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Environmental Pollution and Its Control

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 CHAPTER

7
Environmental Pollution and Its Control

7.1. DEFINITION AND TYPES OF etc.) long-chain phenolic chemicals and DDT
POLLUTANTS either do not undergo microbial degradation
or degrade at extremely slow rates. Such
Pollution is an unfavourable alteration in the
substances are grouped under the category of
physical, chemical or biological characteristics
non-degradable pollutants. These groups of
of air, water and land that may or will adversely
pollutants often accumulate within the living
affect human life, industrial life, industrial
tissues (a phenomenon called bioaccumulation)
progress, living conditions and cultural assets.
and get “biologically magnified” while they
Thus it is a sort of negative stress exerted on the
move along the food chains towards the
positive health of the ecosystem.
members of higher tropical level.
The substances that cause the undesirable
The biodegradable pollutants include
changes in the air, water and land are referred to
domestic sewage which can be easily
as the pollutants. Thus, pollutant is a substance
decomposed by microbial actions into smaller
(e.g., dust, smoke), chemicals (e.g., SO2 or
fragments or elements that can be again
Methyl mercury) or factor (like heat, noise
recycled.
etc.) that on release into the environment has
an actual or potential adverse effect on human 7.2. AIR POLLUTION
interests. According to the Indian Protection
Act (1986) “… a pollutant has been defined as According to WHO, air pollution is defined
any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present as “.... Phenomenon in which substances
in such concentration as may be or tend to be put into air by the activity of mankind into
injurious to the environment…” Various types concentration sufficient to cause harmful effect
of pollutants ranging from gaseous pollutants to his health, vegetables, property or interfere
to radioactive wastes exist in nature. However with the enjoyment of his property .....”
for convenience, the entire pollutant spectrum
may be dived into two broad categories Causes of Air Pollution
namely biodegradable and non-biodegradable The various sources of air pollution are
pollutants. highlighted here:
Substances like aluminium cans, heavy 1. Industrial pollutants: CO, CO2, SO2,
metals (like Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, ni, Pb, Hg, H2S and hydrocarbons are most common
60 Environmental Science for the Beginners

air pollutants which are discharged into 3. Burning of Fuels: Fossil fuels are the
air from industrial chimneys and power sources of energy for cooking, heating,
houses. These gases are produced due to lightening our houses, washing clothes
burning of fossil fuels and by combustion through washing machine, or for running
of lignite at thermal power stations. Various TV etc. Coal and a variety of hydrocarbons
fluorine compounds (HF, F2, SiF4, H2SiF6 including methane and soot, ashes and SO2
etc.) are emitted from phosphate fertilizer are also the products of coal burning. It has
manufacturing plants (since large amounts been recorded that electrical power plants,
of fluorine are present in phosphate rock), burning fossil fuels, particularly coal and
aluminium extraction (where cryolite i.e., sometimes petrol or diesel, produce two-
Na3AlF6 is used to lower the melting point thirds of the SO2.
of the mixture of CaF2, Al2O3 and Na3AlF6),
In majority of the Indian cities, towns
ceramic firing, steel making and some
chemical processing. Many metallurgical and villages cooking is done by burning
processes release dust and fumes which are colas, which is an important cause behind
loaded with Pb, Cr, Ni etc. Many chemical the increment of benzene concentration
industries release hydrochloric acid, in the atmosphere. While in most of the
chlorine, oxides of nitrogen, Zn, Pb, As, developed countries, the most toxic benzene
oxides of Cu, in addition to SO2, CO and is much less than toluene and xylene in the
H2S. It has been observed that industrial urban air, in the third world countries, the
processors like metallurgical plants and picture is totally reverse. In Kolkata, more
smelters, chemical plants, petroleum that 70% of the families still use coal chullas
refineries, pulp and paper mills, sugar which account for high benzene load in the
mills and cotton mills and synthetic rubber city air.
manufacturing plants are responsible for 4. Aircraft Emissions: The pollution from
about one-fifth of the air pollution. the aircraft is also an important component
2. Automobiles: Automobiles (cars, scooters, of the total air pollution problem in the
motor cycle etc.) have been regarded as world. Aircrafts are responsible for about
the greatest sources of air pollution. They 2.5% of the CO emissions and about 1%
produce nearly two-thirds of the carbon of the hydrocarbon emissions, but only
monoxide and one half of the hydrocarbons negligible amounts of the other major air
and nitrous oxides. The automobile exhaust pollutants. The smoke emitted from jet
has also leaded gas and particulate lead. aircraft is composed largely of fine particles
The combustion of petroleum emits approximately 0.5µm in diameter, which are
particulate lead compounds. The particulate
completely burnt. As these particles scatter
lead compounds emitted from petroleum
light quiet well, they often reduce visibility.
combustion have profound adverse
influence on biotic community. 5. Agricultural Activities: Burning of forest
areas, grasslands etc. for pastures and
Benzene, toluene and xylene are the
three volatile organic compounds (VOC) croplands produces about 60 to 65% of CO2.
present in urban atmosphere mainly due About 40% of methane is produced from
to use of petrol and diesel in automobiles. paddy fields, guts of livestocks and also from
Out of these three organic compounds, the burning of biomass.
concentrations of benzene in air showed Crop spraying and dusting for pest
strong correlations with the incidence of and weed control are responsible for
cancer. The limit value of benzene in air for emitting organic phosphates, chlorinated
health safety should not exceed 10 µg/m3. hydrocarbons, arsenic and lead into air.
 Chapter 7: Environmental Pollution and Its Control 61
6. Ionizing Radiation: These radiations are Effects of Air Pollution
characterized by sufficiently great energy Dust, smoke and other suspended particulate
to ionize atoms and molecules. Ionizing matter reduce the visibility. Some of the
radiation like alpha and beta particles aerosols as H2SO4 mist, (NH4)2SO4 mist and
are produced during nuclear explosions, water vapour influence the vertical temperature
scientific experiments where radio-isotopes profile in the atmosphere. It affects the thermal
are used and atomic weapon testing. mixing and also leads to green house effects
Radiations are also caused by naturally and depletion of ozone layer. Air pollution also
occurring radioactive substances. reduces the aesthetic value of places and exerts
7. Cosmic Radiation: Cosmic rays are high considerable adverse effects on the health of
energy charged particles (mostly protons) biota. The various effects of air pollution are
of extra terrestrial origin, which are discussed separately.
important source of natural radiations. The
earth’s atmosphere is under the continuous Effects of Air Pollution on Climate
bombardment of high energy particles In urban areas air pollution causes several
coming from outer space. These particles effects like increase of air temperature, lowering
are the primary cosmic rays. As they of wind speed, attenuation of solar radiation
penetrate into the atmosphere, primary etc. The particulate matter in the atmosphere,
cosmic rays loss energy and gradually whose urban concentrations are typically 10
disappear on colliding against the oxygen times those of rural areas, is capable of reducing
and nitrogen atoms of the air. At the same the amount of solar radiation falling on the city
time, however, they give rise to secondary by 15 to 20%.
rays mostly different in nature from the Green house effect is also a direct
primary particles and, of course, of lower consequence of air pollution. A large amount
average energy. Thus, at each point with the of CO2 gets introduced into the atmosphere
atmosphere, one finds a radiation consisting due to burning of fossil fuels, furnaces etc. The
partly of primary particles, and partly of gas gets confined exclusively to troposphere.
secondary particles. This radiation may be In dense concentration, it can act as a serious
denoted as local cosmic radiation. pollutant. The temperature at the surface of the
8. Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM): SPM earth is being maintained by the energy balance
is a major air pollutant. Dust is generated between the sun’s rays that strike the planet and
from sources such as coal dust (from oil the heat that gets radiated back into the space.
refineries, power plants etc.,) cement dust, Some of the sun’s rays that penetrate the thick
silica dust (from stone crushing). A huge layer of CO2 are able to strike the earth and get
amount of dust is also blown by transport converted into heat. The heated earth is able to
vehicles. re-radiate this absorbed energy as radiations of
Incidences of high lead dust were longer wavelengths. Much of this does not pass
recorded in some pockets of the city of through CO2 layer to the outer space but gets
Kolkata. In Picnic Garden area of Kolkata, absorbed by the CO2 layer creating an addition
there are a number of lead factories of extra heat. An increased heating of earth may
producing lead ingots and lead alloys. In result in melting of the polar ice caps and finally
the dining table of some local houses, the cause a rise in the sea level. This phenomenon
concentration of lead in the dust exceeded is termed as green house effect. Many workers
5,000µg/gm (Chakraborti, 1996). have predicted that there is a high probability
62 Environmental Science for the Beginners

