Coagulation/flocculation process and sludge conditioning

in beverage industrial wastewater treatment

O.S. Amuda a,∗ , I.A. Amoo b
a Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria
b Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria

Received 19 May 2006; received in revised form 20 July 2006; accepted 24 July 2006
Available online 27 July 2006

Abstract
Attempts were made in this study to examine the effectiveness of coagulation and flocculation process using ferric chloride and polyelectrolyte
(non-ionic polyacrylamide) for the treatment of beverage industrial wastewater. Removal of organic matter (expressed as chemical oxygen demand,
COD), total phosphorus (TP) and total suspended solid (TSS) using ferric chloride and organic polyelectrolyte during coagulation/flocculation
process were investigated. Also, the optimum conditions for coagulation/flocculation process, such as coagulant dosage, polyelectrolyte dosage,
and pH of solution were investigated using jar-test experiment. The effect of different dosages of polyelectrolyte in combination with coagulant
was also studied. The results revealed that in the range of pH tested, the optimal operating pH was 9. Percentage removals of 73, 95 and 97 for
COD, TP and TSS, respectively, were achieved by the addition of 300 mg/L FeCl3 ·6H2 O, whereas 91, 99 and 97% removal of COD, TP and
TSS, respectively, were achieved with the addition of 25 mg/L polyelectrolyte to 100 mg/L ferric chloride. The volume of sludge produced, when
ferric chloride was used solely, was higher compared to the use of combination of polyelectrolyte and FeCl3 ·6H2 0. The combined use of coagulant
and polyelectrolyte resulted in the production of sludge volume with reduction of 60% of the amount produced, when coagulant was solely used
for the treatment. It can be concluded from this study that coagulation/flocculation may be a useful pre-treatment process for beverage industrial
wastewater prior to biological treatment.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Coagulation; Polyelectrolyte; Optimal conditions; Sludge volume; Beverage wastewater

1. Introduction Coagulation/flocculation is a commonly used process in

water and wastewater treatment in which compounds such as
Coagulation/flocculation process may be used as a pre- ferric chloride and/or polymer are added to wastewater in order
treatment prior to biological treatment in order to enhance to destabilize the colloidal materials and cause the small parti-
biodegradability of the wastewater during the biological treat- cles to agglomerate into larger settleable flocs. Several studies
ment [1]. have reported the examination of this process for the treatment
Some of the raw materials (e.g. orange, grape, guava, sugar, of industrial wastewater, especially with respect to performance
phosphates) that are used for production of the beverages may optimization of coagulant/flocculant, determination of experi-
enhance the organic load of the wastewater. An essential fea- mental conditions, assessment of pH and investigation of floc-
ture of wastewater flocculation is the elimination of suspended culant addition [3,4].
solids (SS) and as much of the organic materials as possible [2]. Although several studies have been conducted into the
To remove SS and organics, a floc forming chemical is needed treatment of municipal wastewater through granular activated
which can be separated from water by floatation, settling, or carbons during which COD and some volatile organic com-
adsorption. pounds, such as chloroform benzene and carbon tetrachlo-
ride were adsorbed to the carbon surface [5,6]. The use of
adsorbents [7,8], Fenton’s reagent [9], wet oxidation [10],
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +234 8034402907. coagulation–electrooxidation [11], advanced oxidation with bio-
E-mail address: [email protected] (O.S. Amuda). logical oxidation [12] and coagulation/flocculation process have

