Role of Plants in Environmental Monitoring: a review

Environmental Monitoring

It describes the processes and activities that need to take place to characterize and monitor the
quality of the environment. Environmental monitoring is used in the preparation of
environmental impact assessments, as well as in many circumstances in which human activities
carry a risk of harmful effects on the natural environment. All monitoring strategies and
programs have reasons and justifications which are often designed to establish the current status
of an environment or to establish trends in environmental parameters. In all cases, the results of
monitoring will be reviewed, analyzed statistically, and published. The design of a monitoring
program must therefore have regard to the final use of the data before monitoring starts.

In ecological monitoring, the monitoring strategy and effort is directed at the plants and animals
in the environment under review and is specific to each individual study.
However, in more generalized environmental monitoring, many animals act as robust indicators
of the quality of the environment that they are experiencing or have experienced in the recent
past. One of the most familiar examples is the monitoring of numbers of Salmonid fish such as
brown trout or Atlantic salmon in river systems and lakes to detect slow trends in adverse
environmental effects.[] The steep decline in salmonid fish populations was one of the early
indications of the problem that later became known as acid rain.
In recent years much more attention has been given to a more holistic approach in which the
ecosystem health is assessed and used as the monitoring tool itself
Bioindicator
A bioindicator is any species (an indicator species) or group of species whose function,
population, or status can reveal the qualitative status of the environment. For example, copepods
and other small water crustaceans that are present in many water bodies can be monitored for
changes (biochemical, physiological, or behavioural) that may indicate a problem within their
ecosystem.[] Bioindicators can tell us about the cumulative effects of different pollutants in the
ecosystem and about how long a problem may have been present, which physical and chemical
testing cannot.
A biological monitor or biomonitor is an organism that provides quantitative information on the
quality of the environment around it. Therefore, a good biomonitor will indicate the presence of
the pollutant and can also be used in an attempt to provide additional information about the
amount and intensity of the exposure.
A biological indicator is also the name given to a process for assessing the sterility of an
environment through the use of resistant microorganism strains (eg. Bacillus or Geobacillus).
Biological indicators can be described as the introduction of a highly resistant microorganism to
a given environment before sterilization; tests are conducted to measure the effectiveness of the
sterilization processes. As biological indicators use highly resistant microorganisms, any
sterilization process that renders them inactive will have also killed off more common, weaker
pathogens.
The presence or absence of certain plant or other vegetative life in an ecosystem can provide
important clues about the health of the environment: environmental preservation. There are
several types of plant biomonitors, including mosses, lichens, tree bark, bark pockets, tree rings,
and leaves. Fungi too may be useful as indicators.
Lichens are organisms comprising both fungi and algae. They are found on rocks and tree trunks,
and they respond to environmental changes in forests, including changes in forest structure –
conservation biology, air quality, and climate. The disappearance of lichens in a forest may
indicate environmental stresses, such as high levels of sulfur dioxide, sulfur-based pollutants,
and nitrogen oxides.
The composition and total biomass of algal species in aquatic systems serve as an important
metric for organic water pollution and nutrient loading such as nitrogen and phosphorus.
There are genetically engineered organisms that can respond to toxicity levels in the
environment; e.g., a type of genetically engineered grass that grows a different colour if there are
toxins in the soil.[]

Plant indicators can be helpful to determine local soil, thus it can be decided which crops should
be cultivated in a particular soil and which soil should be left for pasture or other purposes.

Plant indicators are also used to determine optimum use of land resources for forest, pasture, and
agricultural crops.

The heredity and environment both are equally important in the expression of phenotypic
characters. Heredity performs its action through environment. Species differ in their
environmental requirements and establish themselves where conditions are favorable. It is found
that certain species of plants, animals and micro-organisms have one or more specific
requirements which very much limit their distribution.

The occurrence, character and behavior of a plant are thus indicator of the combined effect of all
factors prevailing in a habitat. Since a plant species or plant community acts as a measure of
environmental conditions, it is referred to as biological indicator or bio-indicator or phyto-
indicator. In other words, plants which indicate some very specific conditions of environment are
called plant indicators.