of increment of the global temperature by 1.5 to Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health
4.5°C by the year 2050. Human health is seriously affected by air
Sometimes, in the presence of sunlight, pollution and in extreme cases many diseases
atomic oxygen from the photochemical may be fatal. Diseases like asthma, bronchitis,
reduction of NO2 also react with a number pollen allergies, lung cancer are all associated
of hydrocarbons (such as methane, ethane, with air pollution. Baker et al. (1968) reported
toluene etc., all of which originate from burning that in many American cities along the Eastern
of fossil fuels or directly from plants) to form Seaboard increasing frequencies of bronchitis,
reactive intermediates called radicals. These cough, soar throat, wheezes, eye irritations
radicals then take part in a series of reactions and general ill health in people occurred as
to form still more radicals that combine with air pollution level increased. Mountain et al.
oxygen, hydrocarbons and NO2. This results (1968) reported the occurrence of respiratory
in the regeneration of NO2, disappearance problems in children less than 8 years in the city
of nitric oxide, accumulations of ozone and of New York.
formation of a number of secondary pollutants
Air pollution can also be the cause of cancer.
like formaldehyde, aldehydes and peroxyacetyl
Higher benzene soluble organic matter (BSOM)
nitrate or PAN (C2H3O5N). All these collectively
in city air means that the air is more polluted
form photochemical smog.
and usually automobiles and coal burning are
The increased use of CFCs by human responsible for higher BSOM value. In BSOM,
beings in recent times has another cause in air there lie a group of compounds known as
pollution. These obnoxious compounds emitted Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) and
mainly by aerosols escape to stratosphere and many of them are suspected carcinogens (like
react with ozone. A sharp drop in the protective benzapyrene). Evidences from epidemiological
ozone layer (about 40%) over Antarctica studies suggest an increase of one benzapyrene
could have been caused by human produced unit corresponds to an increase of 5% in the
pollutants. This may ultimately pave the way of lung cancer death rate.
global temperature rise.
The pathological effects of various air
pollutants along with their sources are given in
Table 7.1

Table 7.1: Pathological effects of some common air pollutants (After Southwick, 1976)
Pollutants Source Pathological effect
Aldehydes Thermal decomposition of fats, oil and Irritate nasal and respiratory tracts
glycerol
Ammonia Chemical processes, dye making, explo- Inflames upper respiratory passages
sives, fertilizer
Arsine Processes involving metals or acids Breaks down red cells in blood, damages
containing arsenic soldering kidneys and causes jaundice
Carbon monoxide Gasoline motor exhausts, burning of coal Reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood
Chlorine Bleaching cotton and flour, many other Attacks entire respiratory tract and mucous
chemical processes membranes of eyes, cause pulmonary
edema
Hydrogen cyanide Fumigation, blast furnaces, chemical Interferes with nerve cells, produces dry
manufacturing, metal plating throat, indistinct vision and headache

Contd
 Chapter 7: Environmental Pollution and Its Control 63
Pollutants Source Pathological effect
Hydrogen fluoride Petroleum refining, glass etching, Al and Irritates and corrodes all body passages
fertilizer production
Hydrogen sulphide Refineries and chemical industries, Causes nausea, irritates eyes and throats
bituminous fuels
Nitrogen oxides Motor vehicles exhausts, soft coal Inhibits cilia action so that soot and dusts
penetrates far into the lungs
Phosgene Chemical and dye manufacturing Induces coughing irritation and sometimes
(Carbonyl chloride) fatal pulmonary edema
Sulphur dioxide Coal and oil combustion Causes chest constriction headache, vomit-
ing and respiratory ailments
Suspended Incinerators, any manufacturing units Causes emphysema, eye irritations and
particles possibly cancer

