Bulletin 1

Structural Materials Research Laboratory

Lewis Institute
Chicago

Design of Concrete Mixtures

By

DUFF A. ABRAMS
Professor in Charge of Laboratory

Published by the
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS RESEARCH LABORATORY
Lewis Institute
Chicago
MAY, 1919
 in the properties of concrete and concrete materials at
RESEARCHES
the Structural Materials Research Laboratory are being carried out
through the cooperation of the Lewis Institute and the Portland Cement
Association, Chicago. The research work has been under way since
September 1, 1914.

The control of the policies of the Laboratory is vested in an Advisory

Committee, consisting of representatives of the Lewis Institute and the
Portland Cement Association as follows :

Lewis Institute:
DUFF A. ABRAMS, Professor in Charge of Laboratory
PHILIP B. WOODWORTH, Professor of Engineering

Portland Cement Association:

F. W. KELLEY, Chairman, Technical Problems Committee, Albany, N. Y.
ERNEST ASHTON, Member, Technical Problems Committee, Allentown,
Pa.

The investigations are being carried out by a staff of engineers, chem-

ists, and assistants who give their entire time to this work. The results
of these researches are aiibllsEeJd 5n the form of papers before engineering
and technycaj .societies,, and .in Circulars and Bulletins issued by the
Laboratory!-. ; ;-" "; .'"::.,: /**. ..*
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXTURES*
BY DUFF A. ABRAMS
, PROFESSOR IN CHARGE OF LABORATORY

The design of concrete mixtures is a subject of vital interest to all engineers

and constructors who have to do with concrete work. The problem involved may
be one of the following :

1. What mix is necessary to produce concrete of proper strength for a given

work?
2. With given materials what proportions will give the best concrete at min-
imum cost?
3. With different lots of materials of different characteristics which is best
suited for the purpose?

4. What is the effect on strength of concrete from changes in mix, consistency

or size and grading of aggregate ?

Proportioning concrete frequently involves selection of materials as well as

their combination. In general, the question of relative costs is also present.
The term "Design" is used in the title of this article as distinguished from
"proportioning" since it is the intention to imply that each element of the problem
is approached with a deliberate purpose in view which is guided by a rational method
of accomplishment.
The design of concrete mixtures, with a view to producing a given result in the
most economic manner, involves many complications which have heretofore defied
analysis.

Many different methods of proportioning have been suggested; the most im-
portant ones may be characterized as follows :

1. Arbitrary selection, such as 1:2:4 mix, without reference to the size or

grading of the fine and coarse aggregate;
2. Density of aggregates in which the endeavor is made to secure an aggregate
of maximum density;
3. Density of concrete in which the attempt is made to secure concrete of
maximum density;
4. Sieve analysis, in which the grading of the aggregates is made to approxi-
mate some predetermined sieve analysis curve which is considered to give
the best results ;

5. Surface area of aggregates.

It is a matter of common experience that the method of arbitrary selection in

which fixed quantities of fine and coarse aggregates are mixed without regard to
the size and grading of the individual materials, is far from satisfactory. Our experi-
ments have shown that the other methods mentioned above are also subject to serious
limitations. We have found that the maximum strength of concrete does not depend
on either an aggregate of maximum density or a concrete of maximum density,
and that the methods which have been suggested for proportioning concrete by
sieve analysis of aggregates are based on an erroneous theory. All of the methods
of proportioning concrete which have been proposed in the past have failed to give
proper attention to the water content of the mix. Our experimental work has
emphasized the importance of the water in concrete mixtures, and shown that the
water is, in fact, the most important ingredient, since very small variations in water
content produce more important variations in the strength and other properties of
concrete than similar changes in the other ingredients.

Reprinted from Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Portland Cement Association, held
in New York, December, 1918.
 *
2 I
;l ;" I^f it^trp&'ljRAi. S MATE^IALS RESEARCH LABORATORY

New Studies of Concrete Mixtures

During the past three years a large number of investigations have been under
at the Structural Materials Research Laboratory, Lewis Institute, Chicago,
way
which throw considerable new light on the subject of proportioning concrete. These
investigations are being carried out through the cooperation of the Institute and
the Portland Cement Association. These studies have covered an investigation
of the inter-relation of the following factors:
1. The consistency (quantity of mixing water).
2. The size and grading of aggregates.
3. The mix (proportion of cement).
Any comprehensive study of proportioning concrete must take into account all of
these factors.
During this period about 50,000 tests have been carried out which have a
bearing on this subject. These tests have been largely confined to compression
tests of concrete and mortars. These investigations have given us a new insight
into the factors which underlie the correct proportioning of concrete mixtures and
show the limitations of older methods. Certain phases of these investigations are
still under way.

The following may be mentioned as among the most important principles

which have been established with reference to the design of concrete mixtures.
In a brief report of this kind it is impracticable to present more than an putline of
the methods of applying the principles to practical problems. In only a few instances
are experimental data given on which these conclusions are based.

1. With given concrete materials and conditions of test the quantity of mixing
water used determines the strength of the concrete, so long as the mix
is of a workable plasticity.

