000km and in this orbit the satellite remains

stationary when viewed from a point on the earth. The orbital period of this satellite is 24

hours. GEO orbit is used for many applications in satellite it is used for weather

monitoring, communications,space imagery. The main advantage of GEO orbit is that

as it stays on top of a single point on earth so the angle of elevation from all the points

within its coverage remains the same so we only need to adjust our radar in the

beginning.GEO orbits are particularly famous for their televisions satellite. That is why

now the internet and telephone communications are carried out by communications

satellites in the MEO or LEO. One more advantage of GEO orbit is that for

communications satellite in GEO orbit we do not need a constellation of satellite as one

satellite can cover one-third of the whole earth. The disadvantage of geostationary orbit

is that it cannot provide coverage to the Polar Regions. The eccentricity and inclination

of a GEO satellite is both zero as the plane of obit is parallel to the equatorial plane. The

orbital velocity of a geo stationary orbit is about 3.07km/s.

Highly Elliptical Orbits
A Highly Elliptical Orbit is an orbit of low perigee (about 1000 km) and a high apogee

over 35,786 km). These orbits have an inclination between 50 and 70 degrees. Highly

elliptical orbits are mainly perturbed by the Earth’s oblateness and by gravitational

attraction of the Sun and Moon. HEOs are popular orbits for Earth magnetosphere

measurements and astronomical observatories.

Such extremely elongated orbits have the advantage of long dwell times at a point in the

sky during the approach to, and descent from, apogee. Visibility near apogee can

exceed twelve hours of dwell at apogee with a much shorter and faster-moving perigee

phase. Bodies moving through the long apogee dwell can appear still in the sky to the

ground when the orbit is at the right inclination, where the angular velocity of the orbit in

the equatorial plane closely matches the rotation of the surface beneath. This makes

these elliptical orbits useful for communications satellites.

Examples of HEO orbits offering visibility over Earth's Polar Regions, which most

geosynchronous satellites lack are:

 Molniya orbits, named after the Molniya Soviet communication satellites which

used them.

 Tundra orbits, also developed for Soviet use, but only used by US Sirius Satellite

Radio.

Much of Russia is at high latitude, so geostationary orbit does not provide full coverage

of the region. These Soviet HEO orbits include polar coverage.

VAN ALLEN RADAITION BELTS
Discovered by James Van Allen, the Van Allen radiation belts is a torus of energetic

charged particles around the Earth. It is located in the inner region of the

Earth's magnetosphere. It is split into two distinct belts, with energetic electrons forming

the outer belt and a combination of protons and electrons forming the inner belts. The

radiation belts also contain alpha particles. . The belts pose a hazard to satellites, which

must protect their sensitive components with adequate shielding if their orbit spends

significant time in the radiation belts.

The Outer Radiation Belt:

The large outer radiation belt extends from an altitude of about three to ten Earth radii

(RE) or 13,000 to 60,000 kilometers above the Earth's surface. Its greatest intensity is

usually around 4–5 RE. The outer electron radiation belt is mostly produced by the

inward radial diffusion and local acceleration due to transfer of energy from whistler

mode plasma waves to radiation belt electrons.

Inner Radiation Belt:

The inner Van Allen Belt extends from an altitude of 100–10,000 km (0.01 to 1.5 Earth

radii) above the Earth's surface, and contains high concentrations of energetic protons

with energies exceeding 100 MeV and electrons in the range of hundreds of keV,

trapped by the strong (relative to the outer belts) magnetic fields in the region.
Why is this knowledge important?
Missions beyond low earth orbit leave the protection of the geomagnetic field, and

transit the Van Allen belts. Thus they may need to be shielded against exposure

to cosmic rays, Van Allen radiation, or solar flares.

Solar cells, integrated circuits, and sensors can be damaged by radiation. Geomagnetic

storms occasionally damage electronic components on spacecraft.

Miniaturization and digitization of electronics and logic circuits have made satellites

more vulnerable to radiation, as the total charge in these circuits is now small enough

so as to be comparable with the charge of incoming ions.

 Applications
Common Internet applications include Web browsing, file transfer protocol (FTP),

remote login (Telnet), video teleconferencing, e-mail, and broadcast. They all use IP

(Internet Protocol) as the transmission mechanism, so they can seamlessly run over

satellite networks. However, performance varies among applications because their

requirements on network bandwidth and responsiveness, their tolerance to

communication noise, and their implementation techniques are very different.

Remote control and login

Remote control and login are very delay sensitive. Typically a user expects

responsiveness on the order of tens of milliseconds during a remote login session.

Remote control may require even faster response, depending on applications. When

compared with the often congested and chaotic terrestrial Internet, system response

time over GEO satellites is somewhat slower but more stable. If a user can endure a

half-second to one-second delay, remote control and remote login applications can run

smoothly over satellites.