Effects of Air Pollution on Aesthetic Value 5. Plantation should be done on a large scale.
Plants like Ficus variegata, Phaseolus
1. Coal dusts are a source of nuisance for
vulgaris, Coleus bulmeri can fix CO easily.
household articles and impart a dirty look.
Some other plants like Pinus sp., Juniperus
2. The stone in Parthenon in Athens has sp., Quercus sp., Vitis sp. can use oxides of
deteriorated in the past 50 years for air nitrogen. To reduce the effects of automobile
pollution. Similarly statue of Liberty is pollution, the free space of the city area may
corroded from SO2 and NO2 and Taj Mahal be given a vegetation cover on the basis of
from SO2 emitted from Mathura refineries. the Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) of
Soot and tar stick to the building stones and trees. Some city plants has been identified to
painted surface, which are very difficult to store carbon in considerable amount in their
remove completely. Above ground Biomass that can be planted
in large scale to reduce the level of carbon
Prevention and Control of Air Pollution dioxide in the atmosphere.
Air pollution is regarded as a grave danger for 6. Control equipments like gravity settling
the healthy sustenance of all forms of life on tanks porous filters and electrostatic
this earth. The various measures to control air precipitators should be installed in factories
pollution are given below: to minimize air pollution. The method used
1. Pollution caused by two stroke engines can for pollutant separation is dependent on
only be minimized by using the technology the size of the pollutant particles. Gravity
for four stroke engines. In case of three settling chambers are used for particles
having size more than 50 µm. Electrostatic
wheelers, the Government can insist to
precipitators or Cyclone collectors are used
design their engine in such a way so that
for small sized particles.
they can run on LPG.
Cyclones collectors contain a camber in
2. Sulphur free and lead free fuel should be which gas stream with particulate matter
used for motor vehicles. is whorled round through a tight circular
3. The height of the chimneys of factory should spiral. Thus particulate pollutants are
be tall enough to reduce the rate of pollution centrifuged, collected and removed. In
at the ground level. electrostatic precipitators, precipitation is
4. To remove the particulate matter in the due to electric charging of particles and
smoke, it should be filtered before releasing collecting surface bears an opposite charge
into the air. to attract them.
64 Environmental Science for the Beginners

Through this technique, particles with large area. These include waste water from
size of 5-20 µm can be removed to the extent homes and commercial establishments. The
of 95%. domestic wastes are usually contaminated
7. Permanent air monitoring stations should with nitrates and phosphates and are
be set up in the core area of the city to often responsible for eutrophication - a
monitor the air quality throughout the year. phenomenon of rise of algal density due
to enrichment of nutrient in the ambient
7.3. WATER POLLUTION water. When domestic wastes are dumped
The term water pollution may be defined as into water bodies, the aquatic community
the addition of substances or heat to such a in the immediate vicinity do not show any
level, which is harmful to humans, animals or significant alteration. This is because the
any desirable aquatic life, or otherwise causes organic wastes do not get time to decay just
significant departures from the normal activities at the outfall site and therefore the dissolved
of various living communities in or near bodies oxygen level does not show any considerable
of water. In practical, the term water pollution variation. However, somewhat further away,
refers to several types of aquatic contamination conditions become worse as bacteria and
like enrichment of nutrient in lakes and rivers fungi start degrading the organic sewage at
from sewage and fertilizer, introduction of toxic the expense of dissolved oxygen.
chemicals in water bodies to such a level that 2. Industrial Wastes: Industries are major
the biota are affected to considerable extent etc. sources of water pollution. A large number
of factories and industries located on the
Causes of Water Pollution banks of rivers and also in the coastal areas
The various causes of water pollution may be discharge their effluents without adequate
described on the basis of origin of pollutants treatment into the surrounding water
that deteriorate the water quality. The important bodies. Most of the Indian rivers are polluted
sources of such pollutants are discussed here. by various types of industries (Table 7.2).
1. Domestic Wastes: These wastes arise from Sometimes the industrial wastes carry
small sources, but ultimately spread over a bulk of conservative wastes (non-degradable

TABLE 7.2: Sources of pollution of some major Indian rivers

River Sources of Pollution
Kali at Meerut Sugar mills; distilleries; paint, soap, rayon, silk, tin and
glycerine industries.
Jamuna near Delhi DDT factory, sewage, Indraprastha Power Station (Delhi).
Ganga at Kanpur Jute, chemical, metal and surgical industries; tanneries,
textile mills and great bulk of domestic sewage having high
organic matter.
Gomti near Lucknow (U.P.) Paper and pulp mills; sewage.
Dajora in Bareilley (U.P.) Synthetic rubber factories
Damodar between Bokaro and Panchet Fertilizers, fly ash from steel mills, suspended coal articles
from washeries, and thermal power station.
Hooghly near Kolkata Power stations; paper pulp, jute, textiles, chemical mills,
paints, varnishes, metal, steel, hydrogenated vegetable
oils, rayons, and soap, match, shellac and polythene indus-
tries and sewage.

Contd
 Chapter 7: Environmental Pollution and Its Control 65
River Sources of Pollution
Sone at Dalmianagar (Bihar) Cement, pulp and paper mills.
Bhadra (Karnataka) Pulp, paper and steel industries.
Coom, Adyar and Buckinghum canal (Madras) Domestic sewage, automobile workshops.
Cauvery (Tamil Nadu) Sewage, tanneries, distilleries, paper and rayon mills.
Godavari Paper mills.
Siwan (Bihar) Paper, sulphur, cement, sugar mills.
Kulu (between Bombay and Kalyan) Chemical factories, rayon mills and tanneries.
Suwao (in Balrampur) Sugar industries.

pollutants), which accumulate inside the to eutrophication as plant nutrients and

body tissue of flora and fauna inhabiting fertilizers contribute appreciable amount
the aquatic system where the industrial of nitrates and phosphates to the ambient
wastes are discharged. Such process is media. The greatest agricultural pollution
highly dangerous as it can pose threat to at present is probably due to soil erosion
human health through food chain. A recent by water and wind, as many agricultural
study conducted by Banerjee et al. (2000) pollutants like pesticides and phosphates are
in the north eastern Bay of Bengal showed transported by sediments to water bodies.
considerable accumulation of heavy metals 4. Shipping Wastes: These include both
in some edible fishes of coastal waters (Table human sewage and other wastes, the most
7.3). important of which is oil. About half of the
3. Agricultural Wastes: The agricultural crude oil produced per year is transported
wastes include sediments, fertilizers, and by sea. After unloading a cargo of oil from
farm animal wastes. These pollutants can a tanker, it carries sea water as ballast. It is
enter the adjacent water bodies as runoff a general practice to fill several of the tanks
from agricultural lands. In recent years there (25% to 30% of the total capacity of the
has been an increased use of agricultural tanker) with sea water to ballast the ship for
chemicals, notably pesticides and fertilizers. the voyage back to loading terminal. These
The availability of low priced chemical ballast water are discharged prior to filling
fertilizers has led to rapid increase in their the tanks with new oil. When a tanker is
usage. Agricultural wastes can also lead unloaded it cannot be completely cleaned