2. The sieve analysis furnishes the only correct basis for proportioning ag-
gregates in concrete mixtures.
3. A simple method of measuring the effective size and grading of an ag-
gregate has been developed. This gives rise to a function known as the
"fineness modulus" of the aggregate.
4. The fineness modulus of the aggregate furnishes a rational method for
combining materials of different size for concrete mixtures.
5. The sieve analysis curve of the aggregate may be widely different in form
without exerting any influence on the concrete strength.
6. Aggregate of equivalent concrete-making qualities may be produced by an
infinite number of different gradings of a given material.
7. Aggregates of equivalent concrete-making qualities may be produced from
materials of widely different size and grading.
8. In general, fine and coarse aggregates of widely different size or grading
can be combined in such a manner as to produce similar results in con-
crete.
9. The aggregate grading which produces the strongest concrete is not that
giving the maximum density (lowest voids). A
grading coarser than that
giving maximum density is necessary for highest concrete strength.
10. The richer the mix, the coarser the grading should be for an aggregate of
given maximum size hence, the greater the discrepancy between max-
;

imum density and best grading.

11. A complete analysis has been made of the water-requirements of concrete
mixes. The quantity of water required is governed by the following
factors :

(a) The
condition of "workability" of concrete which must be used
the relative plasticity or consistency;
(b) The normal consistency of the cement;
(c) The size and grading of the aggregate measured by the fine-
ness modulus;
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXTURES 3

(d) The relative volumes of cement and aggregate the mix;

(e) The absorption of the aggregate;
(f) The contained water in aggregate.
12. There is an intimate relation between the
grading of the aggregate and the
quantity of water required to produce a workable concrete.
13. The water content of a concrete mix is best considered in terms of the
volume of the cement the water-ratio.

14. The shape of the particle and the quality of the aggregate have less in-
fluence on the concrete strength than has been reported
by other ex-
perimenters.
Effect of Quantity of Mixing Water on the Strength of Concrete
Fig. 1 shows the relation between the compressive strength and the water con-
tent for 28-day tests of 6 by 12-in. concrete Mixes from 1 :15 to neat
cylinders.
cement were used; each mix was made up of aggregates
ranging in size from 14-
mesh sand up to \ l 2 -\n. gravel; a wide range in consistencies was used for all
/
mixes and gradings.
The water content of the concrete is expressed as a ratio to the volume of
cement, considering that the cement weighs 94 Ib. per en. ft. Distinguishing marks
are used for each mix, but no distinction is made between
aggregates of different
size or different consistencies.

400
Wtrter-//o toof Ce/vexf /r,X
FIG. 1. RELATION BETWEEN STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AND WATER CONTENT
Twenty-eight-day compression tests of 6 by 12-inch cylinders. (Series 83.)

When the compressive strength is platted against the water ratio in this way,
a smooth curve is obtained, due to the overlapping of the points for different mixes.
Values from dry concretes have been omitted. If these were used we should obtain
a series of curves dropping downward and to the left from the curve shown. It is
seen at once that the size and grading of the aggregate and the quantity of cement
are no longer of any importance except in so far as these factors influence the
quantity of water required to produce a workable mix. This gives us an entirely
new conception of the function of the constituent materials entering into a concrete
mix and is the most basic principle which has been brought out in our studies of
concrete.

'4r4-5-f.fi
4 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS RESEARCH LABORATORY

The equation of the curve is of the form,

A
S=- (1)
B*

where 5 is the compressive strength of concrete and x is the ratio of the volume
of water to the volume of cement in the batch. A and B are constants whose values
depend on the quality of the cement used, the age of the concrete, curing conditions,
etc.

This equation expresses the law of strength of concrete so far as the pro-
portions of materials are concerned. It is seen that for given concrete materials
the strength depends on only one factor the ratio of water to cement. Equations
which have been proposed in the past for this purpose contain terms which take
into account such factors as quantity of cement, proportions of fine and coarse
aggregate, voids in aggregate, etc., but they have uniformly omitted the only term
which is of any importance; that is, the water.
For the conditions of these tests, equation (1) becomes,

(2)

The relation given above holds so long as the concrete is not too dry for max-
imum strength and the aggregate not too coarse for a given quantity of cement;
in other words, so long as we have a workable mix.
Other tests made in this laboratory have shown that the character of the ag-
gregate makes little difference so long as it is clean and not structurally deficient.
The absorption of the aggregate must be taken into account if comparison is being
made of different aggregates.
The strength of the concrete responds to changes in water, regardless of the
reason for these changes. The water-ratio may be changed due to any of the
following causes :

1. Change in mix (cement content).

2. Change in size or grading of aggregate.
3. Change in relative consistency.
4. Any combination of (1) to (3).
In certain instances a 1 :9 mix is as strong as a 1 :2 mix, depending only on
water content. It should not be concluded that these tests indicate that lean mixes
can be substituted for richer ones without limit. We are always limited by the
necessity of using sufficient water to secure a workable mix. So in the case of
the grading of aggregates. The workability of the mix will in all cases dictate the
minimum quantity of water that can be used. The importance of the workability
factor in concrete is therefore brought out in its true relation.