0304-3894/$ – see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.07.044
been found to be cost effective, easy to operate and energy sav- 2.2. Experimental
ing treatment alternatives [1,13]. Coagulant dosages vary in a
wide range aiming at maximum removal efficiency of pollutants 1. 100, 300, 500, 750, or 1000 mg FeCl3 ·6H2 O was added to 1 L
using minimum doses at optimum pH [14,15]. wastewater sample. After rapid mixing for 2 min at 200 rpm
FeCl3 ·6H2 O is a widely used coagulant. It has been used for and slow mixing for 30 min at 60 rpm, the liquid was clar-
the treatment of wastewater of industries that are concerned with ified for 1 h, then, the supernatant was withdrawn from a
the production of potato chips [16], soap/detergent [17] and cork point located about 2 cm below the top of the liquid level of
processing [18]. the beaker to determine the COD, TP and TSS by using stan-
The objectives of this study were to simulate coagu- dard methods [19] so that the effect of coagulant dose could
lation/flocculation process efficiency for beverage industrial be studied. The raw and treated samples were repeatedly ana-
wastewater treatment plant with respect to removal of COD, lyzed in order to validate/evaluate the produced results and
TP and TSS using ferric chloride and non-ionic polyacrylamide the analytical errors were less than ±5%. All chemicals used
and also to investigate optimum coagulant dosages, optimum for the analytical determinations were of analytical grade.
coagulation pH and effect of polyelectrolyte addition on the 2. The pH value of 1 L wastewater sample was adjusted to pH
coagulation process. in the range of 7–11, respectively, by using 1.0 M H2 SO4 or
1.0 M NaOH, after the addition of 300 mg/L FeCl3 ·6H2 O to
2. Materials and methods the sample. After stirring and clarifying as described in (1)
above, the supernatant was withdrawn to determine the COD,
Samples of the wastewater were collected three times weekly TP and TSS, so that the effect of pH on coagulation could be
for 9 months between 9.00 a.m. and 3.00 p.m. of each sam- studied.
pling day from pipe conveying all the wastewater out of Fum- 3. Pre-determined optimum value of FeCl3 ·6H2 O (300 mg/L)
man Agricultural Products Factory that produces juice drink was added to the wastewater sample. After rapid mixing for
from orange, grape, and guava, etc. Each time a sample was 2 min at 200 rpm, the pH was adjusted to the pre-determined
collected, the rate of flow was determined with the aid of a value by using 1.0 M H2 SO4 or 1.0 M NaOH. Different con-
flow-meter. Samples were collected every hour between 9.00 centrations (5, 25, 45, 65, 85, or 100 mg/L) of polyelectrolyte
a.m. and 3.00 p.m. to make six samples at the end of each were added and the liquid was mixed slowly for 30 min at
day of sampling; a composite sample was generated by adding 60 rpm, the supernatant was withdrawn as earlier described to
together volumes of samples proportional to their rates of flow. determine the optimum polyelectrolyte that enhances coag-
The estimated annual outputs of the factory at the time of sam- ulation. The pH was again measured after the optimal poly-
pling were 7.73 × 108 kg (773,000 t). The average volume of electrolyte dose had been determined. After the withdrawal of
wastewaters generated daily from the factory was 3.20 × 104 L. supernatant, the volume of wet sludge produced was deter-
The composition of the beverage wastewater is as shown in mined from the sludge level on the bottom of the jar-test
Table 1. beakers.

2.1. Sample analyses 3. Results and discussion

Each time a sample was collected, the temperature, pH and 3.1. Effects of coagulant dose on coagulation
dissolved oxygen (D.O.) were determined at the spot of sampling
with a good grade Celsius thermometer (Zeal, England), portable The results of the effects of different dosages of ferric chloride
pH meter and portable D.O. meter (model 9071 D.O2 meter, as sole coagulant on the removal of COD, TP and TSS from the
Phillips, England), respectively. wastewater are as presented in Fig. 1. The tests were conducted
at the pre-determined optimum pH of 9.
It is clear from the results that COD, TP and TSS removals
Table 1 increased substantially as the dosage of ferric chloride increases.
Characteristics of beverage industry wastewater
It was observed that removal of TSS increased linearly up to
Parameter No. of Mean Minimum Maximum 300 mg/L. However, TSS increased in a diminishing fashion
samples with increasing doses of ferric chloride above 300 mg/L. This
pH 80 7.24 7.02 7.66 may be as a result of re-suspension of solids at this concentra-
TSS (mg/L) 40 1620 367 2940 tion [16]. Furthermore, the high concentrations (>300 mg/L) of
Conductivity (␮S cm−1 ) 40 2995 1460 3740 the coagulant confer positive charges on the particle surface (a
Alkalinity (mg CaCO3 /L) 40 371 270 465
positive zeta potential), thus re-dispersing the particles [20]. For
COD (mg/L) 40 1750 620 3470
BOD5 (mg/L) 40 894 728 1745 COD and TP, the removal efficiencies increased rapidly up to
Total phosphorus (mg P/L) 40 89.5 62.4 100.2 73 and 97%, respectively, with the use of 300 mg/L dose of fer-
Orthophosphate (mg P/L) 40 41.2 25.5 70.6 ric chloride, whereas between 300 and 500 mg/L the removal of
Nitrate–nitrogen (mg N/L) 40 28.4 8.3 62.5 COD and TP increased slowly. Addition of the coagulant above
Total iron (mg Fe2+ + Fe3+ /L) 40 2.4 1.2 4.5
500 mg/L caused the removal efficiency to appear constant. At
BOD5 : Biochemical oxygen demand at 5 days. this point it is important to note that optimum dose of ferric
 Fig. 3. The effect of polyelectrolyte dose on the removal of COD, TP and TSS
Fig. 1. The effect of coagulant doses on the removal of COD, TP and TSS from from the wastewater.
the wastewater.
coagulant, when discharged into surface water, interferes with
chloride that enhanced maximum removal of COD, TP and TSS fish survival and growth [22].
was 300 mg/L.
3.3. Effects of polyelectrolyte dose on the removal of the
3.2. Effects of pH on coagulation contaminants