Table 7.3: Concentration of Pb in the muscle tissue of fish samples collected from Frasergaunge
Fin fish species Common local name Pb (in µg/gm dry wt.)
Tenualosa ilisha Ilish 14.84
Pampus argenteus Pomfret 3.82
Liza parsia Parse 10.65
Liza tade Bhangone 19.11
Polynemus paradiseus Tapse 7.62
Thunnus albacares Tuna 3.38
Coilia neglecta Ruli 2.65
Cynoglossus sp. Banspata 4.16
Scatophagus argus Paira chanda 6.43
Ilisha elongata Dhala 18.08
66 Environmental Science for the Beginners

because some oil remains on the bottom and microbial action. The uses of antibiotics
some cling to the sides of the tank. The ballast like oxytetracycline to fight back the prawn
water inevitably become contaminated with diseases also pollute the water bodies to a
this remaining oil and is responsible for the great extent.
deterioration of water quality. 7. Heat: A large volume of water find use for
5. Radioactive Wastes: The marine and cooling purposes by various industries,
estuarine systems receive radioactive wastes mainly the steam electric power plants.
mainly from the nuclear power plants, Cooling water is discharged at a raised
nuclear power ships and sub-marines. Also temperature, and this has profound adverse
extensive use of radio isotopes as tracers in effect on the growth and physiology of
the fields of medicine, biology, chemistry aquatic biota. This is mainly due to the
and biotechnology contribute radioactive fact that enzymes of organisms exhibit
substances in the city’s drainage system. a particular temperature range for their
Other major sources of radioactive optimum activity, and beyond this range
pollutants in the marine and estuarine there is a high probability of enzyme
compartments originate from weapon denaturation.
testing and leaching of radioactive material
from soil or sediment which adds to the Effects of Water Pollution
amount of radiation of the sea. Water pollution causes several water borne
6. Aquaculture Wastes: Aquaculture infectious diseases like Cholera, typhoid
encompasses the culture of aquatic etc. Plant nutrients and aquaculture wastes
organisms like finfish, shellfish, seaweeds, contribute NO3, PO4 and NH3 in the aquatic
algae etc. in a controlled condition. Although phase, which trigger the growth of algae leading
fresh water aquaculture has not flourished to eutrophication. Nitrates in drinking water
yet to the expected target, but the coastal can cause methemoglobinemia in babies (blue
aquaculture, particularly the shrimp culture babies), as in an infant’s stomach, the nitrate
has achieved a unique position in the Indian is transformed into nitrite, which acts on the
sub-continent. A variety of finfishes, oysters, blood haemoglobin to form methemoglobin.
mussels, sea cucumbers, crabs and lobsters The heavy metals discharged from various
are in the export list of India, but shrimp is the industries also accumulate in the body tissues
of the aquatic organisms and affect their normal
single dominant item in the export basket of
physiological processes and growth. The growth
our marine food which accounts for almost
of tiger prawns Penaeus monodon cultured with
two-thirds of the total export earnings. To
the waste wasters of the Kolkata city have been
increase the rate of shrimp production reduced to a significant level in comparison to
(which is usually expressed in tonnes per their normal growth (Mitra et al., 1999). The
hectare) from the shrimp culture farms, the diversity of fish juveniles is also reduced by the
stocking density is also greatly increased presence of various pollutants particularly lead,
along with simultaneous input of artificial which originate from antifouling paints used
feed and fertilizers. All these processes for conditioning fishing vessels and trawlers in
greatly increase the nutrient concentrations coastal areas (Mitra et al., 2000). The organic
and organic load per unit area or percent wastes not only reduce the dissolved oxygen
weight of shrimp production which often concentration to the aquatic phase, but also
exceeds the assimilatory capacity of system promote the growth of anaerobic bacteria. This
and results in aquatic pollution. The left over ultimately poses a negative stress on the fish
artificial feed supplied for the shrimp growth population of the water bodies. Oil pollution in
also generates H2S in the pond bed through coastal zone or estuarine area, often affects light
 Chapter 7: Environmental Pollution and Its Control 67
penetration and oxygen level in the column in the oil spilled area. The important adverse
water by creating a film on the surface water. effects caused by water pollutants are shown in
This affects the biotic community structure (Table 7.4)

Table 7.4: Water Pollutants: sources, effects and residence times

Pollutants Major anthropogenic Adverse effects Residence time
sources
Oxygen demand- Domestic sewage, Depletion of dissolved oxygen, Days to weeks.
ing organic wastes industrial wastes, animal death of fish, damage to plant life,
(biodegradable) wastes foul smell
Pathogens Domestic sewage, animal Outbreak of water borne diseases Days to months.
wastes
Acids Industrial wastes, acidic Death of aquatic organisms, Up to years
deposition solubility of harmful substances
increases
Salts Irrigation, Industrial Increase of salinity, death of aquat- Variable
wastes ic organisms, becomes unfit for
drinking purpose, domestic use,
industrial use and agricultural use
Heavy metals, arse- Industrial wastes, leach- Toxic to humans, animals and Months to years
nic etc. ing from soils by acidic aquatic life
substances
Plant nutrients (NO3, Agricultural, domestic Eutrophication, fish death, disrup- Decades
PO4) and industrial wastes tion of community structure
Heat Cooling water from power Solubility of oxygen decreases, Days
plants and other indus- harmful to aquatic life
tries
Radioactive sub- Mining of radioactive sub- Carcinogenic and mutagenic Days to years
stances stances, nuclear power
generation
Chlorine and its Paper and other indus- Fatal to fish possibly carcinogenic Variable
compounds tries, water disinfection
Oil and grease Lubricants and solvents Potential damage to ecosystem, Days to years
etc., petroleum wastes taste and odour problems for
drinking water
Pesticides and Agriculture, pesticide and Toxic to aquatic life, mammals Days to years
herbicides herbicide manufacturing and humans, some chemicals are
units carcinogenic and mutagenic
Other synthetic Industrial effluents Toxic to aquatic life, mammals Months to years
organics (Phenols and humans, some chemicals are
ethers, chloroform carcinogenic
nitrosamines etc.)
Source: Viessman et al., 1985
68 Environmental Science for the Beginners