The problem of designing concrete mixes resolves itself into this :

To producea workable concrete which has a given water-ratio using a minimum

quantity of cement or the converse, to produce a workable concrete with a minimum
;

water-ratio using a given quantity of cement. The methods for securing the best
grading of aggregate and the use of the driest concrete which is workable are thus
seen to be only devices which enable us to accomplish the above-mentioned results.

Fineness Modulus of Aggregate

The experimental work carried out in the laboratory has given rise to what we
term the fineness modulus of the aggregate. This function furnishes a method of
measuring the size and grading of the aggregate. It may be defined as follows :

The sum of the percentages in the sieve analysis of the aggregate divided by 100.
The sieve analysis is determined by using the, following sieves from the Tyler
standard series: 100, 48, 28, 14, 8, 4, ^-in., %-in. and 1^-in. These sieves are
made of square-mesh wire cloth. Each sieve has a clear opening just double the
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXTURES 5

Table 1

METHOD OF CALCULATING FINENESS MODULUS OF AGGREGATES

The sieves used are commonly known as the Tyler standard sieves. Each sieve
has a clear opening just double that of the preceding one.
The sieve analysis may be expressed in terms of volume or weight.
The fineness modulus of an aggregate is the sum of the percentages given by
the sieve analysis, divided by 100.

Fineness Modulus 1.54 2.41 3.10 6.46 6.86 7.36 5.74

'Concrete aggregate "G" is made up of 25% of sand "B" mixed with 75% of pebbles "E."
Equivalent gradings would be secured by mixing 33% sand "B" with 67% coarse pebbles "F";
28% "A" with 72% "F," etc. The proportion coarser than a given sieve is made up by the
addition of these percentages of the corresponding size of the constituent materials.

/oo

FIG. 2. METHOD OF PLOTTING SIEVE ANALYSIS OF AGGREGATES

Sieve analysis curves for aggregates B, E and G in Table 1.
6 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS RESEARCH LABORATORY

width of the preceding one. The exact dimensions of the sieves and the method
of determining the fineness modulus will be found in Table 1. It will be noted
that the sieve analysis is expressed in terms of the percentages of material by
volume or weight coarser than each sieve.
A well-graded torpedo sand up to No. 4 sieve will give a fineness modulus of
about 3.00; a coarse aggregate graded 4-1^2 in. will give fineness modulus of about
7.00; a mixture of the above materials in proper proportions for a 1 :4 mix will
have a fineness modulus of about 5.80. A fine sand such as drift-sand may have a
fineness modulus as low as 1.50.

Sieve Analysis of Aggregates

There is an intimate relation between the sieve analysis curve for the aggregate
and the fineness modulus in fact, the fineness modulus enables us for the first time
;

to properly interpret the sieve analysis of an aggregate. If the sieve analysis of an

aggregate is manner indicated in Fig. 2; that is, using the per cent
platted in the
coarser than a given sieve as ordinate, and the,, sieve size (platted to logarithmic
scale) as abscissa, the fineness modulus of the aggregate is measured by the area
below the sieve analysis curve. The dotted rectangles for aggregate "G" show
how this result is secured. Each elemental rectangle is the fineness modulus of the
material of that particular size. The fineness modulus of the graded aggregate is
then the summation of these elemental areas. Any other sieve analysis curve which
will give the same total area corresponds to the same fineness modulus and will
require the same quantity of water to produce a mix of the same plasticity and
gives concrete of the same strength, so long as it is not too coarse for the quantity
of cement used.

The fineness modulus may be considered as an abstract number it is in fact a

;

summation of volumes of material. There are several different methods of com-

puting it, all of which will give the same result. The method given in Table 1
is probably the simplest and most direct.

Some of the mathematical relations involved are of interest. The following

expression shows the relation between the fineness modulus and the size of the
particle :

m = 7.94 + 3.32 log d (3)

Where m fineness modulus
d = diameter of particle in inches

This relation is perfectly general so long as we use the standard set of sieves
mentioned above. The constants are fixed by the particular sizes of sieves used
and the units of measure. Logarithms are to the base 10.
This relation applies to a single-size material or to a given particle. The
finenessmodulus is then a logarithmic function of the diameter of the particle.
This formula need not be used with a graded material, since the value can be
secured more easily and directly by the method used in Table 1. It is applicable
to graded materials provided the relative quantities of each size are considered,
and the diameter of each group is used. By applying the formula to a graded
material we would be, calculating the values of the separate elemental rectangles
shown in Fig. 2. \

Fineness Modulus Strength Relation for Concrete

Many different series of tests have shown that for a given plastic condition of
concrete and the same mix there is an intimate relation between the fineness modulus
of the aggregate and the strength and other properties of the concrete. have We
seen that the reason for this result is found in the fact that the fineness modulus
simply reflects the changes in water-ratio necessary to produce a given plastic
condition.