A treatment set-up comprising of only ferric chloride at Polyelectrolytes act as coagulant aids in the treatment of
300 mg/L was selected to examine the effect of different pH water and wastewater; they may also be used as primary coagu-
of solution on the removal of COD, TP and TSS in the wastew- lant for the same purpose [1,23,24]. Many polyelectrolytes are
ater. These effects are shown in Fig. 2. It was observed that advantageous over chemical coagulants because they are safer
optimum pH value of 9 enhanced substantial removal of the con- to handle and are easily biodegraded [24,25]. The percentage
taminants. Increasing the pH above 9 markedly deteriorated the removal of COD, TP and TSS as functions of different doses of
quality of the wastewater. In the pH range of 7–9, contaminants polyelectrolyte is as shown in Fig. 3. The dose of polyelectrolyte
level decreased as pH increases. was varied from 0 to 100 mg/L. The removal of COD, TP and
Coagulation pH as a factor that influences coagulation is TSS increased with increasing dose of polyelectrolyte.
important because addition of metallic cation (in this case Fe3+ )
automatically lowers pH, which may cause further reduction in 3.4. Effects of polyelectrolyte on coagulation process
the removal of the contaminants. The need to employ higher
dose of coagulant may pose health hazard as a result of residual Several studies had reported the use of combination of poly-
quantities of excess chemical additives [21]. The excess residual electrolyte (as a coagulant aid) and chemical coagulant in the
treatment of abattoir wastewater [1,19,23,26,27,28]. The dose
of polyelectrolyte (non-ionic polyacrylamide) was varied from
0 to 100 mg/L and the ferric chloride dose was made constant at
either 100 or 300 mg/L. In order to determine the optimal dose
of the polyelectrolyte, the percentage removal of COD, TP and
TSS was considered (Tables 2 and 3).
From Table 2, it can be seen that removal of COD reached
70% during the use of 100 mg/L ferric chloride and 5 mg/L
polyelectrolyte. The COD percentage increased to 91% when

Table 2
The effects of addition of different doses of polyelectrolyte to 100 mg/L dose of
FeCl3 ·6H2 O on the removal of COD, TP and TSS from the wastewater
Parameter Dose of polyelectrolyte (mg/L)

5 25 45 65 85 100

COD (%) 70 91 93 95 95 96
TP (%) 81 99 99 99 99 99
Fig. 2. The effect of different pH on the removal of COD, TP and TSS from the TSS (%) 74 97 96 94 90 82
wastewater.
Table 3 Table 4
The effects of addition of different doses of polyelectrolyte to 300 mg/L dose of Residual concentration of iron (Fe2+ + Fe3+ ) (mg/L) as a function of coagulant
FeCl3 ·6H2 O on the removal of COD, TP and TSS from the wastewater dose
Parameter Dose of polyelectrolyte (mg/L) Coagulant dose (mg/L) Residual (Fe2+ + Fe3+ ) (mg/L)

5 25 45 65 85 100 0 2.40
100 2.07
COD (%) 84 95 96 96.6 97 98 300 1.83
TP (%) 97 99 99 99 99 99 500 1.23
TSS (%) 88 85 72 63 50 41 750 0.52
1000 0.11

