Waste Management 101 (2020) 188–199

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Estimating the benefits of increasing the recycling rate of lamps from the
domestic sector: Methodology, opportunities and case study
C.J. Grigoropoulos a,b, L.T. Doulos a,c,⇑, S.C. Zerefos a, A. Tsangrassoulis d, P. Bhusal e
a
School of Applied Arts, Hellenic Open University, Patra, Greece
b
Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Greece
c
Lighting Laboratory, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece
d
Department of Architecture, University of Thessaly, Pedion Areos, 38334 Volos, Greece
e
Department of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Aalto University, Finland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The scope of this paper is to identify the benefits of lamp recycling from the domestic sector. Data related
Received 11 July 2019 to the recycled lamps was obtained from two recycling companies and were compared to those related to
Revised 17 September 2019 the waste lamps from the domestic sector. This was achieved by a new methodology which uses two
Accepted 3 October 2019
alternative approaches. The first one is dependent on previous research data in relation to the number
Available online 22 October 2019
of active lamps while the second one elaborates on electricity consumption and sales data, in order to
define the corresponding number of active lamps., The wasted amount of glass, metal and plastic is cal-
Keywords:
culated along with the energy savings, the annual emissions of CO2-eq, the economic benefit from their
Domestic sector waste
LED
sale and the potential reduction of hazardous waste, such as mercury to solid waste landfills under var-
Lighting ious scenarios. The amount of recovered materials collected by the Hellenic recycling companies con-
Lamps tributes to a reduction of CO2-eq by 1298 tonnes, which falls significantly short of the CO2-eq that
Lamp recycling could have been saved 3108–5463tonnes if all the lamps were recycled. Furthermore, the recycling com-
Mercury reduction panies have an annual economic benefit of €32,251 which could be increased by €122,725 if all lamps
were recycled together with the proper recycling of 3.4 kg of mercury, which was disposed in the envi-
ronment. Finally, a future scenario was examined, in which all lamps in the domestic sector were
assumed to be LEDs, an issue that can affect the viability of the recycling factories and it was proved that
these might be affected.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction reduction of electricity consumption in the domestic sector has

been observed (Mills and Schleich, 2014; Tähkämö et al., 2014),
Worldwide, electricity consumption for lighting represents representing 6% to 8% of the total electric energy consumption
about 17% to 20% of the total electricity production (Zissis, 2016; (EURECO, 2019; EL. STAT 2012, 2019). Τhe worldwide market pen-
Welz et al., 2010). In Greece, the share of lighting electricity over etration of LED lamps grew from non-existent in 2001 to 9% in
total electricity is 21%. In addition to the effort to reduce lighting 2011 in the European Union (E.U) and in the near future (2020)
consumption by using daylight (Mavridou and Doulos, 2019), there it is estimated this can be increased to over 70%. However, the
is also a concerted effort to increase the use of renewable energy research interest for their recycling is small (Rahman et al., 2017;
sources (Arabatzis et al., 2017; Kyriakopoulos et al., 2018; Ntanos Kumar et al., 2019; Richter et al., 2019). LED lamps have radically
et al., 2018; Doulos et al., 2004) and design new policies for elec- changed the lighting industry due to, their high luminous effi-
tricity generation (Kyriakopoulos and Arabatzis, 2016). Due to ciency (Madias et al., 2019) and long lifespan. Due to these advan-
the rapid evolution of higher efficacy light sources such as Compact tages, it is expected that millions of domestic fluorescent
Fluorescent Lamps (CFL) and Light-Emitting Diodes (LED) luminaires (Leopoldino et al., 2019) will be replaced by LED lamps
(European Union, 2019; Mc Kinsey and Company, 2019), a and eventually will become waste. Consequently, decision makers
(Manolis et al., 2019) should take into consideration circular econ-
⇑ Corresponding author at: School of Applied Arts, Hellenic Open University, omy aspects, like the possibility of future retrofit solutions (Doulos
Patra, Greece. et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2019c) and of course recycling. Recycling
E-mail address: [email protected] (L.T. Doulos). could be an alternative source of raw materials that can be

