FORENSIC CHEMISTRY and TOXICOLOGY

Forensic Chemistry is defined as that branch of Chemistry which deals with application of chemical principles in the solution of crimes. Like the
other forensic sciences, Forensic Chemistry plays a very important part in the speedy investigation and in the administration of justice.

Scope of Forensic Chemistry

Identification of evidence, its physical and chemical properties.
Collection, preservation, examination and study of blood, semen, and other body fluids;
examination of dangerous drugs;
examination of body fluid to determine the presence of dangerous drugs;
Alcohol (liquor) test; examination of fake products for unfair trade competition;
arson investigation;
macro etching examination;
bullet trajectory;
ultraviolet examination
tools and other marks;
gunshot residues (gunpowder nitrates, paraffin test; distance determination; and firearms examination);
principles and examination of explosives, hair and textiles fibers
chemical aspects of document and examination;
problems on glass fragments and glass fracture,
moulage, metallurgy and petrography as applied to crime investigation.
Forensic Chemistry also includes the study and examination of Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA for brevity. (Case of Webb)

Forensic Toxicology
deals with examination of human internal organs, food samples and water and gastric contents for the purpose of detecting the presence of
poisonous substance, its dosage, effects, and treatment.

The work of a Forensic Chemist is divided into four stages, namely:

1. Collection or reception of the specimen
2. The actual examination
3. The communication of the results of the examination
4. Court appearance.

Equipments used in the Forensic Examination

The following are some of the most common laboratory equipments used in forensic examination:

1. HPLC (High Powered Liquid Chromatography) - This scientific equipment is used for the qualitative and quantitative determination of a
volatile or non-volatile compound based on the chromatographic separation of its components.

2. Ultra-Violet spectrophotometer - It is used for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic compounds.

3. EMIT (Enzyme Multiple Immuno Assay Technique) - It is used for screening of abused urine samples.

4. SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) - This scientific equipment is used for the physical identification of various questioned specimens. It is
a software-controlled digital scanning electron microscope used to produce sticking images over a wide range of magnification
(3x3,000,000x) on rough or covered surface of minute specimen such as hair, fibers, paint particles, drugs, metal, etc.

5. FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) - Used for the identification of pure organic substances. It identifies organic substances
particularly abused drugs and explosive ingredients based on their characteristic functional groups. In layman’s term, the resulting spectrum
could be referred to as the fingerprints of the substance.

SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
Evidence is a proof of allegation, it is a means sanctioned by law of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of
fact (Sec Rule 128, Revised Rules On Evidence). Such scientific evidence must have such a relation to the fact in issue as to induce belief in its
existence or non-existence. Evidence may be (a) direct; (b) indirect, which includes circumstantial evidence; and (c) hearsay.

Forms of Scientific Evidence

(a) Real or Autoptic evidence – is that evidence which is addressed to the senses of the court. It is not limited to that which can be
known by the sense of vision but extends to those which are perceived by the senses of hearing, taste, smell or touch.
(b) Testimonial Evidence – An expert may be called on the witness stand to answer all questions propounded by both parties in the
case.(Oral testimony)
(c) Documentary evidence – Any written evidence presented by an expert in court which is relevant to the subject matter in dispute
and not excluded by the Rules of Court. Formal written report, expert opinion, certificates and dispositions are included in this group

WITNESS

Witness defined.
A witness in court may be an ordinary or expert witness.
This kind of evidence is called the testimony of an expert witness.

Distinctions between an Ordinary and an Expert Witness

ORDINARY WITNESS EXPERT WITNESS
1. Can only state what his senses have 1. State what he has perceived and
perceived. also give his opinion, deductions or
conclusions to his perception.
2. May not be skilled on the line he is 2. Must be skilled in the art,
testifying. science or trade he is testifying.
3. Cannot testify on things or fact he 3. Testify on things which he has
has not perceived except those not seen by giving his opinions,
provided for by law. deductions or conclusions on the
statements of facts.
DRUGS

Drug defined.
Drug is a chemical substance that brings about physical, physiological, behavioral and/or psychological change in a person taking it.
All medicines are drugs, but not all drugs are medicine drug.

Medicinal Drugs - A substance which when taken into the human body cures illness and/or relieves signs/symptoms of disease.

Dangerous Drugs - A substance affecting the central nervous system which when taken into the human body brings about physical,
emotional or behavioral changes in a person taking it.

Drug Abuse - Any non-medical use of drugs that cause physical, psychological, legal, economic, or social damage to the user or to people
affected by the user’s behavior. Abuse usually refers to illegal drugs but may also be applicable to drugs that are available legally, such as
prescribed medications and certain over-the-counter medications.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS

According to origin:
a. Natural Drugs - are active ingredients, secondary metabolic products of plants and other living systems that may be isolated
by
extraction. Examples: Raw opium, Marijuana, Coca bush

b. Synthetic Drugs – are artificially produced substances, synthesized in the laboratory for the illicit market, which are almost
wholly manufactured from chemical compounds in illicit laboratories. Examples: Methamphetamine and Barbiturates

According to Legal classification:

a. RA 9165 (Comprehensive Dangerous Drug Act of 2002)
b. PD 1619 (Volatile Substances)
c. RA 6425 (Classified as: Regulated and Prohibited)

Under RA 9165, otherwise known as the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, the term prohibited and regulated was changed
into dangerous drug with the following classification:

1. Immediate precursors – a chemical substance used in the clandestine manufacturing process becomes incorporated in full or in part
into the final molecules of a substance under international control.
2. Essential chemicals – chemical substance used as reagent or solvent in the illegal manufacture of controlled substances.
3. Narcotic, psychotropic and designer

According to International Classification:

a. Narcotics substance
b. Psychotropic substances
c. Designer drugs

According to Pharmacological Classification (Effects):

a. Stimulants
b. Hallucinogens
c. Depressants
d. Inhalants

STIMULANTS – are drugs which increase alertness of physical disposition

Example: Amphetamine

Street Name: Eye opener, lid poppers, pep pills, uppers, hearts

What it is: Reduces appetite

Relieves mental depression
Comfort fatigue and sleepiness

Example: Shabu (Methamphetamine Hydrochloride)

Street Name: Poor man’s cocaine, S, shabs, ubas, siopao, sha,

HALLUCINOGENS - are drugs which affect sensation, thinking, self-awareness and emotion.

Example: Ecstacy

Street Name: XTC, Adam, essence, E, herbals

LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)

Marijuana

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 Street Name: Mary Jane, Flower, pampapogi, brownines, damo, pot, tea, joint, Dope
Comes from Cannabis Sativa L. (Indian hemp); looks like fine, green tobacco

DEPRESSANTS – are drugs which depress or lower the functions of the Central Nervous System

Types of Depressants:

Narcotics – a drug which induces sleep (Hypnotics) or stupor and relieve pain (Analgesics)

Tranquilizers – a substance that reduces anxiety, ease tension and relax muscles.

Sedatives and Hypnotics – calm the nerves, reduce tension and induce sleep.

Example: Barbiturates, alcohol

INHALANTS – these are any liquid, solid or mixed substance that has the property of releasing toxic (psychoactive) vapors or fumes.

Example: solvent, glue, gasoline, kerosene, paint, thinner, naphthalene.

What are considered Dangerous Drugs?

Dangerous Drug is a substance affecting the central nervous system which when taken into the human body brings about physical,
emotional or behavioral changes in a person taking it.

It is a substance which when taken into the human body alters mood, perception, feelings and behavior.

Under Republic Act 6425, otherwise known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972, dangerous drugs are classified into three (3) main
categories, namely:

A. Prohibited Drugs
B. Regulated Drugs
C. Volatile Substances

Republic Act 9165, otherwise known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, gives a single definition for prohibited and regulated
drugs. The old law defines the term “dangerous drugs” as pertaining to either “prohibited drug” or “regulated drug”.

“Drug Dependence” – means a state of psychic or physical dependence, or both, on a dangerous drug, arising in a person following
administration or use of that drug on a periodic or continuous basis.

EXAMINATION OFDANGEROUS DRUGS

Drug Identification – is a branch of Forensic Chemistry that deals with the scientific examination of drugs and volatile substances.

Forms of Dangerous Drugs

Drugs are in various forms. This includes tablets, capsules, liquid, powder, brick or decks of marijuana, crushed leaves and uprooted plants.

A. Examination of the sample taken from the alleged confiscated Dangerous Drugs

Methods of Examination

1. Qualitative examination
2. Quantitative examination

Two phases in the examination of the alleged confiscated Dangerous Drugs

1. Screening test/Preliminary test (also known as the color test)

This test is nonspecific and preliminary in nature. It is employed to reduce the family or group of drug to a small and manageable number.

Screening test includes a series of color tests producing characteristic colors for each family or group of drugs. This is done by adding
specific reagent to unknown sample in a spot plate.