The knowledge of relationship between plants and ecological factors can be used as an indicator
of environment. Many plants are used as indicators of environment. In a plant community some
plants are dominant and found in abundance. These plants are important indicators because they
bear full impact of habitat. It has been seen, in general, that plant communities are better
indicators than individual plants. Individual plants or plant communities are used to determine
the types of soil and other conditions of the environment. Sometimes these also indicate past or
future conditions of the environment.

Characteristic Features of Plant Indicators:

1. On the basis of distribution the indicators may be ‘steno’ species or ‘eury’ species. The ‘steno’
is used to indicate narrow limits of tolerance and ‘eury’ is used to indicate wide limits of
tolerance. A plant may show wide limits of tolerance for certain conditions and narrow limits of
tolerance for other conditions. For example, a plant may be indicator of wide limits of tolerance
for heat but of narrow limits of tolerance for water. Plants with wide limits of tolerance of heat
are called eurythermal and those with narrow limits of tolerance for water are called stenohydric.

2. Plants of large species are better indicator than the plants of small species.

3. Before relying on a single species or group of species as indicators, there should be abundant
field evidence.

4. Numerical relationships between species, population and whole communities often provide
more reliable indicators than single.

Types of Plant Indicators:

Plant Indicators for Agriculture:
Many plant indicators decide whether soil is suitable for agriculture or not. The growth of a
particular crop plant is seen under different environmental conditions and if growth is
satisfactory in a particular soil that soil is considered to be suitable for agriculture. For example,
growth of the short grasses indicates that water is less in the soil. A natural growth of tall and
short grasses indicates that soil is fertile and is also suitable for agriculture. Dhawan and Nanda
(1949, 50) and some other workers have recorded plant indicators for different types of soils as
given in Table
Plant Indicators for Pollution:
The use of vegetation as biological indicator of environmental pollution has a long history.
Knowledge of specific resistance to pollutant is of practical significance when plants grow in
industrial or thickly populated areas. Species differ in sensitivity to pollutants. In general, plants
are more sensitive to pollutants than human.

Therefore, plants can be used for the bio-indication of environmental pollution. Sensitive species
can serve as indicators and resistant species as accumulators which collect large amount of
pollutants without damage. Mosses, lichens and some fungi are much sensitive to SO 2 and
halides. Even 1% SO2 concentration is harmful to higher plants. Lichens do not survive in areas
exposed to SO2 for long time.
Many chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides and fossil fuels release toxic substances into the
environment that are taken up by the plants from air, water, and soil. Atmospheric pollutants,
particularly SO2 halides (HF, HCl), Ozone and Peroxi-acetyl-nitrate (PAN) produced from
automobiles; industrial times and strong radiations are dangerous to plants. Harmful substances
that reach plant through the air are SO 2, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, dust, and smoke. Plants
growing in water are severely affected by toxic chemicals like cyanide, chlorine, hypochlorate,
phenols, benzyl derivatives and heavy-metal compounds of sewage.
The effects of different kinds of pollution can be determined by the nature of pollutants, their
concentrations and the period of exposure. Under exposure to high concentration, plants suffer
acute injury with externally visible symptoms, such as chlorosis, discolouration, necrosis and
death of entire plant. Besides morphological changes, biochemical, physiological and fine
structural changes also occur in plants.

Pollution damage can be recognized by the accumulation of toxic material in the plant, changes
in pH, reduced or increased activity of certain enzymes, increase in compounds with SH groups
and phenols, lowered ascorbic acid level in the leaves, depression of photosynthesis, stimulation
of respiration, low dry matter production, changes in permeability, disturbances iThe
disturbances in metabolism develop due to chronic injury with irreversible consequences. Plants
show reduced productivity and yield and quality is also lowered. Besides above, the structure of
wood is changed, branches dry out and gradually the trees die. The symptoms of pollution
affected plants are varied and unspecific. A particular pollutant affects different plants in very
different ways and a particular symptom can be produced by a variety of substances. The
influence of external factors (pollutants) on plants depends on the species, state of development
and the organ or tissue involved.