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.10.010
0956-053X/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 C.J. Grigoropoulos et al. / Waste Management 101 (2020) 188–199 189

recovered and reused (Gaitanelis et al., 2018; Beu et al., 2018; analyzed the types of materials and their amount that can be
Novais et al., 2016; Tunsu et al., 2014, Yufeng et al., 2014). Sheng retrieved from various types of lamps. Gu et al. (2018) in a case
Fang et al (Fang et al., 2018) showed that significant quantities of study in China presented the recycling potential of lamp waste
metal can be recovered from LED lamps that are at the end of their together with the crucial factors that affect recycling promotion.
life. This is evident by the fact that the rapid rise in the use of LED The scope of this paper is to calculate the number of waste
lamps has increased the global demand for Rare Earth Elements lamps from the domestic sector in Greece, their environmental
(REEs) at a rate of 3.7–8.6% annually (Tan et al., 2014). impact and the lost benefit from the non-recycled lamps. The main
Recycling is a significant part of Life Cycle Analysis (LCA), where problem in the domestic sector is that not every lamp installed in
the environmental, economic and social impacts of a lamp’s life household is used, thus a new methodology was introduced cap-
cycle are estimated. The environmental impacts, especially during able to calculate the number of both active and waste lamps. The
their production stage, are difficult to be estimated accurately number of the active lamps was calculated using the electric con-
(Berkeley University, 2019) since this stage involves raw material sumption for lighting. The results were compared with the
acquisition and manufacturing, processes that are different for retrieved material data collected from the two lamp recycling fac-
each manufacturer. Only a few manufactures reveal the materials tories in Greece. The number of lamps that were not recycled and
used together with the production methods (OSRAM Berlin were disposed to the environment was estimated and the corre-
Germany, 2019). In contrast to the incandescent lamp, which had sponding benefits from the potential sale of the waste materials,
a standard production procedure, LED lamp manufacturers use the reduction of the consumed energy and CO2 emissions were cal-
materials with a composition that is not exactly known in every culated. Furthermore, a future scenario of using only LED lamps in
case and this affects the accurate estimation of the environmental the domestic sector in Greece was examined, as their usage time is
impact during an LCA analysis (Zissis, 2016; Tähkämö, 2013). higher than any other lamp technology. The viability of the two
Indeed, there is a lack of information in the public domain about Hellenic recycling factories was examined using this future
the extent to which materials used in the manufacturing of LEDs scenario.
are either reused or acquired from recycling (Scholand and
Dillon, 2012; Tuenge et al., 2013). Its therefore evident that all data
concerning these materials can be retrieved more easily during 2. Materials and methods
recycling than during manufacturing (Tähkämö, 2013; Dzombak
et al., 2017, 2019). In many cases, in addition to materials, the 2.1. Overview
energy needed for recycling has to be calculated. This information
usually comes from literature (Dillon et al., 2019; Scholand and In order to calculate the missing benefit from the lamps that are
Dillon, 2012). not recycled in Greece, not only is the actual number of recycled
The total life cycle of a lamp involves various stages including lamps needed, but also the number of waste (burn-out) lamps.
raw material acquisition, manufacturing, packaging and distribu- Their difference consists the missing benefit for the country. The
tion, use and end of life. The stages involving the raw materials overall methodology and the corresponding data needed in order
acquisition, manufacturing, transport and end of life represent less to calculate the potential benefit for the Hellenic domestic sector
than 30% of the total environmental impact of the lamp during its is presented in Fig. 1a. The number of waste (burn-out) lamps for
life (Tähkämö, 2013). CFL and LED lamps during the production can each year can be estimated using the number of the corresponding
pollute the environment with toxic materials (Rhee et al., 2014; active lamps and their useful life time, which of course depends on
Jang et al., 2005), which are associated with the ballasts from CFLs their technology (CFL, LED). As the number of the active lamps in
and LEDs drivers (Tähkämö et al., 2012; Tähkämö, 2013; Tähkämö the Hellenic households is not officially known, data from various
and Dillon, 2014). At the end of the life of a lamp, which is the last sources (REMODECE, 2008; EL. STAT 2011, 2012, 2016; Eurostat
stage of the LCA, the lamp must be recycled and not disposed to a Energy balance sheets, 2006, 2012, 2016) were used and combined
solid waste landfill. With the recycling process, materials such as for 2016 (Supplementary material, Table S.1) which was consid-
Rare Earth Elements (REEs) can be recovered and reused at the pro- ered as a reference year (using the latest Eurostat’s data concerning
duction stage of LED lamps. The REEs are obtained from fluorescent Hellenic households). The number of the active lamps is not always
lamps (Hasegawa et al., 2018; Innocenzi et al., 2013) with two known, because it is different from the number of installed lamps.
methods, by taking advantage of the differences in resistance of As not all installed lamps are in simultaneous use in households
the different lamp phosphors to chemical attacks by inorganic the estimation of the active lamps is vague.
acids/bases (Anibal et al., 2013; Binnemans and Jones, 2013) or Because all the necessary data were incomplete, two sub-
by using a new hydrometallurgical route from the green phosphor methods (A and B), which can be considered as alternative
(Tan et al., 2014; Machacek et al., 2015; Van Loy et al., 2017). Sim- approaches, were used for the calculation of the active lamps
ilarly, glass and metal from the incandescent lamps, can be recov- (Fig. 1b). At this point, it has to be mentioned that Method A esti-
ered, while from fluorescent lamps aluminum and REEs are mates the number for active lamps from the REMODECE (2008)
recoverable (Tähkämö, 2013; Rhee, 2017; Zimmermann et al., research project, while Method B, calculates the active lamps by
2014). It is estimated that fluorescent lamps will still be available using the energy consumption for lighting per household
for the next 20–30 years for recycling and thus the recovery of (REMODECE, 2008; EL. STAT, 2012) together with the correspond-
REEs will be possible (Machacek et al., 2015). Another important ing number of households. Both sub-methods use lamp sales data
issue of the recycling process of CFLs is mercury, which is toxic from Greece, in order to define the type of lamps (incandescent,
for the environment and humans, and must be collected with spe- CFL or LED) installed in Hellenic households from 2005 to 2016.
cialized techniques (Zimmermann et al., 2014, Lecler et al., 2018, Furthermore, two scenarios with different power per lamp were
Mukherjee et al., 2004). Case studies in Japan and China (Asari examined. A range of values for the active lamps were calculated
et al., 2008; Hobohm et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2016; Xi et al., (year 2016) and thus the waste lamps were estimated. The corre-
2016) have demonstrated that every year tons of mercury can be sponding average values of the two sub-methods were compared
potentially released in the environment if fluorescent lamps at with the data of the recycling factories and in this way the number
the end of their life are not recycled properly. Tähkämö (2013) of lamps that were not recycled was defined.
190 C.J. Grigoropoulos et al. / Waste Management 101 (2020) 188–199