Prevention and Control of Water Pollution Tertiary treatment is able to remove

Biodegradable pollutants present in water are virtually all the remaining contaminants.
easy to remove with microbial technology, but Water leaving conventional secondary
conservative pollutants like heavy metals cannot treatment still has most of the original
phosphates and nitrates, many persistent
be degraded or decomposed and hence require
insecticides and herbicides, disease
expensive technologies for their removal.
causing bacteria and viruses, and perhaps a
Water is often referred to as universal number of industrial, organic compounds.
solvent. Hence it is practically impossible to get Waste water that is not subjected to tertiary
water in pure state in nature. Modern society treatment contains the nutrients on which
utilizes water as principle and stable resource for algae thrive.
domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes,
II. The various physicochemical techniques
power supply and aquaculture and even for
used for removal of chemical, biological
recreation by enclosing it in artificial reservoirs.
radiobiological pollutants are adsorption,
Pollution of water will definitely minimize these
electro-dialysis, ion exchange and reverse-
uses of water and will pose a negative impact on
osmosis. Of the various techniques, the
mankind. The various methods for minimizing
reverse-osmosis technique is based on
and controlling water pollution are discussed the removal of salts and other substances
here. from water by forcing the later through
I. The existing sewage treatment methods a semi-permeable membrane under a
(like primary, secondary and tertiary pressure that exceeds the osmotic pressure
treatment) are very effective in removing so that the flow is in the reverse direction
selective pollutants from contaminated to the normal osmosis flow. In practice,
water. this involves a porous membrane whose
Primary treatment is a mechanical process chemical nature has been such that it has
which simply removes solids. The relatively a preferential attraction for solvent while
larger solid particles are separated by repulsion for the solute. Reverse-osmosis
means of metal screens; sands and small is commonly used to desalinate brackish
stones settle in grit chamber from which water and also finds suitable, effective and
the water passes to the sedimentation tank, economical method for the purification of
where the velocity of water is drastically water polluted by sewage effluents.
reduced and the small particles settle as Electrodialysis is one of the membrane
sludge. Scum is removed from the upper processes developed commercially for
most layers. desalting saline water to get portable
Secondary treatment is essentially water. This technique can be applied for
biological process which has the efficiency treatment of wash effluents, especially
to remove most of the organic matter. In in electroplating industries (Mayr et al.,
the activated sludge process of secondary 1992). The method is used to separate and
treatment, the incoming sewage is mixed recover the valuable metals in the form
with decomposer bacteria and air or of ions in solution also enable low ion
oxygen. Thus the complex organic matter concentration to be brought up to higher
through this treatment is broken down into level, which can be reused in the process
simpler forms. One important drawback of (Thampy et al., 1997).
this method is that if any toxic, industrial Mercury discharge from chlor-alkali plants
chemicals enter the sewage, then the can be removed and recovered by mercury
decomposer bacteria may be killed and the selective ion exchange resin. Phenolics
entire operation may be inhibited. in waste water produced from industries
 Chapter 7: Environmental Pollution and Its Control 69
such as pulp and paper mills, petroleum various negative impacts like salinization
refineries, tanning industries and resin of agricultural land (due to saline water
manufacturing units are removed by the intrusion), deterioration of land fertility,
use of polymeric adsorbents. release of excessive nutrients and antibiotics
The polluted water can also be treated in the coastal water etc., The Supreme Court
biologically by reusing it for fish culture, of India ordered the coastal states on 11th
oyster culture, algal culture and for plant December, 1996 that all aquacultural farms
growth. A recent work done by Niyogi et al., other than the traditional and improved
(1997) in the Haldia industrial zone of West traditional ones, operating within 500
Bengal, has revealed the excellent growth metres of the high tide level (HTL) in the
coastal zone be demolished by March, 1997.
of some mangrove species in the estuarine
The court also directed that no shrimp
water contaminated with heavy metals.
farm could be set up within 500 metres of
Inspite of considerable concentrations of
HTL in the zone. In accordance with the
zinc, copper and lead in the aquatic phase
principles of ‘sustainable development’ and
and vegetative parts (root, stem and leaves)
‘polluter pays’, the court also directed the
of the mangrove species Sonneratia apetala,
government to set up a body under cause (3)
the growth rate has been accelerated, of Section 3 of the Environment Protection
proving its excellent absorbing capacity Act, 1986. The said body will issue permits
of heavy metals. These plants (the woody to the farmers of traditional aquaculture
part) can later be used as source of wood to adopt improved traditional farming
for fencing, boat manufacturing etc. The system. Aqua-farming in mangrove areas,
water hyacinth (menace in the fresh water estuaries, wetlands salt pans and public
aquatic ecosystem) is also very effective land is also prohibited. Furthermore, the
in absorbing heavy metals in fresh water court ruled that the owners of the closed
systems. aquaculture units would be liable to pay
In order to control the water pollution, six years wages as compensation to the
strict implementation of the laws like workers as well as for eco-restoration of
water (Prevention and Control of Water the affected areas by way of creating an
Pollution) Act, 1974 and the Environmental Environmental Protection Fund.
(Protection) Act, 1986 are extremely
7.4. NOISE POLLUTION
important. As a part of protecting and
improving the quality of the environment, The term ‘noise’ may be defined as ‘sound
the standards for emission or discharge without value’ and is an unpleasant sound that
of environmental pollutants from the is detrimental to health. Noise is capable of
industries, operations or processes has acting as a physiological stress in the human
been specified. Any deviation from these system and this can contribute to the onset of
diseases depending on the neural-humoral
specified values must be seriously treated
stress response. Perhaps a better definition of
to discourage pollution from point and
noise is ‘wrong sound’ in the ‘wrong place’ and
non-point sources. at the ‘wrong time’.
The legal actions to ban the semi-intensive Noise pollution is basically unwanted and
shrimp culture farms in the coastal zone unpleasant sound, which gets dumped in
of India is a strict step in controlling the atmosphere causing an adverse effect to
the environmental pollution due to the surrounding with respect to the physical,
aquacultural industries. Considering the chemical and biological characteristics.
70 Environmental Science for the Beginners