Color Reactions:***

Upon addition of specific reagents to a sample of dangerous drugs, a specific color reaction is produced such as:

Cannabis: Duquenois-Levin = violet

Fast Blue B salt = purple red

Cocaine: Cobalt Thiocyanate test or CT test = blue

Scott test or Modified CT test:

Reagent 1 = blue

Reagent2 = pink
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 Reagent3 = blue

Wagner test = brown (specific test for cocaine)

Diazepam: Zimmerman test = reddish purple or pink (some benzodiazepine derivative do not give color with this test)
Hydrochloric acid = yellow
Vitali-Morin test = yellow orange

Opium: Marquis = violet

Ferric Sulfate = Brownish purple
Mecke = Blue to green
Nitric acid = Orange to red to yellow

Morphine: Marquis = Violet to reddish purple

Codeine: Mecke = Blue to green

Nitric acid = Orange to yellow

Heroin: Mecke = Blue to green

Nitric acid = Yellow to green

Dille-Koppanyi test = reddish purple (for barbiturates)

Methamphetamine Hydrochloride:

Simon test = Blue

Marquis test = Orange to brown

Ecstacy: Simon test = Blue

Methaqualone and Phencyclidine: CT test =blue

Lysergide or LSD: Ehrlich = violet

Mescaline: Marquis test = Orange

Liebermann = black

Note:

It must be noted that Positive results of these tests are not conclusive, as there are substances that may give same positive color reaction/s
upon addition of the specific reagents. Hence, confirmatory tests must be performed by the Forensic Chemist/Chemical officer on case to establish
the presence and identification of dangerous drug. It must also be noted that only those specimens that yielded presumptive positive results are
subject to confirmatory test in order to confirm if the positive result of the screening test is really positive.

2. Confirmatory Test

Confirmatory test is the method employed to confirm the results of the screening/preliminary test. This test involves the application of an
analytical procedure to identify the presence of a specific drug or metabolites. This is independent of the screening test and which uses techniques
and chemical principles different from that of the initial test in order to ensure reliability and accuracy.

There are several methods used in the confirmatory test. Some of these methods are:

Chromatography – is the process of separating mixture and comparing the migration of each component with standard. Some chromatographic
techniques include:

Gas chromatography
Thin Layer chromatography
High-Pressure Liquid chromatography

What is a GAS Chromatography?

- It is a separate technique
- The mobile phase is a gas
- Separation is based on the difference in migration rates among sample components.

Spectroscopy – a confirmatory method whereby light is used to identify the sample specimen.

Fourier – Transform Infrared Spectroscopy(FTIR) –Used for the identification of pure organic substances. Identifies organic substances
particularly dangerous drugs and explosive ingredients based on their characteristic functional groups. In layman’s term, the resulting spectrum could
be referred to as the fingerprints of the substance.

Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy – Used for screening of dangerous drugs in urine specimen.

GUNSHOT RESIDUE

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 Basically, gunshot residue comes from the powder component of bullet, elements from cartridge cases and gun barrel where the bullet
passes. When these components are burned, certain products of combustion are formed which includes partially burned and unburned particles. These
particles are deposited on the target as definite pattern depending upon the distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target at the time of
discharge.

Upon discharge of firearm, gunpowder residues (nitrates) may be deposited on a person at close proximity, so the interpretations as to who
discharged the firearm should be made with caution. (Thorton, 1986) Hand or body part close to the fired weapon may have gunpowder residues
consistent with having discharged the weapon. However, absence of gunpowder residues on the person’s hands or body parts does not mean that
he/she did not discharge a firearm.

Gunpowder residue may be found on the skin or clothing of the person who discharged the gun, on the entrance bullet hole of garment or
wound of the victim, or on other target materials at the scene.

Components of gunshot residue

1. Primer or lead residue

2. Gunpowder residue
3. Elemental component from cartridge cases residues

Composition of Primer

Primer elements may be easier to detect in residues because they do not get as hot as that of powder. (Tassa et al, 1982b).

Types of gunpowder

1. Single based - when the basic ingredient is nitrocellulose

2. Double based – nitrocellulose + 1 to 40% nitroglycerine

3. Triple based – nitrocellulose + nitroglycerine + nitroguanidine.

These can be differentiated using a mass spectrophotometer.

Composition of cartridge case, bullet coating and metal jacket

1. Cartridge and primer cases; BRASS (7:3 COPPER-ZINC)

2. Bullet cores: lead, lead, antimony and few iron alloy

3. Bullet jackets: brass (9:1 copper-zinc), some are iron or aluminum alloy. Some contain nickel.

GUNSHOT RESIDUE EXAMINATIONS

Purpose:

Gunshot residue examinations are performed to help the investigators in determining whether a person has discharged/fired a firearm/gun
or not; whether a firearm was discharged or not; and the possible gunshot range or the distance of the shooter to the victim. Both hands of the suspect
as well as those of the victim, the firearms and clothing of the victim must be examined to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates.

Types of Powder used in the ammunition of small firearms

There are two types of powder used in the ammunition of small firearms. These are:

1. Black Powder – this consists of a mixture of carbon (Charcoal), sulfur and potassium nitrate. This mixture is used as an igniter in
smokeless gun propellant. It consists of a mixture of 15% Charcoal, 10% Sulfur and 75% Potassium nitrates. Aluminum is added to
enhance the burning property. When this powder is burned, combustion reaction takes place:

2KNO3 + 2o2 + S + C CO2 + SO2 + k2O2 + 2NO2

2. Smokeless Powder – This mixture consists of Cellulose or glycerol nitrate combined with some stabilizers (nitrobenzene or graphite
nitrates, dichromate and oxalates). When this powder explodes, the chemical reaction takes place

Cellulose nitrate: C12H14O4(NO3)6 + 6H2O+3N2+4CO2+8CO+H2

Glycerol nitrate : C3H5(NO3)3 + CO2 + H2O +N2 + O2

Primers

To explode a low explosive, flame is required. In guns, the flame is applied by means of a primer. Primer produces flame on percussion. A
typical primer consists of a case containing an initiating explosive such as mercury fulminate, an oxidizing agent such as potassium chlorate or
barium nitrate, and a fuel such as antimony sulfide. This component is the basis for examination of gunshot residue particularly primer
residues for distance determination.

DETECTION OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE

The following are common methods used by most crime laboratories to detect gunshot residue:

1. Paraffin test (most common in the practice)

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 2. Lead residue (detection limit: up to 30 feet and always present on the opposite sides of the penetrated target). Reported from intermediate
glass target present (Messler and Armstrong, 1978).

3. Gunpowder residue examination (detection limit: highly variable up to 20 cm, and up to 21 inches is common)

4. Other examinations

The last two methods are classical. Color development or modern methods such as Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA), atomic
absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), Scanning Electron microscopy with energy dispersive analysis (SEM-EDA) and inductively coupled
plasma with mass spectrophotometry (ICP-MS) are used.

History of Paraffin test/dermal nitrate or Diphenylamine test

Paraffin test was originated from Cuba when Dr. Gonzalo Iturrios first used paraffin for collecting gunpowder residues from discharged
firearm. In 1933, Teodoro Gonzales of Criminal Identification Laboratory, Mexico City introduced the test in the United States. In this test, the hands
were coated with a layer of melted paraffin. After cooling, the casts were removed and treated with Diphenylamine (5% DPA in 60% sulfuric).

Methods of Examination

Paraffin Test

To determine whether a person has discharged a firearm, the Paraffin–Diphenylamine test is used. The basis of this test is the presence of
nitrates in the gunpowder residue. When a warm melted paraffin wax is applied on the hands of the alleged shooter, it will cause the pores of the
skin to open and exude the particles of gunpowder residue. These particles of gunpowder residue are being extracted by the paraffin cast (with the use
of melted paraffin wax) and will appear as blue specks, when diphenylamine reagent (DPA for brevity) is added on the cast. It must be noted that the
specks are generally located on the area of the thumb and forefingers.

Note:

The blue color that appears indicates the reaction of nitrates with diphenylamine reagent. Thus, nitrate from other sources like fertilizers
will give the same reaction. Other substances similar to nitrate known as oxidizers will also react with the reagent in the same way.

However, it must also be noted that the blue specks have the characteristic of “tailing”.

What is the Principle behind the Paraffin test?

While the burned and partially burned particles (gunpowder residue) is deposited on the target and in the barrel of the gun, some of these
burned and partially burned particles may escape around the breech of the gun and some may be embedded on the exposed surface of the hand/s of
the person discharging the firearm.

Thus, the presence of these residues can be detected by way of paraffin examination.

Paraffin casting of the alleged shooter shall only be done within seventy-two (72) hours from the time of the alleged shooting incident. No
person shall be subjected to paraffin casting after the lapse of the specified period.

Embalmed cadaver who allegedly discharged a firearm shall no longer be subjected to paraffin examination because of the impossibility
of extracting the gunpowder nitrates from the former’s hands.

Paraffin wax (M.P. 38-40 C)

Different names of this test:

Lunge’s test
Diphenylamine test
Dermal nitrate test
Gonzales test – named after the one who improved the test

Question: Is there any means of removing these nitrates from the hands? How long will they stay in the pores?