Fig. 1. Methodology used for the estimation of waste (burn-out) lamps’ materials that can be retrieved in domestic sector in Greece (a) and diagram of the methodology used
for the calculation of the active lamps used in domestic sector in Greece (b). Orange color is used for the part of the methodology which is based on data collection, green for
the calculation part and blue color for the corresponding results. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)

2.2. Collected data from all three manufacturers was 35%, Fig. 2). Furthermore,
REMODECE (2008) conducted a survey using 500 questionnaires,
2.2.1. Materials recovered from recycling in the Hellenic domestic recording the lamp type and the average annual usage time of
sector lighting in Hellenic domestic sector for 2006. The project results
Information concerning the quantity of materials recovered show that 73% of the total number of lamps were either incandes-
from the recycled lamps (Supplementary material, Table S.2) were cent or halogen and 27% CFLs. The results were in accordance with
collected from two government-certified lamp recycling compa- the market share of that year (2006).
nies: (a) Oiko-Kiklios S.A (Oiko-Kyklios S.A, 2019) (Recovered
Materials, Glass: 154 tonnes, Metal: 28.2 tonnes and Plastic: 37 2.2.3. Energy consumption data and households in use
tonnes) and (b) Appliance Recycling S.A (Appliance Recycling S.A, The total electricity consumption in the Hellenic domestic sec-
2019), (European Commission, 2012, 2019) (Recovered Materials, tor was obtained from Eurostat (Eurostat Energy balance sheets,
Glass: 152.6 tonnes, Metal: 21.7 tonnes and Plastic: 9 tonnes). Both 2006, 2012, 2016; Ppc and Power Corporation, 2019). The number
companies collect different types of lamps and through the recy- of households in use, for years 2006 and 2012, were collected from
cling process recover materials such as glass, metal and plastics. the Hellenic Statistical Authority (EL. STAT, 2012). The number of
In 2012, Oiko-kyklios S.A had distributed over 4000 collection households for 2016 was calculated using data concerning new
boxes for lamps while Appliance Recycling S.A had placed 2788 building permits (EL. STAT, 2016) from 2013 to 2016. The corre-
collection boxes (Zarzulas and Apostolidis, 2019) all over Greece. sponding yearly electricity consumption per household in Greece
is presented in Table 1. REMODECE results showed that the peak
2.2.2. Sales data of lamps for the domestic sector lighting load in the Hellenic domestic sector occurred between
Lamp sales data was collected from three companies (KAFKAS S. 20:00 and 22:00 LST.
A., 2019; LEDVANCE A.E., 2019; Super market chain, 2019) with
more than 50% of selling share at a national level. The absolute 3. Calculations
number of lamps sold, was not provided due to commercial restric-
tion policies of each company. Instead the market share of different 3.1. Power used for lighting per household
lamp technologies used in domestic sector was used. The dynamic
entrance of LED lamps in the Hellenic domestic sector was EURECO project (2002) used data from 88 households and con-
recorded in 2016 (the average value of market share for LED lamps cluded that there were 7 active lamps per household. REMODECO
 C.J. Grigoropoulos et al. / Waste Management 101 (2020) 188–199 191