Morphological alteration of a plant and floristic composition of a plant community are

commonly used to indicate changes in the environment. According to Van Haut and Stratmann
(1970), visible plant symptoms are most commonly used to indicate the responses of plants to
pollutants. Jacobson and Hill (1970) have studied the effects of common pollutants on plants.

It is possible that any part of plant body, if it responds specifically or characteristically to any
pollutant, can be used for its indication. Goldstein (1974) emphasized that the number and kind
of biological indicators can be subdivided in order of decreasing biological complexity, such as
organism, organ, tissue, cell, cell-free preparation and enzymatic studies. M.U. Beg (1980) from
Industrial Toxicology Research, Centre, Lucknow has reported the responses of pollutants as a
biological indicator taking several parameters into consideration.

Attempts have been made to use certain structures and functions of plants, such as seed
germination, growth of plant, development of lateral branches, expansion and colour changes in
leaf, flower and fruit formation, discoloration of flower, loss of physiological control, mineral
composition, chemical constituents of cells, enzymatic activity and pollen germination as
indicators of pollution stresses. Important aspects in response to pollution are summarized in
Table.

n water balance, reduced fertility under prolonged exposure.

Seed germination has been used by many workers to monitor pollution responses. Several
growth parameters such as percentage of germination, seedling survival, seedling height,
cotyledonary expansion and fresh and dry weight have been taken as criteria to assess plant
response to a specific pollutant. Phaseolus vulgaris has been grown in smoke-free and smoke-
affected regions by Sorauer (1899).

The toxic effect of thiosulphate has been indicated as germinator inhibition in many plants.
Houstan and Dochinger (1977) have evaluated germination inhibition in relation to pollution by
sulphur dioxide and ozone. The effects of lead, cadmium, NO and CO2 have been studied on
many plants. Besides seed germination, pollen germination in Nicotiana sylvestris has been used
to indicate pollution.
Some plant species are good indicators of pollution. Polygonum, Rheum, Vicia, Phaseolus, and
Capsella have been observed as pollution indicators. According to Brandt (1974), a large number
of plant species are capable of indicating specific contaminants. Generally, the plants response to
pollutants is characteristic rather than specific. Efforts have been made to develop certain plant
strains which can specifically be used as indicator for a particular pollutant.

Stunting of com, sweet potato and rye has been reported due to high toxicity. Reduction in root
length, shoot length, numbers of tillers, leaves; ears and grains in wheat have been reported
under condition of cement dust pollution. Similarly plant height, number of leaves and bolls per
plant are reduced in cotton exposed to particulate pollution. Inhibition of lateral growth of forest
trees is caused by lime stone dust. Pine trees do not flourish in SO 2 polluted areas. It has been
noticed that leaf is the most sensitive organ to pollution.
The pollution indicator value of leaf has been exploited by many workers in response to a variety
of conditions. Leaf injury is a characteristic symptom to various pollutants. The characteristic
symptoms on leaf include pigmentation, chlorosis, yellowing, necrosis etc. The leaves of
dicotyledons generally exhibit spotted markings between the veins while monocotyledons
usually show necrotic streaks between parallel veins. Injury may also occur along the leaf margin
and tip. Symptoms produced by ozone, oxides of nitrogen and chlorine are almost similar.
Reduced expansion of cotyledonary leaves in response to pollution has been observed in several
cases.

Recently epidermal morphology has been studied as indicator of different pollutants especially
SO2. Cuticular and epidermal damage can be used to indicate air pollution. Dry weight of leaf,
decrease in leaf thickness, cell size, loss of leaves and early senescence may be due to smoke and
SO2 pollution. Yunus and Ahmad (1980) have observed that leaves in the polluted area of
cement factory showed higher stomatal and trichome densities, smaller epidermal cells and
trichomes as compared to leaves obtained from unpolluted atmosphere.