Measurement of Noise Causes of Noise Pollution

The acoustical measurement of noise involves With the advancement of technology, the
the intensity, frequency and duration of the pollution due to unwanted and unpleasant
undesired sound. The physical measurement of sound has become very common. The various
sound involves its pressure related to the base or sources of noise pollution are discussed here.
reference threshold. The difference indicates the 1. The noise pollution from aircraft is
intensity of a particular sound and is expressed increasing steadily during recent years and
as SPL. The ‘SPL’ is expressed in the following especially close to international airport,
way. already constitutes a very serious problem.
SPL = 20 log10 P/P0 This problem has mainly arisen because of
Where, SPL = pressure level of sound which the widespread use of heavy long-range jet
is measured in units of decibels (db), P = aircraft. Noise made by jet planes has been
average pressure of a measured sound and P0 = intrinsically more disturbing than that of
reference pressure which in physical measure is propeller driven aircraft because it is of far
0.0002 microbars. higher pitch. Jet noise is caused by the violent
This basic reference sound level (0.0002 mixing of the jet gases from the engine with
microbars) again is considered to be the the surrounding air. The intensity of the
weakest audible pressure a young normal ear process becomes high during the take off
can detect under ideal listening conditions. In stage when the engine delivers maximum
establishing decibel scale, the reference pressure thrust, and falls away rapidly as the aircraft
P0 is assigned an intensity of 0 db, and more climbs. During landing, the main source of
intense the sound is, the greater is the decibel high frequency noise has been the whine of
level. Sound pressure and sound intensity at the the air compressor and turbine blades as the
limit of audibility naturally have been found engine is throttled back. Aircraft pass close
to vary from person to person. For the sake to the ground for quite a distance during
of standardization they have been assigned the landing operation and this noise often
the values of 2×10–5 N/m2 and 10–12 N/m2 constitutes a more sustained environmental
respectively. Therefore when the sound pressure nuisance than the intense noise of shorter
equals to 10–12 W/m2 and the intensity o sound duration produced during take off. Military
equals to 10–12 W/m2, the intensity level of the aircraft often make annoyance in areas away
sound equals to 0 decibels (Table 7.5). from airfields because they are to be flown
at low altitudes as part of normal training
Table 7.5: Sounds pressure, intensity and respective procedures.
intensity level
2. Loud speakers used in various functions and
Sounds pres- Intensity W/m2 Intensity level occasions often cause noise pollution.
sure N/m2 Decibels (dB)
3. Sounds of crackers used in various festivals
2×10–5 10–12 0 or for celebrating any success or victory are
2×10–4 10–10 20 also the source of noise pollution. Diwali
crackers often produce a noise of 120 db.
2×10–3 10–8 40
4. Electric horns used in vehicles often exceed
2×10–2 10–6 60 the critical sound level and cause noise
2×10–1 10–4 80 pollution.
2 (2×100) 10–2 100 5. Noise from construction sites has been
generally far worse than noise originating
2 (2×101) 1 (100) 120
from factories. This is mainly because the
2 (2×102) 100 (102) 140 construction is carried out anywhere the
 Chapter 7: Environmental Pollution and Its Control 71
erection of roads, bridges and buildings 3. Hearing loss is considered the major evil of
become necessary. A list of various a noisy environment. This can be classified
equipments that generate noise is given in into
(Table 7.6). i. Acoustic trauma denoting injury to
ear due to the exposure of a very high
Table 7.6:  Noise level generated from various intensity impact noise.
equipment ii. Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL).
Equipment Noise level at 15 metre The hearing loss may occur due to an
Tractor-scrapper 93 dB acoustic trauma following the impact of one
Rock drill 87 dB or a few sudden exposures, or in other words,
Unmuffled concrete 85 dB an intense release of acoustic energy as in the
breaker case of blasts and explosions. In such situations
Hand-held tree saw 82 dB one or both the ears may be affected and it
may involve the conductive as well as the
Large rotary diesel 80 db
compressor sensorineural part of the ear.
One and half tonne 75 dB
4. Noise pollution is also affects the process
dumper truck of sleeping of an individual. Normally an
Diesel concrete mixer 75 dB
individual requires about five hours of sleep
which has an appreciable recuperative value.
6. Piling is another very noisy civil engineering Sleep helps recuperation of the cells worn
operation that produces loud noise when out during the diurnal activities. The depth,
the pile driver makes its impact. duration and continuity are important for
7. In the industrial sector noises originate this congenial process. Noise, my however,
from processes causing impact, vibration interfere with all these three. Experiments
or reciprocation movements, friction and undertaken at Canada have detected that
turbulence in air or gas streams. a person’s sleep is altered when he exposed
to a vehicle noise of 55dBA. When this
Effects of Noise Pollution increases to 60dBA, the intensity affects the
deepest stage of sleep.
The generation of unnecessary noise in the
environment is a type of pollution because it 5. External loud sound often interferes with
lowers the quality of life. The various adverse conversation and use of the telephones as
effects of noise on human beings are discussed well as enjoyment of radio TV programmes.
In places like office, school, colleges,
here.
universities and educational campuses.
1. Noise pollution leads to development Loud sound from external sources can
of cardiovascular problems like heart create considerable disturbances as
diseases and high blood pressure. Workers communications is of vital importance in
exposed to high noise level are having more
these sectors.
circulatory problems, cardiac disturbances,
neurosensory and motor impairment. The Prevention and Control of Noise Pollution
digital plethymography studies or the finger
pulse amplitude tests indicate the extent or The various ways of controlling noise pollution
arteriolar constriction upon exposure to are listed here.
noise. 1. Noise can be reduced at source by designing
2. Noise may be decisive contributory factor in and fabricating of silencing devices for
such diseases as peptic ulcer, hypertension, their use in aircraft engines, trucks, cars.
colitis, migraine headaches and nervous Motorcycles, industrial machines and home
disorder. appliances.
72 Environmental Science for the Beginners

2. The intensity of sound can be reduced by taken to create roadside plantation using
making a change in design and operation specific noise absorbing plants like ashok,
of machines, vibration control, introducing neem, coconut etc.
sound proof cabins and sound absorbing 6. Strict implementation of laws and
materials. disciplinary actions should be taken on the
3. The noise pollution can be reduced by following aspects.
prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic, • The truck movement in the old cities
ban on electric horns in certain areas and should be prohibited from 6 a.m. to 12
planning main traffic arteries, residential midnight.
colonies, industrial establishments, • A new plan of city should be done with
amusement areas, creating of silent zones the provision of truck terminal outside the
near hospitals and schools and redesigning city.
of building to make them noise proof. • Major transportation corridors should not
4. The penetration of noise from outdoor be taken though the sectors.
environment can be reduced by the following • Entry of noise making vehicles in the
methods. sectors should be strictly restricted.
• Trees and shrubs may be planted in front • The noise standard as prescribed by the
of building to provide some absorption of Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
sound. in 1973 for several categories of land use
• Construction of non-critical areas such as (Table 7.7) should be strictly followed.
corridors, kitchens, bathrooms, elevators
and service spaces in the noisy side and 7.5. THERMAL POLLUTION
critical areas like bedrooms and living Thermal pollution is defined as sudden increase
spaces on the quite side. or decrease in temperature of a natural body of
• Bathrooms walls, floor and ceiling should water which may be ocean, lake, river or pond
be sound insulated using construction of by human influence. This normally occurs
high sound insulation glasses. when a plant or facility takes in water from a
5. Vegetation buffer zones must be created in natural resource and puts it back with an altered
several parts of the city. Efforts should be temperature. Usually, these facilities use it as a