the dose of the polyelectrolyte was increased to 25 mg/L, this

slowly increased to 93% when the dose of the polyelectrolyte
trolyte up to the maximum concentration (100 mg/L) employed.
was increased to 45 mg/L. Further increase in the dose of the
A synergistic effect of ferric chloride–polyelectrolyte combina-
polyelectrolyte did not cause further increase in the percentage
tion achieved higher percentage removal of the contaminants
removal of COD. However, COD removal slowly increased to
(Table 2). The optimum doses of ferric chloride and polyelec-
96% with the addition of 100 mg/L of polyelectrolyte to the
trolyte that enhanced higher TSS removal were 100 and 25 mg/L,
coagulation process.
respectively.
Percentage removal of TP reached maximum (99) with the
use of 100 mg/L ferric chloride and 25 mg/L dose of the poly-
3.5. Residual iron test
electrolyte. Addition of polyelectrolyte above 25 mg/L caused
no increase in the removal of TP.
The residual concentrations of iron (Fe2+ + Fe3+ ) in the clear
For the removal of TSS, maximum removal of 97% was
supernatant after treatment are as shown in Table 4.
achieved with the use of 100 mg/L ferric chloride and 25 mg/
It was observed that increasing the dose of ferric chloride,
L polyelectrolyte. Further addition of polyelectrolyte above
decreased the residual iron concentration in the supernatant. This
25 mg/L caused gradual decrease in the removal of TSS. This
behaviour seems to be inherent to the coagulation/flocculation
may be due to the re-suspension of particles at higher doses of
process [18]. The higher dose of ferric chloride increased super-
the polyelectrolyte.
saturation of Fe(OH)3 thus, increased nucleation rate of Fe(OH)3
From Table 3, there was improvement in the removal of COD
which consequently removed the iron in solution more effec-
with the use of 300 mg/L ferric chloride and 10 mg/L polyelec-
tively by being adsorbed and/or retained by the precipitate.
trolyte. The removal of COD linearly increased with increasing
Increase in the supersaturation of Fe(OH)3 nuclei favours their
dose of the polyelectrolyte above 25 mg/L, until 98% removal
union and hence more effective coagulation/flocculation.
was achieved at 100 mg/L polyelectrolyte. This may be due to
formation of a greater number of flocs, also, increasing the dose
3.6. Effects on solid production
of the coagulant increased the supersaturation of the Fe(OH)3
which increased the nucleation rate and hence the floc growth
In general, the amount and the characteristics of the sludge
rate. As a result, suspension of greater number of flocs was
produced during the coagulation/flocculation process are highly
enhanced, and subsequently, removal of larger amount of organic
dependent on the specific coagulant used and on the operating
matter was achieved, due to the availability of larger surface area
conditions [23]. The wet sludge volume at the bottom of the
on which adsorption of the organic matter took place. On the
jar test beakers after coagulation/flocculation process was used
contrary, low doses of coagulant led to the formation of larger
to quantify the volume of sludge generated in this study. The
but fewer flocs as a result of faster growth rate relative to nucle-
volume (mL/L) of the settled sludge is shown as functions of
ation rate, which resulted in a smaller surface area on which
coagulant type and dose (mg/L) in Table 5.
adsorption of organic matter took place.
From Table 5, it can be seen that the volume of sludge pro-
The optimum dose of a coagulant or flocculant is defined as
duced, reduced considerably with increasing dose of polyelec-
the value above which there is no significant difference in the
increase in removal efficiency with a further addition of coagu-
lant or flocculant [23]. Thus, the optimum doses of ferric chloride Table 5
and polyelectrolyte that enhanced COD removal were 100 and Volume of sludge produced during the coagulation/flocculation process
25 mg/L, respectively. The use of 300 mg/L dose of ferric chlo- Coagulant type and dose Volume of sludge
ride at different dose of polyelectrolyte increased the removal
Ferric chloride (100 mg/L) 282
of COD at all the doses of the polyelectrolyte, hence, this would Ferric chloride (300 mg/L) 669
not be a suitable decisive system for determining optimum dose. Ferric chloride:polymer (100:10) (mg/L) 170
Either 100 or 300 mg/L dose of ferric chloride and different Ferric chloride:polymer (100:20) (mg/L) 132
doses of polyelectrolyte achieved between 81 and 99% removal Ferric chloride:polymer (100:25) (mg/L) 94