Information dissemination and broadcast

Satellite networks are better media to deliver bulk data, anywhere and anytime. Some

illustrative examples include maps and situation awareness data, stock market and
financial numbers, battlefield information, and medical data. Data broadcast, such as

webcasting, network news, and TV programs can be very expensive for point-to-point

networks, but is ideally suited to broadcast satellites. Therefore, GEO satellites are far

more suitable for these applications than is the traditional terrestrial network.

Videoconferencing

Videoconferencing and video distribution applications can usually tolerate a certain

amount of packet loss; thus they can be built on top of UDP (such as the MBone video

tool vic) Typically the protocol requires no bidirectional synchronous (handshake-style)

communication, hence latency is not a prohibitive issue. Compared with the terrestrial

Internet, GEO satellites can provide better quality in videoconferencing thanks to more

available bandwidth and simpler network topology.

Electronic mail

Traditionally electronic mail is not interactive. It does not require a great deal of

bandwidth and can tolerate reasonable delays (often in terms of minutes). It should

work fine over any network.

Information retrieval (WWW, FTP)

Many such applications require reliable data transmissions, hence they are usually built

on top of robust protocols like TCP. Because of the "acknowledge-and-retransmission"

scheme being used, these protocols are often sensitive to communication latency.

However, many of the information retrieval applications, especially the online interactive

ones, desire the fastest possible response. Their performance will depend on how TCP

is being used in the implementation, that is, how much information is being retrieved

and whether it can be retrieved as a single transfer or a number of smaller transfers.

This effect of TCP is of particular interest to our study and we will examine this issue in

more detail later.

Interactive gaming

Certain applications that require instantaneous reaction time, like highly reactive

network gaming, do not work over GEO satellites because of physical delay limitations.

Other types of interactive gaming, such as chess, would not suffer from the delay.
 PARAMETERS AFFECTING ORBITS OF
SATELLITES

Introduction:
A large number of different parameters affect the choice of an orbit. We will, due to

limited time, limit our research to a minimum ten parameters and compare how they

vary in the four orbits. This will allow us to determine the most suitable orbit for the

satellite in accordance to its payload of internet communication.

PAYLOAD:
The payload represents all equipment a satellite needs to do its job. This can include

antennas, cameras, radar and electronics. The payload is different for every

satellite.The transponder is the key component for satellite internet communications: it

is the part of the payload that takes the signals received from the transmitting Earth

station, filters and translates these signals and then redirects them to the transmitting

antenna on board.The main mission is carried out by the primary payload instruments,

the Imager and the Sounder. Other instruments on board the spacecraft are the ground-

based meteorological platform data collection and relay, and the space environment

monitor. The latter consists of a magnetometer, an X-ray sensor, a high

energy proton and alpha detector, and an energetic particles sensor, all used for in-situ

surveying of the near-earth space environment..

COST:
Calculation of costs is very difficult because of the large number of launch vehicles and

the fact that the launch costs per kg are different for different mass of the satellites.

Cost of launch varies greatly by the total mass of the satellite so in case of lower mass a

different rocket would be preferred and if the mass is large thenheavy launch vehicles

will be used. Approximate cost for each satellite is given in tradeoff table.

USABILITY/ EFFICIENCY:
Usability of a satellite is its efficiency in the given orbit. We will be discussing about the

usability of internet satellite in different orbits. For an internet communications satellite

all the orbits are viable it depends on our needs and funds that which orbits we choose.

More information is given in tradeoff table.

PROPAGATION DELAY/ LATENCY:

Latency is the delay between requesting data and the receipt of a response.

Propagation delay/ latency vary greatly with change in orbits from LEO to MEO to GEO

to HEO. The latency increases from LEO i.e. LEO has the least latency which is most

desirable; MEO has a higher latency; GEO and HEO have greater latency in

accordance to their altitude.

HANDOVER/ HAND-OFF:
In satellite communications it is the process of transferring satellite control responsibility

from one earth station to another without loss or interruption of service.

Also, due to the movement of the satellites relative to the users, a sophisticated hand-

off system is necessary to periodically move the user from one satellite that is

disappearing over the horizon to another satellite that is still visible. On the ground, a

sophisticated antenna which can track moving satellites and switch between satellites

on-the-fly may be required, which would likely make the customer premise equipment

prohibitively expensive for consumers. Satellitetelephone systems solved this problem

by using a unidirectional antenna which is sufficient forlow power phone service

(although the subsequent inability of the phone to work indoors or even in the shadow of

tall buildings may have been a large contributor to the failure of the businesses) but this

type of unidirectional antenna would be unlikely to work for Internet systems operating

at high data rates.