Plant indicators for groundwater:

Certain plant communities indicate the depth of ground water. Central Arid Zone Research
Institute, Jodhpur has made the use of certain plant communities to indicate the depth of
groundwater and salinity level in the groundwater. Chatterjee and Bhaskar (1977) have listed the
plant communities as ecological indicators for ground water in Indian deserts (Table 12.2)
Plant indicators for Over-grazing:
Many plants are over grazed which result in modification of grassland. It has been seen that
grasses are removed by overgrazing while others are disturbed and forage production is
considerably reduced. Some plants which are vigorous and undisturbed, remain viable and
become distinct from rest of the plants.

Some plants show characteristic indication of overgrazing which can be recognized. The
predominance of annual weeds and short-lived impala-table perennials indicate severe grazing.
Examples of such plants are Polygonum, Chenopodium, Lepidium and Verbena. Some plants are
less pronounced and show poor or no over-grazing. Examples of these plants are Opuntia,
Grindelia, Vernonia etc.

Plant indicators of forest:

Some plants indicate the characteristic types of forest and they grow in an area which is not
disturbed. Narenga porphyrocoma is a grass which binds the soil. In such a soil sal (Shorea
robustd) can be cultivated. Viola species in western Himalayas is a suitable indicator for
plantation of Cedrus deodara and Pinus wallichiana. If we know that a particular forest grows
better in certain area of specific soil the productivity can be increased. For example, Quercus
stellata and Q. mariandica grow on upland, lowland or on sterile sandy soils.
Plant indicators for Soil types:
Many plants indicate the characteristic soils. For example, Casuarina equisetifolia, Ipomoea pes-
caprae, Citrullus colocynthis, Calligonum polygonoides, Lycium barbarum and Panicum grow in
sandy soil. Sacchamm munja prefers to grow in sandy loams. Imperata cylindrica and Vetiveria
zizanioides grow on clayey soils. Cotton prefers to grow in black soil.

Plants indicators for soil reaction:

Many plants indicate whether the soil is acidic or basic. For example, Rumex acetosa.
Rhododendron, Polytrichum and Sphagnum indicate acidic soils. Many forest trees as Shorea
robusta, Pinus roxburghii are calcium loving. Tectona grandis (teak), Cupressus torulosa, Ixora
parviflora and Taxus baccata are calcicoles. Some mosses e.g. Tartulla and Neckera grow on
lime stones. Halophytes such as Suaeda fruticosa, Tamarix ariculata, Salicornea, Chenopodium,
Salsola foetida grow in salty soil.

Plant indicators for minerals:

Many plants indicate the presence of characteristic minerals in the soils. These plants are called
metallocoles or metallophytes.

The following plants grow in the presence of specific metals:

(i) Diamond:
Vallozia Candida grows in presence of diamond in Brazil.

(ii) Gold:
Equisetum arvense, Lonicera confuse, Papaver libonoticum, Alpinia speciosa, Thuja species
indicate the presence of gold minerals in the soil.

(iii) Silver:
Eriogonium ovalifolium indicates the presence of silver minerals in soils in U.S.A.

(iv) Mercury:
Stellaria setacea grows in Spain in mercury rich soils,

(v) Uranium:
Astragalus species grows in USA in uranium rich soils,

(vi) Selenium:
Astragalus species, Neptunia amplexicaulis, Stanleya pinnata, Onopsis condensator, etc. grow in
selenium rich habitat.

(vii) Copper:
Viscaria alpina in Norway, Gymnolea acutiloba in America, Gypsophila

patrini in USSR grow on the soil rich in copper.

(viii) Zinc:
Viola calaminara, V. lutea in Europe grow on the soil rich in zinc minerals,

(ix) Boron:
Salsola nitrata, Eurotia cerutoides grow in boron rich soils.

(x) Cobalt:
Silene cobalticola in Congo and Nyssa sylvatica grow in America in cobalt rich soils.