Answer: None. Ordinary washing will not remove the nitrates from the pores of the skin. Usually, gunpowder nitrates that are embedded
on the skin stay for 72 hours. That is why paraffin casting should be conducted within the specified period.

Substances giving false positive result:

1. fertilizers
2. explosives
3. tobacco
4. urine
5. certain cosmetics
6. food samples
7. cigarette

Question: Will these substances not give positive result for paraffin test?

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 Answer: If the hands of the subject person are contaminated with nitrates other than from gunpowder, one will expect to find smudges or
just a smear of blue color or a conglomeration of blue specks. But nitrates from gunpowder appear as blue speck with tailings, because these
particles were embedded into the hands with force.

Question: Is paraffin test result a conclusive evidence? Why?

Answer: No. It is just a corroborative evidence which intends to support the testimony of eyewitness/es, There are instances wherein a
person who actually discharged a firearm would still give a negative result to the paraffin test because of several factors.

Question: What are these factors?

Answer: 1. Types of caliber of ammunition

2. Use of gloves
3. Length of the barrel
4. Age of the gun/efficiency of mechanism
5. Direction of firing
6. Wind direction and velocity
7. Humidity/percentage moisture in air
8. When 72 hours had already lapsed (3 days)

Types of caliber of ammunition. A hand discharging a revolver is more likely to give a positive result for gunpowder nitrates compared to
that of a hand discharging a pistol. In an automatic pistol, the chamber is an integral part of the barrel, whereas in the revolver, the chamber is located
in the cylinder and separated from the barrel with airspace. Thus, leakage of powder in a revolver is more likely to occur.

False Positive result

1. Contamination or transfer of gunshot residue (GSR) to the body by mishandling, or when the body is heavily contaminated by GSR
from previous shooting.

2. Washing of hands where samples are collected

3. Type of ammunition such as rifle and shot gun.

Length of the barrel. A weapon of 2-inch barrel will deposit residue over a larger area than a weapon of 5-inch barrel (even if they are
discharged from the same distance with the same type of ammunition). In a longer barrel, the hand is farther away from the muzzle end of the gun. It
takes a bullet to travel in more time, thus using up/burning up more, if not all, of the nitrates. In a short barrel, the bullet travels through the barrel in
less time leaving behind a greater amount of unburned particles.

Age of the gun/efficiency of mechanism. Complete combustion or the conversion of all nitrates into its end product (CO,CO,N,O,-OH) is
more likely to occur in a new weapon compared to an old one. Besides, leakage of gunpowder is more likely to happen in the old weapon where the
breech mechanism is no longer tightly fitted.

Direction of firing. More powder residues will be obtained when the gun is discharged pointing upward than downward. Gunpowder
residues have weight and will naturally fall down because of gravity.

Wind direction and velocity. In high velocity (strong wind), the powder residues will be blown in the direction of the wind. One is more
likely to be positive for gunpowder nitrates if there is no wind, or the wind direction is towards the shooter.

Humidity/percentage moisture in air. Humidity lessens the extent of combustion yielding more gunpowder nitrates.

False Positive reaction – smear of blue color or a conglomeration of blue specks on both dorsal and palm aspects of the hand.

Failure to find traces of nitrate on the hand of the person does not prove that he did not fire a gun. But it is submitted that the paraffin test
has some value due to the psychological effect on the persons whose hands were found positive. Also, the finding of actual traces of gunpowder
nitrates on the hand/s of the person does not conclusively determine or establish that he has discharged a gun. It is possible that the GPR particle may
have been blown on the hand directly from the barrel of the gun being discharged by another person.

Gunpowder Residue Test on Firearms

The diphenylamine reagent is also applied to cotton swabbing of the barrel and chambers of the gun to determine if the firearm was
discharged. A deep blue color resulting from the reaction of nitrates with the reagent indicates presence of gunpowder residue.

Gunshot Range (GSR) Determination (Also known as gunshot distance determination)

When a firearm is discharged, gunpowder residue may also be deposited on the clothing of the victim. The size and density of the pattern
of gunpowder residue found on the clothing are the main factors considered in determining the approximate distance of the shooter to the victim. As
the distance to the victim increases, the size of pattern expands while density decreases and vice-versa.

Distance determination – the method of determining the distance between the firearm and the target. This is usually based on the distance of the
powder patterns or the spread of the shot pattern.

Importance of Distance Determination

1. In connection to self-defense pleas

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 2. In the distinction between murder and suicide. It is possible to state with certainty the distance of the gun from the target by means of
the patterns and residues left on the target. Not only the type of gun, but also the condition and type of ammunition that will affect this
pattern.

In ascertaining the gunshot range (GSR) the examiner should note and observe the following:

1. Entrance and Exit holes

2. Powder residue pattern (Burning, singeing, smudging, tattooing – a black coarsely peppered pattern)

Entrance and Exit holes:

Entrance hole contains gunpowder residue (bullet wipe residue) and it is slightly burned.

The diameter of entrance hole is smaller than the exit hole.

The exit hole is frayed outward while entrance hole is inward.

Other Entrance hole characteristics:

a. Angled bullet entrance hole has elongated hole.

b. Contact fires have uneven margins but all entrance holes typically have even margins.

c. Grazing bullet hole (several small holes created from a folded garment)

Classification of gunshot distance

- Burning (direct)
- Singeing (1 to 2 inches)
- Smudging (2 to 8 inches)
- Tattooing (8 to 18 inches)

The distance of the muzzle of the gun to the target is classified into three (3):

1. Direct contact
2. 2 inches to 36 inches away
3. 36 inches away or more

Characteristics of Gunshot wounds

a. Direct Contact wounds

The principal damage is more visible due to the flame and the muzzle blast than to the penetration of bullet. The following observations
may be noted:

1. Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn

2. Blackened area surrounding the bullet hole
3. The presence of partially burned powder residues around the entrance hole

b. Wounds inflicted at a Distance from 2-36 inches:

If the gun is discharged closely to the body of the victim, two (2) types of discoloration will be observed around the hole of the entrance
namely: (1) smudging and (2) powder tattooing (black coarsely peppered pattern).

Smudging is produced when the gun is held from about 2 inches to the maximum of 8 inches. The smoke and soot from the burned pores
are deposited around the hole of the entrance producing a dirty appearance.

The size of the smudge depends upon the following:

A. Length of the barrel: A weapon of 2-inch barrel will deposit residue over a larger area than a weapon of 5-inch barrel (even if
they are fired from the distance with the same type of ammunition). In a longer barrel, the hand is farther away from the muzzle end of the gun. It
takes a bullet to travel in more time, thus, using up/burning up more, if not all, of the nitrates. In a short barrel, the bullet travels through the barrel in
less time leaving behind a greater amount of unburned particles.

B. Age of the gun/efficiency of mechanism. Complete combustion or the conversion of all nitrates into its end product is more
likely to occur in a new weapon compared to an old one. Besides, leakage of gunpowder is more likely to happen in the old weapon where the breech
mechanism is no longer tightly fitted.

C. Direction of Firing. More powder residues will be obtained when the gun is fired upward than downward. Gunpowder residues
have weight and will naturally fall down because of gravity.

D. Wind Direction and Velocity. In high velocity (strong wind), the powder residues will be blown in the direction of the wind.
One is more likely to be positive for gunpowder nitrates if there is no wind, or the direction is away from the body.

E. Humidity/percentage moisture in air. Humidity lessens the extent of combustion yielding more gunpowder nitrates.

Powder tattooing produces black coarsely peppered pattern. Individual specks of tattooing around the hole are visible by the naked
eye.
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 The area of blackening around the perforation will be found to diminish in size as the muzzle of the gun is held further away from the
target.

Take note that the size of the area of powder tattooing will also depend on the following:

- Caliber
- Powder charge
- Distance of firing

c. Wounds inflicted at a Distance of more than 36 inches:

- Powder tattooing is seldom present

- Nitrates found will not be sufficient for GSR

FIREARM EXAMINATION

Methods used to determine the probable time the firearm has been discharged:

a. Lucas test

A characteristic smell that decreases in intensity with lapse of time is present immediately after firing but even after several weeks some
slight smell remains.

b. Odor (Hydrogen Sulfide)

This is another product resulting from combustion of gunpowder which is present in the gaseous state. This compound can be detected by
means of lead acetate paper test.

If the breech of the gun is kept closed, this persists between 2-3 hours.

Sulfide – the greater part disappears in about 4-5 hours but frequently a trace remains for a longer time, the longest period being 10
hours.

c. Odor of the Barrel (rusting)

As a rule, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of a firearm if such firearm has not been discharged. But if the firearm has been
discharged, iron salts are formed and can be detected inside the barrel. These iron salts are soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust. The
formation of rust is affected by the humidity of the air so that in the interpretation of the result, this factor must always be considered.

d. Presence of Nitrates (by cotton swabbing method)

Nitrates diminish after a lapse of time. Nitrates can be detected by swabbing a portion of residue in a barrel and mixing the residue with
Diphenylamine solution (DPA).

e. Dermal Nitrate test

The test is designed to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates on the hands of the alleged shooter.