Figs. 3 and 4 give the results of certain compression tests which bring out the
relation between the strength of the concrete and the fineness modulus of the
aggregate. It will be noted from Fig. 3 that a separate curve may be drawn for
each mix. In each case there is a steady increase in the compressive strength of
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXTURES . 7

S000

<s

zoo

FIG. 3. RELATION BETWEEN FINENESS MODULUS OF AGGREGATE

AND STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
Sand and pebble aggregate graded 0- inch; 28-day compression tests of 6 by 12-inch
cylinders. (Series 78.)

The sieve analyses of aggregates are given below:

 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS RESEARCH LABORATORY

v^

/.OO

FIG. 4. RELATION BET/VEEN FINENESS MODULUS OF AGGREGATE

AND STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
Twenty-eight-day compression tests of 6 by 12-inch cylinders. (Series 78.) Sand and pebble
aggregate graded to sizes shown. The contrast between the relation shown by these tests and
those in Fig. 3 should be noted.

The sieve analyses of aggregates are given below:

 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXTURES

Table 2

EFFECT OF GRADING OF AGGREGATES ON THE STRENGTH

OF CONCRETE

Compression tests of 6 by 12-in. concrete cylinders.

Mix 1 :5 by volume age at test, 28 days stored in damjl sand tested damp.
; ; ;

Aggregates sand and pebbles from Elgin, 111. Aggregates were screened to
different sizes and recombined to conform to predetermined sieve analyses.

The aggregates were made up in such a manner as to give the widest variations
in the grading of the particles. All gradings had one common property, in that the
fineness modulus was exactly the same m = 6.04. The fineness modulus of the
aggregate is the sum of the percentages in the sieve analysis, divided by 100.
The same quantity of water was used in all specimens of a given consistency.
The 110% consistency contains 10% more water than the 100%.
Each specimen was made from a separate batch.
Each value in the strength tests is the average >from 5 tests made on different
days. (From Series 78.)
10 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS RESEARCH LABORATORY

the concrete as the fineness modulus of the aggregate increases, until a certain value
is reached which corresponds to a maximum point. It will be noted also that this
maximum point corresponds to higher and higher values of fineness modulus as the
quantity of cement in the mix is increased. In other words, the maximum strength
comes at a fineness modulus of about 5.80 for the 1 :9 mix and about 6.40 for the
1 :4 mix. In these tests the different values of the fineness modulus were secured
by using a preponderance of the coarser sizes, but in all cases maintaining the same
limiting size, that is, 1^4 i n-

In Fig. 4 isfoui^I a similar relation between the strength and the fineness
modulus, except that no maximum point is found. This condition arises from the
fact that the maximum size of the aggregate is increasing without changing the
type of the sieve analysis curve, consequently the fineness modulus strength curve
continues to rise indefinitely. The height to which the curve rises is limited only
by the maximum size of aggregate which may be used. It is important to note
that there is no conflict between the indications of Figs. 3 and 4.

For all practical purposes and for ordinary ranges in concrete mixes the fine-
ness modulus strength relation may be assumed as a linear one. The comparison
of the true and approximate relation is brought out in the discussion of the "Water
Formula" below.
A given value for the fineness modulus of an aggregate can be secured with
any combination of percentages in the sieve analysis which gives the same total,
consequently, an infinite variety of gradings may be found which give aggregate
of the same concrete strength. Table 2 gives the results of groups of tests which
bring out the wide variation which may be made in the grading of aggregate with-
out producing any essential variation in the concrete strength. Twenty-seven differ-
ent gradings of the same aggregate were made up. These gradings covered the
widest possible range, but they had one property in common; that is, a fineness
modulus of 6.04. All specimens were mixed with the same quantity of cement and
water. Separate sets of specimens were made of two different consistencies. The
mean variation from the average strength is about 3%.
Table 2 also furnishes some interesting data on the surface-area method of
proportioning aggregates. It is seen that there is the widest variation in the surface
area of the aggregate without any appreciable difference in the concrete strength.
Our studies have clearly shown that surface area is not a satisfactory basis for pro-
portioning aggregates.

Design of Concrete Mixes

In accordance with our previous statements the problem of designing concrete
mixes using given materials resolves itself into that of finding the combination
which with a given water-ratio will give a concrete of suitable workability using a
minimum of cement.
The following outline will make clear the steps to be followed in the design
of concrete mixes on the basis of our studies of concrete:

STEPS IN THE DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXTURES

1. Knowing the compressive strength required of the. concrete, determine by

reference to Fig. 1 the maximum water-ratio which may be used. Sub-
sequent steps in the design of concrete mixes are only devices
for
securing a workable concrete using this water-ratio and a minimum quan-
tity of cement. It is obvious that a given water-ratio can be secured with
a minimum of cement if the aggregate is graded as coarse as permissible
(considering its size and the mix used) and if we use the driest
mix
which can be properly placed. Securing a coarse, well-graded aggregate,
using rich mixes, employing the driest practicable consistency, using
mechanical methods of placing concrete, etc., are all methods of producing
a workable mix with a minimum water-ratio. Experience or trial is the
only guide in determining the relative consistency of concrete necessary
in the work. Obviously the driest workable consistency should be used.
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXTURES ] 1

