Biology, Chemistry, Health | UNDERSTAND CO

CO
H N O2 CO

CO

CO N O2
H
CO

Nicola Graf
HNO 2

Take a deep breath?

Investigating indoor air pollution
New studies are uncovering how emissions from daily
household activities pollute the air we breathe at home.

By Nicola Carslaw and Nina Notman

In many towns and cities around the world, air quality is Sources of indoor pollutants
now continually monitored, and laws exist to help keep The majority of indoor air pollutants originate from things
air pollution to acceptable levels. In some major cities, we use and do indoors. This means that the composition
policies such as banning cars in central zones are helping to of indoor air is usually very different to that of outdoor air.
reduce the public’s exposure to harmful pollutants. This is, of Sources of indoor pollution include gas hobs and wood-
course, great progress, but when you consider that people in burning stoves, which emit a mixture of potentially harmful
developed countries are estimated to spend around 90% of gases including nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and carbon monoxide
their time indoors, it is perhaps surprising that our knowledge (CO). Candles are another significant offender: perhaps
of indoor air quality lags considerably behind that of outdoor surprisingly, burning a candle for just one hour can produce
air. In the past few years, however, scientists have started to enough NO2 to increase the indoor concentration close to
investigate the quality of indoor air, and the chemistry that the World Health Organization’s (WHO) limit (hourly mean)
creates indoor air pollution, in more detail. of 200 micrograms per cubic metre (μg/m3)w1 (Uhde & Shulz,

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 UNDERSTAND | Biology, Chemistry, Health

SpeedKingz/Shutterstock.com
vinyl floorings and soft furnishings, as culminated in the researchers preparing
well as personal care products, cleaning a typical Thanksgiving dinner with roast
agents and air fresheners. These release turkey and all the trimmings. While
potentially dangerous volatile organic cooking this meal, NO2 concentrations
compounds (VOCs) into the surrounding peaked at approximately 200 μg/m3 as a
air. One of the most common VOCs result of emissions from the gas hob.
is formaldehyde (methanal, CH2O), a But much simpler meals ultimately
colourless – but smelly – gas that is a proved to be a bigger threat: cooking
respiratory irritant and carcinogen. a stir-fry resulted in the highest
concentration of PM10 (particles that
Wood-burning stoves emit a mixture of potentially Insights into air chemistry measure less than 10 μm in diameter)
of around 350 μg/m3, as a result of
harmful gases.
One of the first in-depth studies into particles from both the cooking oil and
indoor air chemistry began in June the food. To put this in perspective, the
2015). These combustion sources also 2018, when 65 scientists took over a WHO limit (24-hour mean) for PM10
release minute specks of inhalable three-bedroom test house in Texas, is 50 μg/m3. Frying eggs, sausages and
particles known as particulate matter USA, to begin a project called tomatoes (in addition to cooking toast
(PM). At high enough concentrations, ‘HOMEChem’w2 (Farmer et al., 2019). for breakfast) produced the highest
NO2 and PM can lead to respiratory Bringing with them $4.5 million worth concentration of fine particles (those
and cardiovascular problems, while of equipment, they spent a month measuring less than 2.5 μm in diameter,
exposure to high concentrations of CO cooking, cleaning and performing other known as PM2.5) at approximately
can be fatal. everyday tasks, while analytical instru- 200 μg/m3 (Farmer et al., 2019), for
Other contributors to indoor pollution ments measured the mixture of indoor which the WHO limit is 25 μg/m3.
are household materials such as paint, chemicals being emitted. The project What’s more, these smaller particles are

Inorganic and organic chemistry Environmental sciences

Chemical reactions Atmospheric chemistry
Human physiology Ages 11–19
Health and disease
While the study of outdoor air pollution and its presence · On average, how much time do people in developed
in the media date back many decades, the study of indoor countries spend indoors every day?
air pollution is a more novel topic. This article, written · Is the composition of indoor air usually similar or
in a concise and clear style, introduces readers to the different to outdoor air?
complexities of this issue, keeping it as simple as possible · Name two chemicals produced by combustion in gas
without compromising its scientific details. hobs and wood-burning stoves.
The article is aimed at secondary school teachers and · What is the difference between PM10 and PM2.5? Which
students, and sparks the readers’ interest with the broader type of particle can travel deeper into the lungs?
topic of air pollution before addressing theoretical topics · Name four household materials that release VOCs.
in chemistry. The direct link between indoor air pollution
· Which compounds are produced by the splitting of
and human health offers further teaching opportunities, formaldehyde due to light?
and the additional web references and resources provide
· What is third-hand smoke?
more ways to explore the topic.
· List three actions that can be taken to reduce indoor air
The article can also be used as a comprehension exercise,
REVIEW

pollution.
for learning assessments, and for a discussion on the
· Indoor air pollution is a bigger problem now than it
safety of indoor environments and ways of improving air
was 50 years ago. Why is this?
quality through our own habits and behaviours.
Possible comprehension questions include: Giulia Realdon, natural sciences teacher
and education researcher, Italy

www.scienceinschool.org I Science in School I Issue 48 : Autumn 2019 I 17

Biology, Chemistry, Health | UNDERSTAND

likely to be more harmful to our health

Callie Richmond/Callie Richmond Galleries

than PM10 , as they can travel further
into the respiratory system.