Distance from which the gun has been discharged

Significance:

a. In connection with self-defense

b. In the distinction between murder and suicide. It can be stated with certainty the distance of the gun from the target by way of
patterns of residues left on the victim.

Scorching or Singeing

If a firearm was discharged very close to the target as in a case of alleged suicide and sometimes in murder, burns or scorches may result.
This resulting reaction is caused by flame that emerges from the muzzle and travels only a short distance from it. This distance will vary with the
length of the barrel, the size of the powder charge and the degree to which the bullet fill the barrel. The presence of scorch is a proof that the firearm
was discharged a few inches away from the target. Scorching is very rare if the victim was shot 3 inches or more away from the muzzle.

Other Methods of Examination

The following are the sophisticated instruments used to determine the gunshot range residue (GSR):

AAS – Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

NAA – Neutron Activation Analysis
SEM-EDX –Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis

ICP-MS – Inductively couled plasma with Mass Spectrophotometry

COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, TRANSIT AND SAFEKEEPING OF EVIDENCE

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 The following are the guidelines in the proper preservation and safekeeping of evidence:

1. Proper chain of custody shall always be observed.

2. All examined pieces of evidence (drugs and other paraphernalia, explosives, firearms, etc.) shall be personally turned over by the examiner on
case to the evidence custodian. The latter, in turn, shall execute its documentation by recording all received as well as released evidence for
court presentation. No examiners shall keep in their possession evidence once examined.

3. Evidence shall be properly placed in suitable dry containers for proper preservation and shall be placed inside the concrete evidence room.

Firearms evidence shall be kept in a separate evidence room especially designed for the purpose. However, hazardous evidence such as
explosives and other inflammable evidence are photographed after examination with its corresponding case number before turning it over to
Explosive Ordnance Disposal Unit (EODU) with proper receipt for safekeeping or proper disposal.

4. Clothing removed from the victim should be cautiously and carefully handled to prevent powder residues from becoming dislodged.

5. Do not wad the specimen or pack it loosely for shipment.

6 Secure the area to be tested between two layers of heavy cardboard fastened together tightly to prevent the specimen from becoming
postlude about in the transit.

7. Each specimen should be wrapped tightly and marked.

8. Clothing heavily smeared with blood should be dried thoroughly before packing.

9. Gun recovered from the scene of the crime and ammunition available should be preserved.

10. Person suspected to have discharged a firearm should be subjected to a paraffin test. (Cover his hands with paper bags to avoid
contamination). Examination must be performed immediately and in no case should it be postponed 72 hours after the shooting.

BODY FLUIDS

Body fluid and seminal stains are important evidence. Whether they are bloodstains or seminal stains, they can be employed to determine
whether a person is involved in a crime or not. The succeeding paragraphs provide for the proper collection and preservation of blood, saliva, semen,
urine and the standard for comparison.

1. Blood

It is a must that before collecting bloodstains, a precise description of the extent and pattern of blood spatters should be made. This
means that close-up scaled photographs of bloodstains should be done.

If materials with bloodstains are sent to the laboratory, the following procedures should be complied:

a. Air-dry the material on a clean paper.

b. When dried, put the material inside a paper bag, Mark the bag with initials, the date and an exhibit number before fastening it. Do not
bag items if they are not thoroughly dried.

c. If the material has to be folded, cover the stained area with clean paper. Avoid folding across the stained area.

d. Bloodstained materials should be packaged individually.

e. Collect a comparison standard. The comparison standard is 5cc of blood each taken from the victim and the suspect which are placed
in separate vials. A qualified physician is tasked with extracting the blood. The vials are marked with the donor’s name, doctor’s
name, the date, exhibit number and other pertinent information.

2. Saliva

a. Air-dry the material on a clean paper.

b. When dried, put the material inside a paper bag. Mark the bag with initials, the date and an exhibit number before fastening. Do not bag
items if they are not thoroughly dried.

c. If the material has to be folded, cover the stained area with clean paper. Avoid folding across the stained area.

d. Materials stained with saliva should be packed individually.

e. Collect a comparison standard. The comparison standard is a cotton swab each from the victim’s and the suspect’s mouths. The swabs
are dried and packed separately in paper envelopes. The envelopes are marked with your initials, the donor’s name, the date, exhibit
number and other pertinent information.

3. Semen

a. Air-dry the material on a clean paper.

b. When dried, put the material inside a paper bag. Mark the bag with your initials, the date and an exhibit number before fastening it. Do
not bag items if they are not thoroughly dried.
10
 c. If the material has to be folded, cover the stained area with clean paper. Avoid folding across the stained area.
d. Materials/oblects stained with semen should be packed individually.

e. Collect a comparison standard. Get blood and saliva samples following step 1 and 2.

4. Sweat

Obtain sweat evidence following steps shown in 3.

5. Urine

Obtain urine evidence following steps shown in 3.

FINGERPRINTS

Latent impressions, regardless of the area of the ridges present, are of the greatest importance to the criminal investigator as their
identification may solve the crime and result in successful prosecution of the subject. Consequently, every effort should be made to preserve and
identify them.

It is imperative that fingerprints hidden on no-porous surfaces should be collected immediately and sent to the laboratory since they
disintegrate rapidly. When packaging fingerprints, be sure that these are shielded from smudging or deterioration. The succeeding paragraphs
would show how fingerprints from non-porous and absorbent surfaces should be gathered and preserved.

1. On Absorbent Materials

a. Put the absorbent material in a plastic bag. Mark the bag with initials, the date and an exhibit number.

b. Do not directly handle the material with your fingers. Wear a pair of light cloth gloves. Handle an object only by its edges or surfaces,
insofar as it is necessary.

c. Avoid processing the fingerprints on absorbent surfaces unless you are trained to perform such a function.

d. Collect standard fingerprints that were properly and legibly taken for comparison.

Lifting Latent prints

a. Get a piece of lifting tape from the roll without cutting. Do not jerk, but pull slowly and gradually, not straight out from the roll but
back and downward.

b. Hold the roll in one hand and the tape in the other. Place the end of the tape about ½ inch in front of the print and firmly press the tape
evenly over the print by sliding your thumb over it.

c. Remove the tape from the surface by pulling slowly until the tape is almost entirely clear from the surface.

d. Cut off the section used and mount the lifted print on a Crime Scene Evidence Logbook.

e. During the entire operation, never touch the gummed side of the tape.

f. Mark fingerprint evidence collected properly with your initials, the date, and location and have it initialed by at least two witnesses.

g. Collect standard fingerprints which were properly and legibly taken for comparison.

2. On Soft Surfaces

a. Be extra careful when extracting fingerprint impressions on soft surfaces such as putty. Permit as much excess material surrounding
the fingerprint as possible.

b. Paste the material with the fingerprints on a stiff cardboard surface. Mark the cardboard surface with your initials, the date, and an
exhibit number.

c. Tape a paper cup or glass baby food jar on the evidence for protection. Do not touch the fingerprint.

d. Collect a comparison standard. Submit the tape containing the fingerprint impressions to the laboratory in the condition when it was
found.

3. On Skin

a. Fingerprints may be found on the victim’s skin especially if the suspect held him/her. Collect the prints immediately since
fingerprints on the skin deteriorate rapidly. When extracting the prints, use methods like dusting, chemical, electronic or
photographic techniques. Avoid washing the skin area prior to processing of the fingerprints.

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 b. Collect a comparison standard. Gather and identify the fingerprints of the suspect and the victim and those who touched an object
under investigation. Put the fingerprint evidence in an envelope and fasten. Mark the envelope with your initials, the date and an
exhibit number.

FIREARMS AND AMMUNITION

Bullets and cartridges have the unique markings of the firearm from which they were discharged. In addition, firearms leave a visible
residue on the shooter’s hands. The succeeding paragraphs provide for the proper collection and preservation of the gunshot residue, firearms, serial
numbered items, weapons, spent bullets and spent cartridges.

1. Gunshot Residue

a. Wash your hands or wear a pair of gloves.

b. Get swabs of the back of the suspect’s left and right hand using cotton swabs moistened with 5 percent nitric acid. Do the same for the
suspect’s right and left hand palm areas. Put the swabs in a plastic bag and mark with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.

c. Get swabs of the right and left facial cheek areas if a rifle or shotgun is involved.

d. Do not attempt to collect swabs if a .22 caliber was involved; if more than six hours have lapsed; or if the suspect has washed his hands.

e. Make a control swab by wetting a cotton swab with dilute acid. Then put the swab inside a plastic bag marked as “Control swab”.

f. Get a swab of the interior of a spent casing using water, instead of acid. Put the swab in plastic bag marked as “casing”.

g. Put clothing evidence intended for gunshot residue testing inside a plastic bag. Mark the bag with your initials, the date and an exhibit
number.

h. Send the firearm to the laboratory to determine the distance from the bullet hole to the firearm muzzle. If the ammunition is available,
send it with the weapon.