Table 7.7: FHWA Noise Standard

Land Use Category Design noise level Description of land Category
A 60 dBA (exterior) Tracts of land in which serenity and quietness are of
extraordinary significance and serve an important public
need, and where the preservation of those qualities is
essential if the area is to continue to serve its intended
purpose. Such areas could include amphitheatres,
particular parks or portions of parks, or open spaces which
are dedicated or recognised by appropriate local official
for activities requiring special qualities of serenity.
B 70 dBA (exterior) Residences, hotels, motels, public meeting rooms, school,
churches, libraries, hospital, picnic areas etc.
C 75 dBA (exterior) Developed lands, properties or activities not included in
category A and B
D – For requirements on undeveloped lands
E 55 dBA (interior) Residences, hotels, motels, libraries, churches, hospitals
and auditoriums.
 Chapter 7: Environmental Pollution and Its Control 73
cooling method for their machinery or to help 5. Natural causes: Natural causes like
better produce their products. volcanoes and geothermal activity under
the oceans and seas can trigger warm lava
Causes of Thermal Pollution to raise the temperature of water bodies.
1. Water as cooling agent in power, manu- Lightening can also introduce massive
facturing and industrial plants: Production amount of heat into the oceans. This means
and Manufacturing plants are biggest source that the overall temperature of the water
of thermal pollution. These plants draw source will rise, having significant impacts
water from nearby source to keep machines on the environment.
cool and then release back to the source
with higher temperature. When heated Effects of Thermal Pollution
water returns to the river or ocean, the water Among recognized scientists and scholars, there
temperature rises sharply. When oxygen are generally two schools of thought when it
levels are altered in the water, this can also comes to the effects of thermal pollution. Some
degrade the quality and longevity of life in lean on the side of the negatives of this pollution
wildlife that lives underwater. This process on marine ecosystems and how it is detrimental
can also wipe away streamside vegetation, to positive environmental practices. However,
which constantly depends on constant levels some lean towards the side that without these
of oxygen and temperature. By altering industries operating the way they do, then some
these natural environments, industries are of the most basic parts of human life would be
essentially helping decrease the quality of completely obsolete. Waste water would not be
life for these marines based life forms and able to be properly maintained, we would have
can ultimately destroy habitats if they are not no industries that could produce the goods we
controlled and careful about their practices.
need, and so on. The effects of thermal pollution
2. Soil erosion: Soil erosion is another major on ecosystems, however, greatly outweigh the
factor that causes thermal pollution. benefits that industries have by participating in
Consistent soil erosion causes water bodies the act.
to rise, making them more exposed to
1. Decrease in DO (Dissolved Oxygen) levels:
sunlight. The high temperature could prove
fatal for aquatic biomes as it may give rise to The warm temperature reduces the levels
anaerobic conditions. of DO (Dissolved Oxygen) in water. The
warm water holds relatively less oxygen than
3. Deforestation: Trees and plants prevent
cold water. The decrease in DO can create
sunlight from falling directly on lakes, ponds
or rivers. When deforestation takes place, suffocation for plants and animals such as
these water bodies are directly exposed to fish, amphibians and copepods, which may
sunlight, thus absorbing more heat and give rise to anaerobic conditions. Warmer
raising its temperature. Deforestation is also water allows algae to flourish on surface of
a main cause of the higher concentrations of water and over the long term growing algae
greenhouse gases i.e. global warming in the can decrease oxygen levels in the water.
atmosphere. 2. Increase in toxins: With the constant flow of
4. Runoff from paved surfaces: Urban high temperature discharge from industries,
runoff discharged to surface waters from there is a huge increase in toxins that are
paved surfaces like roads and parking lots being regurgitated into the natural body of
can make water warmer. During summer water. These toxins may contain chemicals
seasons, the pavement gets quite hot, which or radiation that may have harsh impact on
creates warm runoff that gets into the sewer the local ecology and make them susceptible
systems and water bodies. to various diseases.
74 Environmental Science for the Beginners