Reactions in the air

Once these molecules are released into
the air, they don’t hang around in their
original form for long. Instead, they
can react with other chemicals to form
new products. The reaction rates are
often different indoors and outdoors.
Light-driven reactions, for example,
happen more slowly indoors. This is
because glass cuts out much of the
ultraviolet light that splits molecules
apart outdoors. Indoor lights also tend
to have low ultraviolet levels. However,
these reactions can still happen. For
instance, there is sufficient light indoors Stir-fry experiments resulted in a spike in the concentration of particulate matter inside the
HOMEChem house.
for formaldehyde to react with oxygen
and split to form two hydroperoxy (HO2)
radicals and a CO molecule. The HO2 nominal footprint that such an item smoke is currently an area of very active
radicals can then form other oxidants occupies in a room. As a result, there research, given the potentially adverse
that react with the indoor VOCs – and are more opportunities for pollutants to health effects that arise from exposure
before you know it, there are hundreds settle on surfaces and react with other to it.
of different reactions forming myriad chemicals deposited there (Weschler & Perhaps the most interesting surface
different compounds, some of which are Carslaw, 2018). that scientists are exploring, however,
harmful to health. Here, tobacco smoke and e-cigarette is the human body. When ozone in
A more significant driver of indoor vapour are a particular concern. the air comes into contact with the
reactions, however, is the amount of Nicotine and other chemicals in many oils and fatty acids on our skin,
available surface area. Surfaces play a exhaled smoke or vapour linger in the they can react to produce a range of
more important role in indoor chemistry air and stick to surfaces such as those of secondary pollutants. As we go about
than outdoor chemistry, since the ratios furniture or fabrics. This residue, which our daily indoor lives, we are removing
of surface area to volume are much is known as third-hand smokew3, can ozone (O3) from the air and releasing
greater indoors than outdoors. This is later react with indoor pollutants such other chemicals. For instance, if you
because the fibres in fleecy surfaces as nitrous acid (HNO2) to form new use bleach to clean your home, mixing
such as carpets and soft furnishings and often harmful products, such as the bleach with water releases chlorine
increase the surface area beyond the carcinogenic nitrosamines. Third-hand gas (Cl2), hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
Callie Richmond/Callie Richmond Galleries

Scientists of the HOMEChem project

carried out everyday activities in this
three-bedroom test house in Texas, USA, to
measure indoor air pollution.

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 UNDERSTAND | Biology, Chemistry, Health

and other chlorine compounds into the

sirtravelalot/Shutterstock.com
surrounding air. The oils on our skin
contain unsaturated compounds with
carbon-carbon double bonds, such as
squalene (C30H50). The HOCl reacts with
the double bonds to form chlorinated
compounds, which could explain why
our skin becomes irritated without even
coming into direct contact with the
bleach itself.

Cleaning up pollutants
As a result of these new scientific
studies, our once foggy understanding
of indoor air pollution is now starting
to clear. Evidently, spending so much
of our time indoors means that we are
exposed to a concoction of chemicals
and indoor air pollutants – especially as We spend the majority of our time inside, but little is known about the indoor air pollutants we inhale
every day.
energy-efficient measures mean that our
homes and buildings are increasingly
airtight, making it easier for pollutants
to build up inside. Minimising our
References provides more information about the
Farmer DK et al. (2019) Overview of HOMEChem: programme, as well as links to further
House observations of microbial and resources and videos. See: https://sloan.org/

“measures
Energy-efficient
mean that
environmental chemistry. Environmental
Science: Processes and Impacts 21: 1280-
1300. doi: 10.1039/c9em00228f
programs/research/chemistry-of-indoor-
environments

Uhde E, Shulz N (2015) Impact of room fragrance Resources

our homes and buildings products on indoor air quality. Atmospheric Read about the health impacts of various air
are increasingly airtight, Environment 106: 492–502. doi: 10.1016/j.
atmosenv.2014.11.020
pollutants in a factsheet published by WHO.
See: www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-
making it easier for Weschler CJ, Carslaw N (2018) Indoor sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-
chemistry. Environmental Science and and-health
pollutants to build up Technology 52: 2419–2428. doi: 10.1021/ The ‘Indoor Chem’ YouTube channel publishes
inside. ” acs.est.7b06387 a range of videos on the topic of indoor air
pollution. See: www.youtube.com/channel/
Web references UCXFu3yNKZvgkWrzq6irGzUw or use the
w1 Visit the website of the World Health direct link https://tinyurl.com/y49v2jj5

exposure to these pollutants is more Organization (WHO) to read their Guidelines __________________________________
for Indoor Air Quality, published in 2010. See:
important than ever, so remember
www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_ Dr Nicola Carslaw is a professor at the
to ventilate often, especially when
file/0009/128169/e94535.pdf?ua=1 or use University of York, UK. Her research
you cook and clean, and consider the direct link https://tinyurl.com/yxhsg6uo focuses on using detailed chemical
the frequency with which you use air w2 Learn more about the ‘HOMEChem’ project models to understand what causes
fresheners or scented candles. And in the article ‘Large scale experiment probes
indoor air pollution. She teaches
judging from the HOMEChem project chemistry inside our homes’ published in
Chemistry World. See: www.chemistryworld.
courses on environmental chemistry,
results, it’s a sensible idea to use a
com/news/large-scale-experiment-probes- climate change and atmospheric
cooker hood whenever you’re using
chemistry-inside-our-homes/3009228. science to university students.
a hob – especially when cooking a
article Dr Nina Notman is a freelance science
breakfast fry-up.
w3 Watch a short video about third-hand writer specialising in chemistry. She
smoke on the ‘Indoor Chem’ YouTube
writes for a range of magazines,
Acknowledgement channel. See: www.youtube.com/
including the UK’s Royal Society of
watch?v=qQvlIEbQ3tU&t=3s or use the
The authors acknowledge the support of direct link https://tinyurl.com/yxpupd5n Chemistry publications Chemistry World
the Alfred P Sloan Foundationw4 under w4 The Chemistry of Indoor Environments and Education in Chemistry.
grant number G-2018-10083 to write webpage on the Sloan Foundation website
this article.

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