The size of aggregate available, or which must be used, and the other
factors will furnish a guide as to the mix. The mix is expressed as one
volume of cement to a given number of volumes of aggregate; that is,
the combined fine and coarse aggregate. In general, some allowance
must be made for the high strengths in laboratory tests. In other words,
a water-ratio somewhat lower than that given for the required strength
in Fig. 1 should be used. For convenience in the subsequent steps we
shall deal with concrete strength instead of water-ratio (as in Fig. 6),
although it should be understood that it is the water-ratio which fixes the
strength so long as we have a plastic mix.
2. Make sieve analysis of fine and coarse aggregates, using Tyler standard
sieves of the following sizes: 100, 48, 28, 14, 8, 4, J&, %
and \ l 2 in. /
Express sieve analysis in terms of percentages of material by weight (or
separate volumes) coarser than each of the standard sieves.
3. Compute fineness modulus of each aggregate by adding the percentages
found in (2), and dividing by 100.
4. Determine the "maximum of aggregate by applying the following
size"
rules: If more than 20% of aggregate is coarser than any sieve the
maximum size shall be taken as the next larger sieve in the standard
set; if between 11 and 20% is coarser than any sieve, maximum size shall
be the next larger "half-sieve" if less than 10% is coarser than certain
;

sieves, the smallest of these sieve sizes shall be considered the maximum
size.

5. From Table 3 determine the maximum value of fineness modulus which

may be used for the mix, kind and size of aggregate, and the work under
consideration. (The values in Table 3 are platted in Fig. 5.)
6. Compute the percentages of fine and coarse aggregates required to produce
the fineness modulus desired for the final aggregate mixture by applying
the formula :

A B
p-=100 - (3)
*
A C
where p = percentage of fine aggregate in total mixture.
A = fineness modulus of coarse aggregate.
B = fineness modulus of final aggregate mixture.
C = fineness modulus of fine aggregate.
Fig. 7 may be used for solving Equation 3, and for making comparisons of
the effect of certain changes in proportions of fine and coarse aggregates. The\
distinction between fine and coarse aggregate is solely for convenience in secur-
ing a uniform grading; the envision may be made at any desired point.
7. With the estimated mix, fineness modulus and consistency enter Fig. 6 and
determine the strength of concrete produced by the combination. If the
strength shown by the diagram is not that required, the necessary read-
justment may be made by changing the mix, consistency or size and
grading of the aggregates.
The quantity of water required can be determined from Formula 4 below,
or approximately from Table 5.

IMPORTANT NOTE: It must be understood that the values in Fig. 6

were determined from compression tests of 6 by 12-in. cylinders stored for 28
days in a damp place. The values obtained on the work will depend on such
factors as the consistency of the concrete, quality of the cement, methods of
mixing, handling, placing the concrete, etc., and on age and curing conditions.
Strength values higher than given for relative consistency of 1.10 should
seldom be considered in designing, since it is only in exceptional cases that a
consistency drier than this can be satisfactorily placed. For wetter concrete
much lower strengths must be considered.
12 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS RESEARCH LABORATORY

Table 3

MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE VALUES OF FINENESS MODULUS

OF AGGREGATES
For mixes other than those given in the table, use the values for the next
leaner mix.

For maximum sizes of aggregate other than those given in the table, use the
values for the next smaller size.

Fine aggregate includes

all material finer than No. 4 sieve; coarse aggregate
includes material coarser than the No. 4 sieve. Mortar is a mixture of cement,
all
water and fine aggregate.

This table is based on the requirements for sand-and-pebble or gravel aggregate

composed of approximately spherical particles, in ordinary uses of concrete in rein-
forced concrete structures. For other materials and in other classes of work the
maximum permissible values of fineness modulus for an aggregate of a given size
is subject to the following corrections:

(1) If crushed stone or slag is used as coarse aggregate, reduce values in

table by 0.25. For crushed material consisting of unusually flat or elongated
particles, reduce values by 0.40.

(2) For pebbles consisting of flat particles, reduce values by 0.25.

(3) If stone screenings are used as fine aggregate, reduce values by 0.25.

(4) For the top course in concrete roads, reduce the values by 0.25. If finish-
ing is done by mechanical means, this reduction need not be made.

(5) In work of massive proportions, such that the smallest dimension is larger
than 10 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, additions may be made
to the values in the table as follows: for 24-in. aggregate 0.10; for 1^-in. 0.20; for
3-in. 0.30; for 6-in. 0.40.

Sand with fineness modulus lower than 1.50 is undesirable as a fine aggregate*
in ordinary concrete mixes. Natural sands of such fineness are seldom found.

Sand or screenings usedfor fine aggregate in concrete must not have a higher
finenessmodulus than that permitted for mortars of the same mix. Mortar mixes
are covered by the table and by (3) above.

Crushed stone mixed with both finer sand*and coarser pebbles requires no
reduction in fineness modulus provided the quantity of crushed stone is less than
30% of the total volume of the aggregate.

'Considered as "half-size" sieves; not used in computing fineness modulus.