of TP. However, TP did not seem to be a decisive parameter Ferric chloride:polymer (300:10) (mg/L) 578
Ferric chloride:polymer (300:20) (mg/L) 491
for determining the optimum dose because its removal from Ferric chloride: polymer (300:25) (mg/L) 425
the wastewater increased with increasing dose of the polyelec-
trolyte in the coagulation process. This may be due to non-ionic retained by the precipitate (FeOH)3 :
nature of the polyelectrolyte employed in this study, which has
high molecular weight, thus, providing long bridges between FeCl3 + 3H2 O → Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 3H+ + 3Cl−
small flocs to enhance particle growth. It also has the abil-
ity to attract and hold colloidal particles at polar sites on the
molecule. Generally, organic polymers generate less sludge than (6) The combined use of coagulant and polyelectrolyte resulted
inorganic salts since they do not add weight or chemically com- in the production of sludge volume with reduction of 60%
bine with other ions in the water to form precipitate. Thus, the of the amount produced when coagulant was solely used for
sludge produced by the use of ferric chloride in combination the treatment.
with polyelectrolyte was compact and reduced in volume. These
findings are in accordance with our previous studies [1,23] and References
those of others [26,28,29]. The water content of the sludge
produced when ferric chloride alone was used and that pro- [1] O.S. Amuda, I.A. Amoo, O.O. Ajayi, Performance optimization of coagu-
duced when combination of ferric chloride and polyelectrolyte lant/flocculant in the treatment of wastewater from a beverage industry, J.
Hazard. Mater. B129 (2006) 69–72.
was used were measured after centrifugation and it was found [2] N.Z. Al-Mutairi, M.F. Hamoda, I. Al-Ghusain, Coagulant selection and
that combination of ferric chloride and polyelectrolyte produced sludge conditioning in a slaughterhouse wastewater treatment plant, Biore-
much water and less sludge than when ferric chloride alone was sour. Technol. 96 (2) (2004) 115–119.
used. [3] A.A. Tatsi, A.I. Zouboulis, K.A. Matis, P. Samara, Coagulation–
flocculation pre-treatment of sanitary landfill leachates, Chemosphere 53
(2003) 737–744.
4. Conclusions [4] H.I. Abdel-Shafy, S.E. Abdel-Basir, Chemical treatment of industrial
wastewater, Environ. Manage. Health 2 (3) (1991) 19–23.
(1) Coagulation/flocculation process was conducted for the [5] R.R. Bansode, J.N. Losso, W.E. Marshall, R.M. Rao, R.J. Portier, Pecan
treatment of beverage industrial wastewater to achieve max- shell-based granular activated carbon for treatment of chemical oxygen
imum removal of COD, TP and TSS. Coagulant dose, demand (COD) in municipal wastewater, Bioresour. Technol. 94 (2004)
129–135.
polyelectrolyte dose, pH of solution and addition of poly- [6] M. Ahmedna, W.E. Marshall, R.M. Rao, Production of granular activated
electrolyte as coagulant aid were investigated and found to carbons from selected agricultural by-products and evaluation of their phys-
be important parameters for effective treatment of beverage ical, chemical and adsorption properties, Bioresour. Technol. 71 (2000)
industrial wastewater. 113–123.
(2) Coagulation process using 300 mg/L FeCl3 ·6H2 O effi- [7] A. Pala, E. Tokat, Color removal from cotton textile industry wastewater
in an activated sludge system with various additives, Water Res. 36 (2000)
ciently reduced COD, TP and TSS by 73, 95 and 97%, 2920–2925.
respectively. Increasing the coagulant dose above 400 mg/L, [8] C. Guohua, Electrochemical technologies in wastewater treatment, Sep.
however, caused TSS to increase in a diminishing fashion. Purif. Technol. 38 (1) (2004) 11–41.
This was as a result of re-suspension of solids at this dose [9] N.S. Martinez, J.F. Fernandez, X.F. Segura, A.S. Ferrer, Pre-oxidation of
an extremely polluted industrial wastewater by the Fenton’s reagent, J.
(>400 mg/L). Also, the high concentration (>400 mg/L) of
Hazard. Mater. B101 (2003) 315–322.
FeCl3 ·6H2 O confers positive charges on the particles sur- [10] C.M. Hung, J.-C. Lou, C–H. Lin, Removal of ammonia solutions used in
face (a positive zeta potential), thus, re-dispersing the par- catalytic wet oxidation processes, Chemosphere 52 (2003) 989–995.
ticles. [11] Y. Xiong, P. Strunk, H. Xia, X. Zhu, H. Karlsson, Treatment of dye wastewa-
(3) Coagulation was enhanced at pH range of 7–9, below which ter containing acid orange II using a cell with three-phase three dimensional
electrode, Water Res. 35 (17) (2000) 4226–4230.