2. Small Firearms

a. Photograph the weapon before conducting the examination.

b. Dust the weapon for fingerprints.

c. Remove magazine from automatic loading weapons.

d. Do not operate mechanism except to unload.

e. Sketch the relative position of the spent casings and live rounds with respect to the barrel.

f. Affix an identification tag to the weapon which will contain a brief description of the firearm, make, model type caliber or gauge
destination serial number, your initials, the date and an exhibit number.

g. Scratch initials or marks of identification on side of frame received back strap, bangle, etc.

h. Do not use “X” to mark stocks, side plates that can be readily removed or replaced.

i. Record the absence or presence of round in the chamber. Dust the outer surface of the clip for prints. Put the clip in an envelope then
mark.

j. Put the weapon in a plastic bag or paper bag. Mark the bag with your initials, the date, and an exhibit number.

k. Do not send a loaded firearm through the mail.

3. Serial Numbers

a. If the serial number has been erased put an identifying mark on the weapon.

b. Attach an identification tag to the weapon with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.

c. Put the weapon in a paper or plastic bag.

d. Do not attempt to retrieve the serial number using acid-etch solutions.

4. Shoulder Weapons

a. Photograph the weapon before conducting the examination.

b. Dust the weapon for concealed prints.

c. Do not clean or fire.

d. Record the absence or presence of round in the chamber.

e. Attach an evidence tag to the weapon with the weapon’s description and serial number.
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 f. Dust the outer surface of the clip for hidden fingerprints.

g. Put the clip in an envelope and mark.

h. Put the unloaded weapon in a wooden or rigid cardboard box and fasten. Mark the box with your initials, the date and an exhibit
number.

5. Fired Bullets

a. Photograph the bullets before conducting the examination.

b. Extract the used bullet from the object excluding the material around it.

c. Do not wash or clean.

d. Cover the bullet with cotton then place it in an unbreakable container. Pack the bullets separately.

e. Mark the container with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.

6. Fired Cartridge Cases

a. Photograph the fired metallic cartridge case before conducting the examination.

b. Do not mutilate, scratch or nick head of shell.

c. If recovered in revolver cylinder mark chambers to correspond with shell designation.

d. Note as to mark of identification used.

e. Sketch showing relative position of shells if recovered on floor, or sheet.

f. Transmit the information to laboratory. Scratch initial or mark of identification near mouth of shell, preferably inside the mouth.

g. Do not scratch, mutilate head or read portion of cartridge case.

h. Roll individually in paper.

i. Place rubber band around paper.

j. Place wrapped cartridges in a heavy paper envelope.

k. Forward to laboratory. Mark the bag with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.

7. Fired Paper Shot Shells

a. Photograph the fired paper shot shells before conducting examination.

b. Do not mutilate, scratch or nick head of shell.

c. Note as to mark of identification used.

d. Sketch showing relative position of shells when recovered on floor or streets.

e. Transmit the information to the laboratory.

f. With ink or indelible pencil, mark inside of shells using initials of person recovering.

g. Do not scratch, nick, or mutilate brass head of shell.

h. Roll individually in paper.

i. Place wrapped cartridges in heavy paper envelope.

j. Forward to laboratory. Mark the bag with your initials, the date, and an exhibit number.

8. Shot Pellets

a. Photograph the shot pellets before conducting the examination.

b. Recover as many as possible. Do not mutilate in removal.

c. Source the position of recovered pellets.

d. Record number and send it to the laboratory.

a
e. Note mark of identification used on seal.
f. Seal container-marking seal with mark of identification on gum label seal on envelope.
13
 b
g. Use pillbox as shipping container.
c
h. Place box in envelope, and sealing envelope.
d
i. Indicate source of pellets on envelope.
e
j. Forward to laboratory. Mark the bag with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.

9. Shot Wads

a. Photograph the shot wads before conducting the examination.

b. Recover as many as possible.

c. Recover the source of the wads.

d. Transmit the information to the laboratory.

e. Make notes on the mark of identification used.

f. Using ink or indelible pencil, inscribe initials of person recovering or mark identification.

g. Do not use “X”, place in paper envelope, sealing for transmission to laboratory.

h. Place in paper envelope indicating source on envelope.

i. Forward to laboratory. Mark the bag with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.

j. Gather the spent wads and record their locations. Put them separately in paper envelopes.
k. Mark the envelope with the required identification.

1. Liquids

a. Gather a minimum of one pint of the liquid using a leak proof container.

b. Fasten the container with adhesive tape and mark with your initials, the date and exhibit number.

c. Mark glass containers with “fragile”.

d. Collect a comparison standard.

2. Plant Materials

a. Air dry samples by putting it on a piece of paper for 24 hours.

b. When thoroughly dried, put the evidence in a pillbox or a vial and fasten with tape.

c. Pack each sample separately.

d. Weigh the contents.

e. Mark the container with your initials, the date and exhibit number.
f. Collect a comparison standard.

3. Powder or Solids

a. Put in a container such as a pillbox or a vial.

b. Weigh the contents.

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c. Fasten the container and mark with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.

d. Refrigerate the evidence if required. Do not attempt to add preservatives to solid food samples.

e. Collect a comparison standard.

4. Tablets and Capsules

a. Put the evidence in a plastic vial or a pillbox.

b. Record the contents.

c. Fasten the container and mark with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.

d. Collect a comparison standard. Search the refrigerator or cupboard for similar materials, which are marked. Avoid removing the
samples from their original containers. Put them in sterile, clean containers and refrigerate to inhibit the growth of bacteria. Similarly,

14
 comparison standards for drugs are collected following the same procedure. Do not mix specimens in a single bag even if they were
found close to each other or even if they are similar in appearance.

EXPLOSIVE AND EXPLOSION

Explosive, defined.
Explosive is any substance that may cause explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion.

It is any chemical compound or mixture that under the influence of heat, pressure, friction or shock, undergoes a sudden chemical change
or decomposition.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES

I. According to the Velocity of Reaction involved

A. Low explosives

These are low burning and used mainly as propellants like black and smokeless powder

B. Primary and initiating explosive

This kind of explosive is extremely sensitive to detonation by heat, shock, friction and impact. It detonates without burning, like lead azide
and mercury fulminate. This is used primarily to start an explosion.

Example: Initiators, blasting caps, shock primer and stable

C. High explosives

These explosives have very fast or high detonating rate like dynamites, TNT, and Cyclonite (RDX).

II. According to their Chemical structure

a. Organic explosives
b. Inorganic explosives

A. Organic explosives - Nitro-containing organic compound

B. Inorganic explosives – These are salt-containing explosives

III. According to their application or design

a. Military explosives
b. Industrial explosives

Implosion is a similar phenomenon except that the energy released is initially directed inward.

Types of Explosion

a. Mechanical explosion– it is a sudden breaking apart, shattering or bursting into pieces by internal pressure, such as those caused by
expansion of gas producing high pressure beyond the capacity of the container. Also known as pressure explosion.
b. Atomic explosion – resulting from atomic transformations.
c. Chemical explosion –a source of explosion wherein the source of energy comes from an explosive substance such as gunpowder
produced through the extremely rapid transformation of the unstable substances accompanied by the formation of heat.

SCENE EXAMINATION

What evidence to collect

1. Formation of saucer- like crater

2. Presence of fragments and furrow lines (striation marks) ripped through grasses by flying fragments
3. Blast, suction, and fragment damage to nearby structures and vegetation
4. Characteristic smell of burned explosives closest to the crater
5. Blackening of earth in the crater (carbon deposit)

FIRE AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Fire, defined.

Fire is a chemical reaction (rapid oxidation) that produces physical effects with evolution of heat and light. This reaction is called
combustion.

Fire Investigation is the comprehensive analytical approach by understanding the fundamental property of fire by determining the
chemistry of fires, fuels, and combustion. It is advantageous for an investigator and lawyer on case if they have at least basic knowledge about fire.

15
Classification of Fire Investigation

1. Natural
2. Accidental
3. Unknown origin
4. Suspicious
5. Incendiary (obvious arson)

Incendiary fire

This is the largest and most obvious fire investigated. The primordial intent is to destroy property/ies of another.

Arson Investigation

Under the law, arson is the malicious burning of dwelling, house, or building of another. In all fires, there must be a cause before an effect
is produced. This cause is known as combustion. Combustion is the effect of certain causes and if these causes are not present, there can be no
combustion, spontaneous or otherwise.

The assistance of a Forensic expert plays an important role in arson investigation.

Technical Aspects of Arson Cases

Burning or combustion is the rapid oxidation of substances accompanied by the generation of heat and light. Burning occurs only when
three (3) essential ingredients are present: fuel, oxygen, and heat. Obviously, to create a fire, there must be combustible materials. It may be solid,
liquid or gas. Strictly speaking, only gases burn.

The solids and liquids must be heated to liberate flammable gases. The gases in turn must rise to the proper temperature before ignition
occurs. Hence, there must be presence of combustible materials to burn and a source of heat to raise the temperature of the fuel to the kindling point.