3. Loss of biodiversity: A dent in the biological for their daily food as their food chain is
activity in the water may cause significant loss interrupted.
of biodiversity. Changes in the environment
may cause certain species of organisms to Control of Thermal Pollution
shift their base to some other place while The following methods can be adapted to
their could be significant number of species control high temperature caused by thermal
that may shift in because of warmer waters. discharges:
Organisms that can adapt easily may have an 1. Cooling towers: Use of water from water
advantage over organisms that are not used systems for cooling systems for cooling
to the warmer temperatures. purposes, with subsequent return to
4. Ecological impact: A sudden thermal shock the water way after passage through a
can result in mass killings of fish, insects, condenser, is called cooling process. Cooling
plants or amphibians. Hotter water may towers transfer heat from hot water to the
prove favorable for some species while it atmosphere by evaporation. Cooling towers
could be lethal for other species. Small water are of two types:
temperature increases the level of activity i. Wet cooling tower: Hot water coming
while higher temperature decreases the level out from the condenser (reactor) is
of activity. Many aquatic species are sensitive allowed to spray over baffles. Cool air,
to small temperature changes such as one with a very high velocity, is passed from
degree Celsius that can cause significant sides, which takes away the heat (from
changes in organism metabolism and other the hot water) and cools the water.
adverse cellular biology effects. ii. Dry cooling tower: In this case hot
5. Affects reproductive systems: A significant water is allowed to flow in long spiral
halt in the reproduction of marine wildlife pipes. Cool air with the help of a fan
(although this may be true, reproduction can is passed over these hot pipes, which
still occur between fish – but the likelihood of cools down hot water. This cool water
defects in newborns is significantly higher) can be recycled.
can happen due to increasing temperatures 2. Cooling ponds: Cooling ponds are the best
as reproduction can happen with in certain way to cool thermal discharges. Heated
range of temperature. Excessive temperature effluents on the surface of the water in
can cause the release of immature eggs or cooling ponds maximize dissipation of heat
can prevent normal development of certain to the atmosphere and minimize the water
eggs. area and volume.
6. Increases metabolic rate: Thermal pollution 3. Spray ponds: The water coming out from
increases the metabolic rate of organisms as condensers is allowed to pass into the ponds
increasing enzyme activity occurs that causes through sprayers. Here water is sprayed
organisms to consume more food than what through nozzles as fine droplets. Heat
is normally required, if their environment from the fine droplets gets dissipated to the
were not changed. It disrupts the stability of atmosphere.
food chain and alter the balance of species 4. Artificial lakes: Artificial lakes are man
composition. made water bodies that offer once-through
7. Migration: The warm water can also cause cooling. The heated effluents can be
particular species of organisms to migrate to discharged into the lake at one end and water
suitable environment that would cater to its for cooling purposes may be withdrawn
requirements for survival. This can result in from the other end. The heat is eventually
loss for those species that depend on them dissipated through evaporation.
 Chapter 7: Environmental Pollution and Its Control 75
7.6. MARINE POLLUTION Problems of marine pollution from ships,
Marine pollution has been defined as “the especially by oil, and from ocean dumping, are
rapidly coming under control through national
introduction by human, directly or indirectly
legislation and international conventions,
of substances or energy into the marine
such as the International Convention for the
environment (including estuaries) resulting
Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973,
in such deleterious effects as harm to living
and the International Convention for the
resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to
Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping
marine activities including fishing, impairment
of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972. Control
of quality for use of sea water and reduction of
of atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons
amenities”. Thus marine pollution is the harmful
among the major nuclear powers, under the
entry of chemicals, energy or particles into the
Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the
ocean compartment. A big problem is that many
Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Underwater,
toxins adhere to tiny particles, which are taken
1963, has largely stopped entry of radionuclides
up by plankton and benthic organisms, most of into the sea from fallout. There are stringent
which are filter feeders in nature. This results in controls on nuclear power reactors, and other
bioaccumulation and biomagnification, while peaceful uses of atomic energy, so that in the
going up the ocean food chain. absence of accidents, there is minimal entry of
The problems of global marine pollution are radionuclides into the sea from these sources.
examined in terms of both short-term, acute, Many scientific conferences on the marine
local effects and long-term, chronic, cumulative, environment are identifying the major pollution
world-wide effects of pollutants in the world’s problems, examining the critical issues and
oceans. The present pollution problems are determining ways in which a meaningful base-
most serious in coastal waters, which constitute line survey can be conducted and a useful
only 10 per cent of the area of the oceans monitoring programme established. All the
yet, together with the upwelling areas of the United Nations Specialized Agencies concerned
world, produce 99 per cent of the world fish with the marine environment continue to
catch. However, the long-term consequences review certain pollution problems within their
of persistent, cumulative substances pose the areas of responsibility. The MCO /FAO/Unesco/
greatest concern. The critical marine pollutants WMO/WHO/IAEA/United Nations/UNEP(1)
can be conveniently classified into five Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects
categories: (1) metals; (2) synthetic chemicals; of Marine Pollution (GESAMP) examines some
(3) petroleum hydrocarbons; (4) radionuclides; of the problems on an interdisciplinary basis in
and (5) solid wastes. Pollutants may enter the annual meetings, and in intersessional working
sea through rivers, atmospheric transport, groups. It advises member agencies and/or
ocean outfalls, ocean dumping, ships and member governments, through the agencies,
such marine activities as mining. Atmospheric on marine pollution matters. The IOC/WMO
transport of pollutants and entry into the sea IGOSS Pilot Project on Marine Pollution
through fallout, rainout and washout have (Petroleum) Monitoring commenced in January
been considered an important rapid route for 1975, with are view of the first year’s results
certain pollutants fromman’s activities on land in May and June 1976, and another review is
to the world oceans. This particularly applies planned for an indefinite date after 1977. (ICG)
to the radionuclides and the polyhalogenated for the Global Investigation of Pollution in the
hydrocarbons, e.g. DDT and PCB’s, but may Marine Environment (GIPME) met for its third
also be important to world-wide dispersion of and last session at Unesco, Paris, in July 1975
metals and petroleum hydrocarbons. and prepared a comprehensive plan for the
76 Environmental Science for the Beginners

global investigation of pollution in the marine Different substances find their entry in the
environment and baseline study guidelines. The marine and estuarine environment in three
working committee for GIPME, which replaced basic forms namely solid, liquid and gas. The
ICG, met for its first session in Hamburg, major categories of waste that enter into the
from 18 to 22 October 1976. Progress is being ocean are listed in Table 7.8.
made on scientific data exchange in marine The pollutants discharged from these sources
pollution. Training courses and workshops pose considerable effects on the community,
are providing a means of educating technical species, cellular and even genetic levels. The
people in developing countries on techniques magnitude of hazard ranges from moderate
of measuring and assessing marine pollution to extreme depending on the nature of the
and in initiating regional projects investigating chemicals. A list of major marine pollutants and
problems of marine pollution. their effects are presented in Table 7.9.

Table 7.8: Potential sources of marine and estuarine pollution

S.No. Major sources of pollution
1 Domestic sewage
2 Sewage sludge
3 Industrial wastes
4 Solid wastes
5 Shipboard wastes
6 Aquacultural farms
7 Pesticides and Fertilizers
8 Offshore oil exploration and production wastes
9 Oil spills
10 Radioactive wastes
11 Heat: Thermal pollution from power plants
12 Fly ash from thermal power plants
13 Continental run-off
14 Antifouling paints
15 Barges and other metallic structures
16 Ocean mining
17 Precipitation of air borne pollutants
18 Oil from tanker cleaning and deballasting
19 Weathering of the earth’s crust
20 Volcanic eruptions
21 Natural submarine oil seeps
22 Dredge spoils
23 Military wastes (Weapon testing etc.)
24 Tourism and recreational activities
 Chapter 7: Environmental Pollution and Its Control 77
Table 7.9: Ranking of the major marine pollutants (Johnston, 1976)
Harm to living Hazard to human Hindrance to Reduction of
resources health maritime activi- amenity
ties
Domestic sewage Important Important Slight Important
Pesticides Important Significant Negligible Negligible
Inorganic trade wastes Mainly slight Slight except Hg Negligible Negligible to slight
Radioactive wastes Negligible Significant Negligible Negligible
Petroleum Significant Uncertain Significant Important
Organic chemicals Highly variable Some significant Negligible to slight Variable
Organic trade wastes Some Important/ Negligible Negligible to slight Significant to Im-
Significant portant
Military wastes Uncertain Uncertain Negligible Negligible
Waste heat Significant Negligible Negligible Negligible
Detergents Uncertain Negligible Important Important
Solid objects Slight Negligible Uncertain Significant
Inert solids and Significant Negligible Uncertain Significant
dredged spoil
Notes: “Important”—requires restrictive or preventive measures.
“Slight”—caution required further study needed.
“Negligible”—no restrictive action needed.
“Uncertain”—special situations apart, no restrictive action needed.

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