(xi) Nickel:
Lychnis alpina grows in Sweden in presence of nickel.

(xii) Sulphur:
Allium, Arabis, Oenothera, and Atriplex grow on soils rich in sulphur minerals.

(xiii) Lithium:
Lycium Juncus, Thalictrum grow on soils containing lithium,

(xiv) Iron:
Damara ovata, Dacrydium caledonicum grow in Scotland on the soils rich in iron.

(xv) Aluminium:
Ulex aquifolium grows in Italy on soils rich in aluminium. Besides above, the mineral content in
a plant tissue can be employed in biogeochemical prospecting. Lyon and Brooks (1969) have
found Olearia rani to be valuable for the molybdenum. Similarly, silver has been discovered in
certain localities in leaves of plants. Sulphate content of leaf can directly be related to
SO2 concentration in air. Farrar (1977) has suggested that high sulphur content in pine needles
indicates high concentration of SO2 in atmosphere.
Fluoride content in Sorghum vulgare leaves indicates the distance up to which air pollution by a
fluoride source can fall out and this distance may be upto 4 km. In some cases higher copper
content may be due to high tension copper wires. Mercury concentration in Festuca rubra grass
may be due to chloroalkali set-up and lead in leaves may increase due to automobile exhaust.

Indicators of fires:
Some plants are well adapted to grow in burnt and highly disturbed areas as for example,
Agrostis hiemalis, Epilobium spicatum, Populus tremuloides. Pteris aquilina, and fungus
Pyronema confluens grow in areas subjected to fire. Indicators of petroleum deposits. Some
protozoans, as Fusilinds indicate petroleum deposits in the area.

Biochemical and Physiological Changes:

Chemical composition of leaf has widely been used to indicate environmental conditions.
Among the biochemical estimations, the most important parameter is pigment analysis.
Chlorophylls a and b have been measured as index for response to different types of pollution. In
Cassia and Cynodon, 5% reduction of chlorophyll has been observed while in Saccharum the
pigment is least affected. Chemical estimation like proteins, amino acids, soluble sugars, sucrose,
and starch, reducing sugars, vitamin C, riboflavin, thiamine and carbohydrate are used to indicate
foliar sensitivity to air pollution.

Physiological activities as opening of stomata and rate of photosynthesis can also be used as
indicators of pollution. Photosynthesis as a parameter has been used for mixed exposure of SO 2,
NO2 and dust. Enzymatic parameters are also used to indicate the presence of particular
pollutant. Peroxidase was found to be most sensitive indicator of pollutants in the absence of
visible injury. Kellar (1974) and Jager (1975) have reported a differential response of enzymes in
areas affected by fluoride, automobile pollution and SO2.
Thus on the basis of enzyme activity, the susceptible species of plants can be identified. Many
workers have reported that enzymatic activity has been related to air pollution. Other common
enzymatic parameters used are ribulose diphosphate carboxylase, glutamate-pyruvate
transaminase, glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase and peroxidase for SO2 pollution.
Plant indicators for Soil types:
Many plants indicate the characteristic soils. For example, Casuarina equisetifolia, Ipomoea pes-
caprae, Citrullus colocynthis, Calligonum polygonoides, Lycium barbarum and Panicum grow in
sandy soil. Sacchamm munja prefers to grow in sandy loams. Imperata cylindrica and Vetiveria
zizanioides grow on clayey soils. Cotton prefers to grow in black soil.

Plants indicators for soil reaction:

Many plants indicate whether the soil is acidic or basic. For example, Rumex acetosa.
Rhododendron, Polytrichum and Sphagnum indicate acidic soils. Many forest trees as Shorea
robusta, Pinus roxburghii are calcium loving. Tectona grandis (teak), Cupressus torulosa, Ixora
parviflora and Taxus baccata are calcicoles. Some mosses e.g. Tartulla and Neckera grow on
lime stones. Halophytes such as Suaeda fruticosa, Tamarix ariculata, Salicornea, Chenopodium,
Salsola foetida grow in salty soil.