Finally, there must be a supply of oxygen since burning is a process of oxidation. Oxygen may be supplied from the air or from oxidizing
agents.

COMBUSTION, NATURE AND BEHAVIOR OF FIRE

Combustion, defined.

Combustion is a burning reaction in which a substance combines with a gas. Heat and light usually accompanied by combustion reaction
and most of this reaction involve oxygen.

Example: Hydrogen combined with oxygen will undergo rapid oxidation and produces water and heat.

Two types of Combustion

1. Flaming – destructive, gaseous combustion where both the fuel and oxidizer are gases. Flaming fire is achieved when gas or vapor is
continuously burning.

2. Glowing – absence of fire but presence of very hot materials on surface of which combustion is proceeding.

Two kinds of Combustion

a. Complete combustion – all of the reactants are consumed

b. Incomplete combustion – only some parts of the reactant are consumed

Matter – elements and compounds: composed of atoms combined forming molecules

Air – composed of 21% oxygen and 75% Nitrogen

Oxidation – is a combination of elements and compounds with oxygen producing stable substances. Those compounds and elements that
combine with oxygen and produces fire are called flammable substance and the process is called combustion

Pyrolisis – comes from the Greek word pyro (fire) and lysis (decompose); process of decomposition of material to simpler compounds
brought about by heat from fire.

Flame – is a gaseous reaction where plume of hot gases rises by convection when air and its oxygen is maintained by solid (soot) or liquid
(aerosol) in a closed room.

Theoretically,

 If oxygen falls below 15%, combustion rate decreases.

 If the temperature reaches 900-1000 degree C, post flashover room fires which oxygen concentration is only 5-8%.

 If 0-5% and the temperature reaches 1000 degree C – flaming hot.

Laboratory Examination

1. Color test using “Sudan Black”. Or Rhodocrite

16
 In this method of examination, the accelerants are allowed to evaporate and the vapors are reacted with this chemical until pink color of
solution will appear which indicates the presence of any accelerant.

2. Confirmatory examination: Gas chromatography with Headspace

This analytical method is used to detect the specific volatile accelerants by comparing it with known standard such as kerosene, gasoline,
etc.

TOOL MARK

A tool is an instrument or object capable of making a mark on another object.

A tool mark is defined as any impression, cut, scratch, gouge, or abrasion, or any other marking left on an object by another harder object
or instrument. A tool mark may be classified as a negative impression, as an abrasion or friction-type mark or as a combination of the two.

Negative impression – is made when a tool is pressed against or into a receiving surface. This type of mark is usually made when a
crowbar is used to pry open a door or a window.

Abrasion or friction mark – is made when a tool cuts into or slides across a surface. This type of mark may be made by a pair of pliers,
a bolt cutter, knife, ax, saw, drill, plane, or a die used in the manufacture of wire.

Combination mark – is made, for example, when a crowbar is forcefully inserted into the space between a door and the door facing and
pressure is applied to the handle of the tool to force the door open. The forceful insertion of the crowbar produces an abrasion or friction mark and
the levering action produces a negative impression.

Why are tool marks important in the crime scene investigation?

Tool marks are important in crime scene investigation because you can tell what kind of tool was used, and by that you can see if the
suspect’s tools match the tool mark.

GLASS AND GLASS FRACTURE

Glass, defined.

Glass is an inorganic substance in a condition which is continuous with, and analogous to, the liquid state of that substance, but which, as
the result of reversible change in viscosity as to be, for all practical purposes, rigid.

Glass is normally a fused mixture of silica usually in the form of natural sand and two or more alkaline bases such as soda, lime, or
potash.

Properties of Glass

Glass fractures

Glass fractures may be caused by excessive exposure to heat or caused by impact of a blunt instrument or object, or caused by projectiles.

Types of Glass fracture:

1. Radial Fractures – primary fracture resembles the spokes of a wheel where the radiating rod originates at a common point.
When glass breaks, the lines that radiate from the hole are caused by the glass bending away from the point of impact. The radial
fractures originate on the opposite side of the glass, because this is the surface which is the first to feel the tension. As the front of
the glass is pushed in, the opposite side is bent backwards. When the limit of glad elasticity is reached, it breaks, with cracking
resulting along the radial lines.

2. Concentric Fractures – secondary fracture having the appearance of circles around the point of impact connecting one
radiating crack to the other, thus forming triangular pieces of glass. While the radial fractures are forming, triangles are created
between the fractures. The newly formed triangle glass between the radial fractures also bends away from the direction of force.
When the limit of elasticity for this triangles is reached, the glass breaks in concentric lines. Concentric fractures originate on the
front of the glass.

3. Conchoidal Fractures – A characteristic of glad is that when it breaks, the fracture edges appear shell-like in form – that is,
having elevations or depressions in the shape of a shell. The technical name for this condition is “conchoidal” fracture.

1. Entrance and Exit Hole

Point of entry is where the force is being applied and it may produce a smaller hole than the exit. The exit is bigger than the entry for the
reason that the force applied at the glass exceeded its desired force. Point of entry has a smooth hole while the exit hole has the characteristic of
roughness.

Causes of Glass Fracture

Glass fracture may be due to the following:

1. Due to Natural Means – exhibits plain wavy lines

2. Due to Mechanical Means – exhibits a regular pattern of radial/concentric fracture

17
Factors to be determined in glass fracture

A. Point of Impact:

Entrance Side Exit Side

1. Concentric fracture 1. Radial fracture

2. Clear cut edges 2. Rugged edges
3. Absence of depression 3. With depression
4. Absence of flaking 4. With flakings

B. Position of the Shooter

1. Perpendicular Shot – exhibits an even distribution of chippings on the exit side of the glass

2. Angle from the Right – heavy flakings or chippings on the left side of the glass

3. Angle from the Left – heavy flakings on the right side of the glass

C. Age of Fracture

1. Fresh Fracture – exhibits a regular pattern of radial/concentric fracture

2. Old Fracture – presence of a short extension lines at the end of the radial fracture

HAIR

Hair is the outermost covering of the different parts of the body with the exception of the palm of the hand and the sole of the foot.

Through microscopic examination, the forensic examiner will first determine if the hair samples are of animal or human origin. If the hair
is of animal origin, a general determination as to species may be made, i.e., cat, dog, horse, cow, carabao, etc.

In the case of human hair, the following can be determined:

1. The race of the person the hair originated from -- Negroid, Mongolian, and Caucasian

2. The area of the body surface that the hair originated from
-- head, face, chest, axilla, and pubic region

3. How hair was removed – naturally or forcibly

4. Whether the hair was cut with dull or sharp instrument or was crushed or burned

5. Usually examination will not permit conclusive determination of age and sex.

Structural Parts of the Hair

A. Inner Aspect:

1. Cuticle – outermost part which is scale-like in appearance

2. Cortex – the innermost portion that contains the pigment

3. Medulla – the central canal of the hair

B. Outer Aspect:

1. Tip – the distal end portion of the hair

2. Shaft – portion of the hair above the surface of the skull

3. Root – portion that is embedded in the skin

ULTRAVIOLET, FIBER, TAPE, AND PAINT

Ultraviolet examination is a method of scientific examination of evidence using ultraviolet light. Documents, weapons, chemicals,
minerals, petroleum products and other items of evidence should be observed routinely under the ultraviolet lamp.

Method of examination

Only suitable ultraviolet lamp and darkroom are necessary for ultraviolet examination. The room should contain adequate table space on
which garments and other items to be examined may be spread. The evidence is being placed under the ultraviolet lamp.

18
FIBER
Questioned fabric may be determined if similar to known fabrics. Positive identification may be made where a questioned piece of fabric may
be fitted back into the known fabrics. This type of fabric examination is based on matching broken ends of yarn together.

Generally, fiber matches are not positive evidence, and require substantiation with other corroborative evidence.

TAPE
The examination is similar to fabrics examination which generally involves the matching of the ends of pieces of tapes used at the scene of
a crime with the end of tape on a roll found in the possession of a suspect.

The known sample is compared with the unknown and occasionally, ends may be matched or the manufacturer may be determined.

PAINT
Paint specimen is examined and compared by using a microscope to determine the color, texture, layer, structure and any unique
characteristics which may serve as points of similarity or dissimilarity.

Paint specimen or scraping is further analyzed using Quarts Spectrograph in determining and comparing the elemental composition of the
questioned and standard.

LIQUOR TEST
(ALCOHOL DETERMINATION TEST) (Ethyl alcohol or ethanol)

What is the purpose of this test?

Basically, the purpose of this test is to determine whether or not a person is intoxicated with liquor. This test is being conducted to
determine the amount of ethyl alcohol present in the blood sample taken from the person suspected to have been intoxicated with alcohol.

Laboratory Examination

Quantitative examination is conducted to determine the amount of ethyl alcohol (or ethanol) present in the blood.

Significance of determining whether a person is intoxicated with alcohol

Intoxication as an alternative circumstance must be taken into consideration as aggravating or mitigating according to the nature and
effects of the crime and the other conditions attending its commission.