Fig. 2. Market share of different lamp technology used in domestic sector. Incandescent-Halogen: Blue color, CFL: Green color and LED lamps: Orange color. Dash line: Osram
S.A., Round dot line: Kafkas S.A., Solid line: Private label. Other types of lamps are not included. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)

Table 1
Yearly electricity consumption per household, total number of households in use in Greece corresponding average electric energy consumption of active lamps and calculation of
the average power of active lamps per household and corresponding share of various light source technology using the sale data (Fig. 2).

Parameter Year
2006 2012 2016
Electricity consumption in the domestic sector (GWh) 17,956 18,468 19,991
Households in use in Greece (Houses) 3,926,000 4,134,000 4,204,000
Electricity consumption per household (kWh) 4570 4463 4755
Percentage of energy consumed for lighting (%) 8 6.40 5.40
Average Electric energy consumption of active lamps per household (kWh/year) 366 286 257
Average Power of active lamps per household in use (W) 223 174 156
Incandescent (%) 70 65 45
CFL (%) 30 25 18
LED (%) 0 10 37

project (2008) results showed that, while there were 27 installed in a household during a year (which is always smaller than the
lamps per household, only 10 were taken into account as active number of the installed lamps) and RAW (Ratio of annual waste
lamps. Using the value of 1642.5 h (CRES, 2019) as a reference lamps) is the ratio of the useful lifetime of each lamp type to its
value of the annual operating hours of lamps in the Hellenic annual operation time.
domestic sector and 10 active lamps per household, the corre- Since the number of the active lamps is different than the num-
sponding average power values for lighting were calculated ber of the installed lamps, methods A and B use different
(Table 1). approaches for their necessary calculations. Method A, uses as
input 10 active lamps per household (REMODECE, 2008) while
3.2. Number of waste (burnt-out) lamps Method B uses a parametric analysis in order to calculate the cor-
responding number.
The waste (burnt-out) lamps for both methods A and B were
calculated using Eq. (1). 3.2.1. Ratio of annual waste (burnt-out) lamps
ANW ¼ AL  RAW ð1Þ The ratio of waste (burnt-out) lamps in a year per household per
lamp type was calculated (Supplementary material, Table S.3) by
where: ANW is the annual number of waste (burnt-out) lamps, AL dividing the useful lifetime of each lamp type (European
(Active lamps) is the average number of the lamps that are in use Commission, 2012, KAFKAS S.A., 2019; LEDVANCE A.E., 2019;
192 C.J. Grigoropoulos et al. / Waste Management 101 (2020) 188–199

Super market chain, 2019) with its annual operation time (CRES, Commission, 2013), b) two scenarios (I and II) with different
2019). The useful lifetime was used in an effort for the results to amount of lighting electricity consumption share over total house-
be comparable among various lamp technologies. While the useful hold electricity use, Scenario I: 6.4% (EL. STAT, 2012) and Scenario
time of the incandescent and fluorescent lamps was defined as 70% II: 8% (REMODECE, 2008) and c) average power of active lamps and
of their half-life time (half-life time is defined when 50% of the share of light source technology (Table 1).
lamps from the examined sample have been burnt-out, IEC Equations 2–6 were used to calculate the annual waste (burnt-
60357, 2002; IEC 60969, 2016), the useful life for LEDs was defined out) lamps per technology type.
as the time at which the luminous flux of the lamp reaches 70%
x X þ y  Y  þ z  Z ¼ W ð2Þ
(L70) of its initial value (IES TM-21-11, 2011; European
Commission, 2012; ANSI/IES LM-80-15, 2015; ISO/CIE TS 22012, Where: x, y, z are the typical power of incandescent (Group A or B),
2019). In general, the useful life of LED lamps can have larger vari- CFL (Group A or B) and LED lamps (Group A or B) correspondingly
ations than the useful life of the other type of lamps. In the current while X, Y, Z the number of active incandescent, CFL and LED lamps.
study, the useful life time of lamp was taken from the lamp man- W is the total power of active lamps per year.
ufacturers’ data. When examining a different case study, this
RRL ¼ Hh =HL ð3Þ
should be taken into account.
Where: RRL is the ratio of the useful time of the lamp to its annual
operation time for each lamp technology type, Hh is the annual
3.2.2. Method A
operation time (1642.5 h (CRES, 2019)) and HL is the useful lifetime
Since method A uses a fixed number of active lamps (10), the
of each lamp technology type.
calculation of the share of each lamp technology was derived from
the sales data as these are presented in Fig. 2 and Table 1. Using X R ¼ X  RRLX ð4Þ
this information three scenarios with different lamp type percent-
ages were considered: Scenario A: 7 incandescent lamps and 3 CFL Y R ¼ Y  RRLY ð5Þ
lamps per household (for year 2006), Scenario B: 6.5 incandescent
lamps, 2.5 CFL and 1 LED lamp per household (for year 2012), Sce- Z R ¼ Z  RRLZ ð6Þ
nario C: 4.5 incandescent lamps, 1.8 CFL and 3.7 LED lamps per
Where: XR, YR, ZR are the annual number of waste (burnt-out) lamps
household (for year 2016).
for each technology type (Incandescent, CFL and LED).
Using the aforementioned data in Equation (1), the total num-
The results of the calculation of X, Y, and Z are presented in
ber of active lamps per type was calculated (Table 2) for scenarios
Table 2, which shows the range of the waste (burnt-out) lamps
A to C.
among Scenario I and II for each lamp technology.