 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXTURES 13

Calculation of Water Required for Concrete

Because of the important influence of the quantity of water in the concrete it
is desirable to have a sound basis for proportioning the water. The quantity of
water necessary for given proportions and conditions may be determined by the
following formula:

=R p + (- ha c
j
n (4)
L 2 V 1.26m /
where x = water required ratio to volume of cement in batch (water-
ratio).
R Relative consistency of
concrete, or "workability factor".
Normal consistency (relative consistency 1.00) = requires
the use of such a quantity of mixing water as will cause a
slump of ^2 to 1 in. in a freshly molded 6 by 12-in. cylinder
of about 1 :4 mix upon withdrawing the form by a steady,
upward pull. A
relative consistency of 1.10 requires the use
of 10% more water and under the above conditions will give
a slump of about 5 to 6 in.
p z= Normal consistency of cement, ratio by weight.
m= Fineness modulus of aggregate (an exponent).
n = Volumes of mixed aggregate to one of cement.
a = Absorption of aggregate, ratio of water absorbed to volume of
aggregate. (Determined after immersion in water for 3
hours. Average values for crushed limestone and pebbles
may be assumed as 0.02; porous sandstones may reach 0.08;
very light and porous aggregate may reach 0.25.)
c Moisture contained in aggregate, ratio of water contained to
volume of aggregate. (Assume as zero for room-dry ag-
gregate.)

This formula takes account of all the factors which affect the quantity of water
required in a concrete mixture. These factors may be classified as follows :

1. "Workability" factor, or the relative consistency of the concrete. This is

dictated by the kind of work being done concrete must be more plastic
;

(which generally means a wetter consistency) in reinforced concrete

building construction than is necessary in mass work. The term (R) in
the equation takes care of this factor. (R) may vary from, say, 0.90 for
a dry concrete to 2.00 or higher for very wet mixes.
2. Cement factor, which is made up of two parts the quality of cement so far
:

as normal consistency is concerned (p) ; the quantity of cement in the

mix (n).
3. The aggregate factor. This includes the three terms within the parenthesis
in Equation 4. The first term, involving (m), takes account of the size
and grading; the second (a) the absorption, and the third (c) the water
contained in the aggregate.

In case admixtures of any kind are used, another term must be inserted in the
equation. This relation has been fully worked out, but is not included in this
report.

Simplified Water Formula

While Equation (4) represents the true water relation, it is somewhat com-
plicated by the fact that the fineness modulus (m) appears as an exponent. The
equation can be expressed in a simpler form as follows :

f3 m
=R -p+(0.22 + a -c)n 1 (5)

This equation gives values for ordinary ranges of mix and grading of aggregate
which are sensibly the same as given by Equation (4).
14 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS RESEARCH LABORATORY

FIG. 5. MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE VALUES^OF FINENESS MODULUS OF AGGREGATE

Graphical reproduction of Table 3. These curves are based o' the requirements of sand
and pebble aggregate. For crushed stone aggregate the values must be\reduced as noted in
the table. ^^_
Maximum Permissible Values of Fineness Modulus of Aggregates
Since a maximum practicable value of fineness modulus is found for each size
of aggregate and mix, it is necessary to place certain limits on the value which
may be used for proportioning materials for concrete mixes. Table 3 gives limits
which will be found practicable. Subsequent experience may dictate certain modi-
fications in the details.
The purpose of Table 3 is to avoid the attempt to secure an aggregate grading
which is too coarse for its maximum size and for the amount of cement used. It
is also useful in prohibiting attempts to use sands which are too coarse for best
results in concrete mixtures. For instance, it would be found from this table that
the use of a sand of the nature of standard Ottawa sand is not permitted except
in mixes 1 :2 or richer.
The curves in Figure 5 are platted directly from the values given for the stand-
ard sieves in Table 3.

Chart for Design of Concrete Mixes

Fig. 6 is a nomographic chart for the design of concrete
mixes. This chart
takes account of the following four factors:
1. The mix (cement content). X
2. The relative consistency. *
3. The grading of aggregate (fineness modulus)*'
4. The compressive strength of concrete. ^
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXTURES 16

Given any three of these factors the chart enables us to solve for the fourth.
This chart is, of course, based on the results of certain tests. For practical applica-
tion these values must generally be reduced by certain factors, which will depend
on the judgment of the designer. In order to furnish some basis for comparison,
compression tests of 1 :3 standard sand mortars from the cement used in these tests
are given.

Suppose we consider the case of concrete for road construction. This is gen-
erally specified as a 1:1J^:3 or a 1:2:3 mix, with aggregate graded up to \ /2 l

in. These mixes are about the same as what have been termed a 1 :4 mix, the exact
equivalent depending on the particular size and grading of the fine and coarse ag-
gregate. Assume that gravel aggregate will be used, graded to \ l/2 in. Table 3
shows that we may use a fineness modulus as high as 6.00 .25 5.75. Knowing
the sieve analysis and fineness modulus of both sizes of aggregate, apply the formula
or Fig. 7 to determine the proportions of each aggregate which must be mixed to
secure this value. Assume that the concrete will be mixed to a relative consistency
of 1.10, which is of such plasticity as will g'ive a slump of 5 to 6 in. in the test de-
scribed above. Place a straightedge in Fig. 6 on mix 1 :4 and fineness modulus
5.75, and mark the point where it crosses the reference line for consistency; from
this point project the line horizontally (as indicated in other examples) to relative
consistency 1.10. It will be seen that 'this gives a compressive strength of 3,400 Ib.
per sq. in. at 28 days.
r
Table 4