The intoxication of the offender shall be taken into consideration as a mitigating circumstance when the offender has committed a felony in
a state of intoxication, if the same is not habitual or subsequent to the plan to commit said felony; but when the intoxication is habitual or intentional,
it shall be considered as an aggravating circumstances.

DNA ANALYSIS

DNA or Deoxyribonucleic acid is a chemical substance found in all cells whose composition has been passed on from parent to their
children. All cells in the body have the same DNA composition except individual egg and sperm cells.

Biological evidence that can be submitted for DNA Analysis:

a) blood and bloodstains

b) semen and seminal stains
c) hairs with follicle or root
d) saliva or buccal swab
e) bones and organs
f) tissues and cells

Cases where DNA Analysis can be of help:

a) Sexual assault
b) Murder
c) Homicide
d) Robbery
e) Hit and run
f) Extortion
g) Paternity case
h) Identification of remains from mass disaster cases and missing persons

How DNA Analysis is used to identify with accuracy the perpetrators of crime

Human tissues such as hair strands, bloodstain, saliva, and other body tissues are often left in the crime scene. By proper collection,
preservation and examination through DNA test of such pieces of tissues, their owner can be identified.
The Supreme Court, in a recent case has made a pronouncement on the admissibility of the DNA test result.

Hair strands left by the kidnapper in cases of kidnapping, lairs, bloodstains in clothing associated with murder, saliva stains in
cigarette butts, stamps, envelopes associated with extortion, may all be used to help identify the perpetrators.

How DNA Typing is done

19
 DNA typing is done by first carefully extracting the DNA from the evidentiary samples. The DNA is then analyzed to give a particular
pattern. The patterns are compared with that of a known individual to determine a match. In individual identification, the pattern obtained from the
evidentiary sample is compared with that of a suspect.

THE SCIENCE OF DNA TYPING

DNA, the genetic “blueprint” of life, is found in every cell of the human body which contains a nucleus. Short for “ deoxyribonucleic
acid”, DNA is located in chromosomes found within the nucleus of most cells.

Cells that have nuclei, and therefore DNA, are found throughout the human body.

Blood, sperm, hair roots, bone, teeth, organs, muscle, and other tissue all contain DNA which can be tested by forensic scientists.

Body fluids in liquid or dried form, such as saliva and vagina secretions, can also be tested, inasmuch as these fluids normally contain cells
referred to as “epithelial cells”, such as those from the lining of the mouth and vagina.

The types of physiological evidence in criminal cases from which DNA can be extracted and tested are numerous. Examples include:

a. Blood and semen stains on clothing, weapons and other surfaces.

b. Swabs taken from victims in sexual assault cases.

c. Hairs with roots attached.

d. Other, less common, sources of DNA evidence include partially decomposed tissue and bone, teeth, and envelopes and postage
stamps previously moistened with saliva.

FORENSIC SEROLOGY AND BLOODSTAIN PATTERN ANALYSIS

Serology

This term is used to describe a broad scope of laboratory tests which used specific antigen and serum antibody reactions.

BLOOD

Blood refers to a highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic substances.

Significance of Blood and Bloodstains

Blood and bloodstains are very vital as evidence in crimes of violence.

Two (2) Main Components of blood

1. Plasma (55% of blood content) – fluid portion of blood composed principally of water.

2. Suspended solid cells (45% of blood content)

a. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) – function to transport oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues and in turn remove carbon dioxide from
tissues/organ and transporting it out to the body through lungs. On the surface of these cells, millions of characteristic proteins were residing which
gives blood type characteristic. These proteins were called antigens.

Antigen system

More than 15 blood antigen systems have been identified. The two most common are the A-B-O system and the Rh system.

b. White blood cells (leucocytes)

c. Platelets

BLOOD CHARACTERIZATION

Spot Test - tests for the presence of blood:

a. Benzidine test – presumptive test for the presence of blood.

b. Kastle-Meyer test – using phenolphthalein and hydrogen peroxide forming pink coloration due to the presence of peroxidase
(enzyme) activity of the blood hemoglobin.

c. Luminol test – a spray reagent used to test for the presence of blood even if the blood is not visible under ordinary light. This is
viewed under ultraviolet lamp.

d. Takayama test
e. Teichmann test

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Tests to determine whether the blood is from Man or Animal

a. Precipitin test - antigen and antibody reaction forming precipitate. This serum will form a precipitin band on the junction between the
serum and human blood being tested.

b. Gel diffusion – using agar to test for human blood.

c. Electrophoresis

Blood Clotting

When a protein in blood called fibrin is trapped and enmeshes red blood cells, blood clothing occurs. Removing clotted blood yields a
yellowish liquid called serum. This yellow liquid contains certain proteins known as antibodies. The serum that contains antibodies is called
antiserum.

Antibody
Antibody is a protein that destroys or inactivates a specific antigen. Usually denotes a prefix “anti”. By principle, for every antigen, there
exists a specific antibody. The reaction of the two is specific. When the two reacts, they immediately combine causing the antibody to attach itself to
the cell.

Two (2) antigen-antibody reactions

a. Two different antigen and antibody will not combine. Example: Anti B and A antigen.

b. Link together or agglutinate.

BLOODSTAIN PATTERN

Bloodstain and patterns are useful for interpreting and reconstruction of events that occurred during bleeding.

Characteristic of blood pattern:

a. Surface texture – the harder and less porous the surface, the less spatter results

b. The direction of travel of blood striking an object may be discerned by the stain’s shape. Pointed end of a bloodstain always faces
its direction of travel.

c. Angle of impact can be determined by measuring the degree of circular distortion of the stain.

d. Origin of blood spatter in a two dimensional configuration can be established by drawing straight lines through the long axis of
several individual bloodstains. The intersection or point of convergence of the lines represents the point from which the blood emanated.

TOXICOLOGY

Toxicology is a scientific study of poisons, their nature, properties, effects and detection and the treatment in case of poisoning.

Frequently, toxicological examinations are requested in cases of sudden and unexplained deaths. The internal organs and contents obtained
during the medico-legal autopsy are the usual specimen submitted, as well as the suspected source of the poison such as food, drinks or medicine. If
not fatal, the vomits, blood and urine of the victims are examined. In cases of mass food poisoning, identification of the poison by the laboratory is
important not only in investigation but more in the treatment of the victims. Internal organs and other parts of animals (chicken, dog, cat, etc.), too,
are received frequently in connection with complaints of malicious mischief.

Importance of Toxicology

a. To verify if it is a case of poisoning

b. To be able to treat as the occasion demands
c. To forward justice

The reason for the application of Toxicology is to determine the presence of volatile, non-volatile and metallic poisons in cases of alleged
poisoning.

Poison
Poison is a substance that when introduced into or absorbed by a living organism causes death or injury.

Types of Poisons

1. True poison – is one that still poisons no matter how diluted it is.

E.g. Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)

2. Corrosive poison – is one which by contact with it chemically produces local destruction of tissues.

E.g. Nitric acid (HNO3), mercuric chloride-acid poison used as herbicides.

3. Cumulative poison – is one that increases suddenly in its intensity of action after gradual additions of it.

Ex. digitalis; arsenic

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 TYPES OF POISONING

A. Acute Poisoning – one in which there is prompt and marked disturbance of function or death within a shorter period of time and is due
to:

1. Taking a strong poison

2. Excessive single dose
3. Several doses, small but frequent

B. Chronic Poisoning – kind of poisoning in which there is gradual deterioration of functions of tissues and may or may not result in
death. It may be produced by:

1. Taking several small doses at long intervals

2. Taking only toxic doses of the drug

Three (3) Major Case Load Areas

1. Police Cases – toxicological aspect of criminal investigations

2. Postmortem cases – analytical studies in support of the medical examiner to determine the cause of death

3. Drug abuse cases – resulting from the illegal use of drugs.

Evidence of Poisoning

1. Circumstantial or moral evidence

Circumstantial or moral evidence is an evidence deduced from occurrence of facts or circumstances.

Ex.– motives for poisoning, purchasing the poison; keeping the materials used. This is not strong evidence.

2. Symptomatic evidence

This includes the symptoms observed during the poisoning. This is not conclusive because some diseases may show similar symptoms as
those of poisoning.

Ex. arsenic poisoning is like cholera; alcoholic coma may stimulate diabetic coma.

3. Chemical evidence
This is evidence obtained by chemical analysis of the suspected substance or the vomit or secretion of the body. This alone is not reliable
because the poison may be decomposed or changed or it may have been replaced after death.

4. Postmortem evidence

This evidence is obtained from an examination of the tissues and organs after death. There are many poisons, however, that do not
produce characteristic findings. Also, the findings may be like those produced by diseases.

5. Experimental evidence

Experimental evidence is obtained by administering the suspected substance to some living animal and noting the effect or symptoms. This
alone is also not conclusive because the tolerance may not be the same as in man.

Methods of Examination

The examination may be divided in two (2) stages, namely, isolation and identification.