3.2.3. Method B 3.2.4. Outcome of waste (burnt-out) lamps for both methods
In Method B, a parametric analysis was applied in order to esti- Using method A (fixed number for the active lamps per house)
mate the number of active lamps per household in use. The param- the total number of the waste (burnt-out) lamps was approxi-
eters used for this analysis were the following: a) Two groups of mately 47 million for 2016 and all lamp types. Using method B,
lamps (Group A and B) with different power (CRES, 2019) for each the number of the waste (burnt-out) lamps ranged from 22.7 to
lamp type (Group A: Incandescent 40 W, CFL 16 W, LED 7 W; 42.7 million lamps for the same year. Fig. 3 presents the corre-
Group B: Incandescent 60 W, CFL 24 W, LED 11 W, European sponding results for all lamp types and both methods. The differ-

Table 2
Total number of active and waste lamps in the domestic sector in Greece, Method A and B.

Year Number of Incandescent Number of compact Number of LED (Millions) Total number of lamps
(Millions) fluorescent (Millions) (Millions)
Active Waste* Active Waste* Active Waste* Active Waste*
Method A
2006 27.5 64.6 11.8 4.6 – – 39.3 69.2
2012 26.9 63.2 10.4 4 4.1 0.45 41.4 67.7
2016 19 44.6 7.5 0.4 15.5 2 42 47
Method B, Scenario I – Group A
2006 14.5 34.2 6.7 2.7 – – 21.2 36.9
2012 15.3 36.0 5.8 2.1 2.1 0.2 23.2 38.3
2016 13.2 31.1 5.0 2.1 10.9 1.3 29.1 34.5
Method B, Scenario I - Group Β
2006 9.8 20.1 4.1 1.6 – – 13.9 21.7
2012 10.1 23.6 3.9 1.7 1.4 0.2 15.4 25.4
2016 8.8 20.6 3.4 1.3 7.1 0.8 19.3 22.7
Method B, Scenario IΙ - Group A
2006 18.3 42.8 7.7 3.1 – – 26.0 45.9
2012 19.0 44.6 7.4 2.9 2.9 0.3 29.3 47.8
2016 16.4 38.7 6.7 2.5 13.5 1.5 36.6 42.7
Method B, Scenario IΙ- Group Β
2006 12.2 28.7 5.1 2.0 – – 17.3 30.6
2012 12.7 29.8 5.0 2.1 2.1 0.2 19.8 32.0
2016 11.0 25.6 4.2 1.7 9.2 1.1 24.4 28.4

* Calculation of waste lamps per year per household: Number of Active lamps * Ratio of change of lamps per year. Incandescent: 2.35 lamp changes per year, CFL: 0.39 lamp
changes per year, LED: 0.11 lamp changes per year, Ratio of change of lamps per year: Working hours per year/Useful time. Useful time: Incandescent:700 h, CFL: 4200 h, LED:
15,000 for L70 (European Commission, 2012, KAFKAS S.A., 2019; LEDVANCE A.E., 2019; Super market chain, 2019), Working hours per year: 1642.5 h (CRES, 2019).
 C.J. Grigoropoulos et al. / Waste Management 101 (2020) 188–199 193