SIZE OF ANTENNA:
Internet satellites carry, as part of their payload, antennas that receive the original signal

from the transmitting Earth station and re-transmit this signal to the receive stations on

Earth. The antennas that were used in the past to do this were omni-directional

(transmitting signals in every direction) and not very effective. They were replaced by

more efficient high-gain antennas (most often dish shaped) pointing quite precisely

towards the areas they were servicing. To allow for flexibility in services or areas

covered, later developments allowed the re-pointing of the so-called steerable antenna

to cover a different area or to reshape or reformat the beam.

Antennas vary in size to match the particular service for which they are designed. For

example, a 70 cm antenna may be sufficient for direct reception of satellite TV programs

in the home, but would not be suitable for, for example, transmitting television

programs.

MINIMUM ELEVATION ANGLE:

Elevation angle is the angle from the horizontal to the point on the center of the main

beam of the antenna when the antenna is pointed directly at the satellite.

Minimum elevation is the elevation needed at least to communicate with the satellite. It

must be greater than 0o.„

If the angle is too small then signals may be obstructed by nearby objects if the antenna

is not very high. For those antennas that have an unobstructed view there are still

problems with small angles of elevation. The reason is that signals have to travel

through more of the Earth's atmosphere and are subjected to higher levels of

attenuation as a result. An angle of five degrees is generally accepted as the minimum

angle for satisfactory operation.

NUMBER OF SATELLITES:

The number of satellites depends on the period of the satellite orbit and its coverage. It

is important mainly as it is an additive to the cost of the mission.

COVERAGE:
It is the solid angle which defines the total area of the earth’s surface which is covered

by satellite. In case of internet communication satellites, coverage is basically all the

number of points between which internet communications can be established.

INTERFERENCE:
In communications and electronics, especially in telecommunications, interference is

anything which alters, modifies, or disrupts a signal as it travels along

a channel between a source and a receiver. The term typically refers to the addition of

unwanted signals to a useful signal. Interference can be of many different types: e.g.

digital, spike, Cross Polarization, TDMA, FM TV, Inter - modulation, Unknown.

The level of interference that will be experienced depends upon the frequency of

operation, the antenna beamwidth, the receiver bandwidth, the acceptable signal to
noise ratio, and the level of solar activity at the time .

Sources of Interference

Others
23%
Human Error
30%

Customer Cooperation
8%

Adjacent Satellite Equipment Error

17% 22%

TRADE OFF TABLE FOR INTERNET

SATELLITE; COMPARING
PARAMETERS IN ALL FOUR ORBITS
FOR THE MOST SUITABLE
Parameter Low Earth Medium Geostation Highly
affecting Orbit Earth Orbit ary Earth Elliptical
orbit Orbit Orbit
Cost Low launch cost High Launch High satellite medium
per satellite, but cost per satellite
cost and high launch cost
large no. of but smaller no. launch cost of as elliptical
satellites. of satellites. satellite due to orbit can be
On average On average the greater altitude. achieved by
launch cost in launch cost in Bulk costs to changing
LEO is 5,435$ MEO is 14,837$ geosynchronou velocity at
per Kg per Kg s orbit are point of
currently about concern
$20,000/kg
Propagatio The current LEO At 8,068 km the Communication HEO apogee
constellations of propagation s experience can be up to
n delay/ Globalstar and delay is about high latency. It 40,000 km,
Latency Iridium satellites 125ms. This will takes a radio giving a delay
have delays less be observed in signal about of 310ms
than 40ms for O3b which is 250 (ms). excluding all
total round-trip constellation of Factoring all external
time (RTT). 5 satellites in the normal factors.
At 1,000 km the MEO delays from Perigee is not
latency can be network considered as
as low as 7ms. sources gives satellite over
This is expected about 1,000– the desired
from 1,400 ms area during
COMMStellation™, latency for the apogee.
scheduled for total round-trip
launch in 2015 time (RTT).
Handover/ Very frequent Hand-over is not Handover is Handover is
handover is needed for not required very
Handoff necessary due many between infrequent.
to fast orbiting connections due satellites, and Quite
satellites. to slower rarely required Significant
10 minutes for moving between spot Doppler’s
satellite, 2 satellites, but beams. effect
minutes for spot still may be Very small
beam. required. 90 Doppler’s effect
Very High minutes for
Doppler’s effect satellites, 15
minutes for spot
beams. High
Doppler’s effect
Antenna Antennas used Special fix antenna Larger size of
on LEO satellite antennas for positions, no antenna is
 systems must small footprints adjusting required due
radiate families needed necessary to maximum
of beams to distance of
provide apogee from
coverage. This the earth
has led to station.
deployment of
multi beam
arrays in some
configurations
and
constellations.
Minimal High minimum High minimum Bad elevations Highest
angles are angles are in areas with minimum
Elevation achievable, up toachievable, up latitude above angles can be
40o (Teledesic). to 20o (ICO) 60° due to fixed achieved in
Hence lower Hence lower position above HEO
probability of probability of the equator.
shadowing and shadowing and
higher link higher link
availability. availability.
No. of Large number of Less no. of 3 satellites can Set of 17
satellites satellites provide satellites to
Satellites required for needed than worldwide provide
global constant LEO as coverage worldwide
coverage. coverage is coverage
Iridium has 66 more.
and O3B will have a
Globalstarhas 48 5 satellite
satellites. constellation
Payload(Besi Smaller payload Payload Added payload Highest pay
des the as there is minimized as of Emergency load of larger
equipment minimum there is a Position- antennas,
already equipment smaller Indicating grater
discussed) required for a constellation of Radio amplifiers and
satellite mission satellites Beacon (EPIR backup
close to earth. B) and equipment as
Added payload Emergency it is furthest
of Locator fromthe
communications Transmitter ground
between the (ELT) station and
large no. of receivers. signals will
satellites. receive most
attenuation
Coverage Low coverage Typically larger High coverage High
for one satellite. footprint area with large coverage of
 Global coverage because of their footprint (up to land parts of
is achievable different orbital 34% of earth the earth with
with a patterns, and surface). single
constellation of because they Global satellite,
satellites. are higher than coverage can making use of
LEOs. be achieved the westward
Global coverage with only 3 regression
is achievable satellites.
with a
constellation of
satellites
INTERFER In LEO there is In MEO When the sun In HEO large
low interference interference is is behind the amount of
ENCE as it is not moderate. Main satellitesit interference is
affected by Van sources are emits diverse present as
Allen radiation cosmic rays and radio signals. It signals have
belt. The main Van Allen is difficult to to cross Van
sources are the radiation. pick out the Allen
other satellites, desired satellite radiation
as this orbit signal. belts. And
contains high no. attenuation is
of satellites. high due to
greater
distance.