EXAMPLE OF INFLUENCE OF QUANTITY OF MIXING WATER

ON THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
Values calculated from equation

A 14,000
S = =
B* 8.2*

Where S = Compressive strength of concrete (Ib. p^er sq. in.).

x = Water-ratio (an exponent).
A and B are constants whose values depend on quantity of cement and
other conditions of the test. The values given for A and B are based on
28-day tests of 1 :4 mix, pebble aggregate graded 0-lj4-in., fineness modulus
5.75.

The water-ratio is equivalent to the cubic feet of water to 1 sack (1 cu. ft.)
of cement.
The strength values are solely for comparative purposes in showing the influ-
ence of changing the water content.

Compressive Strength of Concrete at 28 Days

Water in a 1-Bag Batch Relative Consistency Lb. per Sq. In. Relative Strength
16 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS RESEARCH LABORATORY

Table 5
QUANTITY OF MIXING WATER REQUIRED FOR CONCRETE

[32
n-{_
/
[
--
.30

Vl.26m
La c
\
)

)
n
1

\
Where x = Water required ratio to volume of cement in batch (water-
ratio).
R Relative consistency, or "workability factor." Where 1.00 R=
the concrete is said to be of "normal consistency."
p Normal consistency of cement by weight (assume p 0.23). =
m= Fineness modulus of aggregate.
n= Volume of mixed aggregate to one volume of cement.
a= Absorption of aggregate, ratio of water absorbed to volume of
aggregate.
c= Moisture in aggregate, ratio of water contained to volume of
aggregate.
(a c)= Net absorption of aggregate by volume.
In this table (a c) is assumed as 0.02. In other words the net quantity of water
taken by the aggregate is 2% by volume. This value may be used for ordinary
limestones and pebbles. For crushed trap and granite it is somewhat high. It is
too high in any case where the aggregate is saturated with water.
A relative consistency of 1.00 (normal consistency) requires the use of such a
quantity of mixing water as will cause a slump of %
to 1 in. in a freshly molded
6 by 12-in. cylinder of about 1 :4 mix upon withdrawing the form by a steady, upward
pull. This consistency is somewhat dry for most concrete work, but can be used
where light tamping is practicable.
A relative consistency of 1.10 (10% more water than required for normal
consistency) represents about the driest concrete which can be satisfactorily used
in concrete road construction. Under the conditions mentioned above, this con-
sistency will give a slump of about 5 to 6 in.
A relative consistency of 1.25 represents about the wettest consistency which
should be used in reinforced concrete building construction. Under the conditions
mentioned above, this consistency will give a slump of about 8 to 9 in.
For mixes and fineness moduli, other than those given in the table, approxi-
mate values may be determined by interpolation. For specific cases use the formula.
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXTURES

FIG. 6. DIAGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXTURES

This chart based on compression tests of 6 by 12-inch cylinders; age 28 days; stored in
is
damp sand. The cement used gave compressive strengths in 1-3 standard sand mortar as follows:
Age Lb. per Sq. In.
7 days 1,900
28 days 3,200
3 months 4,200
1 year 4,300
 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS RESEARCH LABORATORY

The effect of using other mixes, gradings or consistencies on the

strength can
be seen at once from the diagram. For instance, if the water were increased to a
relative consistency of 1.25 (not nearly so wet as is
frequently seen in road work)
the strength will be reduced to 2,700 Ib. per sq. in. a reduction of over 20
per cent
If the mix were changed to 1 :4y2 and other factors the same as in the first
example
the strength would be 3,200 Ib. per sq. in. We should have to change the mix to
as lean as 1 :5*4 in order to secure the same reduction in
strength as was found
above for a change from 1.10 to 1.25 consistency.

By using the wetter of the two consistencies we secure concrete of the same
strength as if we had used one-third less cement and the drier mix. In other
words, increasing the mixing water 13% causes the same reduction in strength as
if we should omit 33% of the cement. This example shows the reason for empha-
sizing the importance of proper control of mixing water in concrete.
This chart enables us to answer such questions as the following:
Which is the stronger, a 1 :3 mortar or a 1 :5 concrete mixture?
Assuming that concrete of the same plasticity is used, the relative strengths will
depend, of course, on the grading of the aggregates and the mix. In one case we
have assumed 1 :3 mix with fineness modulus equal to 3.00. This will give a strength
for normal consistency of 3,000 Ib. per sq. in. The 1 :5 mix (fineness modulus
5.70)
gives a strength for normal consistency of about 3,300 Ib. per sq. in. The strengths
for other consistencies can be found by reading horizontally across the chart as in-
dicated by the dotted lines.