Fig. 3. Minimum and maximum number of the waste (burnt-out) lamps derived using methods A, and B for the year 2016.

ence in the number of waste lamps between methods A and B, for described in 3.2.3. Thus, Method B is more accurate, since it takes
each lamp type, will be used as a minimum-maximum range for into account more realistic and a wider set of parameters than
the subsequent calculations. Method A. Despite the deviation of the results between the two
proposed methodologies, it is evident there is large potential for
material recovery from the waste (burnt-out) lamps. Using Method
4. Results
A the amount of waste lamps varies between 47.7 million (2016) to
69.2 million (2006) and are considered as maximum values, while
The weight of lamps varies depending on the manufacturing
Method B gives values ranging between 21.7 million (2006) (Sce-
process. In this study, data from Tähkämö (2013) was used for all
nario I, Group B) and 22.7 million (2016) which are considered as
lamp types including LEDs (LED A). However, in a more recent
minimum values. It is evident that Method B can be adapted from
study, Dzombak et al (2019) presented a different value for both
other countries as well, as long as, the appropriate input data exist
LED lamp weight and the amount of its recoverable materials. This
(Fig. 5a).
was used as well (LED B) with all results presented in Table S.4
Recovered materials from waste lamps can be sold, reducing the
(Supplementary material). That made possible the calculation of
operational costs of the recycling process. According to EUROSTAT
the lamps’ recoverable materials for all the examined scenarios.
(2018), glass costs 53.4 €/t, while plastic 345.9 €/t and metal
The minimum, average and maximum quantities of glass, plastic
180.56€/t (Current Scrap Metal Prices, 2019). Therefore, the total
and metal that could be recovered through recycling of the waste
potential income has been calculated for the lamps of the domestic
lamps are presented in Fig. 4a–c. These figures include a) all the
sector (Average value: €154,976, Minimum value: €45,416 for
examined scenarios (Method A and B: Scenarios I and II for Groups
Method B, Scenario I, Group B, LED from Dzombak 2019 data, Max-
A and B) and b) the amount of the recoverable materials per lamp
imum value €264,535 for Method A LED from Tähkämö, 2013), as
type (Supplementary material, Table S.4). Fig. 4d presents the min-
well as the actual income of the recycling factories (€32,251). As
imum, average and maximum values of possible recoverable mate-
already mentioned, mercury contained in CFL lamps must to be
rials from the waste (burnt-out) lamps (all types), along with the
collected properly. Fluorescent lamps contain 1.5 mg of mercury
actual recycled materials from recycling companies, while
on average (Asari et al., 2008; Lecler et al., 2018; Zimmermann
Table S.5 (Supplementary material) shows analytically the possible
et al., 2014). The waste CFL lamps in the Hellenic domestic sector
recoverable materials for each examined case and scenario.
were 2,307,240 resulting in 3.4 kg of mercury that was possibly
released in the environment (Hobohm et al., 2016; Zhang et al.,
5. Discussion 2016) only for 2016.
The retrieved plastic can be used as fuel in industrial processes,
5.1. Overall benefit such as cement production. Α cement kiln uses coal, petcoke or lig-
nite as main fuels. According to Astrup et al. (2009) one (1) tonne
The results from Method B gave smaller quantities of recover- of plastic may substitute 1230 to 1640 kg of hard coal. Thus, by
able materials when compared to those from Method A. The vari- taking into account the greenhouse emissions for the provision of
ation of the results is due to the different number of active lamps this coal, this substitution, leads to savings of 871 to 1467 kg
per household that each method uses. Method A, has the limitation CO2-eq. per tonne of plastic waste. The metal scrap recovered from
of using the number of active lamps, based on REMODECO project waste lamps is mostly aluminum. The corresponding annual
data, (10 active lamps per household in use) while method B calcu- reduction of CO2 through the reuse of 1 tonne of aluminum is
lates the number of active lamps using the parametric analysis as between 5 and 19.3 tonnes CO2-eq. (Damgaard et al., 2009). Finally,
194 C.J. Grigoropoulos et al. / Waste Management 101 (2020) 188–199

Fig. 4. Estimated weight of lamp recoverable materials per year from waste (burnt-out) incandescent lamps (a), fluorescent lamps (b), LED lamps (c) together with actual data
from recycling companies in Greece (d).