hydrogen ions compete with FeCl3 ·6H2 O for COD, TP and
[12] P.R. Gogate, A.B. Pandit, A review of imperative technologies for wastew-
TSS, resulting in poor removal of the contaminants and ater treatment 11: hybrid methods, Adv. Environ. Res. 8 (3/4) (2004)
above which there can be production of negatively charged 501–551.
organic contaminants on which adsorption is electrostati- [13] D. Bromley, M. Gamal El-Din, D.W. Smith, A low cost treatment pro-
cally hindered. In this case, higher dose of metallic cation cess to reduce phosphorus and suspended solids in liquid wastes from
animal farm operations, in: Proceedings of the Fourth International Live-
(coagulant) will be required; this might pose a health hazard
stock Waste Management Symposium and Technology Expo., Malaysia
as a result of residual quantities of excess chemical additives, Society of Animal Production, Penang, Malaysia, 2002, p. 215.
which can also interfere with fish survival and growth in the [14] Y. Watanabe, Y. Kanemoto, K. Takeda, H. Ohno, Removal of soluble and
receiving surface water. The optimum pH for the coagula- particulate organic material in municipal wastewater by chemical floccu-
tion process was 9. lation and biofilm processes, Water Sci. Technol. 27 (1993) 201–209.
[15] J. Szpak, D. Woods, K. Bouchard, Critique jar testing for the design of
(4) Results of the present work indicated that addition of
coagulation–flocculation systems, Water Qual. Res. J. Can. 31 (1996)
25 mg/L polyelectrolyte reduced the dose of ferric chloride 51–64.
from 300 to 100 mg/L during which 99, 97 and 91% of TP, [16] H.I. Abdel-Shafy, O. Abo-El-Wafa, M.A. Azzam, Chemical treatment of
TSS and COD removal were, respectively, achieved. industrial effluent, in: International Conference. Heavy Metals in the Envi-
(5) Increasing the concentration of FeCl3 ·6H2 O enhanced ronment, New Orleans, 1987, p. 452.
[17] I.A. Amoo, O.O. Ajayi, K.O. Ipinmoroti, O.S. Amuda, Performance
increasing supersaturation of Fe(OH)3 nuclei, thus creating
optimization of coagulants/flocculants in the treatment of effluent from
larger surface area on which organic matter can be adsorbed. soap/detergent industry, in: S.I. Ahonkhai (Ed.), Proceedings of the 27th
This also reduced the concentration of residual iron in the International Conference Chemical Society of Nigeria, Nigeria, September,
supernatant because the iron may have been adsorbed and/or Mindex Press, Benin City, Nigeria, 2004, pp. 415–420.
[18] J.A. Peres, J.B. de Heredia, J.R. Dominguez, Integrated Fenton’s reagent— [24] D.M. Sievers, M.W. Jenner, M. Hanna, Treatment of dilute manure wastew-
coagulation/flocculation process for the treatment of cork processing ater by chemical coagulation, Trans. ASAE 37 (1994) 597–601.
wastewaters, J. Hazard. Mater. 107 (3) (2004) 115–121. [25] K. Zhu, M. Gamal El-Din, A.K. Moawad, D. Bromley, Physical and chem-
[19] APHA-AWWA-WEF, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water ical processes for removing suspended solids and phosphorus from liquid
and Wastewater, 19th ed., American Public Health Association, American swine manure, Environ. Technol. 25 (2004) 1177–1187.
Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation, Washington, [26] S. Pattabi, K. Ramasami, K. Selvam, P. Swaminathan, Influence of poly-
DC, USA, 1995. electrolytes on sewage water treatment using inorganic coagulants, Indian
[20] F.N. Kemmer (Ed.), The Nalco Water Handbook of Coagulation and Floc- J. Environ. Prot. 20 (2000) 499–507.
culation. Unit Operations of Water Treatment, second ed. McGraw-Hill [27] Z.Y. Quingda, L. Zhuomei, A study of flocculation of an active dye in
Book Company, United States of America, 1988, pp. 8.3–8.12. aqueous solution by a new cationic polyacrylamide, Water Treat. 8 (4)
[21] UK DOE Recommended Maximum Chemical Additives Dosage. Depart- (1993) 447–456.
ment of Environment, United Kingdom, 1984. [28] M.I. Aguilar, J. Saez, M. Llorens, A. Soler, J.F. Ortuno, V. Meseguer,
[22] AWWA 1978 Updates of the State of the Art: Report of the AWWA A. Fuentes, Nutrient removal and sludge production in the coagulation–
Sludge Disposal Committee, Part 2. J. Am. Water Workers Assoc. (1978) flocculation process, Water Res. 36 (2002) 2910–2919.
3–5. [29] A.A. Tatsi, A.I. Zouboulis, K.A. Matis, P. Samaras, Coagulation–floccu-
[23] O.S. Amuda, A.O. Alade, Coagulation/flocculation process in the treatment lation pretreatment of sanitary landfill leachates, Chemosphere 53 (2003)
of abattoir wastewater. Desalination, in press. 737–744.