Unfortunately, we now have no proper basis for absolute values for strength
of concrete. This, of course, makes it necessary to refer to particular tests as in Fig.
6. This condition emphasizes the importance of working out a test of cement which
will give us at once the concrete strength for given materials, mixes, etc. With the
present method of testing cement it is impossible to do more than make a rough
guess as to the strength of concrete from the results of briquet tests.

Quantity of Water Required for Concrete

The formulas given above (4 and 5) show the elements which make up the water-
requirements of a concrete mix. Table 5 gives the quantity o water required for
certain mixes and values of fineness modulus. Quantities are given in terms of
gallons per sack of cement. In this table the net absorption (that is, the quantity
of water taken up by the aggregate in addition to that already contained) is assumed
as 0.02 (2% by volume). This table is of interest when we consider that it has
been found that a given water-ratio corresponds to constant concrete strength
regardless of the combination of mix, consistency or grading of aggregate which
may be used, so long as we have a workable concrete.
Further Discussion of Concrete Mixes
The importance of the water-ratio on the strength of concrete will be shown in
the following considerations:
One pint more water than necessary to produce a plastic concrete reduces the
strength to the same extent as if we should omit 2 to 3 Ib. of cement from a 1-bag
batch.
Our studies give us an entirely new conception of the function performed by
the various constituent materials. The use of a coarse, well-graded aggregate
results in no gain in strength unless we take advantage of the fact that the amount
of water necessary to produce a plastic mix can thus be reduced. In a similar way
we may say that the use of more cement in a batch does not produce any. beneficial
effect except from the fact that a plastic, workable mix can be produced with
a lower water-ratio.
The reason a rich mixture gives a higher strength than a lean one is not that
more cement is used, but because the concrete can be mixed (and usually is mixed)
with a water-ratio which is relatively lower for the richer mixtures than for the
lean ones. If advantage is not taken of the fact that in a 'rich mix relatively less
water can be used, no benefit will be gained as compared with a leaner mix. In all
this discussion the quantity of water is compared with the quantity of cement in the
batch (cubic feet of water to 1 sack of cement) and not to the weight of dry
materials or of the concrete as is generally done.
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXTURES 19

-|7fc?

FIG. 7. DIAGRAM FOR DETERMINING QUANTITY OF SAND REQUIRED

IN CONCRETE MIXES
A B
Based on equation p=:100
A C
where p = percentage of fine aggregate in total mixture.
A == fineness modulus of coarse aggregate.
B =. fineness modulus of total aggregate.
C = fineness modulus of fine aggregate.
20 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS RESEARCH LABORATORY

The mere use of richer mixes has encouraged a feeling of security, whereas
in manyinstances nothing more has been accomplished than wasting a large quantity
of cement, due to the use of an excess of mixing water. The universal acceptance
of this false theory of concrete has exerted a most pernicious influence on the
proper use of concrete materials and has proven to be an almost insurmountable
barrier in the way of progress in the development of sound principles of concrete
proportioning and construction.
Rich mixes and well-graded aggregates are just as essential as ever, but we
now have a proper appreciation of the true function of the constituent materials in
concrete and a more thorough understanding of the injurious effect of too much
water. Rich mixes and well-graded aggregates are after all only a means to an
end; that is, to produce a plastic, workable concrete with a minimum quantity of
water as compared with the cement used. Workability of concrete mixes is of
fundamental significance. This factor is the only limitation which prevents the
reduction of cement and water in the batch to much lower limits than are now
practicable.
The above considerations show that the water content is the most important
element of a concrete mix, in that small variations in the water cause a much wider
change in the strength than similar variations in the cement content or the size or
grading of the aggregate. This shows the absurdity of our present practice in
specifying definite gradings for aggregates and carefully proportioning the cement,
then guessing at the water. It would be more correct to carefully measure the
water and guess at the cement in the batch.
The grading of the aggregate may vary over a wide range without producing
any effect on concrete strength, so long as the cement and water remain unchanged.
The consistency of the concrete will be changed, but this will not affect the concrete
strength if all mixes are plastic. The possibility of improving the strength of
concrete by better grading of aggregates is small as compared with the advantages
which may be reaped from tasing as dry a mix as can be properly placed. Table 4
shows the effect of water on the strength of concrete.
It is impracticable to lay down a general rule for the quantity of water which
should be used in a concrete mix, since it was seen in the water formulas given
above that the total water is governed by a large number of different factors. How-
ever, it is only the water which goes to the cement (that is, exclusive of absorbed
water) which affects the concrete strength. The failure to recognize this fact has
led to many erroneous conclusions from tests made to determine the relative merits
of different aggregates.
Table 5 gives the quantity of water required for plastic mixes for certain
assumed conditions of normal consistency of cement, absorption of aggregate, and
relative consistency. Water is expressed in terms of gallons per sack of cement.
Jn using this table the dependence of the value of fineness modulus which may be
used on the size of aggregate and the mix, referred to in Table 3, should not be
overlooked.
Without regard to the actual quantity of mixing water, the following rule is a
safe one to follow : Use the smallest quantity of mixing zvater that will produce a
plastic or workable concrete. The importance of any method of mixing, handling,
placing and finishing concrete which will enable the builder to reduce the water
content of the concrete to a minimum is at once apparent.
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