1 tonne of glass cullet, that can be used as feedstock in glass pro- parameters for this future scenario were the same as used in Meth-
duction, can save between 445 and 506 kg CO2-eq. (Larsen et al., ods A and Method B, but using only LED lamps in Hellenic
2009). The glass-cullet can also be used by concrete manufacturers, households.
reducing the total amount of sand used. The daily production of LED lamps have more plastic and metal but less glass than the
concrete in Greece requires about 165 tonnes of sand with the rest types of lamps. The quantity of the materials that can be recov-
retrieved glass-cullet can replace only 10% of this quantity ered is presented in Fig. 6a. The income from the recovered mate-
(Gaitanelis et al., 2018). rials (glass, plastic and metal) according to EUROSTAT (2018) and
Using the minimum and maximum values of the aforemen- Current Scrap Metal Prices (2019) prices can be €114,612 as an
tioned data (range values of CO2-eq. per tonne for each material) average value (max value €196,279 with LED type A and min value
together with the recovered materials, the calculation of CO2-eq. €32,944 with LED type B), a sum quite lower than the income esti-
emissions is straightforward. Fig. 5b presents the reduction of mated for the current situation. Fig. 6b also presents the annual
CO2-eq. emissions in a hypothetical scenario where all materials reduction of CO2-eq in the future scenario. It is evident that the via-
recovered from the waste lamps are recycled together with the bility of the recycling factories in the future is not financially
emissions due to material quantities collected by the recycling secured depending on the amount of recoverable materials per
companies in Greece. This is an indication that the recycling of LED lamp type, given that the prices of the materials will not be
lamps should be encouraged in other sectors besides domestic, raised substantially in the future. As shown from the input data
such as the tertiary (offices, public buildings and lighting) in order (Tähkämö, 2013; Dzombak et al 2019, Supplementary material,
to fulfill, the need of the country’s decarbonization strategy Table S.4) the recoverable materials are decreasing not only
(European Commission, 2018). because the initial weight of the LED lamps is reduced together
with a reduction in the glass used, but also due to the lower weight
5.2. Future scenario using only LED lamps in Hellenic households of the all other recovered materials (Supplementary material,
Table S.4).
Since incandescent lamps have already been banned from the
market and assuming that in the next 20 years CFL lamps will 6. Conclusions
not be available for selling, the dominant lamp type left will be
LEDs. Due to their large lifespan the number of waste (burnt-out) Sustainability is dependent on two key factors: the proper man-
lamps will be extremely low compared to the current number of agement of natural resources and the protection of the environ-
waste lamps, questioning the viability of the recycling companies. ment. Natural resources are finite and for this reason they should
However, LED lamps have increased weight compared to the other be recycled and re-used to the fullest possible extent for future
types of lamps and thus more materials can be recovered. The generations. At the design stage of luminaires, the manufacturer
 C.J. Grigoropoulos et al. / Waste Management 101 (2020) 188–199 195

Fig. 5. Number of waste lamps as calculated using Methods A and B (a) and annual reduction of CO2-eq emissions when all waste lamps of the Hellenic domestic sector have
been recycled to actual CO2-eq reduction using the waste lamps ending up to the recycling factories (b).

should take into consideration circular economy aspects such as products have approximately 60% less environmental impact than
repair, reuse, remanufacturing, retrofiting, recycling and upcycling the non-eco design products (Fang et al., 2018; Apisitpuvakul et al.,
(Beu et al., 2018) and not only the energy savings due to luminaire 2008; Casamayor et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2017). The dynamic
operation (Madias et al, 2019; Manolis et al 2019; Ardavani et al., entrance of LED lamps in the domestic market, which was noticed
2020), adopted lighting controls (Adam et al, 2019; Doulos et al., during year 2016 in Greece, reflected in lamps sales with LEDs rep-
2008, 2014, 2017; Topalis and Doulos, 2017) and the use of day- resenting 35% of the total lamp sales.
light systems (Tsangrassoulis et al 2005; Kontadakis et al., 2017, Using a set of data, the total amount of active lamps was calcu-
2018). Luminaires, according to the results of a large number of lated for the Hellenic domestic sector. Using the corresponding
LCA (Tähkämö, 2013; Dillon et al., 2019; Dzombak et al., 2019) recycled data from the recycling companies, the number of waste
analyses have a substantial environmental impact, particularly at (burnt-out) lamps were calculated and the missing economic
the end of their expected life. Therefore, LCA results should be used income was estimated equal to €122,725 as an average value. It
to make product selection decisions focused on their financial via- is obvious that the amount of recovered materials collected by
bility together with their environmental impact. The eco design the Hellenic recycling companies (1,298 tonnes CO2-eq) falls sig-
196 C.J. Grigoropoulos et al. / Waste Management 101 (2020) 188–199