1. Isolation

When the submitted specimen is in pure form, the poison must first be isolated. This procedure does not only limit the search to a
manageable class of poisons but also reduces the interference from other substances that may occur during the identification stage. Thus, poison may
be classified according to their method of isolation as volatile poisons, non-volatile poisons, and metallic poisons.

a. Volatile poisons – isolated by extraction with alcohol and chloroform

b. Non-volatile poisons – isolated by extraction with organic solvents such as strychnine and other alkaloids

c. Metallic poisons – these are poisons such as arsenic, mercury and lead

d. Other substances requiring special methods of isolation like corrosive acids.

2. Identification
1. Preliminary tests
2. Confirmatory tests (modern instruments like the infrared (FT-IR) spectrophotometer and gas chromatograph (GC)
can be used in the confirmatory test.

History of Modern Toxicology

Paracelsus - (16th Century) German Swiss physician/alchemist; first stressed the chemical nature of poison and its action by
experimentation. He introduced dose concept.
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 Prof. Matthieu Orfila - (19th Century) attending physician to Louis XVIII; correlated chemistry of toxins with the biological effects it
produces in a poisoned individual.

CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS

A. Classification based on Origin

1. Animal/Toxin – a poison produced by living organism stimulating antibodies. Usually transferred through bites and stings of
venomous terrestrial or marine animals.
2. Vegetable – Poison Ivy and Jimsonweed plants
3. Mineral – Hydrochloric Acid, caustic alkali
4. Microbial – Produced by microscopic organisms Ex. bacteria, fungi
5. Synthetic – Manufactured by Chemists such as drugs, pesticides as well as chemical purified from natural sources such as metals from
ores and solvents from gasoline.

B. According to chemical properties

1. Volatile Poisons- poisonous compounds that can be isolated using steam distillation and analyzed using Gas Chromatography with
thermal head attached on it.
Ex: (acidic medium) cyanide, ethanol, methanol, nitrobenzene
2. Non-volatile Poisons – most drugs are non-volatile
3. Anions
4. Metallic
5. Miscellaneous (e.g. Pesticides)

C. Classification based on Physical Form or Property

1. Solid – not well absorbed into the blood, they must be dissolved in aqueous liquid lining the intestinal tract if ingested or respiratory
tract if inhaled.
2. Liquid
3. Gas
4. Vapor
5. Aerosol

D. According to action (Physiological)

1. Irritants – by direct contact, this poison inflames the mucous membrane or the parts it comes in contact with resulting to nausea, vomiting, pain,
and diarrhea.
Ex. Bromine

True Irritants – Bromine, Chloride, Cotton Oil

2. Corrosives – by direct contact, chemically produces local destruction of tissues.

Ex: Phenol, HCl, HNO3 , Caustic Soda (NaOH)

3. Neurotics – those that affect the central nervous system

a. Cerebral Neurotics: Narcotics – inducing drowsiness, sleep stupor, complete or incomplete insensibility or loss of feeling.

Ex: alcohol, opium, tobacco

b. Spinal Neurotics: Tetanics – a poison that act on the spinal cord producing spasmodic or continuous contractions of muscles resulting in
stiffness of the parts to which they are attached.

Ex: Strychnine, Picrotoxin

c. Cerebrospinal Neurotics

i. Deliriants – are poisons that act on the brain causing disorder of mental functions resulting to confusion of free will.

Ex: cannabis indica, cocaine

ii. Depressants – a substance that depress or retard the physiological action of an organ.

Ex: Antipyrine, lobella

4. Aesthetics/Exhaustive –poisons that cause marked loss of vital or muscular power or general weakness.

Ex: Aconite, KCN, Digitalis

According to their effects on the body/target sites

1. Those which cause local destruction (skin) – phenol, HCl

2. Blood Poisons – Carbon Monoxide (CO), Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)

3. Nervous Poisons (nervous system)

4. Cardiac Poisons (Cardiovascular System) – stop the heart beat e.g Digitalis, antipyrine

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Solubility of the Drugs

In order for a substance to act as poison, it must be capable of forming solution and readily absorbed by the blood. Barium Chloride, which
is readily soluble, is extremely toxic while Barium Sulfate is not because it is insoluble.

Dose
As a rule, the greater the size the greater the effect. This is not always true. Arsenic in large doses irritates the stomach causing vomiting
and prompt ejection of the poison so that few or no symptoms result. In small doses absorption occurs and produces fatal effect.

The Physical State or Form of Poison

A poison is more rapidly absorbed when it is in gaseous state than in solid or liquid form. Also the solvent containing the poison exerts a
marked effect upon its action. Thus, between alcoholic, watery or oily solution, the first is more rapidly absorbed.

Dilution

Generally, when a poison is diluted, the absorption is rapid, thus, resulting to intense toxic effects. An exception to this is in the case of
corrosive poisons. Corrosive poisons produce less toxic effect when diluted.

Mode of Administration

Basically, poison is more rapidly absorbed when injected in the veins than when taken orally. The intravenous route produces more rapid
effects.

Association with other Poisons

Association with other kinds of poisons may increase the toxic effect. For instance, morphine and chloral together has greater effect than
alone.
Also where the blood supply is greater such as in muscles, absorption is more rapid. Hence, absorption is more rapid in muscles than in
skin. Food in the stomach may delay absorption or reacts with the poison.

Entrance and Elimination of Poisons

Poison may enter the body through: They may be eliminated by:
Mouth Emesis
Skin Respiration
Nose and Eyes Feces
Rectum and Vagina Urine
Hypodermically Milk
Intravenously Sweat, Saliva and Tears

POSOLOGY

Posology is a science which deals with the study of the dosage of medicine to be administered within a certain period.

Medicine

Medicine is any substance which can be administered to correct or alleviate the disease or disordered state of the system.

Dose
Dose is the quantity of medicine to be administered at one time.

The dosage concept is important. Whether a drug acts as a therapy or poison, it will depend on the dose. Even water is poisonous if too
much is ingested.

Types of Dose

Safe Dose is one that does not cause harmful effects. Sometimes, however, it may be too small to produce the desired effects.

Minimum Dose is the smallest amount of medicine that can produce the desired therapeutic effect without causing harm.

Maximum Dose is the largest amount that will cause no injury but at the same time produce the desired therapeutic effects.

Toxic or Poisonous Dose is one that is harmful both to the healthy and the sick.

Lethal or Fatal Dose is the dose that kills.

Antidotes

Antidote is any agent that neutralizes a poison or otherwise counteracts or opposes its effects.

Physiological antidote, symptomatic (antagonist) is an agent that acts upon the system so as to counteract the effects of the poison. E.g.
(chloral for strychnine convulsions)

Emetics – is an agent that causes vomiting.

Cathartic – is an agent that produces intestinal evacuation.

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 Uses of Cathartics:

1. To remove the compound that is formed by the action of the chemical antidote.
2. To hasten elimination of poison.

Demulcent – is an agent that forms a protective film; soothes and protects the parts where demulcent is applied.
Precipitants – are substances that prevent absorption of poisons by precipitating them and rendering them insoluble.

Causes of Death in Poisoning

1. Cardiac failure
2. Respiratory failure
3. General devitalizing
4. Shock to the nervous system

Pointers to Remember:
1. Blood- refers to as the circulating tissue of the body
2. A man with an average built would normally contain 6 quarts of blood in his/her body
3. Hemoglobin is the oxygen carrier of the blood
4. Bezidine test is the reliable and most easy way to test blood even when it is decomposed and stained with contamination
5. Confirmatory test is the stage of examination wherein the actual proof that subject is definitely blood.
6. Precipitin test is the test used to determined whether blood is of human origin or not
7. Spermine picrate is the positive result in the preliminary examination for semen in Barberio’s test
8. Coffee is a Physiological kind of antidote for a drunken person.
9. Animal fiber may be best describe on its protein composition
10. When gunpowder explodes, nitrates and nitrites would determine the approximate time of firing a gun.
11. In determining whether the hair is of human origin or not, part of shaft should the chemist examine under the microscope.
12. Cotton is a fiber which burns rapidly and fumes turns blue litmus to red.
13. Cortex is the part of the hair which is referred to as a race determinant.
14. Fluorescence analysis is a test used in determining whether it is of human or animal origin
15. Carbon is a kind of ink wherein the use of chemical bleaches is ineffective
16. Antidotes is refers as any agent which neutralizes poison and its effects
17. Semen has a bluish fluorescence color when exposed to U.V light
18. Black powder is the oldest known explosives
19. Serology – deals with the study and identification of body fluids
20. Moulage- is the process in reproducing a physical evidence by a plaster moulds
21. Silica is the major component of glass
22. Corrosives – is a highly irritant poison which causes local destruction of tissues and causes nausea.
23. Narcotics – produces stupor and less feeling
24. Glass- is a super cooled liquid which posses high viscosity and rigidity.
25. Ptomaine is an organic bacterial poison
26. Florence test is used to detect the presence of semen particularly in stained clothing.

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