Usability/Eff The satellites Larger Cost effective Least efficient

have maximum coverage, less because only due to very
iciency efficiencyas no. of satellites one satellite large delay,
there is required. But required. No high cost of
minimum delay. there is greater need for launch. And
But coverage is delay. constant larger no. of
less also, so we tracking. But satellites
have to use a there is large required than
large number of delay. GEO
satellites.
 Orbit Selection and Reason

After observing the comparison between LEO, MEO, GEO and HEO in the trade-off

table, concerning the 10 parameters defined above, we can conclude regarding the

selection of the orbit that LEO is most suitable for the mission in accordance to the

internet satellite communication payload.

While LEO is more costly in regard to the high number of satellites required for the

constellation, necessary for internet communication, it has the least latency. Due to this
attribute customer attraction will be greater and hence enough revenue will be

generated in order to compensate this cost and earn high profits.

Inference is also low as compared to the other orbits andefficiency is Maximum. Highest

minimum elevation angle can be achieved this will increase the efficiency of

communication and also diminish problems in tracking and handover of satellites. The

least amount of load is required for LEO partly because it is at very low altitude and

partly because the large no. of satellites compensates this requirement. Basically

besides the cost of launch, LEO is the most ideal orbit for our mission requirement.
 Orbital Elements

ORBITAL ELEMENTS DESCRIPTION

1. Semi-Major Axis (orbital radius) (a) Here taken as 7378 km
2. Eccentricity (e) Value of eccentricity is taken as 0 (zero)
3. Inclination (i) Angle between the equatorial plane and orbital
plane is taken as 86.4
4. Right ascension of the ascending node Rate of change of this angle is given by
(Ω) -7.59175593528136 x 10-8/day
5. Argument of perigee () Rate of change of this angle is given by
-5.9261317101094 x 10-7/day
This angle changes continuously. At the time
6. True anomaly (ν) in question the true anomaly is
0.80194244903319rad
 There are a total of 66 satellites

 They will be deployed in 6 orbital planes.

 Each orbital plane will be at an angle of 86.4  from the previous orbital plane.

 The first obit will have an inclination of 86.4 .

 This will provide constant global coverage.

 The satellite mass would approximately be 300kg, including the payload

equipment and structure.

 CONCLUSION
After observing the above the information we can conclude that the most viable orbit for

internet satellite is Low Earth Orbit. This is a valid conclusion as we have considered all

the parameters which affect the selection of the orbit. GEO was another possible orbit

for internet satellite but due to high latency this was not financially viable as users would

not opt for this.

We believe, after analyzing our research, that LEO would generate the highest revenue

and hence will be most acceptable for this project.

Satellite broadband connectivity has never been considered seriously, as long as it did

not allow for interactivity. However, nowadays satellites can provide interactivity via

either the satellite return channel or by using a hybrid solution with narrow-band return

path via a telephone line. With Internet via satellite, every user with the correct

equipment and living within the satellite footprint can now have a broadband connection.

Satellite has the capability to reach everywhere, thus effectively removing local loop

difficulties, especially in areas with poorly developed infrastructure.