Fig. 6. Weight of recoverable materials resulting in from the waste LED lamps for the future scenario (a) and annual reduction of CO2-eq emissions for 2016 and future
scenarios (b).

nificantly short of the quantities that could have been collected if stock the input data can predict reliably the number of waste
all the lamps were recycled (5,463 tonnes CO2-eq, as average value, lamps.
using LED type A and 3,108 tonnes CO2-eq using using LED type B) The underlying purpose of this paper was to highlight the prob-
and this is considered as a missed opportunity to further reduce lem of the waste (burnt-out) lamps of the Hellenic domestic sector
emissions by 1,810 to 4,156 tonnes CO2-eq contributing to the that are not recycled, to sensitize the government and to motivate
decarbonization strategy of Greece (European Commission, 2018). citizens to recycle. While the benefit of the recycling lamps is evi-
The proposed methodology takes into account not only the dent, the collection of the waste (burnt-out) lamps is not an easy
domestic electrical energy consumption for lighting, but also the process in Greece requiring the involvement of all citizens. There-
number of the households in use, together with sales data from fore, a set of actions than can supported by the Greek government
the lamp manufactures in an effort to reliably estimate the number are the following:
of the active lamps per household. Using Greece as a case study,
these input data were necessary in order to exclude any uncer-  Constantly informing citizens about the dangers of non-
tainty due to the recent economic recession. The number of newly recycled lamps and the benefits of the environmental protec-
built houses was reduced by 91%, from 71,936 in 2007 to 4853 in tion and the proper management of natural resources. This
2016 (Kathimerini, 2019) while the reduction of electrical con- action should be focused on the educational institutions with
sumption was 7% between 2007 and 2017 (Capital, 2019) Due to the realization of seminars, emphasizing the fact that all lamps
the fact that there is no substantial increase in the overall housing should be recycled.
 C.J. Grigoropoulos et al. / Waste Management 101 (2020) 188–199 197

 A discount as a reward when a lamp (especially for the fluores- Casamayor, J.L., Su, D., Ren, Z., 2017. Comparative life cycle assessment of LED
lighting products. Soc. Light Lighting 50, 801–826. https://doi.org/10.1177%
cent lamps that contain mercury) from the domestic sector is
2F477153517708597.
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emissions for fluorescent lamps in mainland China. Sci. Total Environ. 575, 467–
473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.07.058.
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kiklios S.A. and Appliances Recycling S.A which provided the data of greenhouse gases and global warming contributions. Waste Manage. Res. 27
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Dillon, H.E., Ross, C., Dzombak, R., 2019. Environmental and energy improvements
to thank Mr. Vassiliou Georgios and Mr. Christogiannopoulos Dim- of LED lamps over time: a comparative life cycle assessment. LEUKOS. https://
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Andrikopoulos and Mr. Emanouil from KAFKAS SA, Mr. Zacharakis
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Dimitris and Mr. Bimis Panagiotis from ΟSRAM / LEDVANCE S.A Doulos, L., Tsangrassoulis, A., Topalis, F.V., 2014. Multi-criteria decision analysis to
and Mr. Kiousis Christos for providing data of lamp sales from select the optimum position and proper field of view of a photosensor. Energy
the domestic use in Greece. Convers. Manage. 86, 1069–1077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.
2014.06.032.
Doulos, L.T., Tsangrassoulis, A., Kontaxis, P.A., Kontadakis, A., Topalis, F.V., 2017.
Harvesting daylight with LED or T5 fluorescent lamps? The role of dimming.
Funding
Energy Build. 140, 336–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.02.013.
Doulos, L.T., Kontadakis, A., Madias, E.N., Sinou, M., Tsangrassoulis, A., 2019a.
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding Minimizing energy consumption for artificial lighting in a typical classroom of a
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Hellenic public school aiming for near Zero Energy Building using LED DC
luminaires and daylight harvesting systems. Energy Build. 194, 201–217.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.04.033.
Doulos, L.T., Sioutis, I., Tsangrassoulis, A., Canale, L., Faidas, K., 2019b. Minimizing
Declaration of Competing Interest
lighting consumption in existing tunnels using a no-cost fine-tuning method for
switching lighting stages according revised luminance levels. In: 2019 IEEE
None. International Conference on Environment and Electrical Engineering and 2019
IEEE Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Europe (EEEIC/I&CPS Europe),
Genova, Italy, June 11th-14th 2019, pp. 1–6. http://doi.org/10.1109/EEEIC.2019.
Appendix A. Supplementary material 8783789.
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